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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Karakoshun Lake (Chinese: 喀拉库顺湖) was an inland lake located in the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China, which is now dry.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Karakoshun Lake is one of the major depressions in the southeastern part of the Tarim Basin, the others including Lop Nur and Taitema Lake. Until the first half of the 20th century, it was the terminal lake of the Tarim River, that emptied into Lop Nur, recorded by the explorers, Nikolay Przhevalsky, Sven Hedin and Folke Bergman as the \"Kara koshun\" wetland. It also received water from Taitema Lake, which collected water from the Qiemo River.", "title": "General" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "By the end of the 20th century, Karakoshun Lake had completely dried up.", "title": "General" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Crossroads Square (Polish: Plac Na Rozdrożu) is an urban square in Warsaw, Poland. It is located in the district of Downtown, at the crossing of Koszykowa Street, Szucha Avenue, People's Army Avenue, Ujazdów Avenue, and Wyzwolenia Avenue. It was built in 1768.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The Crossroads Square was built in 1768, as part of the Stanisław Axis, which included creation of several ubran squares connected with roads, with the main road centred on the Ujazdów Castle. It was designed by August Fryderyk Moszyński. The Crossroads Square was placed at the crossing of Royal Route and the Wolska Road (now Wyzwolenia Avenue and Nowowiejska Street respectively). From it branched off four avenues, of which three survive to the modern day. They are: Koszykowa Street, Szucha Avenue, and Wyzwolenia Avenue.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 1894, next to the square, at 12 Ujazdów Avenue was opened the Russian Orthodox Church of the Archangel Michael, which mainly served Russian soldiers and civilians living in the area. Following the retreat of Russian forces from Warsaw in 1915, the building remained mostly unoccupied and unused, and begun deteriorating, and was eventually torn down in 1923.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In the late 1930s it was planed to place a large monument dedicated to Józef Piłsudski, former Chief of State of Poland. It was part of the proposed Józef Piłsudski District, which was designed at nearby Mokotów Field. Neither plans were realised. During the interwar period, the square was known as the Freedom Square (Polish: Plac Wolności).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "From 1939 to 1944, during the German occupation in the Second World War, the tenement building next to the park, at 11 Ujazdów Avenue, was the headquarters of the Criminal Police. After the war, from 1945 to 1954, it was the headquarters of the Ministry of Public Security.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Between 1971 and 1974, the People's Army Avenue, which was part of the Baths Route, an expressway connecting the city centre with the east side, was built. It crossed the square, which was severely altered in the process. Under it was dug a 46-metre-long tunnel for the Baths Way. Among other changes, in the western portion was added a small square with a fountain. The Baths Way was placed diagonally in the relation to the park, distorting the shape of the historical Stanisław Axis.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 1990, it was again proposed to place a monument dedicated to Józef Piłsudski. On 11 November 1990, the National Independence Day of Poland, there was placed a plaque informing abot such decision. It remained there until 1994. It was eventually decided to place the monument at the Piłsudski Square instead, where it was unveiled in 1995.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "On 10 November 2006, at the crossing of Szucha Avenue and Ujazdów Avenue was unvailed the Monument of Roman Dmowski, who was the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland from 1923, as well as activist for Polish independence, and the founder of the National Democracy. The monument became an object of controversies and protests due to Dmowski racists and antisemitic views and policies. It was designed by Wojciech Mendzelewski, Maria Marek-Prus, and Piotr Prus.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In May 2018, at the square was established an urban vegetable garden.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "On 11 November 2018, at the square, near the Ujazdów Avenue, was unvailed the Monument of Ignacy Daszyński, a politician and chairperson of the Polish Socialist Party, and the Prime Minister of the Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland in 1918. It was designed by Jacek Kucaba.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "On 4 June 2023, the square was the starting point of the march of the anti-government protest against actions of the rulling Law and Justice Party. The protest was organized and led by Donald Tusk, Rafał Trzaskowski, and Lech Wałęsa, and was attended by over 500,000 people.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Currently, it is planed to place a monument dedicated to the 1920 Battle of Warsaw at the square. It was originally announced in 2019, and planed to be unvailed in 2020, before being rescheduled to 2021, and then to 2023, and again, to a currentlt indeterminated date in the future. It is also planed to at the same time modify the square itself, including remodeling the bus stops at Baths Route, as well as the stairs connecting them with the rest of the square, and addition of lifts. There will also be created a crossing on the Wyzwolenia Avenue, replacing the underground crossings that will be deconstructed.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The Crossroads Square is located at the crossing of Koszykowa Street, Szucha Avenue, People's Army Avenue, Ujazdów Avenue, and Wyzwolenia Avenue. It has the total area of 1.96 ha.", "title": "Characteristics" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The square is divided into two parts on two different levels. The top portion includesthe main portion of the square, connected to the surroundings. In its western portion is located a small circular square with a fountain in it. Bellow is the People's Army Avenue, which is a part of the Baths Route, an expressway that connects the city centre with the east side. Its portion goes threw the 46-metre-long tunnel under the square. On its side are the bus stops, which are connected to the square via staircases.", "title": "Characteristics" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The square includes the Ignacy Daszyński Monument by Jacek Kucaba, and Roman Dmowski Monument by Wojciech Mendzelewski, Maria Marek-Prus, and Piotr Prus.", "title": "Characteristics" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "It borders the Ujazdów Park, the Botanical Garden of the University of Warsaw, and the Stefan Kisielewski \"Kisiel\" Square.", "title": "Characteristics" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "PP-293 Rajanpur-II (پی پی-293، راجن پُور-2) is a Constituency of Provincial Assembly of Punjab. It was created after 2023 Delimitations when Rajanpur District gained 1 seat after 2023 Census.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Candidates to be announced soon.", "title": "2024 Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "", "title": "2024 Elections" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Christine Wilhelmine of Saxe-Eisenach (born September 3, 1711; November 27, 1740 at Biebrich Castle) was Princess of Nassau-Usingen by marriage.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Christine Wilhelmine was born as the daughter of John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach and his wife Magdalena Sibylla of Saxe-Weissenfels. On November 26, 1734, she married Prince Charles of Nassau-Usingen. The marriage resulted in four children:", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Through her son Charles William, she is a direct ancestor of Queen Alexandra, Queen Mary, Empress Maria Feodorovna and Queen Louise", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "She had a dispute with her brother Wilhelm Heinrich of Sachsen-Eisenach over the payment of her mother's marriage benefits from 1730 to 1737.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Christine Wilhelmine lived in Biebrich Castle, whose construction was started at the beginning of the 18th century by George August, Count of Nassau-Idstein and was completed as a residential palace after his death by Christine's eldest son Karl. The castle had magnificent furnishings.", "title": "Life" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Jussara is a municipality in Goiás, Brazil.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Jussara may also refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Wytske Liselotte Postma (born 16 April 1977) is a Dutch politician from the New Social Contract who was elected to the Dutch Parliament in the 2023 Dutch general election. She previously served as a Member of Parliament for the Christian Democratic Appeal from 2019 to 2021.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Delaware State Hornets football 1924–1929 team represented Delaware State University as an independent conference team in the early history of college football in the United States.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The 1924 Delaware State Hornets football team represented Delaware State University in the 1924 college football season as an independent. Delaware State, in their first season, compiled a 0–1 record, losing their only game to Lincoln (PA).", "title": "1924" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The 1925 Delaware State Hornets football team represented Delaware State University in the 1925 college football season as an independent. In the school's second season, Delaware State compiled a 0–2 record, with losses against Atlantic City High School and Moorestown High School.", "title": "1925" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Richard Bampfield (13 August 1898 – 11 August 1964) was an English first-class cricketer and an officer in the British Indian Army.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Bampfield was born at Frome in August 1898. He was educated at St Edward's School, Oxford. From there, he went to British India to attend the Cadet College at Wellington, graduating from there into the British Indian Army as a second lieutenant in June 1917, with him seeing action in the final fifteen months of the First World War. By December 1919, he held the rank of lieutenant and acted in the capacity of an aide-de-camp until February 1920. While serving in India, Bampfield made two appearances in first-class cricket. The first came for the Europeans cricket team against the Muslims at Lahore in the 1928–29 Lahore Tournament. The second came for the Indian Army cricket team against Northern India in the 1934–35 Ranji Trophy. In these matches, he scored a total of 61 runs with a highest score of 42. In the Indian Army, promotion to captain would follow, with a further promotion to major coming in June 1935. Bampfield was a member of the 11th Sikh Regiment and spent time as an instructor at the Indian Military Academy beginning in July 1937.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Bampfield would serve with the 11th Sikh in the Second World War, seeing action in the Middle East campaign for which he was mentioned in dispatches in December 1941. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel during the war in June 1943. He retired from active service in September 1948, three years after the end of the war and a year after Indian Independence; the latter event had seen him transferred to the special list of the British Army. Bampfield died at Rustington on 11 August 1964, two days before his 66th birthday.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Yalı Çapkını (The Golden Boy) is a Turkish drama series from 2022 created by Gülseren Budayıcıoğlu. The main characters are Afra Saraçoğlu, Mert Ramazan Demir and Çetin Tekindor, known from the series Mrs. Fazilet and Her Daughters.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Ferit Korhan grew up in a rich family and is used to not denying himself anything. Endless parties, new girlfriends - this is how he spends his normal everyday life, he is not particularly interested in the future or the achievements in life. Ferit's behavior upsets his grandfather, the respectable businessman Halis Korhan. Halis Ağa decides that his grandson will marry a suitable girl from Gaziantep. Although Ferit does not want to get married, he cannot go against his grandfather's words. Finding the right bride is the task of Halis' eldest daughter-in-law, İfakat (Gülçin Şantırcıoğlu). He finds Suna (Beril Pozam), the older daughter of the Şanlı family in Gaziantep, suitable. On the night of the proposal, Suna and her sister Seyran (Afra Saraçoğlu) also get big surprises.", "title": "Story" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The series is based on a true story, from the book by Gülseren Budayıcıoğlu.", "title": "Story" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Jesse Six Dijkstra (born 23 September 1994) is a Dutch politician from the New Social Contract who was elected to the Dutch Parliament in the 2023 Dutch general election.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Krivača may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caspar Veldkamp (born 23 April 1964) is a Dutch politician from the New Social Contract who was elected to the Dutch Parliament in the 2023 Dutch general election.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "He formerly served as ambassador of the Netherlands to Israel (2011-2015) and Greece (2015-2019).", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Die Landarztpraxis (German) \"The Country doctor's practice\" is a German Daily-Drama/Soap opera that has been broadcast since October 16, 2023, Mondays to Fridays at 7:00 p.m. on Sat.1.The first season will end on January 10, 2024 and will be replaced by Das Küstenrevier in its timeslot.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The series was renewed for a second season.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In the Bavarian idyll of Wiesenkirchen am Schliersee, the Country Doktor Dr. Sarah König Farmers, Mountaineers, holiday Guests – and, if necessary, even a Cow. Her heart beats for two men: her old love Dr. Fabian Kroiß and the mountain rescuer Max.", "title": "Plot" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Eliza Scudder (1821–1896) was a 19th-century American hymnwriter. Among her productions are several notable hymns including, \"The Love of God\", written in 1852; \"Truth\", which begins with the line, \"Thou long disowned, reviled, oppressed\"; \"Lines for Music\", which begins with \"As the lost who vainly wander\"; and the lyric poem, \"The Vesper Hymn\", written in 1874. Scudder was undoubtedly influenced by her uncle, Edmund Hamilton Sears, the author of \"It Came Upon the Midnight Clear\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Eliza Scudder was born at Barnstable, Massachusetts, in 1821. She was the daughter of Eliza (Bacon) and Elisha Gage Scudder. Both parents were from Barnstable on Cape Cod. Her father was a merchant in Boston and died when she was but an infant. Her mother lived till 1869. Her sister Rebecca, three years her senior, married, in 1845, Samuel Page Andrews, living first in Framingham, Massachusetts, and afterward in Salem, where Mr. Andrews was for many years clerk of the municipal court. Salem thus became one of Scudder's homes. There was a long period in the younger sister's childhood when she suffered from an affection of the eyes which never was wholly relieved, almost wholly cut off for long stretches of time from reading or from looking on the paper when she wrote. During this early period, she enjoyed the companionship of her sister. Something of the deep feeling she had for her was written into the verses, \"The Laburnum\", a dedicatory poem.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Scudder's uncle was the Unitarian divine, Edmund Hamilton Sears, known as the author of two Christmas hymns, \"Calm on the Listening Ear of Night,\" and \"It Came Upon the Midnight Clear\". Horace E. Scudder, for some years editor of The Atlantic Monthly, was a relative of hers.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Endowed with a religious nature, Scudder early on was influenced by church life, and was received as a member of the Trinitarian division of the Congregational order. But as time passed, she found herself reexamining the foundations of her religious belief, and as a result, she disagreed with the formulas of Calvinism. Drawn by her sympathy with the antislavery movement, in which she took an active part, she became a disciple of Gerrit Smith, and developed a companionship with Lydia Maria Child and others. This not only quickened her intellectually, but opened a way into a spiritual freedom which seemed unbounded by any dogmatic statement. Without connecting herself formally with the Unitarian denomination, she found herself more at home there than elsewhere. Still, the expression in such hymns as \"The Love of God\" and \"The New Heaven\" indicates that her thought was more aligned with a mystic self-effacement of a spiritual reality outside of and beyond herself. This change in her religious affiliation brought with it the distress of alienating friends who disapproved of her Scudder's viewpoints. In spite of making new friends, she was very much alone, and in the \"Epitaph on an Old Maid\", she gave expression to the sort of regard she had for herself as she stood a little off in poetic mood, recognizing her own detachment.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "During these years, Scudder impressed herself strongly on new friends. She was restless, and had a singleness of purpose in her dominant religiousness, which was directed toward finding truth. In ordinary matters, she lost herself in her friendships and in God. The two poems, \"Truth\" and \"The Quest\", record this temper. Her verses, \"Out of the Shadow\", reflect her most intimate thought of herself during this period of her life.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "When she came to hear and to know Phillips Brooks, the message which he delivered at once caught Scudder's imagination. He brought the message which changed Scudder's religious views and afterwards gave her contentment as a communicant of the Protestant Episcopal Church. With him, she found more understanding than she had previously known. Her \"Lines for Music\" and her \"Vesper Hymn\" both contain an air of divine contentment. Seeing the church as her home, she became an associate of the Society of Saint Margaret. She experienced a very decided change in her intellectual conception of religious truth, and a deepening of her apprehension of the Incarnation.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Early on, Scudder's various poems and hymns had been handed about in manuscript. \"The Love of God\" (\"Thou grace divine, encircling all.\"), written in 1852, found its way to her uncle, Rev. E. H. Sears. He included it in his Pictures of the Olden Time, as shown in the Fortunes of a Family of the Pilgrims, 1857. Other pieces were published in Sears's Monthly Religious Magazine, and gradually were added into one hymnbook after another. Four of Scudder's pieces were included in Hymns of the Spirit. Eight of her pieces were in the Schaff-Gilman Library of Religious Poetry, in which volume it is stated that the Scudder's hymns and other poetry had not then (1880) been collected. Later that year, she put out Hymns and Sonnets, by E S., printed in Boston, and published by Lockwood, Brooks & Co. The little collection of 1880 is rarer than it seemed, for it was printed from type, and the edition was soon exhausted. Dr. Putnam's Singers and Songs of the Liberal Faith does not disclose her name, for the reason that while, at the writing of \"Thou grace divine, encircling all.\", she was an attendant upon the Unitarian ministry, she had for something like fifteen years past, been a communicant in the Protestant Episcopal Church. Some of her memorable pieces include \"Truth\", which with the line, \"Thou long disowned, reviled, oppressed.\"; \"Lines for Music\", it's first line being \"As the lost who vainly wander\"; and one of Scudder's best productions, the lyric poem \"The Vesper Hymn\", written in 1874, its first line being, \"The day is done; the weary day of thought and toil is past\".", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "For some years, she lived in Boston, and later in life, made her home at Salem. The last few years of Scudder's life saw her compelled to move north and south as the seasons changed, and to be separated frequently from her sister. On September 27, 1896, Eliza's sister died after a very brief illness. Eliza left the house and went to her cousin's home, near by. In a few hours, Eliza was dead, too. The sisters were buried side by side in the graveyard at Weston, Massachusetts.", "title": "Death and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Posthumously that year, Horace Scudder edited a small volume of her poems entitled Hymns and Sonnets, published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. In the preface he remarks:—", "title": "Death and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "\"There is an interval of fifty years between the first and last poem. But the same spiritual fire burned in the later and earlier, and we think we are not carried away by enthusiasm when we say that there is a quality of spiritual passion in Miss Scudder's poems and religious fervor which we find nowhere in the range of English poetry except in Miss Rossetti's.\"", "title": "Death and legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Borsod Volán Stadion is an association football ground and former motorcycle speedway track, located in the centre of Miskolc.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Miskolci AK played their football matches at the stadium but now Borsod Volán SE play there.", "title": "Football" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The stadium hosted the Speedway Miskolc speedway team that competed in the Hungarian leagues before moving to the Team Speedway Polish Championship from 2006 to 2010.", "title": "Speedway" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The stadium hosted a large number of major events, including nine rounds of the Speedway World Team Cup and the Speedway World Cup in 1974, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1984, 1987, 2006, 2008 and 2013 respectively. It has also staged rounds of the Speedway World Pairs Championship in 1976, 1980 and 1993 and the Continental Speedway final in 1995.", "title": "Speedway" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Lasca is a draughts (or checkers) variant.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Lasca may also refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Eric Mays (born September 16, 1958) is an American politician currently serving as a member of the Flint City Council. During his tenure, Mays has been known as a highly controversial due several incidents where he was suspended and escorted out of city council meetings.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Mays was jailed in January 2016 for 30 days allegedly crashing his car in 2013 before driving it nearly three miles and ending up facing the wrong way on Interstate 475. No witnesses testified to seeing Mays drive the vehicle on the night in question, but several police officers said he confessed to driving drunk the night of his arrest.", "title": "Controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Mays represented himself in the trial, where he asked several jurors about their belief in God and attempted to delay the release of Breathalyzer test results from the night of the incident. He referred to the case as highly politically motivated.", "title": "Controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "On November 26, 2017, Mays pleaded no contest for allegedly pawning a city-owned laptop 9-times over the course of two years to \"Music Man Pawnshop\". When asked about the scandal, Mays claimed, \"I don’t’ think it's criminal, I think it just shows I'm poor.\" and that the laptop was safer in the pawn shop due to city hall having had instances of trespassing in the past.", "title": "Controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In 2020, Mays likened City Council President Monica Galloway to Adolf Hitler after a verbal altercation and performed a Nazi salute to mock her. Mays was removed from the meeting as a result, where he was observed yelling in protest while being escorted out by a police officer.", "title": "Controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Councilman Maurice Davis motioned to have Mays removed from his leadership roles, which was approved.", "title": "Controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Mays was suspended from the council for 90 days on December 20th, 2023 for making \"constant frivolous motions\" and using \"racist rhetoric.” Mays proceeded to deny the allegation and plans to file federal legal action against the city council.", "title": "Controversies" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "A client kingdom or people in ancient Rome meant a kingdom or ancient people that was in the condition of \"appearing\" still independent, but in the \"sphere of influence\" and thus dependence of the neighboring Roman Empire. It was a form of modern protectorate, where the kingdom or territory in question was controlled (protected) by a stronger one (protector).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The Romans realized that the task of ruling and civilizing a large number of peoples at once was almost impossible, and that a plan of gradual annexation would be simpler, leaving the provisional organization in the hands of princes born and raised in the country of origin. Thus arose the figure of client kings, whose function was to promote the political and economic development of their kingdoms, fostering their civilization and economy. In this way, when kingdoms reached an acceptable level of development, they could be incorporated as new provinces or parts of them. The conditions of vassal-client status were, therefore, transitory in nature.", "title": "Political and military role" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "A \"client king,\" recognized by the Roman Senate as amicus populi Romani, was usually nothing more than an instrument of control first in the hands of the Republic, and then of the Roman Empire. This concerned not only foreign and defensive policy, where the client king was entrusted with the task of assuming the burden of ensuring along his borders security against \"low-intensity\" infiltration and dangers, but also internal dynastic matters, within the imperial security system. Sometimes such serious unrest occurred in some of the \"client kingdoms\" that the very borders of adjacent provinces were threatened, so much so that it was necessary to intervene directly with Roman armies: for instance, during the Tacfarinas revolt in Africa, where it was necessary to send a second legion, the IX Hispana.", "title": "Political and military role" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "However, the kingdoms or client peoples could do little against \"high-intensity\" (as Edward Luttwak argues) dangers such as provincial-scale invasions. They could help by slowing the enemy advance with their own, limited forces, at least until the Roman ally arrived: in other words, they could provide some \"geographic depth,\" but nothing more. Clearly, the damage caused by the invaders, before direct Roman intervention, could be extensive before they were repelled. For these reasons, in order to reduce such risks to an absolute minimum, it was deemed more appropriate in some cases to \"encompass\" these Kingdoms, building along their borders a linear defense system, manned by numerous Roman military posts and capable of repelling external enemy invasions immediately.", "title": "Political and military role" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The ongoing conflict that had seen Massalia and the Carthaginians vying for the best markets in the western Mediterranean since the 6th century B.C., put the Greek colony in the position of asking Rome for help (venire in fidem), around 236 B.C., a decade before the Treaty of Ebro, concluded between Rome and Carthage. This would be the first example of \"popolus cliens\" of the Romans, outside Roman Italy.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "A few years later (in 230 B.C.), some Greek colonies in the eastern Adriatic Sea (from Apollonia, to Kerkyra, Epidamnos and Issa), being attacked by the Illyrian pirates of Queen Teuta, also decided to come in fidem of Rome, asking for its direct military intervention. The Senate, after learning that one of the ambassadors sent to negotiate with the Illyrian queen had been killed under unclear circumstances (a certain Lucius Cornucanius), voted in favor of war (in 229 BC). The clashes were short-lived, for as early as 228 B.C. Queen Teuta was forced to sign the peace and leave present-day Albania, while Rome became to all intents and purposes the patron state of the cities of Apollonia, in Kerkyra, Epidamnos and Issa, as well as Oricus, Dimale and the \"client\" king Demetrius of Pharos. The subsequent Roman ambassadorship of Postumius to Aetolia, Achaea and Corinth allowed Rome to take part in the Isthmian Games of 228 B.C., thus opening the doors of Hellenic civilization to the Romans.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "During the Second Punic War, in the summer of 210 BC, the king of Numidia Syphax sent ambassadors to Rome to report the favorable outcome of the battles the king had fought against the Carthaginians. They assured the assembled Senate that their king was totally adverse toward Carthage, while in Rome he acknowledged his friendship. They recalled that in the past Syphax had sent ambassadors to Spain to the Roman generals Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius, and that now more than ever he wished to win the friendship of the Roman people by addressing the Senate itself. The Senate not only agreed to the request of the Numidian king, but sent to him as ambassadors Lucius Genucius, Publius Petelius, and Publius Popilius so that they could bring him gifts, including a purple toga and tunic, a curule seat of ivory, and a five-pound golden cup. The senate ambassadors were also instructed to go, soon after, to the other African kings, bringing them as gifts praetorian togas and golden cups weighing three pounds each. Marcus Atilius Regulus and Manius Acilius were sent as ambassadors, also in 210 B.C, to Alexandria, Egypt, to rulers Ptolemy IV and Cleopatra, to renew friendship with the Roman people. Gifts were also brought to them: to the king a toga, a purple tunic and an ivory curule seat; to the queen a rich embroidered robe together with a purple cloak.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The kingdom of Pergamon entered the Roman sphere of its allied states, especially following the Treaty of Apamea in 188 B.C.E., after which it obtained numerous possessions and territorial expansions. Its increasing dependence on Rome resulted, following the death of its ruler, Attalus III (in 133 BCE), in being bequeathed to the Roman Republic and consequently in the transformation of its territories into a Roman province.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "At the end of the Third Macedonian War, with the Roman victory at Pydna, the kingdom of Macedon was divided into four districts (in 167 BC), resulting in all respects in a Roman protectorate, which a two decades later was transformed into the Roman province of Macedonia (in 146 BC).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "A few years later, this time in the West, when the allied and \"client\" people of the Romans, the Taurisci, asked for help against a Germanic invasion of Cimbri and Teutons, nomadic peoples originally from Jutland and Scania, the Romans, under the command of Consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, were unable to stop the enemy advance, resulting in a defeat near Noreia (in 113 BC). The Germans continued to terrorize Rome for another decade, until Gaius Marius finally defeated them at Aquae Sextiae (in 102 BC) and the Campi Raudii (in 101 BC).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In 96 BC. Ptolemy Apion, belonging to the Ptolemaic dynasty, was the last Hellenic ruler of Cyrenaica, a longtime ally of the Romans. Upon his death he decided to bequeath his kingdom to Rome. However, the new territories were not organized into a province until 74 B.C. with the arrival of the first legate of praetorian rank (legatus pro praetore), joined by a quaestor (quaestor pro praetore). It consisted of five cities, all of Greek origin, constituting the so-called Cyrenaic Pentapolis, namely: the capital Cyrene with its port of Apollonia (today Marsa Susa), Teuchira-Arsinoe, Euesperides-Berenice (Benghazi) and Barce-Ptolemais (Al Marj).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "During its heyday, from 95 B.C. to 66 B.C., the kingdom of Armenia had control over parts of the Caucasus, present-day eastern Turkey, Lebanon and Syria. It came under the sphere of influence of the Romans in 66 B.C., with the campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey. Because of this, the kingdom of Armenia was the scene of contention between Rome and the Parthian Empire. The Parthians forced the kingdom of Armenia into submission from 47 BC to 37 BC, when Rome lost control of the kingdom only briefly.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In 63 BC with the end of the Third Mithridatic War, Pompey reorganized the entire Roman East and the alliances that gravitated around it. To Tigranes II he left Armenia; to Pharnaces the Bosporus; to Ariobarzanes Cappadocia and some neighboring territories; to Antiochus of Commagene he added Seleucia and parts of Mesopotamia that he had conquered; to Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, he added the territories of Armenia Minor bordering Cappadocia; he made Attalus the prince of Paphlagonia and Aristarchus that of Colchis; he appointed Archelaus priest of the goddess worshipped at Comana; and finally he made Castor of Phanagoria a faithful ally and friend of the Roman people.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The Nabataean Kingdom of Arabia Petraea in 62 B.C. was forced to ask for peace from Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, who in order to lift the siege of the capital, Petra, accepted a payment of 300 talents. Having obtained peace, the Nabataean king Aretas retained his domains in full, including Damascus, but became a vassal of Rome.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "On the western front, during 58 BC, the Gallic people of the Aedui (amicus populi romani) had sent ambassadors to Rome to ask for help against their inconvenient Germanic neighbor. The Senate decided to intervene and persuaded Ariovistus to suspend his conquests in Gaul; in return it offered him, at the suggestion of Caesar (who was consul in 59 BC), the title of rex atque amicus populi Romani (\"king and friend of the Roman people\"). Ariovistus, however, continued to harass the neighboring Gauls with increasing cruelty and haughtiness, so much so that they asked Caesar for military aid, who was the only one who could prevent Ariovistus from having an even greater amount of Germans cross the Rhine, and above all could defend all of Gaul from the Germanic king's bullying.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Caesar believed that it would be dangerous in the future to continue to allow the Germans to cross the Rhine and enter Gaul in large numbers. He feared that once all of Gaul was occupied, the Germans might invade the Narbonese province and then Italy itself, as had happened in the past with the invasion of Cimbri and Teutons. For these reasons, after an initial period of negotiations, he was forced to face them in battle and beat them, expelling them permanently from the territories of Gaul. This was not the only episode of \"patronage\" in Gaul at the time of its conquest (58-50 BCE).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The beginnings of the Roman \"patronage\" system in Britain occurred with Caesar, who, having first landed on the island in 55 B.C., put Mandubracius back on the throne of the Trinovantes after he had been ousted by Cassivellaunus. This gesture earned the proconsul help during the second Caesarian invasion of the island the following year (54 BCE). This system was developed over the next hundred years, starting with Augustus, but especially following the Roman conquest of Britain, desired in 43 AD by Emperor Claudius.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Mark Antony's campaigns in Parthia were unsuccessful. Not only had Rome's honor not been vindicated following the defeat suffered by Consul Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae in 53 B.C., but also the Roman armies had been beaten back into enemy territory, and Armenia had entered the Roman sphere of influence only briefly.