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[ [ "Ballarat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ballarat''' ( ) () is a city in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia.", "Ballarat has a population of 117,240, making it the third largest city in Victoria.Within months of Victoria separating from the colony of New South Wales in 1851, gold was discovered near Ballarat, sparking the Victorian gold rush.", "Ballarat subsequently became a thriving boomtown that for a time rivalled Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, in terms of wealth and cultural influence.", "In 1854, following a period of civil disobedience in Ballarat over gold licenses, local miners launched an armed uprising against government forces.", "Known as the Eureka Rebellion, it led to the introduction of white male suffrage in Australia, and as such is interpreted as the origin of Australian democracy.", "The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol.Proclaimed a city on 9 September 1870, Ballarat's prosperity, unlike that of many other gold boomtowns, continued until the late 19th century, as the city's fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades.", "By the turn of the century, Ballarat's importance relative to Melbourne rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction.", "It has endured as a major regional centre and is the commercial capital and largest city of the Central Highlands, as well as a significant tourist destination.", "Ballarat is known for its history, culture and well-preserved colonial-era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory and European settlement ===The Ballarat region was first populated by the Wadawurrung people, an Indigenous Australian people.", "The first Europeans to sight the area were an August 1837 party of six men, including Thomas Livingstone Learmonth and Henry Anderson, who scaled Mount Buninyong.", "Some of this party set off again in January 1838, this time with others including Thomas' brother Somerville Learmonth and William Cross Yuille and his cousin Archibald Buchanan Yuille.The Yuille cousins arrived in 1838 and took up a sheep run at Ballarat.", "The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek (Sebastopol) by Henry Anderson and taken over by the Yuilles.", "William Yuille established a hut on the northern edge of the swamp which would be called Yuille's Swamp, later Lake Wendouree.", "Archibald Yuille named his property \"Ballaarat\", from the local Wathaurong Aboriginal words, ''balla'' and ''arat'', meaning a camping or 'resting place', with the word 'balla' meaning bent elbow.", "Both 'Ballaarat' and 'Ballarat' were used interchangeably until the present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1994, when the city amalgamated with surrounding local government areas.=== Gold rush era ===Painting by Eugene von Guerard of Ballarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–54.The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851, in Buninyong to the south.", "The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851, more gold was found at Poverty Point.", "Within days, a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee Valley, which became known as the Ballarat diggings.", "Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day.", "As news of the Victorian gold rush reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield.", "As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills.", "Within a few months, numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people.The first post office opened on 1 November 1851, the first to open in a Victorian gold-mining settlement.", "Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851.By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement.", "The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair.", "These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.The first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period.", "Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement.", "Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.Troopers storm the rebels' stockade during the 1854 Eureka Rebellion.Civil disobedience in Ballarat led to an armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \"Eureka Stockade\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854.The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.The city earned the nickname \"The Golden City\" in the 1850s.", "The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858.However the early population was largely itinerant.", "As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857.By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing.", "A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906.The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town.", "As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.=== Post gold rush ===Dana Street, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, c. 1872From the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city.", "The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare.", "The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay.", "The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit.", "The later attempt by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell to assassinate the Prince was met with shock and great horror from locals.Ballarat was proclaimed a city in 1871.Gong Gong dam was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply.", "A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889.Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.=== 20th century ===The intersection of Lydiard and Sturt streets, c. 1905, shows a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.Development of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry.Local boosters at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \"Athens of Australia\", first used to describe Ballarat by the jurist and politician Sir John Madden.", "The first electricity supply was completed in 1901, and that year a bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade with the main aim of electrifying the city's tramway network.", "Despite such advancements, mining activity slowed at this time and Ballarat's growth all but stopped, leading to a decades-long period of decline.", "The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents, and in August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and the injury of seven others, as well as the destruction of numerous homes.Ballarat's significant representation in World War I resulted in heavy human loss.", "Around this time, it was overtaken in population by the port city of Geelong, further diminishing its provincial status.", "In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917.The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.The city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.While deep, the depression was also brief.", "The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system.", "In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established.", "By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city.", "During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons.", "In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line.", "Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.During World War II, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and decommissioned on 29 August 1944.Usually consisting of four tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued.", "In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred.", "An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West).", "The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses.", "While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city.", "On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street.", "A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission.", "The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953.Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954.The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955.On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake.", "On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.During the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage.", "In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city.", "The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings.", "By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation.", "With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.During the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West.", "Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s.", "The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city.", "Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.Ballarat played an important role in the Stolen Generation throughout the 20th century, where the Ballarat Orphanage saw Aboriginal children who had been taken from their families.", "The Ballarat and District Aboriginal Co-operative (BADAC) was established by members of the Ballarat and district Aboriginal community in 1979.It became a co-operative to deliver health, social, welfare and community development programs to local Aboriginal people.", "In 2017, local Aboriginal community elder Ted Lovett was awarded the Order of Australia Medal for services to the indigenous community and for his works in eliminating racism in sports in south-west Victoria.", "Karen Heap and Ted Lovett were listed on the Victoria's Aboriginal Honour Role both in part for their work at BADAC.=== 21st century ===View of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican ChurchThe city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century.", "In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre.", "The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse final report, published on 15 December 2017, found that 139 people made a claim of child sexual abuse to the Diocese of Ballarat between 1980 and 2015, and 21 alleged perpetrators were identified in these claims.", "Seventeen of the 21 alleged and convicted perpetrators were priests, which is 8.7% of the priests who ministered during this period.", "About 45 victims are estimated to have committed suicide." ], [ "Geography", "Ballarat's skyline is hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.Mount Warrenheip dominating the skyline from Dawson Street, with the town hall clock tower on the right.Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria.", "Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its elevated position and moderate hills and terrain with a lack of any alpine mountains that are situated a few hundred kilometres NE.", "The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland volcanic plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong (750m, 2460 ft) and Warrenheip (746m, 2446 ft), which are the area's tallest peaks.", "As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil.", "Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz.", "Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests.", "The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex.", "Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's .", "Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban.", "From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong.", "The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs.", "The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.===Urban structure===Map of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal areaThe city is home to nationally significant heritage structures.", "These include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).Ballarat is a primarily low-rise city.", "The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres.", "The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994).", "Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles.", "Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes.", "Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.The central business district (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant Street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River.", "Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west.", "To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree, Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman.", "Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary.", "This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe.", "In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created.", "New activity centres have been developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.===Architecture===Victorian era buildingsBallarat is renowned for its Victorian architectural heritage.", "In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.", "The city's history is a major focus of the Collaborative Research Centre in Australian History, part of Federation University Australia, and is located at old Ballarat Gaol.The legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area.", "This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.", "Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).", "Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.Streetscape with the former Post Office at the rearBallarat East Fire Station, the oldest continually operating fire station in the Southern Hemisphere, and the site of the first operational telephone, made by Henry Sutton.Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme.", "and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies.", "Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation.", "This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular.", "Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.Ballarat is notable for its very wide boulevards.", "The main street is Sturt Street with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts.", "Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of Avenues of Honour in Victoria.", "The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road.", "Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I.", "The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present.", "Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.", "These include, Robert Burns, Peter Lalor, Sir Albert Coates, Harold Edward Elliott (Pompey Elliot), William Dunstan, King George V, Queen Victoria and more.Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial.", "The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city.", "The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour.", "Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory)." ], [ "Climate", "Ballarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four distinct seasons.", "Its elevation, ranging between above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne, especially in winter.", "The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is .", "In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is .", "Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually, with the majority in summer and early autumn.", "Ballarat has very rainy winters.The city has a reputation for unpredictable and extreme weather, ranging from snowfall to intense heatwaves.", "Perhaps the most infamous feature of Ballarat's climate is the chilly winter, often accentuated by driving winds.", "In 2023, a journalist for ABC Ballarat wrote that Ballarat \"is notorious for its frosty winters and the near year-round puffer jacket uniform of its residents\".", "When measured by mean temperatures, Ballarat is the coldest city in Victoria.Fog is common on autumn and winter mornings but usually dissipates by mid-morning.Temperatures can dip below freezing from May to September, however, a low of 0-2 °C is more common - widespread frosts and fog are a regular sight.", "Snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip a few times a year, but in the urban area only once or twice, particularly during heavy winters.", "Snow has been known to fall heavily with several centimetres accumulating even in the CBD.", "Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s.", "Snowfalls in the urban area have occurred in recent years: November 2006 (light), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light), July 2017 (light), June 2018 (moderate), May 2019 (light), and August and September 2020 (light and heavy).Snowy scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905The mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month ().", "There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year.", "Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall.", "Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally.", "In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of the business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives.", "Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007.More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.The city's mean daily wind run is 470 km, almost twice that of Melbourne, making it one of the windiest cities in Australia.", "This in turn causes warm summers to feel substantially cooler and near-freezing winter days to have a far below zero wind chill.Ballarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave.", "The lowest recorded minimum was on 21 July 1982." ], [ "Environment", "===Natural reserves and commons===Ballarat Town Common in autumn 2018While there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east.", "The most central park to the city is the 130 ha Victoria Park, with a plethora of ovals and fields, playgrounds, walking tracks and quiet roads.", "There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park.", "There are also smaller parks, like Black Hill, Victoria Park, Pioneer Park and Yarowee Reserve, located within walking distance of the city centre.Ballarat is unique in Australia—and internationally—for having retained much of its commons land, which can be used by any resident of Ballarat.", "Ballarat Town Common, Ballarat West Town Common and Ballarat Common are located to the west of the city.", "Ballarat Town Common can be accessed via Howe Street in Miners Rest and is used by dog walkers and ramblers, especially because of its open grass fields and native wetland.", "Ballarat West Town Common is presently farmed on by licensed farmers.", "The commons were reduced in size during the 20th century for property development.The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.===Pollution===Air quality in Ballarat is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces contributes to reductions in visibility in the winter months.", "Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.The Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings.", "Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006.The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.Many parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora.", "Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control.", "European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas." ], [ "Economy", "The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education.", "Secondary sector including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector.", "The city's historic primary sector roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century.", "Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.===Service industries===As a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations.", "Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.Ballarat is the main retail economy in the region.", "The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders.", "There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree.", "better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores.", "Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe.", "Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented.", "Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, ANZ, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo & Adelaide Bank and St George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms.Federation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.In recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.Ballarat West Employment Zone (BWEZ) is located on the north-west fringe of Ballarat, adjacent to the Ballarat Airport, existing rail infrastructure and the Ballarat Western Link Road.", "Ballarat West Employment Zone (BWEZ) will become the engine room for jobs and economic growth in Ballarat over the next 20 years.", "The project involves the development of surplus Crown Land for industrial, wholesale, logistics, construction, commercial and residential uses, encouraging employment growth in Ballarat and the surrounding region.", "BWEZ will also include a freight hub, secure infrastructure and access to road, rail and ports.", "Businesses located un BWEZ include CHS Broadbent, Westlab Pty Ltd, Agrimac, Milestone Benchtops, Kane Transport and Office Vision.====Tourism and hospitality====Main Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.Ballarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people.", "Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.A significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s.", "Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970.Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand.", "Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.Several businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history.", "They include Kryal Castle (1972), \"Gold Rush Mini Golf\" (2002) featuring the \"Big Miner\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.Other tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Wildlife Park.", "A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry.", "The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.Ballarat hosts a number of annual festivals with historical and cultural focus including the Ballarat Begonia Festival, Ballarat Heritage Weekend and Ballarat Beat Rockabilly Festival.===Manufacturing===According to the 2021 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's sixth largest employment sector, accounting for 7% of all workers.Ballarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers.", "The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers.", "McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations.", "The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.Ballarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components.", "Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.===Primary sector===Replica of the \"Welcome Nugget\", found at Ballarat, the second-largest gold nugget discovered in recorded historyThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary sector declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006.Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.Ballarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city.", "Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating.", "There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies.", "Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields.", "Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted.", "An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.Approximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate.", "This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities.", "The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports.", "Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries.", "Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry.", "The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria.", "The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.A$7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.====Renewable energy====Part of the Waubra Wind FarmThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils.", "The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially.", "All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.Wind energy is generated by local wind farms.", "The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat.", "Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population.", "The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford.Hydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes.", "Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm.", "Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes." ], [ "Demographics", "St Peter's Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in BallaratBallarat is the 4th largest inland city in Australia, and the 3rd largest Victorian city behind Melbourne and Geelong.", "According to the 2021 census, there were 111,973 people in Ballarat, a moderate increase from 105,471 in June 2018.This follows annual growth of 1.78% since June 2013 (slightly faster than the national rate of 1.56% during the same period).The recently accelerated growth rate has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with public transport improvements between Ballarat and Melbourne.While most of the city's population can trace their ancestry to Anglo-Celtic descent, 16.3% of the population are born overseas.", "These include people from England (2.1%), India (1.6%), New Zealand (0.9%), China (0.6%), and the Philippines (0.6%).", "8.2% speak a language other than English.", "18.8% of the population is over the age of 65.The median age in Ballarat is 38 years.Ballarat's ethnic make up is partly the result of the mid 19th Century gold rush, where people of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and East Asian descent emigrated here in the hope of landing a fortune.The median income of the local government area of Ballarat in 2019-2010 was $A50,767.According to the 2021 Census, Ballarat's working population include Professionals (22.8%), Community and Personal Service Workers (13.8%), Technicians and Trades Workers (13.8%), Clerical and Administrative Workers (12.3%), and Managers (11.2%).", "The unemployment rate in 2021 was 4.8%.21.9% of the population have completed further education after high school.Christianity is the most common religion in Ballarat.", "Catholics (21.3%), Anglicans (7.9%) and the Uniting Church (4.7%) were the largest Christian denominations.", "47.6% stated they had no religion and a further 5.9% did not answer the question.", ".According to the 2017 Victorian Population Health Survey, Ballarat is home to the fifth largest community of LGBTIQA+ people by LGA in the State." ], [ "Governance", "Ballarat Town HallCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat.", "The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region.", "The city is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting.", "The Mayor of Ballarat, currently Des Hudson, is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term.", "The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.In state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Eureka and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party.", "In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat.", "The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.Law enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong.", "Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol.", "Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street.", "Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965.Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.Public safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations.", "Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree.", "Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol.", "Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services.", "City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police." ], [ "Media", "===Newspapers===Ballarat has two local newspapers, one owned by Australian Community Media and one a private equity.", "''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Ballarat Times News Group'' is a free weekly.", "The latter is distributed across most of the city on Thursday and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, and a classifieds section.", "Ballarat was the hub of Australian Community Media's Victoria production and manufacturing with all printed material for the state coming from the Wendouree print site until it closed in September 2020.