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "What remained was a whole series of client kingdoms loyal to Rome, among them that of Archelaus of Cappadocia (since 36 B.C.), who, once appointed king of Cappadocia by Mark Antony, in order to replace Ariarathes X of Cappadocia, the last representative of the royal family, as a token of his gratitude, provided troops to Antony for his expeditions against the Parthians.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In 38 BC the Ubii people, allied with the Romans since the time of Gaius Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul, were in this case transferred by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to Roman territory and incorporated within the Gallic provinces. It was intended to protect them from the neighboring Germanic peoples across the Rhine, hostile to them as amicus populi romani, Usipetes and Tencteri.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "[...] The friendly and allied kings founded cities under the name of Caesarea, each in his own kingdom, and all together decided to complete, at their own expense, the temple of Jupiter Olympius in Athens, begun some centuries before, dedicating it to the Genius of Augustus. Leaving their kingdoms, they came daily to pay homage to him, not only in Rome, but also during his travels in the provinces, often wearing only the toga, without the royal insignia, as mere clients.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The Roman Emperor Augustus continued on the path that his republican predecessors had laid out, leaving under the command of certain client kings specific regions that were not yet considered ready for annexation as provinces. The Romans, already in the past, had realized that the task of directly governing and civilizing certain populations would prove very difficult, and certainly easier if entrusted to local princes. Augustus, after seizing by right of war (belli iure) many kingdoms, almost always returned them to the same rulers from whom he had taken them or assigned them to foreign princes. He also succeeded in uniting allied kings to the empire through kinship ties. He cared for these kingdoms as if they were part of the imperial provincial system, going so far as to assign an adviser to princes who were too young or inexperienced, waiting for them to grow and mature; raising and educating the sons of many kings so that many of them would return to their territories to rule as allies of the Roman people.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The function of the client kings was to promote a continuous exchange of interests between the empire and their people, both in political-military terms (including providing armed men during the Roman ally's military campaigns) and in economic terms with increasingly frequent exchanges and growing cultural development. When this development had reached a satisfactory level, their kingdoms were ready to be annexed as provinces or parts thereof.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Such a political design was applied in the West to the Cottian Alps (entrusted to Cottius, an indigenous prince, and his son, Cottius II, until 63 when they became part of the Roman Empire) to the Maroboduus kingdom of the Quadi and Marcomanni (as early as 6), of Noricum, Thrace (where continued Roman interventions were essential to save the weak Odrysian dynasty) and Mauretania (entrusted by the Romans to the king, Juba II, and his wife, Cleopatra Selene II); in the East to the Kingdom of Armenia, Judaea (which remained independent until 6), Cappadocia, and the Cimmerian Bosporus. These client kings were allowed full freedom in their internal administration, and were probably required to pay regular tribute, or they had to provide allied troops as needed (which was imposed on barbarian clients, as in the case of the Batavi), as well as agreeing in advance on their foreign policy with the emperor.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "West of the Euphrates, Augustus attempted to reorganize the Roman East by directly increasing the territories administered by Rome. He incorporated some vassal states, turning them into provinces, such as Amyntas' Galatia in 25 BC, or Herod Archelaus' Judaea in 6 (after there had been some initial unrest in 4 B.C. upon the death of Herod the Great); he strengthened old alliances with Herod's descendants, with local kings who had become \"client kings of Rome,\" as happened to Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, Asander, king of the Bosporan Kingdom, and Polemon I, king of Pontus, in addition to the rulers of Hemisa, Iturea, Commagene, Cilicia, Chalcis, Nabataea, Iberia, Colchis, and Albania.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "In contrast, east of the Euphrates, Augustus' goal was to achieve the greatest political interference without intervening with costly military action. The crux of the matter was the kingdom of Armenia, which, because of its geographical location, had been an object of contention between Rome and Parthia for the past 50 years. He aimed to make it a Roman \"buffer-client state,\" with the installation of a king agreeable to Rome, and if necessary imposed by force of arms.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In this case, in the winter of 21-20 B.C., Augustus ordered the 21-year-old Tiberius to move east, toward Armenia. It was a region of fundamental importance for the political balance of the entire eastern area: it played a buffer role between the Roman empire in the west and that of the Parthians in the east, and both wanted to make it their own vassal state, which would ensure the protection of their borders from their enemies.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The Parthians, frightened by the advance of the Roman legions, compromised and signed a peace with Augustus, who had meanwhile arrived in the east from Samos, returning the insignia and prisoners they had taken possession of after their victory over Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE. Upon his arrival, therefore, Tiberius had merely proceeded to crown Tigranes, who took the name Tigranes III, as client king in a peaceful and solemn ceremony held before the eyes of the Roman legions, while Augustus was proclaimed imperator for the ninth time, and announced in the senate the vassalage of Armenia without, however, decreeing its annexation, so much so that he wrote in his Res gestae divi Augusti:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "—Augustus, Res gestae divi Augusti, 27.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "In the West, at the end of three years of military campaigns in Germania Magna (14 to 16), Germanicus had succeeded in gaining the alliance of numerous Germanic peoples north of the Danube and east of the Rhine, who had now become \"clients\" (such as the Angrivarii), after the campaign of 16, or the Batavi, Frisii and Chauci along the North Sea coast, at least until the time of Claudius. Finally, Tiberius decided to suspend all military activity across the Rhine, leaving it to the Germanic peoples themselves to cope, fighting each other. He only made alliances with some peoples against others (ex. the Quadi and Marcomanni of Maroboduus, against the Cherusci of Arminius); the Iazigi Sarmatians (to whom he gave permission to interpose themselves in the Tisza plain, between the borders of the new province of Pannonia and the fearsome Dacians, around 20), so as to keep them always at war with each other; avoiding having to intervene directly, with great risk of incurring new disasters such as that of Varus; but above all, without having to employ huge military and economic resources, to keep the peace within the \"possible and new\" imperial borders.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In the East, on the other hand, the political situation, after a period of relative tranquility following the agreements between Augustus and the Parthian rulers, became contentious again. The new ruler, alien to local traditions, turned out to be hated by the Parthians. Defeated and driven out by Artabanus II, he was forced to take refuge in Armenia. There the kings imposed on the throne by Rome were dead, and Vonon was thus chosen as the new ruler; however, soon Artabanus pressured Rome to dismiss the new Armenian king, and the emperor, to avoid having to wage a new war against the Parthians, had the Roman governor of Syria arrest Vonones.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Also disturbing the eastern situation were the deaths of the Cappadocian king Archelaus, who had come to Rome to pay homage to Tiberius, of Antiochus III, king of Commagene, and of Philopator, king of Cilicia: the three states, which were \"vassals\" of Rome, were in a situation of political instability, and the contrasts between the pro-Roman party and the advocates of autonomy were sharpening.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "The difficult situation in the East necessitated Roman intervention, and in 18 Tiberius sent his adopted son, Germanicus, who was appointed consul and awarded the imperium proconsolaris maius over all the eastern provinces, accompanied by the new governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. Arriving in the East, Germanicus, with the consent of the Parthians, crowned a new ruler of Armenia at Artashat: the kingdom had been left without a leader after the deposition of Vonon, and Germanicus conferred the office of king upon the young Zeno, son of Rome's \"client\" ruler of Pontus Polemon I.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "He also stipulated that Commagene should fall under the jurisdiction of a praetor while retaining its formal autonomy, that Cappadocia should be established as a province in its own right, and that Cilicia should instead become part of the province of Syria. Finally, Germanicus renewed his friendship with the Parthians.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The arrangement of the East prepared by Germanicus ensured peace until 34: in that year King Artabanus II of Parthia, convinced that Tiberius, now an old man, would not resist from Capri, placed his son Arshak on the throne of Armenia after Artaxias' death. However, Tiberius decided to send Tiridates, a descendant of the Arsacid dynasty held as a hostage in Rome, to contest the Parthian throne with Artabanus, and supported the installation of Mithridates, brother of the king of Iberia, on the throne of Armenia. Mithridates, with the help of his brother Pharasmanes, succeeded in seizing the throne of Armenia, defeating the Parthians of Orodes, son of Artabanus. The latter, fearing a new massive intervention by the Romans, refused to send any more troops against Mithridates, and abandoned his claims to the kingdom of Armenia. However, a short time later, when Tiridates had been on the throne for about a year, Artabanus, gathering a large army, marched against him. The frightened Arsacid sent from Rome was forced to retreat, and Tiberius had to accept that the Parthian state would continue to be ruled by a ruler hostile to the Romans.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Emperor Caligula, following the death of Juba II's son Ptolemy (in 40) arranged for the \"client\" kingdom of Mauretania to come under the direct control of Rome. His successor was left with the task of pacifying the area. Claudius, in 42, after quelling a revolt of the local Berber tribes, created two new provinces: Mauretania Caesariensis (with capital Iol-Caesarea, today Cherchell) and Mauretania Tingitana (with capital first, probably Volubilis and then Tingis, today Tangier), although some indigenous principalities still retained de facto independence in the mountainous interior regions. Meanwhile in the East Judaea was given independence again in 41 by Caligula and then taken away by Claudius in 44.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Upon the death of Rhoemetalces III, the kingdom of Thrace again became divided. Concerned by the continuing conflict, after Tiberius had already been forced to intervene in the past to quell continuing unrest among the Thracian peoples (17-19), allies and \"clients\" of Rome at least since the time of Augustus, Claudius decided to annex the region and established the new province of Thrace (46).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Following the first phase of the conquest of Britain, the Iceni people (starting in 47), obtained semi-independence from Rome, knowing the latter that upon the death of their king, Prasutagus, these territories would be incorporated into those of the neighboring Roman province. However, the king arranged things differently. He resolved that at least part of his domains should remain with his daughters and his wife Boudica, who led a revolt against the Romans shortly thereafter, which was suppressed by the Roman legions, at the end of which her territories came under Roman rule.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Under Nero, between 58 and 63, the Romans waged a new campaign against the Parthian Empire, which had once again invaded Armenia. After retaking the kingdom in 60 and losing it again in 62, the Romans sent Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo in 63 to the territories of Vologases I of Parthia, who succeeded in restoring Armenia to client status, which remained there until the following century, when Trajan undertook a new series of military campaigns against the Parthians (in 114).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "At the same time in the West, in Britain, with the death of the \"client\" king of the Iceni, Prasutagus, Rome aspired to encompass his kingdom, but the king, dying, left his domains to his family members, appointing the Roman emperor, Nero, as co-heir. It was customary for Rome to grant independence to allied kingdoms, only as long as their rulers or male children were alive. Thus, when Prasutagus died, the kingdom was annexed by the Romans, as if it had been conquered. Queen Boudica protested strongly, but the Romans humiliated her by exposing her naked in public, whipping her, while her young daughters were raped. The reaction of the Iceni people was not long in coming, and in 60 or 61, while the Roman proconsul Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was waging a campaign against the Druids of the Isle of Anglesey, Iceni and Trinovantes rebelled under the leadership of Boudica. It took a long year of hard and bloody fighting before the former Prasutagus' kingdom was finally annexed.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "In the years around 72-74 he reorganized the eastern part of the Roman Empire, reducing Achaia, Lycia, Rhodes, Byzantium, and Samos to provinces, taking away their freedom; he did the same with Cilicia Trachea and Commagene (in 72), which until then had been ruled by kings.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "The \"client\" peoples of Marcomanni and Quadi (allies of Rome since the time of Maroboduus and Tiberius in 6), having failed to send the military aid required by Domitian for the Roman armies to fight the war against the Dacians of Decebalus, provoked the wrath of the ruler, who unleashed a war that lasted almost a decade (from 89 to 97), at the end of which the ancient amicitia populi romani and Germanic subservience to Rome was renewed, as the triumphal arch of Benevento testifies.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "The expedition against the Suebian peoples was a strategic mistake, since Domitian had to abandon the Dacian front, in a very favorable situation after his recent victory at Tapae over Decebalus (of 88), and settle for a peace unfavorable to Rome, which forced the Roman Empire to postpone its conquest to a future date. The Roman armies were, therefore, withdrawn from Dacia, and the stipulation of a peace treaty led Decebalus to become a \"client king,\" albeit only nominally, earning Roman gratitude and aid by sending expert carpenters, engineers, and an annual subsidy. His brother Degis was sent to Rome to receive from the hands of Domitian the crown to be given to the Dacian king as a sign of alliance and submission.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The Suebo-Sarmatian war could also be interpreted as a preemptive attack by the emperor against these peoples, who were preparing for an invasion of the territories of the neighboring and wealthy Roman province of Pannonia. In the course of these Suebo-Sarmatian wars, in an attempt to isolate the enemy tribes north of the Danubian limes, he also sought alliances in the northern neighbors of the Lugii and Semnones.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Masyas, king of the Semnones, and Ganna (who was a virgin priestess who had succeeded Veleda in Germania), presented themselves to Domitian, and after receiving honors from the emperor, they departed.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "In the course of Trajan's conquest of Dacia in 101-106, the Roman emperor succeeded in obtaining military aid from the ancient Sarmatian ally, the Iazyges (who had just been brought back to obedience after a decade of new wars waged against them and their allies, the Suebi) against the Dacian king, Decebalus, who had disregarded the covenants of amicitia and \"clientele\" toward Rome made during the time of Domitian (in 89). The latter, after two bloody wars, was finally defeated and Dacia was annexed and made a Roman province.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "As allies of the Romans, the Nabataeans also played the role of bulwark between Rome and the Bedouin peoples, who were disinclined to bow to the empire, nevertheless forwarding their wares to the northern emporiums and often supplying them with goods that came from those areas. They continued to prosper throughout the first and early second centuries, when Trajan incorporated their territories in 105/106, abolishing their cultural and national identity, into the new Roman province of Arabia Petraea. Their power had now extended well into Arabia, along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra remained a cosmopolitan emporium, despite the fact that its trade declined as the eastern trade routes, from Myos Hormos to Qift along the Nile, became established.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "A few years later it was the turn of the kingdom of Armenia (\"client\" of Rome or Parthia in alternating stages), to be incorporated and made a Roman province in 114. It is known that Trajan, having reached Antioch in January of this year, gathered his legions and his best generals, including Lusius Quietus and Quintus Marcius Turbo (then praefectus classis Misenis), marched on Armenia and conquered its capital Artaxata. Deposing his king, a certain Parthamasiris, he annexed its territories to the Roman Empire. His armies continued from the north to Media in the east, and into northern Mesopotamia the following year.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "In 116 Trajan, aware of the growing difficulties of the conquest, thought he had to give up the southern territories of Mesopotamia, making them his \"client\" kingdom, while placing on the throne a king loyal to him: the young Parthamaspates, crowned by the Roman emperor himself at Ctesiphon. He also eventually distributed to other rulers territories to the north and east of the new province of Armenia.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Hadrian, newly installed on the throne, was forced to fight a new Sarmatian war in the years 117-119, first against the Roxolani of Moldova and Wallachia, and then against the Iazyges of the Tisza River valley (which was followed by the Roman abandonment of western Banat). At the end of these wars both populations entered the ranks of Rome's \"client\" populations.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The Suebian peoples of Quadi and Marcomanni, who had returned to the old Roman alliance since 97 (from the time of the last phase of Domitian's Suebo-Sarmatian war), awakened around 135, so much so that Emperor Hadrian was forced to send along the Pannonian front his designated heir, Aelius Caesar, to fight them in the course of two campaigns (of the years 136-137), in which it is known from the Historia Augusta that he achieved good successes against them, as the coinage of that period would also show, forcing them back to their former status as \"client\" populations.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "The Historia Augusta relates what the relations Antoninus Pius had with the many \"client\" kingdoms of the period were like:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "\"Antoninus was visited in Rome by Pharasmanes [king of the Iberians, a Transcaucasian population], who was more deferential toward him than he had been toward Hadrian. He appointed Pacorus king of the Lazi [a population settled on the southeastern shore of the Black Sea], succeeded with a simple letter in diverting the Parthian king, Vologases III, from invading Armenia, and his authority was enough to recall King Abgar [king of Osroene in Mesopotamia] from the East. He also placed the pro-Roman king Sohaemus on the throne of Armenia. He was also an arbiter in disputes between the various rulers. He flatly refused to return to the king of the Parthians the royal throne that had been taken as part of the spoils by Trajan, gave the government of the Bosphorus back to Rhoemetalces [King of the Cimmerian Bosporus, present-day Crimea, from 131 to 153], resolving the pendencies the latter had with Eupator, sent reinforcements into Pontus to the Olbiopolites [inhabitants of Olbia or Olbiopolis, an ancient Greek colony that stood near the mouths of the Dnieper and Bug rivers on the Black Sea] who were fighting against the Tauroscites, and defeated the latter, even forcing them to give hostages. His prestige among foreign peoples, in short, was unprecedented, mainly by virtue of the fact that he always loved peace, so much so that he often repeated Scipio's saying, \"I would rather save one citizen than kill a thousand enemies.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "He finally placed a new pro-Roman king on the throne of the neighboring \"client\" people of the Quadi, north of Upper and Lower Pannonia, after a new series of military campaigns led by a certain Titus Haterius Nepos, who was awarded ornamenta triumphalia for these new successes, so much so that around 142, a new coin was issued celebrating \"Rex Quadi datus.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "Between 162 and 166, Lucius Verus was thus forced by his brother, Marcus Aurelius, to lead a new campaign in the East against the Parthians, who had attacked the Roman territories of Cappadocia and Syria the previous year and occupied the \"client\" kingdom of Armenia. The new emperor let his own generals take charge, including Avidius Cassius. The Roman armies, just as had Trajan's fifty years earlier, again succeeded in occupying Armenian and Mesopotamian territories as far as the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon. However, the plague that broke out during the last year of the campaign, in 166, forced the Romans to withdraw from the newly conquered territories, bringing the disease within their own borders, and scourging their population for more than two decades.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "In 166/167, the first clash along the Pannonian frontiers occurred, by a few bands of Lombard and Osii marauders, which, thanks to the prompt intervention of the border troops, were promptly repelled. The peace stipulated with the neighboring Germanic peoples north of the Danube was handled directly by the emperors themselves, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, who were now wary of the barbarian aggressors and traveled for these reasons as far as distant Carnuntum (in 168). The untimely death of his brother Lucius (in 169 not far from Aquileia), and the breaking of pacts by the barbarians (many of whom had been \"clients\" since the time of Tiberius), led a never-before-seen mass of them to swarm devastatingly across northern Italy as far as under the walls of Aquileia, the heart of Venetia. The impression caused was enormous: not since the time of Marius had a barbarian population laid siege to centers in northern Italy.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "It is said that Marcus Aurelius fought a long and exhausting war against the barbarian populations, first repelling them and \"cleaning up\" the territories of Cisalpine Gaul, Noricum, and Rhaetia (170-171), then counterattacking with a massive offensive in Germanic territory, which took several years of fighting, until 175. The Historia Augusta recounts that Marcus Aurelius would have wished to make the territories of the former \"client\" peoples of the Quadi and Marcomanni the province of Marcomannia and of the Iazyges, that of Sarmatia, and would have succeeded if Avidius Cassius had not rebelled.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "These events forced the emperor himself to reside for numerous years along the Pannonian front, never returning to Rome. However, the truce signed with these peoples, particularly the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Iazyges, lasted only a couple of years. At the end of 178 the emperor Marcus Aurelius was forced to return to the castrum of Brigetio from where, in the following spring of 179, the last campaign was conducted. The death of the Roman emperor in 180 soon put an end to Roman expansionist plans and resulted in the abandonment of the occupied territories of Marcomannia and the making of new treaties with the \"client\" populations northeast of the middle Danube.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "During the period of military anarchy, the Roman-allied \"client\" kingdom of Hatra fell under the blows of the Sasanian armies of Ardashir I. Its fall initiated a new Sasanian invasion that led to the occupation of much of Roman Mesopotamia (including the legionary fortresses of Rhesaina and Singara, as well as the auxiliary fort of Zagurae, today's Ain Sinu), even going so far as to besiege and occupy Antioch of Syria, as seems to be suggested by the fact that its mint stopped minting coinage for the years 240 and 241.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Gordian III, during the military campaign conducted personally against Shapur I, placed himself at the head of an army recruited from \"the whole Roman empire and from among the peoples of the Goths and Germans,\" is inferred from an inscription found at Naqs-i-Rustam commemorating the victory against the Romans. Gordian had thus resorted to a conspicuous number of gentiles (mercenary volunteers or foederati), Goths and Germans from the Danubian limes. Philip the Arab, on the other hand, dismissed many of these mercenaries, preferring to pay 500,000 denarii to the Sasanians rather than continue the campaign against them, and generating widespread discontent among the federates over the suspension of the customary payment of tribute.", "title": "History" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The history of the Canadian Pacific Railway dates back to 1873. Together with the Canadian Confederation, the creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken as the \"National Dream\" by the Conservative government of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald (1st Canadian Ministry). He was helped by Alexander Tilloch Galt, who was the owner of the North Western Coal and Navigation Company. British Columbia, a four-month sea voyage away from the East Coast, had insisted upon a land transport link to the East as a condition for joining Confederation (initially requesting a wagon road).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "In 1873, John A. Macdonald and other high-ranking politicians, bribed in the Pacific Scandal, granted federal contracts to Hugh Allan's Canada Pacific Railway Company (which was unrelated to the current company) rather than to David Lewis Macpherson's Inter-Ocean Railway Company which was thought to have connections to the American Northern Pacific Railway Company. Because of this scandal, the Conservative Party was removed from office in 1873. The new Liberal prime minister, Alexander Mackenzie, ordered construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works led by Sandford Fleming. Surveying was carried out during the first years of a number of alternative routes in this virgin territory followed by the construction of a telegraph along the lines that had been agreed upon. The Thunder Bay section linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875. By 1880, around 1,000 kilometres (700 mi) was nearly complete, mainly across the troublesome Canadian Shield terrain, with trains running on only 500 kilometres (300 mi) of track.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "With Macdonald's return to power on 16 October 1878, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the company would follow the Fraser and Thompson rivers between Port Moody and Kamloops. In 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the 206 km (128 mi) section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia, to Savona's Ferry, on Kamloops Lake. The contract was awarded to Andrew Onderdonk, whose men started work on 15 May 1880. After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona's Ferry and Eagle Pass.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "On 21 October 1880, a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government. Fleming was dismissed and replaced with Collingwood Schreiber as chief engineer and general manager of all government railways. They agreed to build the railway in exchange for $25 million (approximately $625 million in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of 25 million acres (100,000 km) of land. The government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership, on which it had already spent at least $25 million. But its estimates of the cost of the Rocky Mountain section alone was over $60 million. The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years. The Montreal-based syndicate officially comprised five men: George Stephen, James J. Hill, Duncan McIntyre, Richard B. Angus and John Stewart Kennedy. Donald A. Smith and Norman Kittson were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest. On 15 February 1881, legislation confirming the contract received royal assent, and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formally incorporated the next day. Critics claimed that the government gave too large a subsidy for the proposed project but this was to incorporate uncertainties of risk and irreversibility of insurance. The large subsidy also needed to compensate the CPR for not constructing the line in the future, but rather right away even though demand would not cover operational costs.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "A beaver was chosen as the railway's logo in honour of Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal, who had risen from factor to governor of the Hudson's Bay Company over a lengthy career in the beaver fur trade. Smith was a principal financier of the CPR. staking much of his personal wealth to the venture. In 1885, he drove the last spike to complete the transcontinental line.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Building the railway took over four years. James J. Hill in 1881 sent Alpheus Beede Stickney to be construction superintendent for the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Canadian Pacific Railway began its westward expansion from Bonfield, Ontario (previously called Callander Station), where the first spike was driven into a sunken railway tie. Bonfield was inducted into Canadian Railway Hall of Fame in 2002 as the CPR first spike location. That was the point where the Canada Central Railway extension ended. The CCR was owned by Duncan McIntyre, who amalgamated it with the CPR, and became one of the handful of officers of the newly formed CPR. The CCR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke. It then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River passing through places like Cobden, Deux-Rivières, and eventually to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa rivers. It then proceeded cross-country towards its final destination of Bonfield. Duncan McIntyre and his contractor James Worthington piloted the CPR expansion. Worthington continued on as the construction superintendent for the CPR past Bonfield. He remained with the CPR for about a year after which he left the company. McIntyre was uncle to John Ferguson who staked out future North Bay and who became the town's wealthiest inhabitant and mayor for four successive terms.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "It was presumed that the railway would travel through the rich \"Fertile Belt\" of the North Saskatchewan River Valley and cross the Rocky Mountains via the Yellowhead Pass, a route suggested by Fleming based on a decade of work. However, the CPR quickly discarded this plan in favour of a more southerly route across the arid Palliser's Triangle in Saskatchewan and via Kicking Horse Pass and down the Field Hill to the Rocky Mountain Trench. This route was more direct and closer to the Canada–US border, making it easier for the CPR to keep American railways from encroaching on the Canadian market. However, this route also had several disadvantages.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "One was that the CPR would need to find a route through the Selkirk Mountains in British Columbia. At the time, it was not known whether a route even existed. The job of finding a pass was assigned to surveyor Major Albert Bowman Rogers. The CPR promised him a cheque for $5,000 and that the pass would be named in his honour. Rogers became obsessed with finding the pass that would immortalize his name. He discovered the pass in April 1881 and, true to its word, the CPR named it \"Rogers Pass\" and gave him the cheque. However, he at first refused to cash it, preferring to frame it, saying he did not do it for the money. He later agreed to cash it with the promise of an engraved watch.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Another obstacle was that the proposed route crossed land in Alberta that was controlled by the Blackfoot First Nation. This difficulty was overcome when a missionary priest, Albert Lacombe, persuaded the Blackfoot chief Crowfoot that construction of the railway was inevitable. In return for his assent, Crowfoot was famously rewarded with a lifetime pass to ride the CPR.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "A more lasting consequence of the choice of route was that, unlike the one proposed by Fleming, the land surrounding the railway often proved too arid for successful agriculture. The CPR may have placed too much reliance on a report from naturalist John Macoun, who had crossed the prairies at a time of very high rainfall and had reported that the area was fertile.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The greatest disadvantage of the route was in Kicking Horse Pass, at the Alberta-British Columbia border on the continental divide. In the first 6 km (3.7 mi) west of the 1,625 metres (5,331 feet) high summit, the Kicking Horse River drops 350 metres (1,150 feet). The steep drop would force the cash-strapped CPR to build a 7 km (4.3 mi) long stretch of track with a very steep 41⁄2 percent gradient once it reached the pass in 1884. This was over four times the maximum gradient recommended for railways of this era, and even modern railways rarely exceed a two-percent gradient. However, this route was far more direct than one through the Yellowhead Pass and saved hours for both passengers and freight. This section of track was the CPR's Big Hill. Safety switches were installed at several points, the speed limit for descending trains was set at 10 km per hour (6 mph), and special locomotives were ordered. Despite these measures, several serious runaways still occurred including the first locomotive, which belonged to the contractors, to descend the line. CPR officials insisted that this was a temporary expediency, but this state of affairs would last for 25 years until the completion of the Spiral Tunnels in the early 20th century.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In 1881, construction progressed at a pace too slow for the railway's officials who, in 1882, hired the renowned railway executive William Cornelius Van Horne to oversee construction with the inducement of a generous salary and the intriguing challenge of handling such a difficult railway project. Van Horne stated that he would have 800 km (500 mi) of main line built in 1882. Floods delayed the start of the construction season, but over 672 km (418 mi) of main line, as well as sidings and branch lines, were built that year. The Thunder Bay branch (west from Fort William) was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883, permitting all-Canadian lake and railway traffic from Eastern Canada to Winnipeg for the first time. By the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just eight kilometres (five miles) east of Kicking Horse Pass. The construction seasons of 1884 and 1885 would be spent in the mountains of British Columbia and on the north shore of Lake Superior.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Many thousands of navvies worked on the railway. Many were European immigrants. In British Columbia, government contractors eventually hired 17,000 workers from China, known as \"coolies\". A navvy received between $1 and $2.50 per day, but had to pay for his own food, clothing, transport to the job site, mail, and medical care. After 21⁄2 months of hard labour, they could net as little as $16. Chinese labourers in British Columbia made only between 75 cents and $1.25 a day, paid in rice mats, and not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home. They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with explosives to clear tunnels through rock. The exact number of Chinese workers who died is unknown, but historians estimate the number is between 600 and 800. According to Historica Canada, it is believed that for every mile of track laid in British Columbia, there is one dead Chinese worker. The victims of sickness and accidents were not given proper funerals. Most of the remains were buried into the railway and the families of the Chinese who were killed received no compensation, or even notification of loss of life. Many of the men who survived did not have enough money to return to their families in China, although Chinese labour contractors had promised that as part of their responsibilities. Many spent years in isolated and often poor conditions. Yet the Chinese were hard working and played a key role in building the Western stretch of the railway; even some boys as young as twelve years old served as tea-boys. In 2006, the then-Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology for the treatment of Chinese workers, both during and following the construction of the CPR.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "By 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of funds. In response, on 31 January 1884, the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22.5 million in loans to the CPR. The bill received royal assent on 6 March 1884.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "In March 1885, the North-West Rebellion broke out in the District of Saskatchewan. Van Horne, in Ottawa at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to Qu'Appelle, Assiniboia, in 10 days. Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in nine days and the rebellion quickly suppressed. Perhaps because the government was grateful for this service, they subsequently reorganized the CPR's debt and provided a further $5 million loan. This money was desperately needed by the CPR. However, this government loan later became controversial. Even with Van Horne's support with moving troops to Qu'Appelle, the government still delayed in giving its support to CPR. This was due to Macdonald putting pressure on George Stephen for additional benefits. Stephen himself did admit to spending $1 million between 1881 and 1886 to ensure government support. This money went to buying a £40,000 necklace for Lady MacDonald and numerous other \"bonifications\" to government members.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "On 7 November 1885, the last spike was driven at Craigellachie, British Columbia, making good on the original promise. Four days earlier, the last spike of the Lake Superior section was driven in just west of Jackfish, Ontario. While the railway was completed four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed more than five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881. The successful construction of such a massive project, although troubled by delays and scandal, was considered an impressive feat of engineering and political will for a country with such a small population, limited capital, and difficult terrain. It was by far the longest railway ever constructed at the time. It had taken 12,000 men and 5,000 horses to construct the Lake section alone.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Meanwhile, in Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to St. Thomas, Ontario, by 1885 – mainly by buying the Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa & Occidental Railway from the Quebec government and by creating a new railway company, the Ontario and Quebec Railway (O&Q). It also launched a fleet of Great Lakes ships to link its terminals. Through the O&Q, the CPR had effected purchases and long-term leases of several railways, and built a line between Perth, Ontario, and Toronto (completed on 5 May 1884) to connect these acquisitions. The CPR obtained a 999-year lease on the O&Q on 4 January 1884. In 1895, it acquired a minority interest in the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway, giving it a link to New York and the Northeast United States.", "title": "Building the railway, 1881–1886" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The last spike in the CPR was driven on 7 November 1885, by one of its directors, Donald Smith.", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The first transcontinental passenger train departed from Montreal's Dalhousie Station, located at Berri Street and Notre Dame Street at 8 pm on 28 June 1886, and arrived at Port Moody at noon on 4 July. This train consisted of two baggage cars, a mail car, one second-class coach, two immigrant sleepers, two first-class coaches, two sleeping cars and a diner (several dining cars were used throughout the journey, as they were removed from the train during the night, with another one added the next morning).", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "By that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to Granville, which was renamed \"Vancouver\" later that year. The first official train destined for Vancouver arrived on 23 May 1887, although the line had already been in use for three months. The CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the federal government were repaid years ahead of time. In 1888, a branch line was opened between Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own steamships. That same year, work was started on a line from London, Ontario, to the Canada–US border at Windsor, Ontario. That line opened on 12 June 1890.", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "The CPR also leased the New Brunswick Railway in 1891 for 991 years, and built the International Railway of Maine, connecting Montreal with Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1889. The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company in Canada and permitted trans-Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year-round when sea ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence closed the port of Montreal during the winter months. By 1896, competition with the Great Northern Railway for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line. Van Horne, now president of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from Lethbridge, Alberta, through Crowsnest Pass to the south shore of Kootenay Lake, in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada.", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on grain products and westbound rates on certain \"settlers' effects\" at the 1897 level. Although temporarily suspended during the First World War, it was not until 1983 that the \"Crow Rate\" was permanently replaced by the Western Grain Transportation Act, which allowed the gradual increase of grain shipping prices. The Crowsnest Pass line opened on 18 June 1898, and followed a complicated route through the maze of valleys and passes in southern British Columbia, rejoining the original mainline at Hope after crossing the Cascade Mountains via Coquihalla Pass.", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The Southern Mainline, generally known as the Kettle Valley Railway in British Columbia, was built in response to the booming mining and smelting economy in southern British Columbia, and the tendency of the local geography to encourage and enable easier access from neighbouring US states than from Vancouver or the rest of Canada, which was viewed to be as much of a threat to national security as it was to the province's control of its own resources. The local passenger service was re-routed to this new southerly line, which connected numerous emergent small cities across the region. Independent railways and subsidiaries that were eventually merged into the CPR in connection with this route were the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway, the Kaslo and Slocan Railway, the Columbia and Kootenay Railway, the Columbia and Western Railway and various others.", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The CPR had built a railway that operated mostly in the wilderness. The usefulness of the prairies was questionable in the minds of many. The thinking prevailed that the prairies had great potential. Under the initial contract with the Canadian government to build the railway, the CPR was granted 100,000 square kilometres (25 million acres). Proving already to be a very resourceful organization, Canadian Pacific began an intense campaign to bring immigrants to Canada. Canadian Pacific agents operated in many overseas locations. Immigrants were often sold a package that included passage on a CP ship, travel on a CP train and land sold by the CP railway. Land was priced at $2.50 an acre and up but required cultivation. To transport immigrants, Canadian Pacific developed a fleet of over a thousand Colonist cars, low-budget sleeper cars designed to transport immigrant families from eastern Canadian seaports to the west.", "title": "1886–1900" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "During the first decade of the 20th century, the CPR continued to build more lines. In 1908, the CPR opened a line connecting Toronto with Sudbury. Previously, westbound traffic originating in southern Ontario took a circuitous route through eastern Ontario. Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in Western Canada. In 1909 the CPR completed two significant engineering accomplishments. The most significant was the replacement of the Big Hill, which had become a major bottleneck in the CPR's main line, with the Spiral Tunnels, reducing the grade to 2.2 percent from 4.5 percent. The Spiral Tunnels opened in August. In April 1908, the CPR started work to replace the Old Calgary-Edmonton Rail Bridge across the Red Deer River with a new standard steel bridge that was completed by March 1909.", "title": "1901–1928" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "On 3 November 1909, the Lethbridge Viaduct over the Oldman River valley at Lethbridge, Alberta, was opened. It is 1,624 metres (5,328 feet) long and, at its maximum, 96 metres (315 feet) high, making it one of the longest railway bridges in Canada. In 1916, the CPR replaced its line through Rogers Pass, which was prone to avalanches (the most serious of which killed 62 men in 1910) with the Connaught Tunnel, an eight-kilometre-long (5-mile) tunnel under Mount Macdonald that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the Western Hemisphere.", "title": "1901–1928" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "On 21 January 1910, a passenger train derailed on the CPR line at the Spanish River bridge at Nairn, Ontario (near Sudbury), killing at least 43.", "title": "1901–1928" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The CPR acquired several smaller railways via long-term leases in 1912. On 3 January 1912, the CPR acquired the Dominion Atlantic Railway, a railway that ran in western Nova Scotia. This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to Halifax, a significant port on the Atlantic Ocean. The Dominion Atlantic was isolated from the rest of the CPR network and used the CNR to facilitate interchange; the DAR also operated ferry services across the Bay of Fundy for passengers and cargo (but not rail cars) from the port of Digby, Nova Scotia, to the CPR at Saint John, New Brunswick. DAR steamships also provided connections for passengers and cargo between Yarmouth, Boston and New York. On 1 July 1912, the CPR acquired the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, a railway on Vancouver Island that connected to the CPR using a railcar ferry. The CPR acquired the Quebec Central Railway on 14 December 1912.", "title": "1901–1928" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "During the late 19th century, the railway undertook an ambitious programme of hotel construction, building Glacier House in Glacier National Park, Mount Stephen House at Field, British Columbia, the Château Frontenac in Quebec City and the Banff Springs Hotel. By then, the CPR had competition from three other transcontinental lines, all of them money-losers. In 1919, these lines were consolidated, along with the track of the old Intercolonial Railway and its spurs, into the government-owned Canadian National Railways. The CPR suffered its greatest loss of life when one of its steamships, the Empress of Ireland, sank after a collision with the Norwegian collier SS Storstad. On 29 May 1914, the Empress (operated by the CPR's Canadian Pacific Steamship Company) went down in the St. Lawrence River with the loss of 1,024 lives, of which 840 were passengers.", "title": "1901–1928" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "During the First World War, CPR put the entire resources of the \"world's greatest travel system\" at the disposal of the British Empire, not only trains and tracks, but also its ships, shops, hotels, telegraphs and, above all, its people. Aiding the war effort meant transporting and billeting troops; building and supplying arms and munitions; arming, lending and selling ships. Fifty-two CPR ships were pressed into service during World War I, carrying more than a million troops and passengers and four million tons of cargo. Twenty seven survived and returned to CPR. CPR also helped the war effort with money and jobs. CPR made loans and guarantees to the Allies of some $100 million. As a lasting tribute, CPR commissioned three statues and 23 memorial tablets to commemorate the efforts of those who fought and those who died in the war. After the war, the Federal government created Canadian National Railways (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war. CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada. In 1923, Henry Worth Thornton replaced David Blyth Hanna becoming the second president of the CNR, and his competition spurred Edward Wentworth Beatty, the first Canadian-born president of the CPR, to action. During this time the railway land grants were formalized.", "title": "First World War" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The Great Depression, which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily. While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the extent of its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt-free. The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932. Hard times led to the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.", "title": "Great Depression and the Second World War, 1929–1945" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "One highlight of the late 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth during their 1939 royal tour of Canada, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country. The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver. Later that year, the Second World War began. As it had done in World War I, the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort. It retooled its Angus Shops in Montreal to produce Valentine tanks and other armoured vehicles, and transported troops and resources across the country. Additionally, 22 of the CPR's ships went to war, 12 of which were sunk.", "title": "Great Depression and the Second World War, 1929–1945" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "After the Second World War, the transportation industry in Canada changed. Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, cars, trucks and airplanes started to take traffic away from railways. This naturally helped the CPR's air and trucking operations, and the railway's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities. However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable. During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service. In 1955, it introduced The Canadian, a new luxury transcontinental train. However, in the 1960s, the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines. It also discontinued its secondary transcontinental train The Dominion in 1966, and in 1970, unsuccessfully applied to discontinue The Canadian. For the next eight years, it continued to apply to discontinue the service, and service on The Canadian declined markedly. On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that is responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN. Via eventually took almost all of its passenger trains, including The Canadian, off CP's lines.", "title": "1946–1978" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "In 1968, as part of a corporate reorganization, each of the major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries. The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to Canadian Pacific Limited in 1971. Its air, express, telecommunications, hotel and real estate holdings were spun off, and ownership of all of the companies transferred to Canadian Pacific Investments. The slogan was: \"TO THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE WORLD\" The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new Multimark (which, when mirrored by an adjacent \"multi-mark\" creates a diamond appearance on a globe) that was used – with a different colour background – for each of its operations.", "title": "1946–1978" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "On 10 November 1979, a derailment of a hazardous materials train in Mississauga, Ontario, led to the evacuation of 200,000 people; there were no fatalities. Mississauga Mayor Hazel McCallion threatened to sue Canadian Pacific for the derailment. Part of the compromise was to accept GO Transit commuter rail service along the Galt Subdivision corridor up to Milton, Ontario. Limited trains ran along the Milton line on weekdays only. Expansions to Cambridge, Ontario may be coming in the future.", "title": "1979–2001" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "In 1984, CP Rail commenced construction of the Mount Macdonald Tunnel to augment the Connaught Tunnel under the Selkirk Mountains. The first revenue train passed through the tunnel in 1988. At 14.7 km (nine miles), it is the longest tunnel in the Americas. During the 1980s, the Soo Line Railroad, in which CP Rail still owned a controlling interest, underwent several changes. It acquired the Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway in 1982. Then on 21 February 1985, the Soo Line obtained a controlling interest in the bankrupt Milwaukee Road, merging it into its system on 1 January 1986. Also in 1980, Canadian Pacific bought out the controlling interests of the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway (TH&B) from Conrail and molded it into the Canadian Pacific System, dissolving the TH&B's name from the books in 1985. In 1987, most of CPR's trackage in the Great Lakes region, including much of the original Soo Line, were spun off into a new railway, the Wisconsin Central, which was subsequently purchased by CN. Influenced by the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1989, which liberalized trade between the two nations, the CPR's expansion continued during the early 1990s: CP Rail gained full control of the Soo Line in 1990, adding the \"System\" to the former's name, and bought the Delaware and Hudson Railway in 1991. These two acquisitions gave CP Rail routes to the major American cities of Chicago (via the Soo Line and Milwaukee Road as part of its historically logical route) and New York City (via the D&H).", "title": "1979–2001" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "During the 1990s, both CP Rail and CN attempted unsuccessfully to buy out the eastern assets of the other, so as to permit further rationalization. In 1996, CP Rail moved its head office from Windsor Station in Montreal to Gulf Canada Square in Calgary and changed its name back to Canadian Pacific Railway.", "title": "1979–2001" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "A new subsidiary company, the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway, was created to operate its money-losing lines in eastern North America, covering Quebec, Southern and Eastern Ontario, trackage rights to Chicago, Illinois, (on Norfolk Southern lines from Detroit) as well as the Delaware and Hudson Railway in the northeastern United States. However, the new subsidiary, threatened with being sold off and free to innovate, quickly spun off money-losing track to short lines, instituted scheduled freight service, and produced an unexpected turn-around in profitability. On 1 January 2001 the StL&H was formally amalgamated with the CP Rail system.", "title": "1979–2001" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "In 2001, the CPR's parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its five subsidiaries, including the CPR, into independent companies. Most of the company's non-railway businesses at the time of the split were operated by a separate subsidiary called Canadian Pacific Limited. Canadian Pacific Railway formally (but, not legally) shortened its name to Canadian Pacific in early 2007, dropping the word \"railway\" in order to reflect more operational flexibility. Shortly after the name revision, Canadian Pacific announced that it had committed to becoming a major sponsor and logistics provider to the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "On 4 September 2007, CPR announced it was acquiring the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad from London-based Electra Private Equity. The transaction was an \"end-to-end\" consolidation and gave CPR access to United States shippers of agricultural products, ethanol and coal. CPR stated its intention to use this purchase to gain access to the rich coalfields of Wyoming's Powder River Basin. The purchase price was US$1.48 billion with future payments of over US$1 billion contingent on commencement of construction on the smaller railway's Powder River extension and specified volumes of coal shipments from the Powder River Basin. The transaction was subject to approval of the U.S. Surface Transportation Board (STB), which was expected to take about a year. On 4 October 2007, CPR announced that it had completed financial transactions required for the acquisition, placing the DM&E and IC&E in a voting trust with Richard Hamlin appointed as trustee. The merger was completed as of 31 October 2008.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "In 2010, four repainted Canadian Pacific AC4400CWs were used in the filming of the movie Unstoppable.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "On 28 October 2011, in a Schedule 13D filing, the U.S. hedge fund Pershing Square Capital Management (PSCM) indicated it owned 12.2 percent of Canadian Pacific. PSCM began acquiring Canadian Pacific shares in 2011. The stake eventually increased to 14.2 percent, making PSCM the railway's largest shareholder. At a meeting with the company that month, Pershing's head Bill Ackman proposed replacing Fred Green as CP's chief executive. Just hours before the railway's annual shareholder meeting on Thursday, 17 May 2012, Green and five other board members, including chairman John Cleghorn, resigned. The seven nominees, including Ackman and his partner, Paul Hilal, were then elected. The reconstituted board, having named Stephen Tobias (former vice president and chief operating officer of Norfolk Southern Railroad) as interim CEO, initiated a search for a new CEO, eventually settling on E. Hunter Harrison, former president of Canadian National Railway, on 29 June 2012.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd. trains resumed regular operations on 1 June 2012 after a nine-day strike by some 4,800 locomotive engineers, conductors and traffic controllers who walked off the job on 23 May, stalling Canadian freight traffic and costing the economy an estimated CA$80 million (US$77 million). The strike ended with a government back-to-work bill forcing both sides to come to a binding agreement.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "On 6 July 2013, a unit train of crude oil which CP had subcontracted to short-line operator Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway derailed in Lac-Mégantic, killing 47. On 14 August 2013, the Quebec government added the CPR, along with lessor World Fuel Services (WFS), to the list of corporate entities from which it seeks reimbursement for the environmental cleanup of the Lac-Mégantic derailment. On 15 July, the press reported that CP would appeal the legal order. Railway spokesman Ed Greenberg stated \"Canadian Pacific has reviewed the notice. As a matter of fact, in law, CP is not responsible for this cleanup.\" In February 2014, Harrison called for immediate action to phase-out DOT-111 tank cars, known to be more dangerous in cases of derailment.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "On 12 October 2014 it was reported that Canadian Pacific had tried to enter into a merger with American railway CSX, but was unsuccessful.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "In 2015–16 Canadian Pacific sought to merge with American railway Norfolk Southern. and wanted to have a shareholder vote on it. Canadian Pacific created a website to persuade people that the Canadian Pacific/Norfolk Southern merger would benefit the rail industry. However, this proposed merger would come under scrutiny by the U.S. Department of Justice over antitrust concerns created by the proposed merger. Canadian Pacific filed a complaint against the U.S. DOJ and dropped their proposed proxy fight in the proposed merger with Norfolk Southern. The proposed merger was also opposed by rival freight company, the United Parcel Service (UPS), who spoke out about the rail merger and said they were against the Canadian Pacific/Norfolk Southern merger. CP ultimately terminated its efforts to merge on 11 April 2016.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "On 18 January 2017 it was announced that Hunter Harrison was retiring from CP and that Keith Creel would become president and chief executive officer of the company effective 31 January 2017.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "On 4 February 2019, a loaded grain train ran away from the siding at Partridge just above the Upper Spiral Tunnel in Kicking Horse Pass. The 112-car grain train with three locomotives derailed into the Kicking Horse River just after the Trans Canada Highway overpass. The three crew members on the lead locomotive were killed. The Canadian Pacific Police Service (CPPS) investigated the fatal derailment. It later came to light that, although Creel said that the RCMP \"retain jurisdiction\" over the investigation, the RCMP wrote that \"it never had jurisdiction because the crash happened on CP property\". On 26 January 2020, Canadian current affairs program The Fifth Estate broadcast an episode on the derailment, and the next day the Canadian Transportation Safety Board (TSB) called for the RCMP to investigate as lead investigator Don Crawford said, \"There is enough to suspect there's negligence here and it needs to be investigated by the proper authority\".", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "On 4 February 2020, the TSB demoted its lead investigator in the crash probe after his superiors decided these comments were \"completely inappropriate\". The TSB stated that it \"does not share the view of the lead safety investigator\". The CPPS say they did a thorough investigation into the actions of the crew, which is now closed and resulted in no charges, while the Alberta Federation of Labour and the Teamsters Canada Rail Conference called for an independent police probe.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "On 20 November 2019, it was announced that Canadian Pacific would purchase the Central Maine and Quebec Railway from Fortress Transportation and Infrastructure Investors. The line had had a series of different owners since being spun off of the Canadian Pacific in 1995. The first operator was the Canadian American Railroad a division of Iron Road Railways. In 2002 the Montreal, Maine & Atlantic took over operations after CDAC declared bankruptcy. The Central, Maine and Quebec Railway started operations in 2014 after the MMA declared bankruptcy due to the Lac-Mégantic derailment. On this new acquisition, CP CEO Keith Creel remarked that this gives CP a true coast-to-coast network across Canada and an increased presence in New England. On June 4, 2020; Canadian Pacific bought the Central Maine and Quebec.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "On March 21, 2021, CP announced that it was planning to purchase the Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS) for US$29 billion. The US Surface Transportation Board (STB) would first have to approve the purchase, which was expected to be completed by the middle of 2022.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "However, a competing cash and stock offer was later made by Canadian National Railway (CN) on April 20 at $33.7 billion. On May 13, KCS announced that they planned to accept the merger offer from CN, but would give CP until May 21 to come up with a higher bid. On May 21, KCS and CN agreed to a merger. However, CN's merger attempt was blocked by a STB ruling in August that the company could not use a voting trust to assume control of KCS, due to concerns about potentially reduced competition in the railroad industry.", "title": "2001 to 2023" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "On September 12, KCS accepted a new $31 billion offer from CP. Though CP's offer was lower than the offer made by CN, the STB permitted CP to use a voting trust to take control of KCS. The voting trust allowed CP to become the beneficial owner of KCS in December, but the two railroads operated independently until receiving approval for a merger of operations from the STB. That approval came on March 15, 2023, which permitted the railroads to merge as soon as April 14. Post merger, the combined railroad would rebrand under a new name: Canadian Pacific Kansas City (CPKC). On April 14, 2023, CP and the Kansas City Southern Railway merged into one, forming CPKC.", "title": "2001 to 2023" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Plançor is a village in the Gjakova Municipality in Kosovo.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The village was possibly mentioned as 'Plaqani' in the Ottoman register of 1485 and was inhabited by a Christian Albanian population with 14 households.", "title": "History" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Koh Masaki (真崎航, Masaki Kō, July 20, 1983 – May 18, 2013) was a Japanese gay pornographic film actor. Among the most prolific and well-known figures in Japanese gay pornography, Masaki was the first gay Japanese pornographic film actor to openly identify as gay both in his films and in his personal life. He appeared in approximately 200 films in a career that spanned from 2009 to 2013.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Masaki was born on July 20, 1983 in Morioka, Iwate Prefecture. In middle school he began regularly visiting Shinjuku Ni-chōme, Tokyo's gay village, after learning about the neighborhood from the gay men's magazine Peanuts. He later attended university in Sapporo while simultaneously working as a flight attendant and engaging in sex work. After graduating, he began working as an urisen (rentboy) at a gay bar in Nakano, Tokyo.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 2009, he was recruited by the production company Japan Pictures to work as a gay adult film actor. While he initially appeared in films as a gōguruman (\"goggle man\", a term for a pornographic actor who maintains anonymity by wearing swimming goggles or tinted sunglasses), Masaki would quickly forgo this convention to become one of the first gay pornographic film actors in Japan to openly appear in adult films without obscuring his identity. Owing to his interest in European pornography, Masaki utilized what he described as a \"western\" performance style in his films; this chiefly involved performing as a self-identified gay man, contrasting the then-typical mode of Japanese gay pornography involving degrading or sadistic scenarios involving heterosexual actors. Masaki appeared in approximately 200 films over the course of his career, which spanned from 2009 to 2013.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Beyond his career in pornography, Masaki worked as an underwear model and as a go-go boy. He was an advocate for HIV testing and condom usage, and regularly promoted safe sex initiatives in Japan, China, and Taiwan. In 2012, he appeared in the music video for artist Ayumi Hamasaki's single \"How Beautiful You Are\", which depicts him kissing his then-partner Tien Tien.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Masaki suffered from peritonitis, and underwent multiple surgeries to treat the condition. On May 18, 2013, he died at the age of 29 due to appendicitis and sepsis caused by a ruptured cecum arising from the affliction.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Masaki has been described as one of the most famous and prolific gay pornographic film actors in Japan. He was the first gay Japanese pornographic film actor to openly identify as gay both in his films and in his personal life, and one of the most prominent examples of a gay Japanese pornographic film actor to turn professional after breaking into the industry through nanpa (amateur scouting).", "title": "Impact" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Rich Bellis of The Awl writes that Masaki \"established a celebrity persona in a business where such a thing hadn’t existed before\". Academic Thomas Baudinette considers Masaki to be \"the very definition of an ikanimo-kei\" (literally \"obviously gay type\"), a term in Japanese gay culture denoting physically fit, conventionally attractive gay men who participate in nightlife and follow fashion trends. Baudinette argues that Masaki's popularity can be attributed in part to his typically masculine physical traits combined with his open identification as gay man, which allowed him \"to represent a role model of an explicitly 'masculine' gay subject position for Japanese same-sex attracted men\", contrasting a Japanese media landscape that at the time was dominated by \"cross-dressing comedians [...] implicitly understood as homosexual who regularly appear as objects of humor on Japanese variety television shows.\"", "title": "Impact" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Kepler-235e is a Neptune-like exoplanet located 1,396 light years away. It was discovered by the Kepler space telescope in 2014. It has a radius about 2.22 times that of Earth; its mass is unknown, but is predicted to be about 5.56 times that of Earth based on mass-radius relationships. It is 0.213 AU from its star; which means it takes 46.2 Earth days for the planet to orbit its star.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Kepler-235e orbits a K-type star named Kepler-235 (also designated 2MASS J19041898+3916419, KIC 4139816, KOI-812, or WISE J190418.97+391641.8). The star has a temperature of 4,255 K (3,982 °C; 7,199 °F).", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The 3rd Artillery Regiment \"Pistoia\" (Italian: 3° Reggimento Artiglieria \"Pistoia\") is an inactive field artillery regiment of the Italian Army, which was based in Vercelli in Piedmont. The regiment was formed in 1860 by the Royal Sardinian Army and in 1861 joined the Royal Italian Army. During World War I the regiment served on the on the Italian front. In 1935 the regiment was assigned to the 16th Infantry Division \"Fossalta\", which in 1939 became the 16th Infantry Division \"Pistoia\". In September 1942 the division was transferred to North Africa for the Western Desert campaign of World War II. After the defeat in the Second Battle of El Alamein the division retreated with the other Axis forces into Tunisia, where the division fought in the Tunisian campaign until it surrendered to Allied forces on 13 May 1943.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The regiment was reformed in 1950 and assigned to the Infantry Division \"Mantova\". In 1953 the regiment was disbanded and its personnel used to reform the 6th Mountain Artillery Regiment. In 1975 the unit was reformed in Vercelli as 3rd Field Artillery Group \"Pastrengo\" and assigned to the 3rd Mechanized Brigade \"Goito\". In 1982 the group was equipped with self-propelled howitzers and renamed 3rd Self-propelled Field Artillery Group \"Pastrengo\". With the end of the Cold War the group was disbanded in 1991. The regimental anniversary falls, as for all artillery regiments, on June 15, the beginning of the Second Battle of the Piave River in 1918.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "After the Second Italian War of Independence the Kingdom of Sardinia annexed on 22 March 1860 the Royal Provinces of Emilia and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Consequently, on 25 March 1860, the artillery units of the annexed territories were integrated into the Royal Sardinian Army: six field batterie, six fortress companies, and one workers company from the Tuscan Army, and nine field batterie, six fortress companies, and one workers company from the Emilian Army. The influx of artillery units and the growth of units in the runup to the and during the war necessitated a new organization of the Piedmontese artillery, which at the time consisted of the Workers Regiment, the Fortress Artillery Regiment, the 1st Field Artillery Regiment, and the 2nd Field Artillery Regiment.