===Radio stations===Radio House, Lydiard Street North.", "Home to 3BA and Power FMLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations.", "There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.", "* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \"classic hits\" commercial radio station)* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \"top-40\" commercial radio station)* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)* 107.9 FM – ABC Ballarat (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)===Television===Television station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962.Today Ballarat is serviced by numerous \"free to air\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services.", "Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, WIN HD, 9Life, 9Go!", "and 9Gem (sub-licensees of the Nine Network) and Seven, 7HD, 7two, 7mate, 7Bravo and 7flix (Seven Network owned and operated).", "These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria.", "The city also receives Southern Cross 10, 10 HD, 10 Peach, 10 Bold, 10 Shake and Sky News Regional (sub-licensees of Network 10) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.Ballarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programming.", "*WIN previously presented a 30-minute local ''WIN News'' bulletin from its studios in the city, where ''WIN News'' bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura were also broadcast.", "In 2015, the Ballarat studios closed with production of the regional Victorian news bulletins being relocated to Wollongong in New South Wales, where they now originate from.", "WIN retains reporters and camera crews for its Ballarat bulletin in the city.", "*Southern Cross 10, airs short local news updates like Seven throughout the day, broadcast from its Hobart studios.", "*Seven airs short local news and weather updates throughout the day, broadcast from its Canberra studios with an office in the city.In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government funded ABC (ABC TV, ABC TV Plus, ABC Kids, ABC Me, ABC News) and SBS (SBS TV, SBS Viceland, SBS World Movies, SBS WorldWatch, SBS Food and NITV) television services.On 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas.", "All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only.", "This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.Subscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV." ], [ "Education", "Federation University Australia's SMB campus is set among heritage buildings, including the former School of Mines and Industry (left).Ballarat Mechanics' InstituteBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.Formerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014.It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne.", "The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city.", "The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Berwick, Brisbane, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.The Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street.", "It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909.It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.Ballarat has five State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest.", "Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools.", "The three remaining schools are Phoenix College and the two newly formed schools Mount Rowan Secondary College and Woodmans Hill Secondary College which emerged from the old Ballarat Secondary College.", "Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.The city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.Ballarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.The later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12.Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above.", "In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College.", "Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.The City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the City of Ballarat and located on Doveton Street North.", "Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.", "The Xin Jin Shan Chinese Library opened in 2022.It contains over 240,000 Chinese-language books, reportedly the largest collection in the Southern Hemisphere." ], [ "Arts and culture", "Ballarat Fine Art Gallery, the oldest and largest art gallery in regional AustraliaThe Art Gallery of Ballarat houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works.", "It is the oldest and largest regional gallery in Australia.Federation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.===Events and festivals===Ballarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors.", "The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.Major cultural festivals include the historical Ballarat Welsh Eisteddfods and the annual competitions run by the South Street Society from the late 1880s, later revived as the Royal South Street Eisteddfod which went into recess in 2020 due to COVID-19 restrictions.Lake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953).", "SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.Annual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, WendoureeThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year.", "Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria.", "The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors.", "The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.Other minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennale and the Goldfields Music Festival.===Entertainment===Her Majesty's Theatre, built in 1875Ballarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues.", "Major performing arts venues include the 900 capacity Her Majesty's Theatre, the Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts, Mary's Mount Theatre and the Post Office Box Theatre.The Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue.", "Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years.", "Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and public pressure forced the council to redevelop it in 2018 as a modern performing arts and exposition centre.", "The refurbished building is a modern interpretation of its original 1950s built form and features a 1000 capacity main hall capable of use for concerts, meetings and civic events.Ballarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987.Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959.Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod.", "The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.In the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels.", "The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts.", "By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues.", "Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise.", "The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene.", "Hotels are popular meeting places for young people.", "The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants.", "A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city.", "Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.===Cultural depictions===Ballarat has inspired many visual artists.", "Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes.", "Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.Ballarat is also a popular filming location.", "Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event.", "The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005).", "The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–2017) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.", "The series was picked by the Seven Network, which proposes to make several telemovies without the Blake character, picking up the story line after his death, leaving his widow Jean.Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, the corvette HMAS Ballarat (J184) and the frigate HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155)." ], [ "Sport and recreation", "Ballarat Highlanders Rugby Football Club (est.", "1976) is based at Doug Dean Reserve, Delecombe.", "They play in the statewide Victoria Rugby Championship, which they last won in 2016.They also host the Ballarat Charity 7s (est 2022), a short form version of Rugby Union and all proceeds from the event get donated to a local charity (2022 – Ballarat Men's Mental Health, 2023 – GROW Group Ballarat).", "Current notable players include ex-Fiji 7s star Jone Qorovarua and 2016 Ballarat Championship winner Josh Pyalanda being the current highest capped player (130+).Ballarat Football Club, 1889.The club was founded in 1860 and is one of the oldest football clubs in the world.", "Australian rules football is the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat.", "It has its own dedicated stadium, Eureka Stadium, which serves as a venue of the Australian Football League (AFL), as well as the home ground of the semi-professional North Ballarat Roosters, which formerly competed in the Victorian Football League (VFL).", "The Ballarat Football League, established in 1893, features six local teams, including the Ballarat Football Club, which was founded in 1860 and remains one of the world's oldest football clubs.", "Other Ballarat-based teams compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.Cricket is Ballarat's second most-popular sport.", "It has three international standard cricket ovals, including Eastern Oval, which was one of the host venues of the 1992 Cricket World Cup.", "The Ballarat Cricket Association is the city's principle cricket competition.", "Soccer is also popular in Ballarat.", "Based at Morshead Park Stadium, the semi-professional Ballarat City FC competes in the National Premier League, the third tier competition of Australian soccer.", "Melbourne's Western United FC plays four A-League matches per year at Eureka Stadium.", "Basketball is played in Ballarat with the Ballarat Sports Events Centre hosting South East Australian Basketball League matches involving the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush.", "Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs.Athletics is and has historically been very popular with 4 local clubs competing at the BRAC (Ballarat Regional Athletics Centre) located at the Llanberis Athletics Track in Golden Point, 5 minutes from the CBD.", "The city features a rich and decorated athletics history with Australia's most successful track and field athlete (Jared Tallent - Racewalker), and many other Olympians (Steve Moneghetti, Greg Smith (Paralympian)) having been born in Ballarat.Lake Wendouree hosted the rowing and canoeing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics.Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree, which hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \"Head of the Lake\" rowing regatta.", "The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympic Games.", "Horse racing and greyhound racing are also popular, with dedicated facilities.", "The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November.", "Athletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Golden Point.", "Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool.", "The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located in Lake Gardens.", "Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857, and three local teams compete in the Geelong Baseball Association.Golf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course in Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club.", "The Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009.They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions.Until they were cancelled in July 2023, Ballarat, along with other cities in regional Victoria, was scheduled to host the 2026 Commonwealth Games with Eureka Stadium flagged to host athletics, the Eastern Oval T20 cricket, and Selkirk Stadium to host boxing.Mars Stadium" ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Health===Ballarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wingBallarat has two major hospitals.", "The public health services are managed by Grampians Health Ballarat including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth.", "The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.The Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.The Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.===Utilities===Ballarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.Water supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water.", "Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan.", "The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two-thirds of the city's water usage.", "The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder.", "Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system.", "Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use.", "Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ).", "Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.Residential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.Telephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility.", "The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).", "Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA).", "Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.Data communications are provided by several companies.", "Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001.Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road).", "These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G).", "Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry.", "During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable." ], [ "Transportation", "Avenue of HonourThe motor vehicle is the main form of transport in Ballarat.", "A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham.", "Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287).", "The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes).", "The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.", "Sturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets.", "Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street.", "The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.===Rail===Ballarat railway stationA V/Line train arriving at Ballarat station Ballarat is a major rail transport hub in Victoria.", "Situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines, it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.", "The city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station.", "From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough.", "Since the controversial removal of \"flagship\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes.", "Patronage however has continued to grow.", "The Regional Rail Link project was built in 2015 to separate Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network.", "Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station.", "A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way.", "Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.Ballarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight.===Bus===CDC Ballarat operates the bus network covering the city centre, Ballarat and Wendouree stations, and most surrounding suburbs, contracted by Public Transport Victoria.===Tram===A tourist tram on Wendouree ParadeThe once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway.", "There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.===Airport===Ballarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid.", "Master Plans for the Airport were completed in 2005 and subsequently 2013.The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway, consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal, recommendations for future use of aprons, and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft that would result from the forecast increased frequent usage.", "In 2020, initial Federal funding was provided to enable the re-building and re-instatement of the main north–south runway to 1900m (6233 feet).===Cycling and walking===Ballarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation.", "The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes: the Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail and the Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir.", "Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path.", "The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city.", "The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city." ], [ "Crime", "In 2014, the city was one of a number of Australian regional centres examined by an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud." ], [ "See also", "*List of people from Ballarat" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "'''History books'''* Bate, Weston.", "''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)* Bate, Weston.", "''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)* Carboni, Raffaello.", "''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)* Goodman, David.", "''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)* Jacobs, Wendy.", "''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)* Lynch, John.", "''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?", ")* Flett, James.", "''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''* Molony, John.", "''Eureka'', (1984)* Molony, John.", "''By Wendouree'', (2010)* Serle, Geoffrey.", "''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah.", "''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)* Ballarat City Council* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria" ], [ "External links", "* Ballarat City Council* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.", "* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project* Ballarat TV Guide – All channels currently broadcasting in Ballarat and surrounding areas" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Abritus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Abritus''', also known as the '''Battle of Forum Terebronii''', occurred near Abritus (modern Razgrad) in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior in the summer of 251.It was fought between the Romans and a federation of Gothic and Scythian tribesmen under the Gothic king Cniva.", "The Roman army of three legions was soundly defeated, and Roman emperors Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus were both killed in battle.", "They became the first Roman emperors to be killed by a foreign enemy.", "It was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Empire against the Germanic tribes, rated by the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus as on par with the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, the Marcomannic invasion of Roman Italy in 170, and the Battle of Adrianople in 378.The defeat was a disaster for Rome.", "The emperors' deaths led to more political instability at home; and the loss of the three legions allowed repeated barbarian incursions in the region for the next two decades.The new Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus was forced to allow the Goths to return home with their loot and prisoners.", "The barbarians would not be expelled from Roman territory until 271." ], [ "Location", "The long-debated location of Abritus was thought to be east of the city of Razgrad after excavations by T. Ivanov in 1969 and 1971.However recent work has shown it took place about northwest of Abritus, in the valley of the river Beli Lom, to the south of the village of Dryanovets near the site known locally as \"Poleto\" (the Field).This is evidenced by the large number of Roman coins and arms including swords, shields, spears, armour, greaves, and even military tentpoles found by archaeologists and local residents on the site which must be the last Roman camp.", "For example, in 1952 a pottery vessel was found at ‘Poleto’ containing about 30 aurei in mint condition dating from Gordian III to Trajan Decius." ], [ "Background", "Map of the invasions and the location of the battleSoon after Decius ascended to the throne in 249, barbarian tribes invaded the Roman provinces of Dacia, Moesia Superior, and Moesia Inferior.", "Two factors had contributed to growing unrest in the area north of the Danube.", "First, Decius' predecessor Philip the Arab had refused to continue payments, initiated by Emperor Maximinus Thrax in 238, of annual subsidies to the aggressive tribes of the region.", "Second and more important, there were continuous movements of new peoples since the time of Emperor Severus Alexander.", "Decius may also have taken with him troops from the Danube frontier, in order to depose Philip in 249.He probably had with him three legions: legio XIV Gemina from Carnuntum, legio IV Flavia Felix from Singidunum, and legio VII Claudia from Viminacium and/or their vexillationes.The resultant military vacuum would inevitably attract invaders.In 250 a tribal coalition under Cniva crossed the Roman Danube frontier, probably advancing in two columns.", "Whether these were consisted only of Goths is rather unlikely so the name \"Scythians\" by which the Greek sources called them (a geographical definition) seems more appropriate.", "It is quite possible that other people of Germanic and Sarmatian origin (like Bastarnae, Taifals, and Hasdingian Vandals), perhaps Roman deserters as well, had joined the invaders.", "However, the name of the king is indeed Gothic and probably genuine.", "Meanwhile, the Carpi invaded Dacia, eastern Moesia Superior, and western Moesia Inferior.The first column of Cniva's army, a detachment of about 20,000 or so likely led by the chieftains Argaith and Gunteric, besieged Marcianopolis, without success it seems.", "Then they probably headed south to besiege Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria).", "Cniva's main column of 70,000 under the King himself crossed the Danube at Oescus then headed eastwards to Novae, where he was repelled by the provincial governor (and future emperor) Trebonianus Gallus.", "Then the invaders headed south to plunder Nicopolis ad Istrum where Decius defeated them but not