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "On 17 June 1860, which today is celebrated as the founding date of the Italian Army's Artillery Arm, four new regiments were ordered to be formed on 1 July 1860: the 3rd Regiment — Fortress Regiment, the 4th Regiment — Fortress Regiment, the 7th Regiment — Field Regiment, and the 8th Regiment — Field Regiment; while on the same day the Workers Regiment was to be renamed 1st Regiment — Workers Regiment, with the Fortress Artillery Regiment destined to become the 2nd Regiment — Fortress Regiment, and the 1st Field Artillery Regiment and 2nd Field Artillery Regiment, slated to be renamed 5th Regiment — Field Regiment and 6th Regiment — Field Regiment.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "On 1 July 1860 the 3rd Regiment — Fortress Regiment was formed in Genoa and received eight fortress companies from the former Piedmontese Fortress Artillery Regiment, as well as two Tuscan fortress companies and one Emilian fortress company. One of the Piedmontese companies had participated in 1848 in the First Italian War of Independence and fought in the Battle of Pastrengo, where it earned a Bronze Medal of Military Valour, which was affixed to the regiment's flag and is depicted on the regiment's coat of arms. The same battery was also part of the Sardinian Expeditionary Corps, which was deployed to Crimea during the Crimean War in 1855-56.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "After the annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1861 the regiment moved from Genoa to Naples and in 1866 from Naples to Capua. The same year the regiment participated with three companies in the Third Italian War of Independence. In 1868 the regiment moved from Capu to Turin and in 1870 to Bologna. In September of the same year one of the regiment's companies participated in the capture of Rome. On 13 November 1870 the regiment was renamed 3rd Artillery Regiment and now fielded five fortress companies and eight field batteries. On 30 September 1873 the regiment ceded its remaining four fortress companies to help form the 12th Fortress Artillery Regiment. On 29 June 1882 the regiment was renamed 3rd Field Artillery Regiment.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "On 1 November 1884 the regiment ceded two batteries to help from the 12th Field Artillery Regiment and on 1 November 1888 the regiment ceded eight batteries and one train company to help form the 15th Field Artillery Regiment. In 1895-96 the regiment provided three officers and 52 troops to augment units deployed to Eritrea for the First Italo-Ethiopian War. During the Italo-Turkish War in 1911-12 the regiment provided 14 officers and 403 troops to augment units deployed for the war. On 1 April 1912 the regiment ceded some of its personnel to help form the 2nd Heavy Field Artillery Regiment and on 1 January 1914 the regiment ceded its II Group to help form the 30th Field Artillery Regiment.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "At the outbreak of World War I the regiment consisted of a command, three groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, and a depot. During the war the regiment's depot in Bologna formed the commands of the 39th Field Artillery Regiment and 13th Heavy Field Artillery Regiment. The depot also formed two heavy field howitzer groups, and ten heavy field cannon groups.", "title": "History" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Hungarian Individual Speedway Championship is the annual motorcycle speedway individual championship organised by the HZM.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "If is a subordinator similar to whether, marking the subordinate clause as interrogative (e.g., I don't know if that works).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "As a subordinator, if has no conditional meaning (for that, see if (preposition)). Instead, it introduces subordinate closed interrogative clauses. This aligns if with whether, and the two may often be used interchangeably, as in I doubt whether/if that's true. However, if is more constrained. As examples, it can appear neither in the whether or not construction (whether/*if or not the room is ready), nor for a clausal subject (Whether/*If to attend was the question).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Traditional grammar books commonly treat if, often understood as a single word encompassing both this subordinator and the homonymous preposition, as a \"subordinating conjunction\", a category covering a broad range of clause-connecting words.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The Oxford English Dictionary traces the word back to its Germanic roots, with cognates in several old Germanic languages, each broadly carrying the meaning of 'if' or 'whether'. The subordinator if (along with the conditional preposition if) existed in the earliest records of English. Examples of the subordinator follow:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Ðonne", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Then", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "mæg", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "may", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "mon", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "one", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "geseon", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "see", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "gif", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "if", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "ðær", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "there", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "hwelc", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "any", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "dieglu", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "secret", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "scond", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "shame", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "inne", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "in", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "bið.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "is", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Ðonne mæg mon geseon gif ðær hwelc dieglu scond inne bið.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Then may one see if there any secret shame in is", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "`Then one can see if there is any secret shame within.' King Ælfred, translation of Gregory, Pastoral Care (Hatton MS.) (1871) xxi. 157 (Early Old English, from the 890s)", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "He..", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "He", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "frægn", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "asked", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "gif", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "if", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "him", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "him", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "wære", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "was", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "æfter", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "after", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "neodlaðu[m]", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "urgent-journey", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "niht", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "night", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "getæse.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "agreeable", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "He.. frægn gif him wære æfter neodlaðu[m] niht getæse.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "He asked if him was after urgent-journey night agreeable", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "`He asked if the night had passed to his liking after the urgent journey.' Beowulf 1319 (Old English, from between 975 and 1025)", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The OED notes the existence of forms with an initial g, reflecting a palatal /j/.", "title": "History" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In the first edition of the tournament, Isabel Cueto and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario won the title by defeating Silke Meier and Wiltrud Probst 4–6, 6–2, 6–4 in the final.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The first three seeds received a bye into the second round.", "title": "Seeds" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Espen Eskås (born 24 June 1988) is an Norwegian football referee. He is an UEFA elite referee. He began refereeing in 2005. He was chosen as a match official during the 2023 FIFA U-17 World Cup held in Indonesia.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Indra is the largest solar-powered boat in India. It started operations in Kochi waters in the Indian state of Kerala on 22nd December, 2023. The design and construction was done by Navalt at their Kochi headquarters and their Navgathi Panavally Yard.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The 27-metre-long and 7-metre-wide boat is covered by 125 square metres (1,350 sq ft) of solar panels rated at 25 kW, which in turn connect to two electric motors of 20 kW, one in each hull. There are 1500 kg of lithium-ion batteries in the ship's two hulls with a total capacity of 80 kWh. The catamaran hull and its shape allow it to reach speeds of up to 7 knots. This was verified by Indian Register of Shipping surveyor.", "title": "Technical features" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The boat is remotely monitored and troubleshooting can also be done remotely. All the operating parameters of the boat are recorded and transmitted to the Navalt's server from where the technical experts can monitor the boat. The upgrades and settings in the software can also be performed remotely as if a computer is plugged into the boat. This makes the boat even safer.", "title": "Technical features" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "James Townsend (died November 3, 1851) was an American farmer and abolitionist who was among the early pioneers of Putnamville, Indiana.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Townsend was descended from Richard Townsend, who emigrated from England, settling in Jamestown, Virginia in 1620. He was raised in Snow Hill, Maryland and married Katherine Davis, a cousin of the Radical Republican Henry Winter Davis.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 1808, Townsend left Maryland and established a plantation near Henderson, Kentucky, operated by 30 slaves he had inherited.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Between 1828 to 1830, Townsend underwent a religious experience and informed his slaves he had \"become convinced of the evils of slavery\", thereupon emancipating them. He exhorted them to follow him to Indiana - a non-slave state - pledging that he would build houses for any who chose to accompany him, while those who opted to remain in Kentucky would instead be paid a cash settlement. Eight of his former slaves ultimately traveled with him to Indiana and assumed Townsend's surname as their own.", "title": "Late life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Townsend worked as a merchant until he was left financially ruined in the Panic of 1837.", "title": "Late life" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Among Townsend's children was John Selby Townsend, who later sat in the Iowa General Assembly and served as county attorney of Monroe County, Iowa. James Townsend's grandson, James Robert Townsend, was the first United States man to complete teacher training under the tutelage of Maria Montessori. Another grandson, James Townsend Layman, sat in the Indiana State Senate.", "title": "Family, associates, and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Luke Townsend, one of Townsend's emancipated slaves and the later caretaker of Townsend's children, established the first Sunday School in Putnam County, Indiana and is credited as the founder of the congregation that eventually became Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church Church in Greencastle, Indiana, at one time the largest Black congregation in Indiana.", "title": "Family, associates, and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "James Townsend and the former slaves who accompanied him to Indiana are considered the pioneers of Putnamville, Indiana. The Townsend/Layman Museum in Putnamville is named after Townsend.", "title": "Family, associates, and legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Coniocarpon is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Arthoniaceae. It has eight species of corticolous (bark-dwelling) lichens. This genus is distinct for its crystalline orange, red, and purple quinoid pigments in the ascomata that turn purple in potassium hydroxide solution, its colourless, transversely septate ascospores with large apical cells, and its rounded to lirellate ascomata (fruiting bodies).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The genus was circumscribed by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1805. The genus was rejected against Arthonia as proposed in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants in Appendices I–VII. In 2014 however, Coniocarpon was resurrected by Andreas Frisch and colleagues for the Arthonia cinnabarina species complex, based on the results of molecular phylogenetics analysis, which showed that it formed a clade with the genus Reichlingia. The type species of the genus, Coniocarpon cinnabarinum, had previously been designated by Rolf Santesson in 1952.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The genus Coniocarpon, as revitalized by Frisch and colleagues in 2014, comprises lichens with a smooth thallus that is either immersed or slightly protruding, typically pale brown and often outlined by a dark line. Its photobiont is of the trentepohlioid type. The apothecia (fruiting bodies) of these lichens are irregularly rounded to weakly lobed, either lirellate or stellate, and emerge singly or in clusters. The true exciple is brown, consisting of compressed, vertically aligned paraphysoidal hyphae, which sometimes form short hairs on the outer margin and may have old bark cells attached.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The disc of the apothecia is dark, ranging from flat to slightly convex, and may have a white pruinose surface, sometimes overlaid with an orange-red pruina, with margins that are level with the disc and may also be prominently orange-red pruinose, containing crystals. The epithecium is brown, composed of branched tips of paraphysoidal hyphae that extend horizontally above the asci. The hymenium is colourless and strongly conglutinated, with a hamathecium of densely branched and netted paraphysoids. The hypothecium is also colourless.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The asci of Coniocarpon are of the Arthonia-type, obpyriform to clavate in shape, and typically contain eight spores. Its ascospores are colourless, obovoid with an enlarged apical cell, turning pale brown with granular ornamentation at maturity. Chemically, the exciple and epithecium react blue upon staining with solutions of iodine and potassium iodide, while the hymenium and hypothecium react red with iodine and blue with potassium iodide. The orange-red crystals dissolve in potassium hydroxide solution to form a transient, purplish solution.", "title": "Description" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Women's football in Finland is growing in popularity.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Kansallinen Liiga is the highest tier of women's football in Finland.", "title": "Club Football" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Since the 21st Century Finland has seen an upsurge of success with the national team qualifying for the UEFA Women's Championship four times and their greatest achievement was reaching the semi finals of UEFA Women's Euro 2005.", "title": "International Team" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "", "title": "International Team" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Dyplolabia afzelii is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), script lichen in the family Graphidaceae. It has a pantropical distribution. The lichen has a thallus with colours ranging from yellow to pale olive buff, dark brownish tan, or grey, characterised by its smooth texture and considerable thickness. Its ascomata are lirelline (elongated with a slit-like opening), often raised from the thallus surface and concealed under a powdery white layer.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described by the Swedish lichenologist Erik Acharius in 1814, as a member of the genus Graphis. Abramo Bartolommeo Massalongo transferred it to the genus Dyplolabia in 1854.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The lichen species Dyplolabia afzelii is characterised by a thallus with a range of colours from yellow to pale olive buff, dark brownish tan, or grey. The texture of the thallus is smooth and it has a considerable thickness. Abramo Bartolommeo Massalongo transferred it to the genus Dyplolabia in 1854.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The ascomata (spore-producing structures) of Dyplolabia afzelii have a lirelline form, meaning they are elongated with a slit-like opening. These ascomata measure between 1 to 6 mm in length and 0.2 to 0.7 mm in width. They are mostly simple in form but can occasionally be branched or forked. These structures are raised from the surface of the thallus, displaying various shapes such as straight, curved, or flexuous. They are scattered across the thallus and are usually completely concealed under a thick powdery white layer of prunia, revealing a black colour only where this layer is worn away. The ascomata terminate in a blunt end, and their narrow, slit-like discs are not visible from the surface.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The exciple (the outer layer of tissue surrounding the ascomata) is intact at the base and carbonised (blackened) along the sides, converging at the top. It is enveloped by a thick thalline layer that extends to the apex. The epithecium, the topmost layer within the ascomata, is greenish-brown to dark brown and measures 14–28 μm in thickness.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The paraphyses, which are filamentous structures within the ascomata, are simple, long, thin, and septate (segmented), with thickened ends. The asci (spore-bearing cells) are cylindrical and typically contain eight spores each. The ascospores themselves are ellipsoidal in shape and consistently have three cross-septations, measuring 14–20 by 6–8 μm. They do not react to iodine staining. Chemically, this species is identified by the presence of lecanoric acid.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The lichen is found in Australia, Mexico, South America, the Caribbean, India, Thailand, and the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain of North Carolina in eastern North America.", "title": "Distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Nikolas P. Breuckmann (born 1988) is a German mathematical physicist affiliated with the University of Bristol, England. His research focuses on quantum information theory, in particular quantum error correction and quantum complexity theory. He is known for his work (together with Anurag Anshu and Chinmay Nirkhe) on proving the NLTS conjecture, a famous open problem in quantum information theory.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Breuckmann was born in Duisburg and grew up in Waltrop, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. He earned a BSc in Mathematics and a BSc, an MSc and a PhD in Physics from RWTH Aachen University. His doctoral thesis was titled \"Homological Quantum Codes Beyond the Toric Code\" and he was supervised by Barbara Terhal.", "title": "Education and early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "After his PhD, he deferred his University College London Post-Doctoral Fellowship in Quantum Technologies funded by EPSRC for a year to work for Palo Alto-based quantum computing start-up PsiQuantum, which was co-founded by Jeremy O'Brien and Terry Rudolph (among other scientists).", "title": "Career and research" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 2022, he became Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in Quantum Computing Theory at the University of Bristol.", "title": "Career and research" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In 2023, he was awarded the James Clerk Maxwell Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics for his \"outstanding contributions to the quantum error correction field, particularly work on proving the no low-energy trivial state conjecture, a famous open problem in quantum information theory\". Quanta Magazine described the proof as \"one of the biggest developments in theoretical computer science\". This result built on his introduction with Jens Eberhardt of “Balanced Product Quantum Codes”.", "title": "Career and research" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The NLTS conjecture posits that there exist families of Hamiltonians with all low-energy states of non-trivial complexity. It was formulated in 2013 by Fields Medallist Michael Freedman and Matthew Hastings at Microsoft Research. The conjecture was proven by Breuckmann and colleagues (Anurag Anshu and Chinmay Nirkhe) by showing that the recently discovered families of constant-rate and linear-distance low-density parity-check (LDPC) quantum codes correspond to NLTS local Hamiltonians. This result is a step towards proving the quantum PCP conjecture, considered the most important open problem in quantum information theory.", "title": "Career and research" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "He and his former doctoral student Oscar Higgott are inventors of a U.S. patent titled “Subsystem codes with high thresholds by gauge fixing and reduced qubit overhead”, which concerns a technique to significantly improve the performance of quantum error correction in quantum computers. Their related work was included as a major development for computer science in 2023 by Quanta.", "title": "Career and research" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Principessa Clotilde was a screw corvette of the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) built in the 1860s. The ship was originally laid down for the Royal Sardinian Navy, but by the time the ship was completed, Italy had unified, and so she entered service with the Regia Marina.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Principessa Clotilde was 66.2 m (217 ft 2 in) long, and she had a beam of 12.5 m (41 ft) and a draft of 5.1 m (16 ft 9 in). She displaced 2,148 long tons (2,182 t) normally and up to 2,200 long tons (2,235 t) at full load. She had a wooden hull that was sheathed with copper to protect the wooden timbers from shipworm and biofouling. The ship had a crew of 345 officers and enlisted men. Principessa Clotilde proved to be a very seaworthy vessel.", "title": "Design" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The ship was propelled by a single marine steam engine that drove a screw propeller. Steam was provided by a single fire-tube boiler that was ducted through a funnel between the fore- and main mast. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 9 knots (17 km/h; 10 mph) from 400 horsepower (300 kW). She carried 130 long tons (130 t) of coal for her boiler, which allowed Principessa Clotilde to steam for 800 nautical miles (1,500 km; 920 mi) at 9 knots. The ship was fitted with a three-masted square rig to supplement the steam engine on long voyages overseas. The ship handled poorly under sail, however, particularly sailing against the wind.", "title": "Design" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Principessa Clotilde was armed with a main battery of twenty-four 160 mm (6.3 in) iron guns. Fourteen of these were smoothbore guns in the battery deck, and the remaining ten were rifled guns placed on the upper deck. In addition, she carried four small field guns that could be sent ashore with a landing party.", "title": "Design" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Principessa Clotilde was built by the Cantiere della Foce shipyard in Genoa, Italy. Her keel was laid down in 1861, originally for the Royal Sardinian Navy, but by the time she was launched in 1864, the Kingdom of Sardinia had unified the rest of the Italian states as the Kingdom of Italy. As a result, when the ship was completed in 1866, she entered service with the Regia Marina (Royal Navy).", "title": "Service history" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "On 26 May 1866, Principessa Clotilde was driven ashore at Brook, Isle of Wight, United Kingdom. She was on a voyage from Brest, France, to Portsmouth in the United Kingdom. She was refloated and taken in to Portsmouth.", "title": "Service history" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "From 1868 to 1871, Principessa Clotilde embarked on a major voyage abroad. Captain Carlo Alberto Racchia served as the ship's commander for the cruise. She sailed south, around Africa, and on to East Asia. In the course of the three-year voyage, the ship traveled some 60,000 nmi (110,000 km; 69,000 mi). During the voyage, in 1870, Racchia attempted to secure a site on Borneo for an Italian penal colony, but the other European colonialist powers opposed the move, and Italy abandoned the effort.", "title": "Service history" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The ship was sent to Spanish waters during the Cantonal Revolution in 1873. While she was in Barcelona, Spain, in March 1874, she encountered the Austro-Hungarian ironclad Kaiser, which was also visiting Spain at the time. Principessa Clotilde's captain invited the Austro-Hungarian ship to join the Italians for celebrations marking the 25th anniversary of the reign of Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia and then unified Italy.", "title": "Service history" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The ship's career was cut short when she was laid up in 1875, after just nine years in service. The Regia Marina requested to sell the ship that year, along with the corvettes Magenta, Etna, and San Giovanni, but the Italian parliament denied the request. Only San Giovanni was permitted to be sold, owing to her age and poor condition, while Principessa Clotilde and the others were to be retained with the fleet. Etna's ultimate fate is unknown.", "title": "Service history" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Wesley Walker Dove (February 9, 1964 – March 5, 1989) was an American football defensive end who played for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Syracuse University.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Dove committed suicide one year after the end of his football career, at the age of 25.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Category:1964 births Category:1989 deaths Category:American football defensive ends Category:Syracuse Orange football players Category:Seattle Seahawks players", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Leproplaca cirrochroa is a widespread and common species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It grows up to 5 cm across, featuring a placodioid thallus with narrow, finger-like lobes that adhere closely to the surface, showing intricate division and ranging in colour from dirty orange to brownish orange, often with paler, pruinose orange ends.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The species was first scientifically described by Swedish lichenologist Erik Acharius in 1814, as a member of the genus Lecanora. Ulf Arup and colleagues transferred it to the genus Leproplaca in 2013, following a molecular phylogenetics-based restructuring of the family Teloschistaceae.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Leproplaca cirrochroa is a distinctive lichen species that can grow up to 5 cm (2 in) across. Its thallus is placodioid, forming narrow, finger-like lobes that are closely appressed against the substrate. These lobes are intricately divided and arranged in irregularly rounded formations or sometimes as small, scattered, or contiguous thalli. The colouration of Leproplaca cirrochroa ranges from dirty to brown-orange, with the ends of the lobes often having a pruinose and paler orange hue.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The lobe ends are typically about 0.2–0.5 mm wide, rounded, and occasionally forked. They are shallowly convex and elongated, often lying contiguous to each other and separated by almost parallel-aligned furrows. Soralia are usually present on the laminal surface and are scattered across the thallus. These soralia are small and flat, rounded, and can be up to 0.8 mm in diameter. The soredia produced are farinose and lemon-yellow in colour.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Apothecia (fruiting bodies) are rare in Leproplaca cirrochroa, measuring up to 0.5 mm in diameter and scattered across the thallus. When present, the apothecia are flat with a persistent thalline margin that is orange in colour. The disc of the apothecia is a deeper orange shade. The paraphyses (filament-like support structures) are flexuose and mostly not swollen at the tips. Ascospores are narrowly ellipsoid, measuring 10–15 by 5 μm with a septum that is 2–3 μm wide, which is less than one-third of the length of the ascospore. All parts of this lichen react with a K+ (purple) colouration when subjected to chemical spot tests.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Leproplaca cirrochroa is widely distributed, having been recorded from Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and North and South America.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Future Pensions Act (Dutch: Wet toekomst pensioenen) (abbreviated Wtp) is an amendment to welfare law in the Netherlands. This law revises the Dutch pension system and amends thirteen laws, including the Pension Act. The law came into effect on 1 July 2023, and pension funds currently have until 2028 to switch to the new system.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The law relates to the supplementary pension that is accrued with a pension fund. The average system is being replaced by personal pension pots per participant. The pension funds no longer make any promises about the amount of the pension benefit, but rely on the accrued capital. Because investments at a young age have more time to yield, this carries more weight in the new system. Because the commitment disappears, the pension also moves more quickly with the state of the financial markets.", "title": "Contents" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "For this transition, 1,500 billion euros of pension money in collective pension pots must be divided between personal pension pots. This process is called entering.", "title": "Contents" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "A pension pot represents the life insurance value of a pension entitlement. This means that the personal pot cannot run out due to longevity, but that no money is left for heirs in the event of premature death.", "title": "Contents" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Since 2004, there has been a desire in Dutch politics and among employers and trade unions to reform the pension system, partly because of the aging population. In 2010 they reached a political agreement, but this was largely not implemented due to the government's budget crisis in 2012. Based on that agreement at the time, the State Attorney had advised not to make entry mandatory for legal sustainability. The official advice on the advice of the State Advocate was made public on 8 December 2023. The advice of the State Advocate remained secret, but the meaning became clear.", "title": "Creation" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Ultimately, a pension agreement was concluded in 2019, which formed the basis for the Future Pensions Act. The condition for support from the trade unions for this was a more limited increase in the state pension age. A further elaboration of the pension agreement was presented in June 2020. The membership of the FNV trade union initially postponed voting, but agreed to the implementation in July 2019.", "title": "Creation" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The pension agreement then had to be developed into a law. At the end of 2020, Minister of Social Affairs and Employment Wouter Koolmees presented the draft law. 800 responses were given to the consultation. This high number took longer to process than planned, delaying the law by a year.", "title": "Creation" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Koolmees' successor, Minister for Poverty Policy, Participation and Pensions Carola Schouten, finally submitted the bill to the House of Representatives on 29 March 2022. The House debated the bill for over 100 hours. Although the Fourth Rutte cabinet had had a majority in the House of Representatives, it also had to persuade opposition parties in view of the minority in the Senate. GroenLinks and the Labour Party set three amendment proposals as a condition, such as the legal target to halve the number of employees without a pension plan. These were adopted with support from the coalition. Eighteen other amendment proposals also received a majority, such as limiting freedom of funds, less extreme investment risks and equalizing pensioners. On 22 December 2022, the law was passed in the House of Representatives, supported by VVD, D66, CDA, PvdA, GroenLinks, Christian Union, Reformed Political Party and Volt Netherlands (93 votes in favor, 48 against).", "title": "Creation" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "After consideration in the House of Representatives, it was sent to the Dutch Senate. Opposition parties PVV, 50PLUS, JA21 and the Socialist Party tried to delay the legislative process in the chamber due to the 2023 Dutch provincial elections which took place in March and the 2023 Senate elections which took place at the end of May. Over one thousand written questions about the law were asked.", "title": "Creation" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "To respond to concerns in the Senate, Minister Schouten promised to give pension funds until at least 2028 to switch to the new system. She also promised to appoint a government commissioner to monitor whether this is feasible.", "title": "Creation" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "During the debate in the Senate, the Socialist Party stated that a two-thirds majority was required for the law. The law amends the General Pension Act for Political Office Holders (Appa), for which the constitution states that a two-thirds majority is required. However, according to Minister Schouten, this was not necessary because it only concerns legal technical changes that do not mean any changes in practice. On 30 May, the Senate agreed with the finding that a simple majority is sufficient. The same evening, the Senate also approved the present law (46 in favour, 27 against).", "title": "Creation" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Dillon Amphitheatre is an open-air amphitheater built on the north shore of the Dillon Reservoir in Dillon, Colorado, about 65 miles (105 km) west of Denver, Colorado.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "In the first 25 years following its construction in 1993, it was used mainly as a community bandshell with free shows held on weekends throughout the summer, hosting local artists and acts ranging from country to jazz. In 2017, in effort by the town to revitalize the community and attract larger acts and audiences, significant renovation efforts to the facility began. While initial concept plans of the new facility drew criticism from the community over its design and potential impacts to views of the surrounding nature, revisions were made to the design to better align the facility with the rest of the \"town's character\". At a final cost of $9.7 million, the renovation included a complete rebuild of the bandshell and stage, green rooms and storage areas, a concession space, as well as additional restrooms and a walking plaza. The seating bowl is the only structure remaining from the original facility.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The revamped facility opened in 2018 with a performance by The String Cheese Incident. Other notable acts that have since played the venue include Bob Dylan, Caamp, The B-52s, Brothers Osborne, Shakey Graves, Pretty Lights, among many others. Free concerts are still held, along with other events, including \"Movies on the Water\", \"Yoga at the Amphitheater\", and country-western dancing.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Official website", "title": "External Links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Seirophora lacunosa is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), fruticose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It is endemic to the semi-arid regions of southeastern Spain.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The species was first formally described as new to science by Franz Josef Ruprecht in 1845, as Ramalina lacunosa. Vsevolod Savich proposed that it should be transferred to the genus Teloschistes in 1935. Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt thought the taxon should be a subspecies of Xanthoanaptychia villosa. In 2004, Patrik Frödén transferred it to the genus Seirophora.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In the arid Tabernas Desert of Almeria, Spain, researchers investigated the hydration sources—rain, dew, and water vapour—that enable Teloschistes lacunosus to survive, probing into the reasons behind its distribution patterns. The field study, which took place over different seasons on a pediment (a gently sloping inclined bedrock surface) and an east-facing slope, employed chlorophyll a fluorescence to monitor photosynthetic activity and recorded microclimatic data to understand habitat influences on lichen wetness and activity. Findings showed that T. lacunosus requires liquid water to activate photosynthesis, with atmospheric humidity alone being insufficient. The pediment, with its more favourable microclimate, had a higher frequency of dew, leading to longer periods of lichen activity compared to the harsher conditions on the east-facing slope.", "title": "Habitat, distribution, and ecology" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Teloschistes lacunosus thrives inland where the conditions are drier compared to coastal areas. This species is adapted to higher temperatures, showing a greater tolerance to heat and an ability to photosynthesize efficiently under intense light. Unlike its coastal counterparts, it maintains lower respiration rates in moist and warm conditions, indicating a more conservative use of water. These characteristics contribute to its distinct distribution, favouring the warm and light-abundant habitats of the Spanish badlands.", "title": "Habitat, distribution, and ecology" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Transform Party (also known as Transform Politics, or simply as Transform) is a political party active in Great Britain. A merger of four political groups, the Breakthrough Party, Left Unity, the Liverpool Community Independents and the People's Alliance of the Left, Transform aims to build a new left-wing political party to challenge both the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. The party was officially founded and held its inaugural conference on 25 November 2023.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "On 24 July 2023, the Breakthrough Party, alongside Left Unity, the Liverpool Community Independents, and the People's Alliance of the Left issued a joint statement calling for a \"new party of the left\" in Britain. Citing Labour Party support for policies such as the two-child benefit cap and tuition fees, as well as Labour leader, Keir Starmer's refusal to publicly support striking workers. The group, calling themselves Transform, urged those who agree with their core principles to \"move rapidly towards founding a new party of the left.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "According to Transform's website, the joint statement was endorsed by figures such as Ian Hodson, National President of the Bakers, Food and Allied Workers Union (BFAWU); Thelma Walker, former Labour MP for Colne Valley; and broadcaster and journalist, India Willoughby.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Ross Gregory Hanley (born 6 December 1961) is an Australian former rugby union international.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Hanley was born in Atherton in Far North Queensland and attended St Joseph's College, Nudgee.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "A speedy winger, Hanley was an Australian under-21 representative and had a four try performance in a match against Fiji under-21s. He gained 43 caps for Queensland and played first-grade for Brisbane club Brothers, where he featured in five premiership sides during the 1980s. Capped three times on the wing for the Wallabies, he made all of his Test appearances off the bench and scored a try on debut against the United States at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1983, with his first touch of the ball. He was an uncapped member of the 1984 Australia tour of Britain and Ireland.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Fissurina insidiosa is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), script lichen in the family Graphidaceae. Found in the Southern Hemisphere, it has been recorded from mainland Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific region, the Caribbean, and India.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as a new species by Charles Knight and William Mitten in 1860. They proposed to transfer it to the genus Graphis in 1867.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The thallus of Fissurina insidiosa is characterised by its dull grey to dingy olive-grey colour and glossy appearance. Typically, it forms widespread, diffuse patches that can extend up to approximately 10 cm (4 in) wide. The thallus is usually continuous but often displays cracks and is between 20 and 100 μm thick. It contains crystals of calcium oxalate.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The lirellae of this species are scattered and typically very numerous. They range in shape from simple to occasionally forked and can be straight, curved, or sinuous, extending up to 2.5 mm in length. Initially, they appear as cracks in the thallus, with the cortex edges curving upwards to form a pseudo-margin. Over time, these develop into a pair of swollen, pale beige-brown lips, which are often cracked and rough, measuring 0.3 to 0.9 mm in width. The disc of the lirellae remains obscured.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The exciple, visible in cross-section, is poorly differentiated from adjacent tissues and measures 10 to 30 μm thick. It has a yellow colour, which reacts K+ (orange-red). The periphysoids are seldom observed and are approximately 3 μm thick without any warty features. The hypothecium layer is relatively thin, ranging from 10 to 20 μm in thickness.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The hymenium layer is more substantial, measuring between 90 and 120 μm thick. The asci typically contain 6 to 8 spores and measure 85 to 110 by 18 to 25 μm, although intact asci are rarely observed. The paraphyses are slender, about 1 to 1.5 μm wide, with tips that are neither expanded nor adorned with warts or spines.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The ascospores are broadly ellipsoidal with rounded ends, and they display a transverse 3-septate structure. They measure approximately 13 to 25 by 6 to 9 μm and feature a halo that can swell when exposed to a solution of potassium hydroxide. Initially, the locules of the spores have a lens shape but soon become rounded.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Fissurina dumasti is similar in appearance to F. insidiosa, but differs in thallus and apothecial morphology, and the ascospores of F. dumastii are distinctly amyloid, a characteristic absent in F. insidiosa.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "This species has a broad distribution in the Southern Hemisphere, with recorded presences in mainland Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific region, the Caribbean, and India.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The German public banking sector (German: Öffentliches Kreditwesen) represents a significant share of the broader banking sector in Germany. Unlike in most other Western and Central European countries, German public-sector banks have been present since the early phases of formalization of banking entities in the early modern period and have never lost their collective significance. They are typically referred to as one of the three “pillars” of the German banking system, the other two pillars being the cooperative banks and commercial banks.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Following many steps of development, consolidation, and restructuring, the German public banking sector (leaving aside the Deutsche Bundesbank) consists mainly of two clusters: the Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe, which competes with commercial and cooperative banks and includes local Sparkassen and regional Landesbanks; and promotional and development banks (German: Förderbanken) owned by the Federal Republic of Germany (in the case of KfW) or the individual states of Germany.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Government-owned banks are among the oldest financial institutions in Germany, with several appearing in the late 18th century simultaneously as the first municipally-owned Sparkassen. Throughout the 19th century, governments of individual states or provinces of Prussia established (respectively) Landesbanken and Provinzialbanken to lend to various kinds of borrowers, inlcluding Sparkassen but not limited to them. Unlike in most European countries where banking was an exclusive activity of the private sector, government-owned banks thus remained a structural feature of the German financial system, even as joint-stock Grossbanken [de] gained relative importance in the second half of the century.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of a number of Girozentralen acting as centralizing entities for their region's Sparkassen, a trend that was greatly accelerated by government policy choices during World War I even though it had started slightly earlier; numerous episodes of consolidation followed, leading to the current Landesbank landscape. By 1929, government-owned banks accounted for at least 40 percent of all banking assets in Germany. That feature set Germany apart from other European countries in which, aside from the Soviet Union of course, the bulk of the banking sector was in private-sector hands.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "As a consequence of the European banking crisis of 1931, further German banks were nationalized, but they were soon reprivatized in 1935-1937 by Nazi Germany. Still, by 1938, government-owned banks represented 42 percent (in terms of aggregated assets) of the 25 largest banks in Germany, not counting those in annexed Austria. These included the Prussian and Bavarian Staatsbanken, Berliner Sparkasse [de], Reichs-Kredit-Gesellschaft, Deutschlandkasse, Deutsche Girozentrale, and eight regional Girozentralen, namely those in Düsseldorf (serving the Rhineland), Dresden (Saxony), Munich (Bavaria), Magdeburg (central Germany), Berlin (city), Hanover (Lower Saxony), Berlin (Brandenburg), and Breslau (Silesia). (The other 11 banks in the top 25 were Deutsche Bank, Dresdner Bank, Bank der Deutschen Arbeit, Commerzbank, the indirectly government-owned Deutsche Verkehrs-Kredit-Bank, cooperative Deutsche Rentenbank-Kreditanstalt, Bayerische Hypotheken- und Wechsel-Bank, Deutsche Centralbodenkredit AG, part-government-owned Deutsche Industriebank, Deutsche Bau- und Bodenbank, and Bayerische Vereinsbank.) By 1943, the share had risen to 54 percent.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "With the delineation of West Germany's Länder between 1948 and 1957, the Landesbanks started acting as \"house banks\" of their respective Land, thus expanding into some of largest foreign issuers in Germany. By the early 21st century, other European countries that had nationalized swathes of their banking sectors in the 1930s and 1940s had mostly brought them back into the private sector, and Germany again stood out for the large share of its banking sector under government control, a situation that has not much changed in the subsequent two decades.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The Förderbanken emerged more recently as a distinct category. KfW was established in 1948 and a few regional promotional banks in the early 1950s, but in most German states they were created (in Eastern Germany) or spun off from the local Landesbank (in the West) in the 1990s and 2000s.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The German public banking sector has witnessed numerous episodes of distress, in part because of its inherently politicized governance. In mid-1931, the default of the Landesbank der Rheinprovinz, following aggressive and uncontrolled expansion of its credit to German municipalities, was a major trigger of Germany's economic depression, even though other Landesbanken such as the Mitteldeutsche Landesbank survived the episode largely unscathed. Other cases of major difficulties have included the troubles of Westdeutsche Landesbank (WestLB) in the 1970s; Bankgesellschaft Berlin in the early 2000s; Landesbank Sachsen [de] and (again) WestLB in 2007-2008; and HSH Nordbank and NORD/LB in the 2010s.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The following lists detail the path of formation of the current landscape, which has tended to be understudied because of its complexity and heterogeneity. For relative readability, developments are classified in broad geographical categories, and individual Sparkassen are omitted.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "This list omits banks that were temporarily nationalized following the banking crisis of 1931 and government-controlled credit entities established by Nazi Germany.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Two overlapping organizations represent the German public banking sector: the Deutscher Sparkassen- und Giroverband (DSGV), the umbrella organization for the Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe; and the Association of German Public Banks, which brings together the Landesbanks (also members of the DSGV) and the Förderbanken.", "title": "National representation" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Palmyra Tariff is an ancient bilingual limestone inscription discovered in Palmyra, in modern Syria. Dating to the 2nd century CE, the inscription provides valuable insights into the economic and political structure of the city and the wider Roman Empire. It is the longest lapidary Aramaic inscription ever found.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "It was discovered in 1881 by Semyon Abamelek-Lazarev, and in 1901 was gifted by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to Tsar Nicholas II and is now in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Historian John F. Matthews described the tariff as \"one of the most important single items of evidence for the economic life of any part of the Roman Empire\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The inscription is known as PAT 0259, CIS II 3913, NSI 147 and TSSI IV 37.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The primary focus of the Palmyra Tariff Inscription is to outline the tariffs and duties imposed on a range of goods and commodities passing through Palmyra. These tariff rates were established to regulate trade and generate essential revenue for the city. The detailed information on specific tariffs offers a comprehensive view of the economic activities that contributed to Palmyra's prosperity.", "title": "Economic Regulation" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The inscription also enumerates the names of officials responsible for overseeing trade matters. This provides valuable insights into the administrative structure of Palmyra during the period.", "title": "Economic Regulation" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Dufourea ligulata is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), foliose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. The German lichenologist Gustav Wilhelm Körber first formally described the species in 1862, as a member of the genus Physcia. Patrik Frödén, Ulf Arup, and Ulrik Søchting transferred it to the genus Dufourea in 2013 as part of a molecular phylogenetics-based restructuring of the family Teloschistaceae.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen is found in Australasia, usually on coastal rocks. The lobes of its thallus are 5–10 mm long; they are generally longer and narrower than those of other Australian xanthorioid lichens, including X. streimannii, X. parietina, X. filsonii, and X. elixii.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Derek Lagway is an American football quarterback for the Florida Gators.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Lagway attended Willis High School in Conroe, Texas. As a junior in 2022, he passed for 2,081 yards with 24 touchdowns and five interceptions. Prior to his senior season in 2023, Lagway participated in the Elite 11. As a senior, he passed for 4,631 yards with a Texas Class 6A record 58 touchdown passes, and added 975 rushing yards with 15 touchdowns. He was named the MaxPreps National Player of the Year. For his career, Lagway had 8,392 passing yards and with touchdowns and 2,196 rushing yards with 29 touchdowns.", "title": "High school career" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "A five-star recruit, Lagway committed to the University of Florida to play college football.", "title": "High school career" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "His father, Derek Lagway, played college football at Baylor University.", "title": "Personal life" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Kuettlingeria albolutescens is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It occurs in Europe and Western Asia.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described by the Finnish lichenologist William Nylander in 1881, originally as a member of the genus Lecanora. After having been transferred to several genera in its taxonomic history, it was most recently transferred to Kuettlingeria in 2020.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Kuettlingeria albolutescens has several distinguishing features that set it apart from its close relative, Kuettlingeria teicholyta. This species is characterized by a thallus that is thin and leprose (powdery), spreading out thinly towards the edges without forming the thickened lobes typically seen in Kuettlingeria teicholyta. The surface of the thallus in Kuettlingeria albolutescens does not have a cortex and is irregularly covered with grey soredia, which have a dull violet reaction when tested with a solution of potassium hydroxide (i.e., the K spot test).", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Apothecia in Kuettlingeria albolutescens are relatively uncommon but quite noticeable when they do appear. These apothecia can be up to 0.8 mm in diameter and are scattered across the thallus, sometimes crowding together. Initially, they are deeply concave but become flatter over time. The thalline margin is white and wavy; the proper margin of the apothecia is flexuose and swollen, with a bright orange colour. The discs of the apothecia are orange-red-brown and may sometimes be white with pruina.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Kuettlingeria albolutescens grows on calcareous rock, including cement and concrete, and also on bricks and base-rich siliceous rocks. It occurs in Europe and Western Asia.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Rosewell Hobart Graves M.D. (1833–1912) was a medical and Christian missionary from Baltimore, Maryland. He served the communities of Southern China for 56 years. Known for being the longest-serving Southern Baptist missionary in the area, he made his impact by spreading western medicine and religion to women. His literary work described his impact on the communities he visited in his 56 years of service, until his death in 1912.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Rosewell Hobart Graves was born on May 29, 1833 in Baltimore, Maryland. His father was a medical doctor, and became the reason why Graves decided to study medicine. His mother, Ann Baker Graves was an author who supported Christian missionaries. Throughout his career, Graves was constantly writing to his mother, primarily about his strategy of converting the women of China. Taking inspiration, Ann went on to meet with women in Maryland to do the same thing, effectively founding Woman's Mission to Woman, now known as the Woman's Missionary Union.", "title": "Early life and family" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "At age 15, Graves began to develop his faith in Christ due to pastor Richard Fuller of the Seventh Baptist Church in Baltimore, Maryland. A few years later, he graduated from St. Mary's College in 1853, with aspirations of becoming a doctor. His passions were quickly combined when he listened to the talks of J. Lewis Shuck and T. J. Bowen, missionaries who spoke at the Baptist General Convention in Baltimore in 1853.", "title": "Early life and family" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "After the Baptist General Convention, Graves began to develop his dreams of going to foreign lands to spread the message of the Southern Baptist Church alongside Western medicine. His goal was to work in China, and worked with the International Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Church to do so.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In March of 1855, Graves was formally appointed to serve China. He believed that he could convince the Chinese people of God's love through medicine. In April of 1856, Graves got an honorary medical license from the University of Maryland, and got ordained as a Southern Baptist missionary at the Seventh Baptist Church, Baltimore. He left for China in April 1856, and began to learn Chinese from the people on his boat.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "On August 14th, 1856, Graves arrived in Canton, China. He immediately faced conflicts as British Admiral Seymour attacked Canton, in what would later be known as the Battle of Canton. This would not be the first conflict Graves witnessed in China. In response, Graves, alongside the Baptist mission buildings sailed to Macau, where he spent the remainder of the year studying Chinese.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In February of 1857, he opened his first chapel, a small repurposed home. Later that year, Macao was struck with a typhoon, causing multiple deaths and irreparable damages. Graves faced financial concerns, and wrote home to request the churches send more. He stayed until 1859, opening another chapel during that time.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In February 1859, Graves traveled 10 miles northeast of Canton, to a large town inhabited by members of the Hakkas. He was welcomed and treated well as he preached and distributed books. Less than a month later on March 1st, he sailed to San Yong. The people of the nearby villages were so interested in the foreigners that Graves and his team had to sleep on the boat to escape questioning. Most of these towns had never been visited by a missionary, and were very interested. However the response was not one he expected. He realized China was ready to open up to missionaries.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "However, the kindness Graves faced in these villages were not common. There was great opposition throughout the rest of China, and the growing instances of Christian persecution were happening. Christianity went against traditional Confucian ideas, and put a target on missionaries. In 1860, Graves was found guilty of being a foreigner in the interior, and was flogged with a rattan whip as punishment.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Despite the opposition from the Chinese, Graves rented a house in Shin Hing in March 1861, successfully opening a third chapel.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "After opening the house in Shin Hing, Graves' work started to shift towards what it would be for the next decades. He began administering medicine, vaccinations, and implementing Western medicine techniques. Alongside medicine, he and his team continued distributing Christian scriptures and books.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "He believed strongly in the importance of medical missionaries. He states in his book, Forty Years in China, that both were created by God, and could benefit from God's redemption.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Graves knew that both hospitals and short-term care clinics were valuable, but stayed building and staffing hospitals in order to have connections with doctors, nurses, teachers, and patients that had a developed understanding of Christianity. He continued to support the communities in Southern China until more financial hardships stemming from the American Civil War. He lost funding from churches at home, but soon received greater donations from friends in England and China.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "As the church at Shin Hing grew, more people started coming forward to get baptized. Graves was having a hard time dealing with both that chapel and the one back in Canton, so he elected Au, a reformed Chinese man to be a pastor in Shin Hing. He started to notice that women were presenting themselves for baptism equally as often as men. These Christian women would take a Bible and share the gospel to their female neighbors. This began a movement of women taking charge of religion. It was at this time that Graves wrote about his discoveries to his mother, Ann Graves. Ann was moved and began preaching the gospel to women in Baltimore, sparking the group that is now known as the Woman's Missionary Union (WMU).", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "With an increased involvement of women in the Protestant Church, it was now feasible for Graves to begin building another church. In 1869, a new chapel was built, solely with the donations from new Chinese Christians.", "title": "Mission work" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Besides medical and religious missionary work, Graves also took part in educational reformation in China. He held a Bible class in order to introduce a systemic education for Chinese people who were starting their religious journey. Graves began to teach certain people in the community the ways of theological education, discipling them to be evangelists and pastors. He started a training program that became the first Southern Baptist-built school for theological education established overseas. It was named the Graves Theological Seminary.", "title": "New education system" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "He also built lower-level schools in Canton and nearby towns. Only two of the schools, one in Shin Hing and the boys' school in Canton, were dependent on the International Mission Board. The others, which included several girls' schools, were funded by donations from Chinese Christians and special donors. Funds from churches in Mississippi later allowed him to build and open a school in Lao Hai, a new location.", "title": "New education system" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Graves was single for the first 7 years of his missionary work. His two closest friends were Charles and Eva Gaillard. Charles tragically died in a typhoon in 1863. Graves and Eva Gaillard began to get close due to their grievances for Charles, and ended up falling in love. They married that year, and Graves adopted Eva's son as his own. Eva fell ill and passed away within a year of their marriage. In 1867, Graves sent his adopted son to Baltimore, Maryland so he could be cared for. He felt unable to take care of a child after the passing of Eva.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In 1871, Graves began to court Miss Jane W. Norris, a widowed woman who lived in Baltimore. Jane became a teacher and worked alongside Graves until her death in 1888.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Two years later, in 1890, Graves married widow Janie Lowery Sanford, who was another Southern Baptist missionary in South China. They worked together to open schools for women, and the first school for the blind in China.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In 1868, Graves published two tracts.", "title": "Works and publications" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The first tract discussed Graves' opposition to the widespread practice of feet binding women in China. He gave three reasons within the writings: (1) Health reasons, (2) It was a sinful confirmation to custom, and (3) It interfered with a woman's usefulness. This tract aligned with his belief that women should have more freedom, and helped support the movement of modernization in the treatment of women.", "title": "Works and publications" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The second tract explained the difference between Protestant and Catholic preachings: Their answers to the question proposed by the title of the first tract.", "title": "Works and publications" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "In 1895, Graves published his book- Forty Years in China, or, China in Translation. This book was used to spread important information and knowledge about the Protestant Church.", "title": "Works and publications" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Because of this book, Graves was awarded a Doctor of Divinity (D.D). This award was given to pastors and missionaries who published works demonstrating a high intelligence or valuable works on theology.", "title": "Works and publications" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "After over 50 years of serving in China, Graves' health began to decline. He contracted malaria during a trip to Hong Kong in 1898, which recurred several times throughout the following years. His eyesight began to worsen, and his motor skills were decreasing, shown mainly through his deteriorating handwriting. After 56 successful years in China, Rosewell Hobart Graves died on June 3, 1912.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "At the time Graves died, he left behind 43 Baptist missionaries, over 140 Chinese preaching to 5000+ members, and 42 schools with over 1300 students. He was able to accomplish this through his perseverance and dedication to his goals. As explained in his obituary, he stuck to his passion for 56 years and became the longest-serving Baptist Missionary in China.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "His work towards the modernization of women's treatment helped spark smaller, but more powerful events throughout history. He empowered the women in his life to fight for their rights as well. His mother worked alongside the Woman's Missionary Union, which aided the women's movements in the United States. He worked against the Chinese educational system by supporting the opening of schools for girls in China, and encouraging his wives to teach there. Graves not only relieved suffering, but made efforts to change the practices that harmed others.", "title": "Legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Comte Alphonse de Toulouse-Lautrec Montfa (1838-1913) was an eccentric French count. A fancier of horses, hawks, hunting, and kites, he was a \"man out of time\", whose vast wealth and royal connections allowed him to ignore convention.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Once, the count appeared uninvited at a parade in Paris, riding in a Norwegian cart pulled by a Welsh pony, while flying a French war-kite. When the parade officer protested, the enraged Count challenged him to a duel. Both men fired their weapons and missed. Another time, he rode a mare in milk to the Cascade at the end of the Bois de Boulogne, milked the horse, and drank the milk for breakfast. He gave his pet hawks and cormorants holy water in the hope that they would go to heaven.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "He held little regard his son Henri, who became a painter and poster artist, but could not ride a horse.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Born in Albi on 10 August 1838, Alphonse was the son of Count Raymond (the Black Prince) and Gabrielle du Bosc. \"Brilliant but impulsive\", the boy was fond of hunting. A gifted student, he passed his exams and entered the military officer school at Saint-Cyr. At the academy, he became known for his independence, frivolity, and escape from discipline. Count Alphonse married his first cousin Adèle, and they had two sons: Henri in 1864, and Richard in 1867.", "title": "Life" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Astrothelium aeneum is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Trypetheliaceae. It is widely distributed in tropical regions. The lichen's thallus is typically light olive-green to yellowish, often covered in orange pigment, and varies in texture from smooth to uneven. It fluoresces red under ultraviolet light.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The species was first described by Franz Gerhard Eschweiler in 1834, with the name Verrucaria aenea. However, this name was not validly published, because it is a later homonym of a name already published by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Wallroth in 1831 and thus unavailable for use according to the rules of botanical nomenclature. The first valid publication of a name for the species was by Finnish lichenologist Edvard August Vainio, who named it Pseudopyrenula aenea in 1890. André Aptroot and Robert Lücking transferred it to the genus Astrothelium in 2016 following a large-scale reorganisation of the Trypetheliaceae based on molecular phylogenetics.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Astrothelium aeneum has a corticate (having a cortex-like structure) thallus, which typically appears as a light olive-green to yellowish colouration. Much of its surface is often covered with a distinctive orange pigment. The texture of the thallus ranges from smooth to uneven.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The ascomata, or spore-producing structures, are of the trypethelioid type, characterised by their apical ostioles (small openings). These ascomata are generally found either solitarily, irregularly merging with each other, or spreading diffusely in a pseudostromatic pattern. Their size varies from 0.3 to 0.7 mm in diameter. They are erumpent, meaning they break through the thallus, and are covered by both the thallus and orange pigment, except for the darker area around the ostioles. The hamathecium, the supportive tissue structure containing the asci, is clear.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Each ascus typically contains eight ascospores. These spores are fusiform (spindle-shaped), with a size range of 20–27 μm in length and 7–10 μm in width. They are hyaline (translucent) and have three septa (internal partitions). They do not react to staining with iodine (IKI−).", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Chemically, both the thallus and ascomata of Astrothelium aeneum react to ultraviolet light by fluorescing red (UV+ red) and produce a purple reaction when treated with potassium hydroxide (K+ purple). This is indicative of the presence of an anthraquinone, a type of chemical compound.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Astrothelium aeneum is found in a wide range of tropical regions globally. Its presence has been recorded in various countries including the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, the Revillagigedo Islands, the Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, the Galápagos Islands, Bolivia, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Malaysia (specifically in Sarawak and Sabah). Additionally, it is found in Papua New Guinea and Australia.", "title": "Distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Cedric Amm (5 December 1940) is a South African professional golfer. Amm turned pro in 1961 and quickly had success, winning the Natal Open three years later. Gary Player then hailed him as \"the hottest golfing sensation to come out of my country in five years.\" In the mid-1960s, Amm continued to play well, recording a number of second- and third-place finishes on the New Zealand Golf Circuit. In 1966, Amm won the South African Masters, the biggest win of his career. Amm did not have much success in ensuing years, however, and soon retired from golf. Thereafter he has worked as a horse breeder and trained some champion horses.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "In the early 1960s, Amm turned pro. He began his career as an assistant pro at Mowbray Club in Cape Town, South African. In 1961, he first received media attention for his play at the Western Province Open. He opened with rounds of 70 to tie Retief Waltman for the lead.", "title": "Professional career" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 1963, Amm started playing internationally. As of February, he was scheduled to play on the Far East Circuit. Late in the month, he received some attention for tying for the win with his teammate at the Malayan Open pro-am. In April, he started playing on the British PGA. Late in the year, Amm played the Natal Open in his home country. He finished the tournament at 291, with the clubhouse lead. However, on the final hole Bobby Verwey holed a 15-foot eagle putt to tie. There would be a 36-hole playoff the following day to decide the title. Amm would go on to win the event. Later in the season, Amm finished third place at the Cock o' the North tournament. During this era, Gary Player described him as \"the hottest golfing sensation to come out of my country in five years.\"", "title": "Professional career" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1964 and 1965, he continued to play internationally. As of May 1964, he had returned to Britain. In the middle of the year, he played a number of PGA Tour events. In November, he started playing the New Zealand Golf Circuit. Late in the month, he recorded a third-place finish at the Metalcraft Tournament. Amm, however, abruptly \"cut short\" his tour of New Zealand before the season was over to return to South Africa. In February 1965, he finished solo second at the South African Masters. In March, he played the Flame Lily golf tournament in Rhodesia. Amm finished regulation tied with Cobie Legrange and a sudden death playoff ensued. Amm holed a \"tremendous\" 40-foot putt on the first playoff hole to earn the championship. He was referred to as \"one of South Africa's leading golfers\" in the mid-1960s.", "title": "Professional career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Over the course of the 1965-66 southern hemisphere summer, Amm had much success across the world. Early in the season, he played the New Zealand Golf Circuit again. In November, he played the Caltex Tournament at the par-73 Paraparaumu Beach Golf Links in Paraparaumu, New Zealand. In the second round he scored a \"fantastic\" 64, including two eagles, to break Gary Player's course record. \"This 64 is my best championship round,\" he told reporters after the round. He finished in joint second. The following week, at the Forest Products Tournament, Amm again recorded a runner-up finish, one back of Kel Nagle. Later in the month, he recorded a solo third-place finish at the New Zealand Wills Masters. Shortly thereafter, he returned to South Africa. In February 1966, at the South African Masters, Amm \"led throughout\" and won easily, defeating Trevor Wilkes by four strokes. During this era, he was sponsored by fellow South African Gary Player. He continued to work as an assistant pro at Mowbray.", "title": "Professional career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Late in his career, Amm recorded a few highlights. In January 1967, Amm was in contention at the General Motors Open; he was in joint third at the midway point. Two months later, Amm opened with a 70 to tie for the lead at the Flame Lily Open golf tournament. In January 1969, at the Western Province Open, he opened with a 65 (−6) to hold solo second place, three back of Brian Barnes. He shot a 72 the following day but moved closer the lead as Barnes struggled.", "title": "Professional career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Since leaving the golf industry, Amm has worked as a horse breeder. In 2013, his horse Pan Amm won a significant event in Kenilworth, South Africa.", "title": "Professional career" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Amm is married to Barbara.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "CUT = missed the halfway cut", "title": "Results in major championships" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Note: Amm only played in The Open Championship.", "title": "Results in major championships" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Source:", "title": "Results in major championships" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The 2024 Kentucky House of Representatives election will be held on November 5, 2024. The Republican and Democratic primary elections will be held on May 21. Following the 2022 election, Republicans and Democrats held 80 and 20 seats, respectively. The deadline for candidates to file is January 5, 2024.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "As of December 2023, a total of 11 representatives (five Democrats and six Republicans) have announced their retirement, four of whom (two Democrats and two Republicans) are retiring to run for other offices.", "title": "Retiring incumbents" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Five districts voted for one party in the 2020 presidential election and another in the 2022 House election.", "title": "Crossover seats" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "This lists the districts in which Donald Trump won in 2020 but are represented by Democrats:", "title": "Crossover seats" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "This lists the districts in which Joe Biden won in 2020 but are represented by Republicans:", "title": "Crossover seats" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "† – Incumbent not seeking re-election", "title": "Summary by district" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Adrielle Camuel was elected in November 2023 to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Lamin Swann in May 2023.", "title": "Special elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In December 2023, Russell Webber announced that he would resign from the house in order to become deputy treasurer in the administration of Mark Metcalf. The date for the special election will be determined by speaker David Osborne.", "title": "Special elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Candidate filings are located on the Secretary of State website.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "None.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "None.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Incumbent representative Jonathan Dixon is retiring.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "None.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Incumbent representative Scott Lewis is retiring.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Incumbent Russell Webber has announced that he will resign in order to become deputy treasurer in the administration of Mark Metcalf.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Incumbent representative Kevin Bratcher is retiring to run for the Louisville Metro Council.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "None.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Incumbent representative Josie Raymond is retiring to run for the Louisville Metro Council.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Incumbent representative Keturah Herron is retiring to run for the 35th senate district.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "None.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "None.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Incumbent representative and house minority leader Derrick Graham is retiring.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Incumbent representative Phillip Pratt is retiring.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Incumbent representative Steve Rawlings is retiring to run for the 11th senate district.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Incumbent representative and house minority whip Rachel Roberts is retiring.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Incumbent representative Ruth Ann Palumbo is retiring.", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Incumbent representative Danny Bentley is retiring.", "title": "Elections" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Xanthoria calcicola is a species of saxicolous and corticolous (rock- and bark-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as a new species in 1937 by the Ukrainian lichenologist Alfred Oxner. Molecular analysis published in 1998 confirmed the genetic distinctiveness between Xanthoria calcicola and Xanthoria parietina.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Xanthoria calcicola is found in the southern temperate region of Europe, with its distribution range stretching from southern Scandinavia south to the Mediterranean Basin. Its presence extends eastward from Great Britain, reaching as far as Ukraine and various regions in the Middle East. The lichen grows primarily on stone, but is also frequently found growing on bark. A study conducted in Sweden found that X. calcicola typically does not prefer trees as habitats and only colonises them when they are in close proximity to an existing population on a wall.", "title": "Distribution" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Several species of lichenicolous (lichen-dwelling) fungi are known to parasitise Xanthoria calcicola, including: Didymocyrtis slaptoensis, Pyrenochaeta xanthoriae, Didymocyrtis cf. consimilis, Erythricium aurantiacum, and Illosporiopsis christiansenii.", "title": "Species interactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "A 2016 study investigated the metal and metalloid content in Xanthoria calcicola collected from the Syracusan petrochemical complex in Sicily, revealing high concentrations of elements like arsenic, chromium, nickel, and vanadium, indicative of environmental stress in the area. The use of multi-element statistical analysis and enrichment factors in the study demonstrated the effectiveness of Xanthoria calcicola as a bioindicator in highly industrialized environments, suggesting its potential application as a bioindicator in other industrial contexts.", "title": "Biomonitoring" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Oracles of Leo the Wise (Greek Tou sophōtatou basileōs Leontos chrēsmoi; Latin Oracula Leonis or Vaticinia Leonis) is a Greek collection of oracles attributed to the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise (886–912). In actuality, the collection was first put together in the twelfth century by an anonymous editor probably working in Constantinople.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "At the core of the collection are six oracles composed shortly after 815. A further four oracles were added to the collection after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. The numbering of the oracles varies between manuscripts. These ten form the first part and are vaticinia ex eventu, records of past events written as prophecy. The five oracles in the second part are actual prophecies. This set of fifteen or sixteen oracles is written in iambic verse in a high register of Greek. A second set of seven longer poems in popular Greek was attached to the collection probably in the fourteenth century.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Dozens of manuscripts survive, some of them lavishly illustrated. None is earlier than the fall of Constantinople (1453). There is no critical edition, although several manuscripts have been published. The earliest reference to the Oracles is much earlier than the manuscripts. It is found in the work of Niketas Choniates around 1200.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The Oracles circulated alongside the Cento of the True Emperor. There is a literary relationship between the two, but the Cento is not a paraphrase of the Oracles as formerly thought. It is not even certain that the author of the Cento quotes the Oracles rather than the latter's source. The Oracles was translated into Latin in the thirteenth century. This is usually dated to 1280–1292, but Katelyn Mesler argues for an earlier period (1250–1275). They circulated in Latin as the Cardinal Prophecies and spawned a family of texts known as the Pope Prophecies. A new Latin translation was made around 1577 by Francesco Barozzi, who interpreted the text for his patron, Giacomo Foscarini, as prophesying Christian victory over the Ottoman Empire. Two bilingual manuscript copies of Barozzi's work illustrated by Georgios Klontzas survive.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Old Slavonic translations of the Oracles are also known in Bulgarian, Serbian and Russian recensions. The Serbian text, known from a fifteenth-century manuscript, is attributed to Stefan Lazarević (1402–1427).", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The 2024 McNeese Cowboys baseball team will represent McNeese State University during the 2024 NCAA Division I baseball season. The Cowboys play their home games at Joe Miller Ballpark and are led by eleventh–year head coach Justin Hill. They are members of the Southland Conference.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Mirabad County (Persian: شهرستان میرآباد) is in West Azerbaijan province, Iran. Its capital is the city of Mirabad, whose population at the 2016 National Census was 6,000 people in 1,550 households.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "In 2022, Vazineh District was separated from Sardasht County in the establishment of Mirabad County, which was divided into two districts and two rural districts, with Mirabad as its capital and only city.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The structure of Mirabad County's administrative divisions is shown in the following table.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Fatty Cakes and the Puff Pastries are a punk band from Fresno, California, consisting of members Amber Fargano, Vishinna Turner, Audrey Paris Johnson, Victoria Crow, and Staci McDowell. Their music has been described by outlets such as LA Times, She Shreds, and Nylon as queercore feminist pop and riot grrl. The band is known for creating empowering environments for fans at live shows.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Fatty Cakes and the Puff Pastries formed in 2011, originally as Amber Fargano's solo project.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Before Fatty Cakes and the Puff Pastries, Vishinna Turner, Audrey Johnson, and Amber Fargano played in a band called Strawberry Jam who were an active part of the Fresno DIY Friendcore scene that was centralized in Fresno's Chinatown neighborhood in underground venues like Infoshop and the Chinatown Youth Center during the 2000s to the 2010s.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Fargano invited bassist and vocalist Vishinna Turner, as well as vocalists and synth/glockenspiel players Crow and McDowell to join as dancers, who quickly became integral to the band. Audrey Johnson, who at the time was playing for Fresno-based DIY band Needy Eevy, joined on drums. Fargano and McDowell were friends from school and attended drama class together as kids.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Fatty Cakes and the Puff Pastries are a diverse band composed of queer working class musicians. Fargano and McDowell are white, Crow is Chukchansi, Turner is Black with Choctaw and Blackfoot ancestry, and Johnson is of Black and Mexican ancestry. They are influenced heavily by punk and riot grrrl, and use their music to advocate for feminism, anti-racism, and fat positivity.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The band has played concerts at DIY venues across the United States, and have played at venues like the Great American Music Hall. They have played special gigs like a tour of Girls Rock Camps across the west coast, Weirdo Night, Folsom Street Fair in both 2022 and 2023, and at the Bob Baker Marionette Theater accompanied by a cast of puppets.", "title": "Notable shows" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 2021 the band collaborated with Fresno City College art show and exhibition called \"constellating care networks\" highlighting the history and presence of Fresno's LGBTQIA community.", "title": "Notable shows" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Fargano explicitly chose the name because they wanted people to have to say the word \"fat\" in a positive context. Vishinna Turner has talked about how playing music has helped her embrace body acceptance. In an interview with Virgie Tovar, Vishinna noted that their song \"Fat Girl Tears\" is about people being scared of having a \"body like yours\" and living through trauma, loving your body, and refusing to make yourself small.", "title": "Musical themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Fresno pride is important to them as well, the band has remained dedicated to living in and representing Fresno. The band has been open about some of their struggles being from a conservative town that hasn't always been embracing of their music or identities, as well as the power of staying there. Victoria Crow told the LA Times that her relationship to Fresno is complicated, saying \"Being Chukchansi, one of the many tribes that are indigenous to the Central Valley, my love and pride for this city is generational and ancestral.\" For her, Fresno life is a combination of deep roots, messy house parties, best friends and perseverance.", "title": "Musical themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Friendship and collectivity is important to the group. When asked about what it means to be a \"Grrrl Gang\" by Nylon the band mentioned upholding friends and making sure people feel safe at shows is important to them, and in a 2022 interview with the LA Times they talked about keeping a Hello Kitty baseball bat in their tour van for safety.", "title": "Musical themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The band collectively writes lyrics and shares in the process of songwriting. The song \"Panic Attack\" was based on a bass riff that Turner played while rehearsing at Studio Itz, a Fresno arts institution. All members are credited with contributing lyrics and ideas for songs in the liner notes of their recordings. Their song \"Best Friend\" is about the friendships between all of the members of the band.", "title": "Musical themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Fatty Cakes and the Puff Pastries was released on vinyl and cassette tape by Emotional Response Records in 2018. It was produced by Alice Bag and recorded at Station House Studios by Mark Rains in Echo Park during the fall of 2017, and mastered by Margot Padilla.", "title": "Eponymous record" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The band had a lunch with Alice Bag at Vishinna Turner's mothers restaurant and became close friends before deciding to go into the studio together. In an interview with Nylon, Amber Fargano said that they felt like the album showed their \"strong political voice, a strong voice based in empowerment, and a personal voice sharing truth... that will make [listeners] laugh, think, and rage.\"", "title": "Eponymous record" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The band are active members of the Bruise Violet Collective, Fresno based musicians, writers, and artists who organize events catering to marginalized identities. Vishinna Turner and Audrey Johnson also play in the Fresno-based band Squid Ink who are known for challenging anti-Blackness in punk.", "title": "Affiliated projects" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Audrey Johnson started playing drums in high school in jazz band and marching band, and has recorded and performed with Needy Evie, Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group, The Eighteen Hundreds, Dirty Limbs, and currently plays drums for La Luz and Teri Gender Bender in addition to Fatty Cakes and the Puff Pastries.", "title": "Affiliated projects" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Nigel Colin Holt (born 21 November 1961) is an Australian former rugby union international.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Holt was born in the rural Queensland town of Winton and attended Anglican Church Grammar School in Brisbane. His mother Judy served on Redland City Council and during the 1970s established the shire's first convenience store called The Red Shop.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "An imposing lock, Holt toured New Zealand with Queensland in 1982 and the following year gained a Wallabies call up for the tour of Italy and France, as a back up for David Hillhouse and Steve Williams (rugby union, born 1958). Neither of those players were named on the 1984 tour of Fiji and Holt was first choice lock for the one-off Test in Suva, which the Wallabies won 16–3. He kept his place in the Wallabies squad for that year's famed 1984 tour of Britain and Ireland, but didn't add to his solitary Test cap.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Sulcaria isidiifera, commonly known as the splitting yarn lichen, is a rare species of pendent (hanging) fruticose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. It has a dull yellowish-white to light brown and reddish-brown thallus and is typically 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long. It is only known to occur in the Los Osos Oaks State Natural Reserve, in the Central Coast of California region, where it grows on a variety of shrubs.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "It was formally described as a new species in 1986 by the lichenologist Irwin M. Brodo. The type specimen was collected in 1984 from Los Osos Oaks State Natural Reserve, in the Central Coast of California region; it was growing on Adenostoma fasciculatum. It is commonly known as the \"splitting yarn lichen\".", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Sulcaria isidiifera is characterized by a thallus that is a dull yellowish-white, transitioning into light brown and reddish-brown at the more sun-exposed tips, and occasionally displaying shades of olive-gray. The lichen spans 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) in length and features a branching pattern that ranges from isotomic (equal branching) to anisotomic-dichotomous (unequal branching with divisions). Unique to this species are its more-or-less perpendicular branches that emerge from splits in the thallus, further splitting lengthwise and opening into relatively wide linear soralia. These soralia are filled with spinulose (spine-like) isidia and spinules, which often have brown tips. The main branches of the lichen are about 0.3–0.5 mm in width, and the overall structure is quite brittle. Neither apothecia (reproductive structures where spores develop) nor pycnidia (structures producing asexual spores) have been observed in this species. In terms of standard chemical spot tests, it is K−, C−, KC−, and Pd+ (orange) on the cortex. Sulcaria isidiifera contains protocetraric acid as its major lichen product.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Although some other fruticose lichens have been mistaken for this species, including Alectoria sarmentosa, some Usnea species, Bryoria spiralifera and other pale species in the genus Bryoria, none of them display the distinct feature of having longitudinal soralia that split open to expose isidia.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Sulcaria isidiifera is exclusively found near its original discovery site, confined within a region less than 7 mi (11 km) in diameter. This lichen grows in mature coastal chaparral scrub environments. Within these coastal scrubland habitats, it shows a non-specific preference, growing on a variety of shrubs including Adenostoma fasciculatum, Quercus dumosa, Quercus agrifolia, Ceanothus ramulosus, and other unidentified shrub species.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Markel Beloki (born 27 July 2005) is a Spanish professional cyclist. In 2023, he became the Spanish junior time trial champion. For the 2024 season, he will ride for UCI WorldTeam EF Education–EasyPost. He is the son of Joseba Beloki.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Born in Vitoria-Gasteiz, he discovered cycling with his father as a child and joined a Basque cycling club at the age of 12 years-old.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "A member of the MMR Cycling Academy, he rode during the winter of 2022-2023 in a six-day internship with the UCI World Tour team Movistar.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 2023, he won several victories in Spanish junior races, including the Junior National Time Trial title as well as second place in the junior national road race. Selected to represent Spain at the Junior World and Junior European Championships, his finished in seventh place in the European Championship time trial.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "For the 2024 season, he will ride for UCI WorldTeam EF Education–EasyPost. With a two-year contract agreed in late 2023.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "He is the son of three-time Tour de France podium finisher Joseba Beloki. However, they have different body types with Markel already taller than his father by the age of 17 years-old.", "title": "Personal life" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Fissurina elixii is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), script lichen in the family Graphidaceae. It is found in New South Wales and Tasmania in Australia.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first described in 1998 by the lichenologist Alan W. Archer; he initially classified it as a species of genus Graphis. The type specimen was collected from Monga National Park in New South Wales at an elevation of 665 m (2,182 ft); there it was found growing on Eucryphia moorei in a rainforest. The botanical name honours John Elix, who collected the type. Archer transferred the taxon to the genus Fissurina in 2005.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Fissurina elixii has a pale olive-grey, glossy, continuous, and cracked thallus that is 40–100 µm thick and forms irregular, diffuse patches up to 60 mm wide, without crystals of calcium oxalate. Its lirellae (elongated, slit-like reproductive structures) are scattered, unbranched, straight or slightly curved, measuring 0.5–2 mm long, appearing as cracks in the thallus with the cortex forming a pair of lips that gape slightly, revealing the upper edge of the slightly carbonised (blackened) exciple, which usually obscures the disc. In cross-section, the exciple is poorly differentiated from adjacent tissues, varying in thickness and colour from hyaline (translucent) to yellowish laterally and basally to brown-black or olive-black apically, with numerous periphysoids (hair-like structures) at the margins.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The hypothecium (tissue layer beneath the hymenium) of the lichen is 10–20 µm thick, while the hymenium (spore-bearing layer) measures 80–120 µm. The asci (spore-containing structures) typically contain 6–8 spores, measuring 70–100 by 17–25 µm, with paraphyses (filamentous structures in the hymenium) that are 1.5–2 µm wide and have minutely spinous apices. The ascospores are broadly ellipsoid with rounded apices, transversely 3-septate (with three cross-walls), typically measuring 16–26 by 8–11 µm, and has a pale blue staining reaction to iodine when mature. Chemically, the lichen primarily contains 2–methoxypsoromic acid and a minor amount of 2'–O–demethyl–2–methoxypsoromic acid. Although the thallus is generally too thin to reliably conduct chemical spot tests, a P+ (yellow) reaction is possible at the lirellae. Identification of these chemical compounds typically requires high-performance liquid chromatography, as they appear similar to psoromic and conpsoromic acids on thin-layer chromatography plates.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Fissurina elixii has been documented growing on the trunks of Anopterus glandulosus and Tasmannia lanceolata trees within relic stands of Atherosperma-dominated rainforest located in southeastern Tasmania. Additionally, this species is found in eastern New South Wales, although it is relatively rare there. What sets Fissurina elixii apart from other Tasmanian species within its genus is its unique chemical composition, specifically the presence of substances structurally related to psoromic acid.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Jirón Junín is a major street in the Damero de Pizarro, located in the historic centre of Lima, Peru. The street starts at its intersection with the Jirón de la Unión and continues for 19 blocks until it reaches Nicolás Ayllón Avenue.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The road that today constitutes the street already existed in pre-Hispanic times. Under Francisco Pizarro, it was drawn as the camino del Cercado when he founded the city of Lima on January 18, 1535. In its first block, to the south, the extension corresponding to the Plaza de Armas was arranged and, to the north, the land corresponding to the home of Pizarro himself and which was later the residence of the viceroys and Presidents of the country.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "At the beginning of the 17th century, the viceroy of Peru Juan de Mendoza y Luna, consented to the creation of the Cajones de Ribera in the first block of this road (Calle de Ribera). These boxes would be occupied by the fruit sellers and peddlers who were located in the Plaza Mayor until 1885. Since that century, in the third block (San José street), the first Central Post office building was established, which would later be moved to the first block. block of the jirón Conde de Superunda. Finally, on a street perpendicular to block six (Charity St.) the premises of the University of San Marcos were located.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1671 the Carmen Hospital was built in the last block of this road near the Walls of Lima. This hospital, run by the Bethlehemites, was ruined in 1687 so it was moved to a neighbouring plot outside the walls. Later this hospital would be transformed into a military establishment that was known as Barbones Barracks due to the nickname that the Bethlemites had for their long beards. Throughout the 17th century, several convents were built on this road, such as the Monasterio del Carmen and the Monasterio de las Descalzas.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "During the 19th century, this street saw the birth of the Congress of the Republic in 1822 and the establishment of the Senate Building in the old premises of the Tribunal of the Inquisition. In 1859 the monument to Simón Bolívar was erected.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 1862, when a new urban nomenclature was adopted, the road was named jirón Junín, after the department of Junín. Prior to this renaming, each block (cuadra) had a unique name:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 1886, the Casa Arenas Loayza was built at number 270, with an eclectic style. In the 20th century the street saw the construction of large buildings and public spaces. Thus, in 1922 the current building of the Archbishop's Palace of Lima was built, in 1938 the Government Palace of Peru and the Legislative Palace of Peru, in 1947 the widening of Abancay Avenue and of the Plaza Bolívar took place.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "On June 3, 1989, a bus transporting members of the Hussars of Junín from the Barbones Barracks towards the Government Palace was attacked by a Shining Path member with an explosive on the 11th block of the street, near the Virgen del Carmen Church. 7 people died and sixteen people—sixteen soldiers and six civilians—were injured. One of the terrorists involved was injured by a shot fired by John Ugarte Valdivia of the Technical Police, who was killed after being shot in the head. The perpetrators then escaped in a white car parked in the corner with the jirón Huánuco.", "title": "History" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Mystique Summers Madison (or simply Mystique Summers) is the stage name of Donté Sims, an African American drag performer who competed on season 2 of RuPaul's Drag Race. Based in Texas, Mystique Summers Madison continues to perform in drag shows and participate in Drag Race-related events such as RuPaul's DragCon LA.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Sims is a drag performer who competed as Mystique Summers Madison on season 2 (2010) of RuPaul's Drag Race, at the age of 25. She has continued to perform in drag shows and host events, mostly in Texas.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 2019, Mystique Summers Madison emceed a drag show sponsored by AARP. In 2020, she was slated to be a featured guest at RuPaul's DragCon LA. She remained part of the line-up when the scheduled event became RuPaul's Digital DragCon because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Mystique Summers Madison was also part of the line-up of \"Introvert: An Online Drag Show Built Just for You\", an online drag show held in conjunction with Pride Portland (Oregon), as well as the Twitch-hosted show \"Black Girl Magic\", which featured Black contestants from Drag Race and other entertainers. She was a guest at DragCon LA in 2022.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "On Drag Race, Mystique Summers Madison placed tenth overall. She was eliminated on the third episode, the main challenge of which required contestants to act as feuding families in a television advertisement. She placed in the bottom two and lost a lip-sync against Raven to \"I Hear You Knocking\" by Wynonna Judd. In 2017, Thrillist's Brian Moylan ranked Mystique Summers Madison number 86 out of the show's 113 contestants. Ryan Shea ranked her number 97 out of 126 in Instinct's similar list in 2018. The Spinoff ranked \"I Hear You Knocking\" number 138 in a 2019 \"definitive ranking\" of the show's 162 lip-syncs to date.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "On the first episode of the companion show RuPaul's Drag Race: Untucked, Mystique Summers Madison said \"Bitch, I'm from Chicago!\" to fellow contestant Morgan McMichaels during an argument described by Gay Times as a \"legendary throwdown\". The catchphrase was described by Tom Fitzgerald and Lorenzo Marquez as a \"direct and simple\" insult (or \"read\") in Legendary Children: The First Decade of RuPaul's Drag Race and the Last Century of Queer Life (2020), and became a part of the franchise's history.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The argument was included in Them's 2018 list of the ten \"messiest fights\" on Untucked, as well as Screen Rant's 2021 list of the show's ten \"most unforgettable\" moments. In 2021, Dylan Kickham called Mystique Summers Madison's threat an \"iconic quote\" in Elite Daily's overview of the \"most dramatic\" feuds on Drag Race to date, and Hunter Ingram of Variety said the fight \"should have inspired Chicago's new tourism slogan\" in 2023. Valentina referenced Mystique Summers Madison when \"reading\" Latrice Royale on season 4 (2018) of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Sims is from Texas, and has lived in Bedford. He creates some of his own outfits for shows, and cooking is among his hobbies.", "title": "Personal life" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Pannaria emodii is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), squamulose (scaley) to foliose (leafy) lichen in the family Pannariaceae. It was formally described as a new species in 2001 by the Norwegian lichenologist Per Magnus Jørgensen. The type specimen was collected in 1967 by Hiroshi Harada and colleagues from Shodu-Barshong (Bhutan) at an altitude between 3,500 and 3,800 m (11,500 and 12,500 ft).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen has a rosette-shaped thallus up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter with peripheral lobes up to about 3 mm wide. Its ascospores are simple (i.e., without any septa), more or less spherical and colourless, and measure 10–12 by 6–8 μm. The thallus does not show any reactions to standard chemical spot tests, and no lichen products were detected using thin-layer chromatography. Pannaria emodii is found in the eastern Himalayas with a geographic range extending from Bhutan to Sichuan, China. In India, Pannaria emodii often associates with moss genus Hyophila.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Where Is My Mind (Egyptian Arabic: أين عقلي) is a 1974 Egyptian film directed by Atef Salem. It features a screenplay by Raafat el-Mihi based based on a novel by Ihsan Abdel Quddous. It stars Soad Hosny, Mahmoud Yassin and Rushdy Abaza.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Dr. Tawfiq is captive to the marital tradition of virgin honor despite his picking up habits from time studying in Europe. His liberal mind cannot reconcile with his native environment. After returning from Europe, he marries Aida who confides in him that she lost her virginity in a torrid love affair with her deceased ex-fiancé. Though an educated liberal man, he tells her he does not want to know anything about her past and does not care anyway. However, he suffers a psychological crisis upon discovering her having been with someone else.", "title": "Synopsis" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "When Aida notices his disturbances, he blames her and she encounters her own mental health symptoms, leading her to consult a psychiatrist, Dr. Zuhdi. In flashbacks, Aida simultaneously renders to her counselor and the audience alike her life prior to marrying Dr. Tawfiq, including the ex and the husband's gaslighting. Dr. Zuhdi is convinced by her arguments and asks her to help him investigate the husband to understand the situation better. She points him to their chauffeur, Saber, who tells Dr. Zuhdi that Dr. Tawfiq propositions lottery sellers. On Dr. Zuhdi's request, Saber brings in a lottery ticket saleswoman, who tells of Dr. Tawfiq inviting her home to protect her then becoming angry at her “loss of honor” (to him of course) like that of his wife. Convinced of the pattern, Dr. Zuhdi discovers an explanation in the culture shock between Dr. Tawfiq's early village life and his European city years. Dr. Tawfiq receives marital counseling and leaves the contradictions behind.", "title": "Synopsis" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Where Is My Mind? is one of the most prominent and daring films to deal with female virginity taboos in Arab culture. As an ancient facet of Arab and Islamic culture, it is still a sensitive subject around the region. The matrimony both in the house and the therapy sessions is the focus here, and no scenes depict anything save for Aida's therapy flashbacks.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Director Atef Salem strove to cover the topic carefully with careful study of psychology and psychoanalysis. He also secured career highlights for the principal actors, especially Mahmoud Yassin and Soad Hosny.", "title": "Reception" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Lempholemma polycarpum is a little-known species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling) lichen in the family Lichinaceae. It was first described from Yemen and is characterised by its blackish thallus, abundant small apothecia (fruiting bodies), and cyanobacteria from the genus Nostoc as its photobiont. The lichen is found on inclined limestone boulders in sun-exposed habitats with open forest vegetation. It also occurs in Madagascar and in Aldabra.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described by the German lichenologist Matthias Schultz. The type specimen of Lempholemma polycarpum was collected in Shah-ot, Damkaur, Al Mahrah Governorate, Yemen, on small inclined limestone boulders at an elevation of 680 m (2,230 ft). The species epithet polycarpum refers to the abundantly produced, small apothecia.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The thallus of Lempholemma polycarpum is blackish, dull, and rarely slightly pruinose, with a gelatinous texture when wet. Thalli consist of individual, regular, umbilicate-lobate rosettes measuring 3–6 mm in size. Lobes are radiating, free, tongue-shaped, and convex, with short lengths of 1.5–2.5 mm, widths of 0.5–0.6 mm, and thicknesses of 0.25–0.45 mm. The surface of the lobes is smooth but becomes verrucose when numerous small apothecia are produced.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Microscopically, the mycobiont forms a loose network of elongated hyphae that becomes denser towards the lobe margins, with cells measuring 10–17.5 by 1.5–2 (up to 5) μm. The photobiont is Nostoc, which forms twisted and bent, bead-like chains of 5–20 spherical to ellipsoid cells. Photobiont cells are 3–5 μm wide without the sheath, and 10–12.5 μm wide with the sheath. The gelatinous sheath is hyaline in the thallus centre and yellowish-brown towards the upper surface. Apothecia are usually abundant, with 1–10 per lobe, and are very small, measuring 200 (up to 250) μm wide. They are immersed to partially immersed in the thallus with a low thalline margin, and have a reddish-black apothecial disc when dry, which turns dark red when moist. Ascospores number eight per ascus, are simple, hyaline, and broadly ellipsoid, measuring 12.4–6.5 μm; their spore wall thickens with age, reaching up to 1.5 μm wide.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Lempholemma polycarpum is similar to Lempholemma socotranum, but the latter has an umbilicate-squamulose thallus with incised to short-lobed margins, larger apothecia with wider, open discs, and smaller ascospores. Lempholemma radiatum has elongated, radiating lobes that are longitudinally ridged and plicate, and it differs in the presence of isidia, the type of ascoma ontogeny, and a more or less arctic distribution. Lempholemma lingulatum is another lobate member of the genus, but its lobes are unbranched, distinctly tongue-shaped, and widened at the tips. Lempholemma polycarpum is also similar to Collema multipartitum and C. fragile, both of which occur in similar habitats on Socotra. The former species differs in the presence of eventually sessile apothecia, septate ascospores, amyloid ascus tips, and finely striate lobes, while the latter differs mainly in the presence of laminal isidia on more stunted, shortly forked lobes with usually pruinose tips.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Lempholemma polycarpum grows on inclined limestone boulders in sun-exposed habitats on rocky slopes with open forest vegetation. It is known from two localities in southeast Yemen. The species is found growing alongside Paulia aldabrensis, P. perforata, Lempholemma botryosum, and a species of Psorotichia. Three other species of Lempholemma are known to occur in the Arabian Peninsula and Socotra: Lempholemma socotranum, L. intricatum, and L. botryosum. Lempholemma polycarpum has also been recorded in Madagascar, and in Aldabra.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Wren T. Brown, (born 1964 in Los Angeles) is an American actor, film producer and a theatre director and musical theatre director, known for his work in film, television, and voice. He is also the producing artistic director of \"the first and only African-American professional Equity theatre company in Los Angeles,\" the award-winning Ebony Repertory Theatre (ERT), which he and the late theatre director Israel Hicks co-founded in 2007 to create a \"world-class professional theatre rooted in the experience of the African Diaspora.\"", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "His film acting has included work in Hollywood Shuffle, co-written by Robert Townsend and Keenen Ivory Wayans in 1987; Forest Whitaker's 1995 Waiting to Exhale, and David Mamet's Edmond in 2007, which he appeared in with William H. Macy. Brown also acted in the drama The Dinner, the comedy dramas The Importance of Being Earnest (1992) and Heart and Souls; the romantic drama Beyond the Lights, the war drama A Midnight Clear; the action dramas Under Siege 2: Dark Territory and Biker Boyz and the horror films Hellraiser IV: Blood Legacy and HellBent.", "title": "Film acting" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Brown has guest-starred or played recurring roles on The West Wing, The Practice, Frasier, Seinfeld, Charmed, Star Trek: Voyager, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Everybody Hates Chris, Grey's Anatomy, in addition to playingWhoopi Goldberg's brother Courtney Rae in five episodes of the 2003 television series Whoopi. Brown provided the voice of Homer Simpson's Black ancestor Virgil Simpson on The Simpsons, and he performed voice work for the Langston Hughes poem The Negro Speaks of Rivers on pianist Billy Childs’ Grammy Award-nominated album I’ve Known Rivers.", "title": "TV & voice acting" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Under his artistic direction, \"the Ebony Repertory Theatre has produced award-winning productions including August Wilson's Two Trains Running; Crowns, featuring the late Paula Kelly; A Raisin in the Sun, directed by Tony winner Phylicia Rashad; and the musicals The Gospel at Colonus and Five Guys Named Moe.\" In 2018, Brown's \"theatre directing debut was made at Colorado’s Lone Tree Arts Center with August Wilson's Fences.\" He has also directed for Ventura's Rubicon Theatre.", "title": "Theatre acting & directing" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In 2021, Brown was one of four directors interviewed by ArtEquity and the Oregon Shakespeare Festival for the Talking Back Digital Series focusing on the impact of structural racism in theatres throughout the United States.\"", "title": "Theatre acting & directing" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Brown served as associate producer on the Apartheid drama Boesman & Lena (2000), starring Danny Glover and Angela Bassett. Directed by John Berry, the film was praised for its stars \"powerhouse\" performances and \"and an unusually physical approach to theatrical material.\" His second was a concert film of Dianne Reeves’ Grammy Award-winning album, In The Moment: Live in Concert.", "title": "Film producer" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "A fourth-generation Angeleno, Brown is the son of jazz trumpeter Troy Brown Jr., and the grandson of actor-comedian Troy Brown Sr., who was also the fifth Black actor to join the Screen Actors Guild (SAG). His maternal grandmother, Ruth Givens, was a torch singer and dancer in film and at the Los Angeles Cotton Club. His maternal grandfather, Lee Young Sr., was the first black staff musician in Hollywood, in this case for Columbia Pictures in 1946, and the drummer and musical director for Nat King Cole. His great-grandfather, Willis Handy Young, was a musician and the owner of Vaudeville troupe the New Orleans Strutters.", "title": "Personal" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Married to wife Anne since October 12, 1991. The couple has three children together.", "title": "Personal" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Chrysothrix tchupalensis is a little-known species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), powdery lichen in the family Chrysotrichaceae. It occurs in north Queensland, Australia. The lichen forms a powdery, bright yellow thallus that grows on sheltered, humid rocks in a tropical rainforest environment.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Chrysothrix tchupalensis was formally described as a new species in 2006 by the lichenologists John Alan Elix and Gintaras Kantvilas. The type specimen was collected in Wooroonooran National Park, Tchupala Falls, Queensland, Australia. The specific epithet tchupalensis refers to the type locality.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "This lichen has a crustose and leprose (powdery), bright lemon yellow thallus. Chrysothrix tchupalensis is very loosely adnate, and forms small, irregularly roundish, convex cushions 0.5–1 cm wide, eventually coalescing into patches up to 5 cm (2 in) wide. The soredia are granular, with individual granules measuring 60–160 µm wide. Its photobiont is chlorococcoid, spherical, and measures 10–18 µm wide. The hypothallus is pale grey-white to black. Apothecia and pycnidia have not been observed to occur in this species.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "On standard chemical spot tests, the thallus of Chrysothrix tchupalensis tests K−, C−, KC−, and PD−. It contains leprapinic acid as a major secondary metabolite (lichen product) and 4,5-dichlorolichexanthone as a minor component.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Chrysothrix tchupalensis is similar to Chrysothrix granularis but is distinguished by its thallus being loosely adnate, having larger granules, and containing leprapinic acid.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "At the time of its original publication, Chrysothrix tchupalensis was known only from its type locality in north Queensland, Australia. It grows on sheltered, humid rocks in tropical rainforest environments. It co-occurs with Porina crassa and Sagenidiopsis subconfluentica.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca aliciae is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It is found in Australia. It is characterised by a thallus that can grow up to 2 cm wide, featuring colours from dull pink to dull brown, with small, dispersed, flat areoles that are irregularly shaped and occasionally dissected by cracks, displaying a whitish, dull pink, or dull orange-brown surface. Its apothecia (fruiting bodies) are lecanorine in form, initially immersed but often rising above the areoles, with each areole containing one or two apothecia that have a thalline margin matching the thallus colour.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk, Ingvar Kärnefelt, and John Alan Elix. The type specimen was collected from Native Gap in Hann Range (Northern Territory) at an elevation of 700 m (2,300 ft), where it was found growing on south-facing rock ledges. The species epithet refers to its type locality, Alice Springs.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Caloplaca aliciae has a thallus that can reach up to 2 cm in width, with a colour ranging from dull pink to dull brown. The thallus is typically indistinct and areolate, comprising small, dispersed, flat areoles and minute apothecia that are immersed in the thallus. The areoles, measuring 0.4–0.7 mm wide and 120–150 μm thick, are irregularly shaped, often elongated, and sometimes dissected by tangential cracks up to 75 μm wide. These areoles are typically dispersed, occasionally aggregated, and separated by broad cracks, revealing the rock surface beneath. The surface of the areoles is characterised by a whitish, dull pink, or dull orange-brown colouration and has a matt or slightly eroded texture.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The apothecia of Caloplaca aliciae are lecanorine in form, ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 mm in diameter. Initially immersed, they eventually elevate distinctly, sometimes rising slightly above the level of the areole. Each areole typically contains one to two apothecia. The thalline margin of the apothecia is the same colour as the thallus, with shades of dull pink, whitish-brown, or brownish. The exciple is paraplectenchymatous, with a hymenium reaching up to 100 μm in height and a yellowish-brown epithecium. The subhymenium is approximately 60 μm thick, with an algal layer below the true exciple. Paraphyses are slightly widened towards the tips, and asci tend to contain spores of varying sizes. Ascospores are slightly attenuated at the ends, measuring 12–14 by 5–6 μm, with a septum thickness of 5–8 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Caloplaca aliciae is distinguished by its flat, very dispersed, small areoles, and tiny apothecia. The presence of cracks between areoles of similar size gives the species a distinctly scattered, areolate thallus appearance. It bears some resemblance to the coastal species Tarasginia whinrayi in terms of slightly dissected areoles. However, T. whinrayi differs in having yellow-orange dissected lobes, a verrucose central thallus part, zeorine apothecia with thick thalline margins, slightly shorter ascospores, and narrower ascospore septum. Unlike C. aliciae, T. whinrayi is commonly found in sun-exposed coastal locations, growing on coastal rocks.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Caloplaca aliciae is known to inhabit dry, weathered granite rocks. It is considered the least common of the 'dull pink' inland species of Caloplaca (in the broad sense) in Australia, with its known distribution limited to central Australia and the Northern Territory.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Fort Oscar (previously Gustav Adolf) is an 18th century military fort in Gustavia, the capital of Saint Barthélemy. It sits at an elevation of 136 feet, overlooking the Gustavia harbor. The fort was built during Sweden's rule of Saint Barthélemy. It was one of the three forts surrounding Gustavia, with Fort Gustav and Fort Karl. It was armed with four canons.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Today, Fort Oscar houses the local Gendarmerie. The fort is often a site for viewing regattas, such as Les Voiles de Saint-Barth and the St Barths Bucket Regatta. Fireworks are featured over Fort Oscar on special occasions such as New Year's Eve.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Brigade de Saint-Barthélemy (Gendarmerie nationale site)", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca astonii is a rare species of crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. Described in 2007, is known for its distinct appearance and very limited distribution in Australia. The lichen has a thin thallus measuring 3–8 mm wide, with confluent spots that are thicker and cracked in the centre, showing a dull rose-orange or dull brown-orange colour, and lecanorine apothecia that transition from being immersed in the thallus to raised above it, revealing a bright reddish-brown disc.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The type material was found in Northwest New South Wales about 8 miles (13 km) south-southwest of Kayrunners and roughly 30 miles (48 km) west of White Cliffs. In this location, a glaring white quartz stone plain, it is common on stones.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "This species is akin to Caloplaca montisfracti, but is distinguished by its lecanorine apothecia with a very thin hymenium and small ascospores with attenuated tips. Among Australian Caloplaca species, Caloplaca astonii is unique due to its thin hypothallus, a dull pink thallus, and lecanorine apothecia with a bright red or pink-red disc. It is further characterised by a large thalline margin, a lax palisade paraplectenchymatous cortex, and a loose medulla. The species is named in honour of Helen Aston, who collected the type material in 1966.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Caloplaca astonii features a thallus with a width of 3–8 mm, consisting of confluent spots. It is crustose, very thin, and closely adheres to the substrate, especially at the periphery. The thallus is thicker and cracked in the central part and has a dull rose-orange or dull brown-orange colour. The lecanorine apothecia are initially immersed in the thallus and become raised as they mature, revealing a bright reddish-brown disc.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The hypothallus is extremely thin in the peripheral zone, expanding to 0.5–1.5 mm wide and up to 100 µm thick. The central part of the thallus features areoles measuring 0.6–1.3 mm wide and 0.3–0.4 mm thick, with cracks that are not the naked rock surface, ranging from 25–50 (up to 75) µm wide. In section, areoles are 220–350 µm thick, with numerous vertical, lax bundles of hyphae. The cortex is 30–35 µm thick, composed of large, rounded cells, and the algal layer is dispersed and discontinuous. The medulla, consisting of loose short hyphae, reaches a thickness of 70–100 µm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Apothecia are 0.3–1.0 mm in diameter, initially immersed and then raised as they mature, with a flat, epruinose, and bright reddish-brown disc. Each areole typically contains 1–5 apothecia. The thalline margin is quite thick, and the disc has an uneven surface. The true exciple is 30–35 µm thick, with elongated hyphae. The hymenium is 40–45 µm high, and the subhymenium is 60–100 µm thick. Ascospores are very small, distinctly widened at the septum, and attenuated towards the tips, typically measuring 8–9 by 4.5–6 µm with a septum thickness of 2.5–3 µm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Caloplaca astonii occurs on quartzite rocks and is considered a very rare inland species. At the time of its original publication, it had only been recorded from the type collection in New South Wales, Australia.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca conranii is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. The lichen has a bright yellow thallus about 1–2 cm wide, featuring a thick texture with convex, pustule-like formations around the edges and occasionally forming clusters in the centre. Its apothecia (fruiting bodies) are quite large and heavy, ranging from 0.4–1.5 mm in diameter, with a flat, dull orange or brownish-orange disc, and long, narrow ascospores.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The species is named after Cape Conran, a coastal locality in Victoria in southeastern Australia, where it was first discovered and collected by the second author.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Caloplaca conranii forms a bright yellow thallus about 1–2 cm wide. The thallus is relatively thick, comprising very convex verruculae or pustule-like formations measuring 0.2–0.4 mm wide, typically dispersed in the peripheral zone. In the centre, the thallus occasionally becomes areolate, forming aggregations of areoles 1–1.5 mm wide.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Apothecia are comparatively large, measuring 0.4–1.5 mm in diameter and 0.7–0.8 mm in height. They are relatively massive, up to 400 μm thick in section. Initially zeorine they mature into a biatorine form. The thalline margin is 40–50 (up to 80) μm thick, with a cortex similar to C. regalis/cribrosa scleroplectenchyma type and often crenulate, yellow or greenish-yellow in colour. The disc is flat, dull orange, or brownish-orange, and brownish-yellow. The true exciple is approximately 100–120 μm thick at the uppermost portion, tapering to about 50–60 μm thick at the basal and lower lateral portions. The hymenium is roughly 90–100 μm high. Ascospores are long and narrow, measuring 11–15 by 5–7 μm with a septum of about 4–5 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In terms of standard chemical spot tests, the thallus and apothecia react K+ (red), C–, and I–; the lichen contains parietin, a lichen product common in the family Teloschistaceae.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Caloplaca conranii is distinguished from similar species such as C. marina and C. maritima by its thicker verrucose-papillose thallus, the absence of a hypothallus, and the presence of scleroplectenchymatic tissue. It differs from C. litoralis of New Zealand by its orange to red-brown apothecia. Compared to the Arctic littoral species C. alcarum, it stands out with its bright yellow verruculose or pustulose thallus, scleroplectenchymatic tissue, and oil cells in the paraphyses. Lastly, Caloplaca conranii is distinguishable from the Northern Hemisphere C. lithophila due to its well-developed thallus and preference for nitrate-enriched habitats.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Caloplaca conranii is found on schist and granite rocks along the foreshore, often in association with Elixjohnia gallowayi, Tarasginia whinrayi, and other crustose lichens. At the time of its original publication, Caloplaca conranii was known to inhabit areas in South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca filsonii is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It has a crust-like thallus that is uneven and warty around the edges and more distinctly wart-like in the centre, coloured in shades of grey and brownish-grey near its reproductive structures (apothecia), but lacking a developed prothallus.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by lichenologists Josef Hafellner, Sergey Kondratyuk, and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The type specimen was collected in 1979 by Neville Scarlett from Mud Island (Moreton Bay, Queensland), where it was found growing on Avicennia marina in a mangrove. The species epithet honours Australian lichenologist Rex Bertram Filson, who has contributed significantly to the study of Australian lichens, particularly within the family Teloschistaceae.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Caloplaca filsonii has a crustose thallus. In its peripheral zone, the thallus is uneven to somewhat verrucose, wrinkled, and warty, transitioning to a more strictly verrucose appearance in the central area. The verrucae are single, measuring 0.1–0.3 mm in diameter or width, and are coloured grey, whitish-grey, or brownish-grey near the apothecia. The prothallus is not developed in this species.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The apothecia of Caloplaca filsonii are 0.3–1 mm in diameter, abundant, and typically rounded. Initially, they are lecanorine in form but become distinctly zeorine as they mature. The thalline margin is whitish, measuring about 50–150 μm thick. The true exciple is hyaline-greyish, ranging from 50–75 μm in width, with the disc appearing brownish, brownish-grey, or dark grey without pruina. The hymenium is 90–100 μm high and hyaline, with a straw-yellowish epihymenium and a 50–70 μm-thick, brownish subhymenium underlined by an algal layer 60–90 μm thick. Ascospores are long and narrow, measuring 11–16 by 3–5.5 μm, with a septum of 1–2 (up to 5) μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The species contains caloploicin as a major secondary metabolite, vicanicin and atranorin as minor metabolites, and several unknown anthraquinones. Chemical spot tests of the thallus and apothecia yield K+ (red), C–, and I– reactions.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Caloplaca filsonii is characterized by its verrucose whitish-grey thallus, lecanorine then zeorine apothecia with a hyaline-greyish true exciple and brownish-grey disc. It is distinguished from similar species like the New Zealand Caloplaca homologa by having much smaller, polarilocular ascospores. Compared to the European boreal lichen C. suspiciosa, C. filsonii has a well-developed whitish thallus, larger apothecia, thicker thalline margin and true exciple, a higher hymenium, paraphyses not widened at the tips, and longer, narrower ascospores with a much narrower septum.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The eastern Asian species Fauriea yonaguniensis is similar to Caloplaca filsonii but has several key differences. It has exclusively lecanorine apothecia, compared to those of C. filsonii, which transition from lecanorine to zeorine. It has slightly wider ascospores (11–14 by 4–6 µm versus 11–16 by 3–5.5 µm) with a wider ascospore septum (2–4 µm thick versus 1–2 µm wide), has a different chemical spot test reaction (K− versus K+), and contains different secondary metabolites.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Caloplaca filsonii is only known to grow on the bark of Avicennia marina, a mangrove species. Its distribution is limited to several localities in Queensland, Australia.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca haematommona is a little-known species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It has a very thin, whitish, crust-like thallus dotted with black, spanning about 10–18 mm in width, and apothecia (fruiting bodies) ranging from 0.2–0.8 mm in diameter, and becoming yellow-orange to brownish-orange as they mature. The lichen is known only from its type locality in Western Australia.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by the lichenologists John Alan Elix and Sergey Kondratyuk. The type specimen was collected by the first author from Yilliminning Rock in Western Australia, which is situated 17 km (11 mi) to the east of Narrogin. Discovered on a dead shrub in a crevice of a rock and coexisting with an unclassified Caloplaca species, the specimen was located in a vast, open granite outcrop encircled by arid Eucalyptus forests, at an elevation of 330 m (1,080 ft). The species is species name name refers to the presence of haematommone, a rare metabolite in the genus Caloplaca.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Caloplaca haematommona has a crustose thallus that is very thin or almost absent, measuring approximately 10–18 mm in width. It is somewhat uneven and continuous, with a whitish appearance dotted with black, and is about 15 μm thick.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The species features apothecia that range from 0.2–0.8 mm in diameter. Initially, these are biatorine or rarely zeorine, with a very thin or absent thalline margin. They become distinctly sessile as they mature, featuring a well-developed proper margin approximately 50–75 μm thick, usually coloured yellow-orange to dull, brownish-orange. The disc ranges from brownish-orange to orange-red. The hymenium is about 60–70 μm high, underlain by a hyaline (translucent) subhymenium. Paraphyses (filament-like support structures in the hymenium) in Caloplaca haematommona are distinctively septate, slightly wider towards the tips, and richly branched. Ascospores have a thick cell wall at the poles, measuring 9–14 by 5–7 μm, with a septum 4–6 μm thick.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Chemical analysis using standard spot tests reveals that the true exciple and epithecium react K+ (reddish violet, turning bluish violet), with the contents of the ascus becoming purplish. Major chemicals constituents include atranorin and haematommone.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Caloplaca haematommona is characterised by its very thin or absent whitish thallus, biatorine apothecia with yellow-orange proper margins, and brownish orange-red discs. It features highly branched paraphyses, particularly towards the tips, and ascospores with thick cell walls at the poles. While it bears resemblance to C. holocarpa and C. luteoalba, it is distinguished by its brighter apothecia and chemical composition. The presence of haematommone and atranorin sets it apart from other epiphytic species in its group. The Mediterranean species C. aegatica differs in several aspects, including the presence of a well-developed greyish thallus, oil droplets in the paraphyses, and blackish pycnidia. Caloplaca haematommona also differs from Athallia cerinelloides in the colour of its apothecia and from Lendemeriella borealis in the pigment in its apothecial margin.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "This lichen is found on dead twigs of shrubs and is associated with several other lichen species. At the time of its original publication, Caloplaca haematommona was known to occur only at its type locality in Western Australia.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Central District of Mirabad County (Persian: بخش مرکزی شهرستان میرآباد) is in West Azerbaijan province, Iran. Its capital is the city of Mirabad, whose population at the 2016 National Census was 6,000 people in 1,550 households.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "In 2022, Vazineh District was separated from Sardasht County in the establishment of Mirabad County, which was divided into two districts and two rural districts, with Mirabad as its capital and only city.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "", "title": "References" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca streimannii is a little-known species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. Found in New South Wales, Australia, it is characterised by its powdery soredious mass and numerous tiny apothecia (fruiting bodies).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The type specimen was collected in New South Wales, specifically at Blue Waterholes in the Caves Creek area, located 42 kilometres (26 mi) west-northwest of Adaminaby. The specimen, found at an altitude of 1,250 m (4,100 ft), was growing on a semi-exposed rock face in limestone outcrops within a grassland. The species epithet honours Heiner Streimann, a prominent and prolific collector lichen collector in Australia.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The thallus of Caloplaca streimannii typically appears as large citrine-yellow spots on rock surfaces. It is primarily soredious (powdery-like with soredia) with poorly developed areoles that soon become covered by a soredious mass. These areoles are very small, measuring 0.1–0.3 mm wide, and quickly become convex, eventually disintegrating into schizidia-like formations approximately 60–75 μm wide. The convex areole-like formations within the soredious mass are 0.5–1.5 mm wide, divided by cracks 0.1–0.2 mm wide, and vary in colour from yellow to whitish or greenish-yellow, sometimes appearing bluish-grey.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Apothecia are numerous in this species; they measure 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter. They are lecanorine in nature, with a thalline margin that is somewhat shiny and dull brownish-green-yellow or greenish-yellow with white inclusions. The disc is brownish-yellow or greenish-yellow, occasionally with sparse whitish pruina. The hymenium is approximately 60 μm high, underlain by a very thin, hyaline subhymenium.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Ascospores are narrowly ellipsoid, with a relatively thin septum, typically measuring 11–13 by 4–5.5 μm, with the septum being 2–3 μm thick. Conidiomata have not been observed to occur in this species.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Caloplaca streimannii reacts K+ (violetish) when tested with standard chemical spot tests. It contains parietin as a major secondary metabolite (lichen product), as well as minor amounts of erythroglaucin and xanthorin.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Caloplaca streimannii resembles Flavoplaca limonia in the colour of its soredious mass, but differs as it does not develop conblastidia and has narrower ascospores. The species is somewhat similar to Candelariella due to the scarce pruina on its apothecia. It also bears resemblance to Caloplaca karadagensis but differs in having smaller ascospores and narrower ascospore septa. Additionally, Caloplaca streimannii shares some similarities with the pantropical species C. cupulifera, but is distinguished by its crateriform eroding soralia.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Caloplaca streimannii grows on limestone outcrops in upland grasslands. At the time of its original publication, Caloplaca streimannii was known only from its type collection in New South Wales.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Spyros Koulkoudinas (Greek: Σπύρος Κουλκουδίνας) is a Greek politician from New Democracy. In the June 2023 Greek legislative election he was elected to the Greek parliament representing Pieria constituency.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Chrysothrix palaeophila is a rare species of corticolous (bark-dwelling) lichen in the family Chrysotrichaceae. It is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. The lichen grows in bark fissures that rarely have other lichens. It has an immersed thallus that slightly bleaches the bark it grows on, and tiny apothecia (fruiting bodies) that are densely covered with yellow to yellow-green pruina.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Chrysothrix palaeophila was formally described as a new species in 2007 by the lichenologists Gintaras Kantvilas and John Alan Elix. The type specimen was collected by the first author from Weindorfers Forest, near Cradle Mountain in Tasmania in 1988. The species epithet palaeophila refers to its preference for ancient (Greek, palaeos) trees. It is closely related to C. chrysophthalma, found in the temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere, but differs primarily in its chemical composition.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The species is characterised by an endophloeodal (immersed) thallus, barely visible as a bleaching of the bark substrate. It has a unicellular green algal photobiont, with their spherical cells dispersed or aggregated in chains. The apothecia of the lichen are scattered, measuring 0.1–0.3 mm wide, convex to more or less spherical in shape, and typically densely covered with yellow to yellow-green pruina. The ascospores are fusiform (spindle-shaped) to ellipsoid, contain three septa, and measure 10–15 by 2.5–4 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Chrysothrix palaeophila contains vulpinic acid as a major secondary metabolite (lichen product), along with pulvinic dilactone in minor or trace amounts.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "This species has a restricted distribution, known only from a few collections in Tasmania. It is found in cool temperate rainforest or wet eucalypt forest, predominantly on ancient conifers such as Lagarostrobos franklinii and Athrotaxis selaginoides, as well as on Eucalyptus obliqua. In 2012, Chrysothrix palaeophila, described as \"very rare\", was known to occur in four locations.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Chrysothrix palaeophila grows in fissures on dry, cracked wood and dry, fibrous bark, which are environments that are typically devoid of other lichens. This cryptic nature suggests it may have been overlooked in other locations. Its growth appears to be restricted to the trunks of ancient trees.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Elixjohnia bermaguiana is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It is found in Australia. The lichen is characterised by its varying areoles, which are thin to moderately thick, flat to slightly convex, and range from bright yellow to whitish in colour, sometimes with a greenish-yellow hue. Its apothecia (fruiting bodies) are small, with a distinct orange margin and a raised brownish-orange or yellowish-brown disc.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as a new species in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The type specimen was collected by the first author from Beares Beach in the Bermagui township (New South Wales), where it was found growing on rock in sandy outcrops. The species epithet refers to the type locality. Kondratyuk and Jae-Seoun Hur transferred it to the genus Elixjohnia in 2017.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The thallus of Elixjohnia bermaguiana is characterised by areoles that range from very thin to somewhat thicker, measuring 0.2–0.5 (up to 0.7) mm in width and 0.1–0.15 mm in thickness. These areoles are typically plane to slightly convex, and may be densely aggregated or sometimes dispersed. The colour of the thallus varies from bright yellow to whitish, whitish grey, or whitish yellowish, occasionally showing a greenish-yellow hue in certain areas.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Apothecia in this species are relatively small, generally measuring 0.3–0.4 mm in diameter. They are distinctly zeorine with a thalline margin that may appear yellow, whitish, or whitish grey. This margin tends to disappear at maturity but is still noticeable. The proper margin of the apothecia is orange and about 50–75 μm thick, leading to a brownish-orange or yellowish-brown disc that is noticeably raised. The true exciple is 35–50 μm thick at its uppermost lateral portion and is raised above the level of the hymenium, tapering to about 15–20 μm thick in the middle of lateral and in the basal portions. This exciple is scleroplectenchymatous, either with a matrix or separate hyphae, and cell lumina measuring approximately 1–1.5 μm wide.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The thalline margin is about 80 μm thick, with an algal layer extending to the middle of the hymenium level, measuring 50–60 μm thick. The cortex of this margin is 7–10 μm thick and composed of algal plectenchyma. The hymenium of Elixjohnia bermaguiana is 80–90 μm high, with an epithecium that is 10–15 μm thick and brightly yellow. Paraphyses are 1.5–2 μm in diameter at the lower part, distinctly septate and attenuated at the septum, and thin towards the tips at about 2–3 μm thick. These paraphyses are richly branched, often featuring oil cells as intermediate 2–3 segments together, typically measuring 4–6 μm in diameter, and occasionally very widened at 7–8 μm in diameter.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The subhymenium is approximately 50 μm thick and contains oil droplets. Asci typically contain 8 (less commonly 6 to 4) spores, with ascospores mostly of the same size. These ascospores are relatively long, with a wide septum, measuring 9–14 by 4.5–7 μm, with the septum usually 4–6 μm thick.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Elixjohnia bermaguiana is predominantly found in coastal environments, where it establishes itself on a diverse range of rocky substrates, including granite, mudstone, and quartzite. This lichen typically grows in open, sun-exposed settings and is often found cohabiting with species like Sirenophila eos and Xanthoria ligulata. As a common yellow coastal lichen within the genus Elixjohnia, its presence has been recorded across various regions in Australia, including Western Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Spyros Kyriakis (Greek: Σπύρος Κυριάκης) is a Greek politician from New Democracy. In the June 2023 Greek legislative election he was elected to the Greek parliament representing Preveza constituency.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Lloyd Frederick Walker (born 7 January 1959) is an Australian former rugby union international.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "An Indigenous Australian (Bidjigal), Walker was born and raised in Sydney, attending Matraville High School. He was captain of the school's 1st XV and featured in two Waratah Shield wins.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Walker was capped eight times for the Wallabies, debuting at fly-half in the 1988 Bledisloe Cup matches. The rest of his appearances were as an inside centre and included the 1989 British Lions tour to Australia. He played 225 first-grade matches for Randwick and was a member of nine premiership teams.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "\"Gleesh Place\" is a song by American rapper King Von. It was released on October 23, 2020, as the fifth single from Von's debut studio album Welcome to O'Block released the subsequent October 30, 2020. The song represented the number eight on the album tracklist.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "\"Gleesh\" on the song name is referred to his O'Block friend Gleesh, which house is part of the set where the song story is depicted.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The first few bars are part of the first hook and are simplistic statements highlighting some of the hardcore and ruthless crimes that occur on O-Block, the neighborhood that he, as well as Chief Keef and even Michelle Obama, are all from. As he makes his way through the verse, his enthusiasm and passion continuously elevate and Bennett begins to get into an actual story about one of the heists he pulled off, in fact starting off at the event where he robbed someone, quickly making his way back to his homie Gleesh’s apartment, where the duo quickly realize he took about fifty thousand dollars, immediately fantasizing about all the things they’re going to buy with their newfound wealth. all this is indicated by the lines: \"I'm posted in Parkway, fuck what the narcs say,\" \"Just hit a quick stain, now I'm runnin' through gang ways / Jump the tall gate, hit a hallway / Ran to the fifth floor, now I'm at Gleesh place.\" Their celebration is cut short as the cops bust down the door, sending him into yet another hook. With the song Bennett revealed the fact that all that he said in his songs are real-life things that occur in his day to day existence and not things that he flaunts to impress the listener.", "title": "Composition" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The Instrumental was produced by Wheezy, and it is characterized by momentous synths which start out soft with a low volume as it builds into an epic basis for Von to go off the rails and unleash his narrative. When he does come in, additional synths, percussions, and clean 808s also enter into the picture with him.", "title": "Composition" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The official music video, filmed at O-Block itself, was released the same day and it was directed by frequent collaborator Jerry Productions, where Von as always does an impeccable job at bringing his stories to life even more than he does with his words, reenacting the scenes that unfold as if they’re happening in real-time. When the song begins and Von spits the hook, he’s decked out in his diamond-studded chain and designer clothing as he’s surrounded by his crew who are all smoking blunts and bouncing around to the record. Getting into his verse, he reenacts the robbery or probably a lick, he pulls off, reaching into a guy’s car and taking a bag, jetting off into the night. As he runs down a sidewalk, he gets to a door which he enters and leaps up the steps of this building, eventually arriving at Gleesh’s home. He then empties the bag onto the couch, revealing the money and reenacting the celebration that he and his friend have. Basically, no time passes before two officers bust in through the front door, sending the two individuals running out the back in different directions. The cops seem to be confused, one taking the stairs up while the other takes them down on the hunt for Von and Gleesh. The video comes to an end before any sort of resolution occurs, but the storyline is absolutely unbelievable, nonetheless.", "title": "Music video" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Danny Adams considered “Gleesh Place” is yet another example of why King Von could have been as good of an author as he was a Rapper, also praising his storytelling as truthful and captivating same as his ruthless and aggressive demeanor. He also considered King Von as the best storyteller ever out of Chicago Drill scene.", "title": "Critical reception" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Elixjohnia gallowayi is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It has a vividly coloured thallus, ranging in hues from bright red to reddish-orange. It is found in Australia.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as a new species in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk, Ingvar Kärnefelt, and Rex Filson. The type specimen was collected by the second author from west of Wynyard on Boat Harbour Beach in Tasmania, where it is locally abundant on coastal rocks. The authors initially classified it in the genus Caloplaca. The species epithet honours David J. Galloway. In 2013, Ulrik Søchting and colleagues proposed a transfer to the genus Sirenophila. The species was finally moved to genus Elixjohnia in 2017.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Caloplaca gallowayi has a vividly coloured thallus, ranging in hues from bright red to reddish-orange. This colouration remains consistent throughout the thallus, without any distinct zonation, though it can appear as a mix of reddish spots combined with orange to whitish tones. The prothallus is well-developed, with an undulating margin that can vary significantly in size, from a slender 0.1 mm up to a broader 1 mm. There are additionally marginal fragments present, ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 mm (up to 1 mm in some cases), with varying shades of orange, red-orange, or yellowish-orange. The surface of the thallus is either continuous or shows narrow cracks, with the marginal areoles often elongating and occasionally housing conidia. The thallus thickness is up to 100 μm and features a paraplectenchymatous cortex.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Apothecia are typically small, measuring between 0.2 and 0.4 mm in diameter. They can be numerous and clustered or sparsely scattered and barely noticeable. They have a deep orange-red or scarlet hue. The biatorine apothecia initially have a somewhat zeorine structure, transitioning to a red or reddish-orange proper margin and disc, contrasting with a slightly lighter thalline margin. The disc is usually a shade darker than the proper margin, matte, and without pruina. The proper margin of the apothecia, at the topmost lateral part, measures about 35–40 μm wide with rounded cells approximately 5 μm in diameter, and 10–15 μm thick at the base. The hymenium is relatively low at 45–50 μm, while the subhymenium is narrow at 15–20 μm and straw-yellowish in colour. Paraphyses are about 1.5 μm in diameter at the base, branching sparingly and not significantly widening towards the tips, and measure up to 3 μm in diameter. Oil cells are typically located in the middle or uppermost cells, measuring 4–6 μm in diameter. Asci generally contain 8 similarly developed ascospores, although sometimes they hold 6-4 (rarely 2) well-developed ascospores. Ascospores range in size from 9–14 by 5–6.5 μm, with a septum thickness of (3–)5–6 μm. Conidia (asexual spores) are broadly ellipsoid to bacilliform, sized 2–3 by 1.2–1.7 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Elixjohnia gallowayi is commonly found in coastal environments, particularly favouring rocky terrains. It often coexists with other species of the Caloplaca (in the broad sense, or sensu lato) genus, such as Tarasginia tomareeana, T. whinrayi, Sirenophila eos, and various others. The species thrives in open, exposed locations and is frequently observed on boulders that are subject to wave action.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In terms of its geographic spread, Elixjohnia gallowayi is one of the most prevalent red coastal species of Caloplaca (sensu lato) across Australia. Its distribution is extensive, with known occurrences in various regions spanning from Western Australia (encompassing South Australia) through to New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Liberalism and Democracy (Italian: Liberalismo e democrazia) is a 1985 book by the Italian political scientist Norberto Bobbio.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The book is about the relationship between liberalism and democracy, covered in 17 chapters grouped in 3 parts. The first part is about the origin and constituents of liberalism, notably its cental idea of individual rights, which would have been alien to the ancient world in which democracy originated. The second part is a modern history of liberal and democratic movements, including their often turbulent interactions and the recent concept of liberal democracy, which seeks to combine them. The third part is about challenges to liberal democracy, such as socialism, economic liberalism, lack of governance, populism and authoritarian forms of democracy.", "title": "Summary" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In Differentia: Review of Italian Thought, Edmund E. Jacobitti wrote that despite Bobbio's assurance that liberalism and democracy rarely are antagonistic, the book portrays an old conflict between individual ambitions and the demands of a society. Jacobitti wrote that the book describes the ways in which liberals and democrats have debated and that it is regrettable it does not devote more space to arguing for the necessity of dialogues and conflicts between them, asking, \"what will the world's fate be if ever an evil, hypnotic, and wealthy liberal does wed the elusive demos?\"", "title": "Reception" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Filsoniana australiensis is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It is found in Australia. The lichen forms patches up to 9 cm wide, with dull pink to brownish pink lobes and a verrucose central area. It has distinctive, raised reddish-orange apothecia (fruiting bodies).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as Caloplaca australiensis in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk, Ingvar Kärnefelt, and Rex Filson. The type specimen was collected by the second author in Western Australia at Merredin Peak in Merredin. This particular specimen was found growing on sun-exposed rocks located in an area dominated by scrub vegetation on shallow soils. The collection site is a mount consisting entirely of monolithic granite. In 2013, the taxon was transferred to Filsoniana, a newly proposed genus that was segregated from Caloplaca.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Filsoniana australiensis has a thallus that typically spans 8–30 mm (5⁄16–1+3⁄16 in) wide, but also forms larger patches up to 5–9 cm (1+15⁄16–3+9⁄16 in). The thallus has distinct lobes, usually dull pink to dirty brownish pink, with marginal lobes measuring 1–3.5 millimetres (1⁄32–1⁄8 in) long. These lobes are thin and convex, often with white pruina at the tips and are interspersed with deep fissures. The central thallus area is characterised by irregularly shaped, convex areoles ranging from 0.3–0.8 mm in width, forming a verrucose or papillose texture.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Apothecia of Filsoniana australiensis range from 0.3–0.9 mm, occasionally up to 1.4 millimetres (1⁄16 in) in diameter. They are prominently raised above the substrate and have a reddish-orange disc. The thalline margin is thick and rose-coloured, while the proper margin is orange. The hymenium and subhymenium layers are distinct, with the former measuring 50–70 μm in height and the latter containing oil droplets. Ascospores are variable in size, generally long with a wide septum. In terms of standard chemical spot tests, it is K+ (violetish).", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Filsoniana australiensis shares some resemblance with the Asian species Caloplaca scrobiculata in terms of its overall appearance and dull colouration. It can be distinguished by its eroded (scrobiculate) surface texture and a brighter thallus hue, which is attributed to the exposure of its white medullary layer. Unlike C. scrobiculata, F. australiensis lacks marginal lobes and has a different type of ascospores, along with a distinct geographical distribution.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "When compared to the species Tarasginia tomareeana, F. australiensis is characterised by its dull pink thallus and thalline margin. The two species also differ in the morphology of their marginal and central thallus areas, as well as in the nature of their apothecia, with F. australiensis having lecanorine apothecia as opposed to the zeorine form in T. tomareeana.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Additionally, F. australiensis can be differentiated from the more commonly found species Filsoniana scarlatina and Filsoniana rexfilsonii. While these species share similar palisade inclusions in the cortical layer, F. australiensis sets itself apart with its almost rounded hyphal cells and unusually wide lumina measuring 4–5 μm.", "title": "Similar species" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Filsoniana australiensis is typically found on various rock types including granite, quartzite, basaltic, sandstone, and schist, preferring sun-exposed locations. This species is recognised as the most prevalent among the pinkish-coloured inland variants of the genus Caloplaca (in the broad sense). Its presence has been recorded across a range of inland regions in Australia, including Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "A list of members of the political party Alternative for Germany.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Henry Bankes (1698/1700 – 23 September 1776) was a British lawyer and politician, who served as Member of Parliament for Corfe Castle.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Bankes was the son of John Bankes MP and his wife Margaret, daughter of Sir Henry Parker Bt MP. He was born in 1698 or 1700 (baptised 2 November 1700).", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "He was educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge (B.A. 1724, M.A. 1728, Fellow 1723–29). He was admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1720, and called to the bar in 1726.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Bankes was King's Counsel to the Duchy of Lancaster 1738–61, and deputy chief justice of the South Wales circuit 1745–49.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Corfe Castle was a family seat, which Bankes' grandfather, father, and brother John Bankes MP had represented. At the 1741 general election, John stood aside for Henry, who was elected unopposed. He was re-elected unopposed in 1747, 1754 and 1761. Henry was initially a Tory opponent of the government, consistently voting against the government in his first parliament. However, he was made King's Counsel in 1747 on the recommendation of Lord Gower, another ex-Tory convert to the government, and thereafter acted with the government. Bankes stood down from parliament in 1762, to accept appointment as a Commissioner of HM Customs.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Bankes married firstly, on 30 December 1738, Eleanor Symonds, daughter of Richard Symonds of London. They had no children.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Bankes married secondly, on 11 June 1753, Margaret Wynne, daughter of John Wynne, Bishop of Bath and Wells. They had three children:", "title": "Family" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Filsoniana kiamae is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It is found in Australia. The lichen forms small rosettes with brownish-orange areoles, and it occasionally develops isidia. Its rare apothecia (fruiting bodies) are round, with brownish-orange margins and a reddish disc.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as a new species in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The species epithet refers to Kiama township, its type locality. The type specimen was collected by the first author on rock outcrops along the coast. Initially classified in the genus Caloplaca, it has been proposed for inclusion in the genus Squamulea in 2013, and later transferred by Kondratyuk and colleagues to Filsoniana in 2013.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Filsoniana kiamae typically forms rosettes ranging in size from 3 to 15 mm in diameter. The thallus is often discernible, especially in the peripheral zone, which is usually about 2–3 mm wide and has a brownish-orange hue. The areoles or squamules of this species measure 0.7–1.8 mm in length, 0.5–1.2 mm in width, and are 0.3–0.4 mm thick, occasionally reaching up to 1 mm. Terminal portions of these areoles can be dissected into smaller sections, measuring 0.2–0.5 mm in width and up to 0.7 mm in length, with lateral dissected portions typically overlapping and measuring 0.3–0.4 mm in width. These areoles are flat to somewhat convex and tightly adhered to the substrate, with their upper surface having a brownish-orange to greenish-brownish orange colour.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In cross-section, the thallus of Filsoniana kiamae is about 150–350 μm thick. It has a paraplectenchymatous cortex approximately 20–30 μm thick, with cells measuring 4–9 μm in width. The algal layer can be up to 200 μm thick but is not continuous. The blastidious mass, slightly brighter in colour, ranges from yellow to dull yellow. Blastidia are typically about 25–30 μm in diameter, originating from the underside along laterally dissected portions and sometimes on terminal portions, occasionally evolving into isidia up to 100 μm in diameter. In larger rosettes, the blastidious mass is confined to the central part, with a peripheral zone of 1–2 mm typically lacking blastidia.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The apothecia of Filsoniana kiamae are relatively rare, measuring 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. They are sessile, round, flat, and can be either lecanorine or zeorine in type, with brownish-orange thalline and proper margins, and a reddish to reddish-brown disc. The thalline margin is approximately 80 μm thick, while the proper exciple is 70–100 μm thick at its uppermost lateral portion, reducing to 15–20 μm in the lower lateral and basal portions. The exciple is scleroplectenchymatous with a matrix and cell lumina of 1–1.5 μm in diameter. The hymenium is 75–80 μm high, and the subhymenium, which can contain oil droplets up to 3 μm in diameter, is about 50 μm thick. Paraphyses are slightly expanded towards their tips, reaching up to 7 μm in diameter, often containing oil droplets in the upper cells. The spores of Filsoniana kiamae are characteristically wide with slightly expanded septa, measuring 10–16 by 6–8 μm, with a septum of 1–4 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Chemically, the thallus and apothecia are K+ (red), C−, and I−. The species contains parietin as its major lichen product, along with minor amounts of fallacinal, traces of parietinic acid, and teloschistin.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Filsoniana kiamae is typically found in natural indentations and fissures of granite rock outcrops, as well as on sandy limestone surfaces. The species is known to inhabit various regions across southern Australia. Its presence has been recorded in a number of dispersed locations, including Western Australia, South Australia, and New South Wales.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "{Short description|1988 novel by Australian writer Rodney Hall}}", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Captivity Captive (1988) is a novel by Australian writer Rodney Hall. It was originally published by Farrar Straus and Giroux in US in 1988.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "This is Book 3 of The Yandilli Trilogy, but the first to be published. The other books in the trilogy are: The Second Bridegroom (1991) and The Grisly Wife (1993).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1898 two sisters and brother are found dead in a paddock, badly beaten and then shot to death. Over 50 years later, with the case still unsolved, Patrick Malone attempts to make sense of the mystery.", "title": "Synopsis" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Writing in The Canberra Times reviewer Judith Lukin noted: \"With this novel Hall proves himself to be an outstanding figure on the Australian literary scene — a writer of quite stunning versatility and truly shocking power...This is a vitally sensual novel, dark and smooth, a terrifying story slashed with loveliness. Hall the poet has found yet another voice as novelist. The book courts the reader with the what-might-have-been and the unimaginable, with a story back-lit as plausible tragedy by the senseless and loveless atrocity of the Great War which was to follow. The family's fate binds love with death and holds not only the murder victims but all the family captives of that violent love in an intertwining that makes the end seem unavoidably natural.\"", "title": "Critical reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "After its original publication in 1988 in US by publisher Farrar Straus and Giroux the novel was later reprinted as follows:", "title": "Publication history" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The novel was also translated into French and Danish in 1988, and German in 1990.", "title": "Publication history" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Filsoniana rexfilsonii is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. Found in Australia, it was formally described as a new species in 2007. The thallus of Filsoniana rexfilsonii comprises brownish-orange squamules each hosting one to four reproductive structures.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was first formally described in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt; it was initially placed in the genus Caloplaca. The type specimen of Caloplaca rexfilsonii was collected by the first author in New South Wales at Kiama, specifically from Coronation Park; the specimen was found on rock outcrops situated along the ocean coast. The species epithet honours Australian lichenologist Rex Bertram Filson. The taxon was transferred to the genus Filsoniana in 2013.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The thallus of Filsoniana rexfilsonii comprises squamules ranging from 0.4 to 2.0 mm in width and 0.4 to 0.6 mm in thickness. Each areole of the thallus typically hosts 1 to 4 conidiomata or apothecia. These squamules are generally flat, sometimes slightly overlapping, and are centrally attached, with marginal portions appearing to peel away. The colour of the squamules is brownish-orange, frequently marked with irregular whitish spots or lines. In cross-section, the marginal fragments of the thallus measure approximately 120 to 205 μm in thickness, while the central part of the areoles is about 150 to 250 μm thick.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The cortex of the thallus is between 50 to 150 (sometimes up to 200) μm thick, consisting of palisade tissue approximately 100 to 200 μm thick. There is a necrotic layer about 10 to 15 μm thick, and the epicortex is around 10 to 12 μm thick, with a bright yellow colour. The algal layer varies, being continuous to uneven, often forming columns between 20 and 250 μm thick. The medulla, resembling palisade tissue and measuring around 150 to 250 μm thick, is less distinct and appears as a loose network of hyphae 4 to 6 (less commonly, up to 8) μm wide.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The apothecia (fruiting bodies) of Filsoniana rexfilsonii are 0.3 to 0.7 mm in diameter with a slightly raised margin. The thalline margin matches the thallus in colour, while the proper margin and disc are dark orange. The hymenium stands about 80 to 90 μm high, with a layer below the hypothecium that is paraplectenchymatous. The true exciple is scleroplectenchymatous, measuring 15 to 20 μm thick in the lower lateral and basal portions. The paraphyses are apically widened to 4 to 6 μm in diameter and contain oil droplets, with rare occurrences of oil cells. The spores vary greatly in development within the same ascus, often with only 2 to 4 to 6 well-developed ascospores, typically measuring 16–20 by 7–10 μm, with a septum that is 2–5 μm. The conidia are bacilliform, measuring 3.4 to 3.6 by 1 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Chemically, the thallus and epihymenium of Filsoniana rexfilsonii react K+ (red) and C−. It contains parietin as the major component, with minor amounts of fallacinal, parietinic acid, teloschistin, and trace amounts of physcoin bisanthrone.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Filsoniana rexfilsonii is found in a variety of habitats, commonly found on an array of rock types including basalts, dolerites, willemite ore, sandstone, granite, schist, and volcanic rocks. The species is adaptable to both sheltered and sun-exposed environments, ranging from coastal areas to subalpine regions and dry Australian localities. It is often seen growing alongside Filsoniana australiensis. Filsoniana rexfilsonii has a wide distribution across Australia, having been recorded in Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. It is also present on Lord Howe Island and in New Zealand.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "TKV may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Neobrownliella montisfracti is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. It is found in Australia. The small lichen has dull pink to grey areoles, characterised by completely immersed, reddish to pink-brown apothecia (fruiting bodies) and lacking soredia and isidia. Its areoles are closely pressed against the substrate, with the apothecia containing small, elongated ascospores and narrowly rod-shaped conidia.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The lichen was formally described as a new species in 2007 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The epithet of the species, montisfracti, alludes to its frequent presence near Broken Hill (montis meaning \"hill\" and fractus meaning \"broken\" in Latin). The type specimen was collected in 2004 north of Northampton on the road to Port Gregory, where it was found growing on sandstone–ironstone rocks. The taxon was transferred to the newly proposed genus Neobrownliella in 2015.", "title": "Taxonomy" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Neobrownliella montisfracti presents as small, rounded spots, typically 5–10 mm wide. The thallus is crustose, ranging from continuous to areolate and thinning considerably towards the periphery. Its colour varies from dull pink to grey, occasionally tinged with rose, or indistinctly coloured. This species is characterised by its completely immersed apothecia (fruiting bodies), which are bright reddish, pink-brown, or reddish-pink in colour, and the lack of soredia and isidia.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The areoles in the central part of the thallus are about 0.3–0.7 mm wide, expanding slightly to 0.4–1.0 mm in the peripheral zone. They are often radially oriented, yet remain closely pressed against the substrate and become thinner towards the edges. The upper surface of the areoles is generally dull pink to brownish-orange, sometimes showing patches of whitish pruina or appearing greyish in some areas. In cross-section, the areoles can be up to 200–250 μm thick, with a necrotic layer up to 10–15 μm and a cortex about 15–20 μm thick, made of palisade paraplectenchymatous tissue.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The apothecia, measuring 0.2–0.3 (sometimes up to 0.7) mm in diameter, are found in the central portion or throughout the thallus. They are entirely immersed in the areoles and occasionally slightly rise above the level of the areole. Typically, there are 1–2 apothecia per areole, although sometimes more (up to 4–5). The proper margin of the apothecia is usually not visible, but when apparent, it is about 50 μm thick, hyaline (translucent) or somewhat rose. The discs of the apothecia are initially slightly concave, soon becoming flat and are rose or dull reddish-brown in colour, turning yellowish-orange when overmature. The true exciple in cross-section is about 30 μm thick at the uppermost lateral portion, reducing to about 10 μm in the middle lateral portion and 15–20 μm at the basal portion. The hymenium stands 60–70 μm high, with a subhymenium 15–20 μm thick. The paraphyses are well branched in the upper portion, almost not widening towards the tips, measuring about 2–3 μm in diameter. Asci typically contain eight ascospores, which are small and elongated to almost spherical, with a wide septum measuring 7–12 by 5–6.5 μm and a septum thickness of 2.5–3.5 μm. Conidia are narrowly bacilliform, measuring 4 by 1–1.1 μm.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Neobrownliella montisfracti grows predominantly on a variety of siliceous substrates such as quartzite, schist, granite, and sandstone rocks. It is occasionally found on calcareous and man-made substrates like asphalt. This species often coexists with other members of the Caloplaca genus (in the broad sense), such as Filsoniana australiensis and Nevilleiella cfr. lateritia.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "At the time of its original publication, Neobrownliella montisfracti had been recorded in scattered locations across Western Australia, New South Wales, and South Australia. It was reported to occur on Kangaroo Island in 2016.", "title": "Habitat and distribution" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "TKD may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "A Better Man is the second studio album by Irish singer Brian Kennedy, released in 1996. It includes three singles which reached the UK top 40: \"A Better Man\" (No. 28), \"Life, Love & Happiness\" (No. 27) and \"Put the Message in the Box\" (No. 37), a cover of a single by World Party.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Adapted from the album's liner notes.", "title": "Personnel" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Musicians", "title": "Personnel" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Production", "title": "Personnel" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca beaugleholei is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. Found in Australia, it was formally described as a new species in 2009 by lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk and Ingvar Kärnefelt. The type specimen was collected by the authors on the top of a cliff near Marine Drive by Breakaway Beach (Bermagui, New South Wales); there, in a Eucalyptus forest, it was found growing on the bark of a dying Casuarina plant. The species epithet honours Australian botanist Alexander Clifford Beauglehole, who had this rarely collected species in his extensive collection of botanical specimens. Caloplaca beaugleholei occurs in Western Australia, New South Wales, and Victoria.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Preston Michael Mattingly (born August 28, 1987) is an American professional baseball second baseman and executive who is the assistant general manager for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball. He is the son of Don Mattingly.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Mattingly is the son of Kim and Don Mattingly. He was born on August 28, 1987, while his father played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Yankees. He has two brothers: Taylor and Jordon.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Mattingly attended Evansville Central High School, where he played for the school's baseball and basketball teams. He also played basketball in Amateur Athletic Union. In his senior year, Mattingly averaged 20.9 points per game for the basketball team. Pat Knight recruited him to play college basketball at Texas Tech University. He instead signed a letter of intent to play college baseball for the University of Tennessee.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The Los Angeles Dodgers selected Mattingly in the first round, with the 31st overall selection, of the 2006 MLB draft. He signed with the Dodgers, receiving a $1 million signing bonus. He had a .290 batting average with the Gulf Coast Dodgers after signing. However, he struggled in Class A from 2007 to 2010. He batted .210 with the Great Lakes Loons in 2007 and .224 in 2008. With the Inland Empire 66ers, he batted .238 with 150 strikeouts in 2009 and batted .194 in 2010.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "On September 26, 2010, the Dodgers traded Mattingly to the Cleveland Indians for minor leaguer Roman Pena. The Indians released him in April 2011, before the season, and the Dodgers re-signed him. He played for Great Lakes and the Rancho Cucamonga Quakes in 2011 and batted .232. On January 11, 2012, the Yankees signed Mattingly to a minor league contract. They released him on March 27.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In July 2013, Mattingly received an athletic scholarship from Lamar University to play college basketball for the Lamar Cardinals basketball team as a guard. Knight was the coach of the Cardinals. Mattinly became the team captain for the Cardinals and graduated from Lamar in 2016.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "After graduating from Lamar, Mattingly worked for the San Diego Padres as manager of scouting for three years and then as coordinator of major league advance scouting and game planning for two years. In September 2021, the Philadelphia Phillies hired him as their director of player development. In November 2023, he was promoted to assistant general manager.", "title": "Executive career" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "TJA may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Caloplaca clavatoisidiata is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Teloschistaceae. Found in Australia, it was formally described as a new species in 2009 by the lichenologists Sergey Kondratyuk, Ingvar Kärnefelt, and Jan Vondrák. The type specimen was collected by the third author from Porcupine Gorge National Park (Hughenden, Queensland) at an altitude between 550 and 600 m (1,800 and 1,970 ft); there, it was found growing on sandstone. It is only known to occur at the type locality. The species epithet refers to the clavate (club-shaped) isidia.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Peter Gruver Carey (November 11, 1828 – June 4, 1897) was an American politician from Pennsylvania. He served as a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, representing Chester County from 1874 to 1876.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Peter Gruver Carey was born on November 11, 1828, in Coventry Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania. He grew up on a farm.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "As a young man, Carey moved to Phoenixville and worked as a clerk. He was a businessman and served 25 years as justice of the peace of Phoenixville. He was elected burginess in Phoenixville.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Carey was a Republican. He served as a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, representing Chester County from 1874 to 1876. He was elected to the council of Phoenixville. He resigned as president of the council in 1897.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Carey was director of the Chester County Mutual Fire Insurance Company for 25 years. He was also director of the Guarantee Trust and Safe Deposit Company of Chester County. He was president of the National Bank of Phoenixville from 1890 to his death.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Carey lived on West Church Street in Phoenixville. He died on June 4, 1897, at his home in Phoenixville. He was interred at Morris Cemetery in Phoenixville.", "title": "Personal life" } ]

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