decisively.After these initial setbacks, the barbarians moved southwards through Haemus mountain and Decius pursued them (likely through the Shipka Pass) to save Philippopolis.", "This time Decius' army was taken by surprise while resting at Beroe/Augusta Traiana.", "The Romans were heavily defeated in the ensuing Battle of Beroe.", "Decius was forced to withdraw his army to the north at Oescus, leaving Cniva ample time to ravage Moesia and finally capture Philippopolis in the summer of 251, in part with the help of its commander, a certain Titus Julius Priscus who had proclaimed himself Emperor.", "It seems that Priscus, after receiving the news of the defeat at Beroe, thought that the Goths would spare him and the city.", "He was wrong and was probably killed when the city fell.", "Then some of Cniva's forces began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, among them many of senatorial rank.In the meantime, Decius had returned with his re-organized army, consisting of 80,000 men according to Dexippus, accompanied by his son Herennius Etruscus and the general Trebonianus Gallus, intending to defeat the invaders and recover the booty.", "Decius had lost a force of auxiliary soldiers due to their \"wrongdoing\", according to Dexippus.", "Archaeology has revealed the presence of three legions at the battle." ], [ "Battle", "In either June, July, or August of 251, the Roman army engaged the forces under Cniva near Abritus.", "The strengths of the belligerent forces are unknown, but we know that Cniva divided his forces into three units, with one of these parts concealed behind a swamp.", "It seems that Cniva was a skilled tactician and that he was very familiar with the surrounding terrain.", "Jordanes and Aurelius Victor claim that Herennius Etruscus was killed by an arrow during a skirmish before the battle but his father addressed his soldiers as if the loss of his son did not matter.", "He allegedly said, \"Let no one mourn.", "The death of one soldier is not a great loss to the Republic\".", "However, other sources state that Herennius died with his father.Coin of Trajan Decius, Roman Emperor defeated and killed in the battleDecius' forces initially defeated their opponents in the front line, but made the fatal mistake of pursuing their fleeing enemy into the swamp, where they were ambushed and completely routed under a barrage of Gothic missiles.", "The immense slaughter that ensued marked one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of the Roman Empire.", "Decius died in the midst of the chaos and slaughter, buried under the mud.", "The bodies of Decius and Herennius were never found.The Goths captured Decius' treasury of tons of gold coins and many weapons which have since been discovered in many locations across Gothic territories.Zonaras vividly narrates how: He and his son and a large number of Romans fell into the marshland; all of them perished there, none of their bodies to be found, as they were covered by the mud.A 6th-century Byzantine scholar, Zosimus, also described the total massacre of Decius' troops and the fall of the pagan emperor: \"Proceeding therefore incautiously in an unknown place, he and his army became entangled in the mire, and under that disadvantage were so assailed by the missiles of the Barbarians, that not one of them escaped with life.", "Thus ended the life of the excellent emperor Decius.", "\"Lactantius, a 4th-century early Christian and advisor to Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, described the emperor's demise as following:He was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and slain, together with great part of his army; nor could he be honoured with the rites of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay to be devoured by wild beasts and birds, a fit end for the enemy of God.D.", "S. Potter rejects the story of Zosimus about Treboniannus Gallus who supposedly conspired with the enemies of Romans for delivering Decius' army into the Gothic trap since it seems impossible that, afterwards, the shattered Roman legions proclaimed emperor a traitor who was responsible for the loss of so many soldiers from their ranks.", "Another strong point against Gallus' treason is the fact that he adopted Hostilian, the younger son of Decius, after returning to Rome." ], [ "Aftermath", "Gallus, who became emperor upon Decius' death, negotiated a treaty with the Goths under duress, which allowed them to keep their booty and return to their homes on the other side of the Danube.", "It is also possible that he agreed to pay an annual tribute in return for the Goths' promise to respect Roman territory.", "This humiliating treaty, the contemporary spread of the Plague of Cyprian with its devastating effects, and the chaotic situation in the East with the Sassanian invasions left Gallus with a very bad reputation amongst the later Roman historians.", "However, D. S. Potter suggests that, before the defeat at Abritus, the situation was not so serious that the available Roman forces would not be able to manage the invasions.", "Therefore, it is Decius' bad conduct which was responsible for the disastrous turn of the events.", "In any case, Gallus had no choice but to get rid of the Goths as soon as possible.In 271, the Emperor Aurelian conclusively defeated the Goths and killed their king Cannabaudes in battle.", "Based on the similarity of the names, that king might coincide with the King Cniva who defeated Decius in Abritus." ], [ "See also", "*Roman army*Gothic and Vandal warfare" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===* Aurelius Victor, ''De Caesaribus'', par.", "29.4–5 in ''Liber de Caesaribus of Sextus Aurelius Victor'', critical edition by H. W. Bird, Liverpool University Press, 1994, * Dexippus, ''Scythica'', (fragments of a lost work which is the main known source of all later Roman and Byzantine historians and chronographers), in ''Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker'', entry 100, ed.", "Felix Jacoby, Brill Academic Publishing, 2001* George Syncellus, ''Chronographia'' (), in ''Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae'', ed.", "Dindorf, Weber, Bohn, 1829* Jordanes, ''Getica'', par.", "101–103 from ''The Gothic History of Jordanes'' (English Version), ed.", "Charles C. Mierow, Arx Publishing, 2006, * Lactantius, ''De mortibus persecutorum'', from Christian Classics Ethereal Library* Zonaras, ''Epitome historiarum'' (), book 12, in ''Patrologia Graeca'', ed.", "J. P. Migne, Paris, 1864, vol 134* Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'' (), book 1, in ''Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae'', ed.", "Bekker, Weber, Bonn, 1837===Secondary sources===* Bowman A. K., Garnsey P., Cameron A.", "(ed.).", "''The Cambridge Ancient History - vol XII The Crisis of Empire'', Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "** Ivanov Teofil and Stojanof Stojan.", "''ABRITVS: Its History and Archaeology'', Cultural and Historical Heritage Directorate, Razgrad, 1985* Potter, David S. ''The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395'', Routledge, 2004.", "* Southern, Pat.", "''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine'', Routledge, 2001.", "* Stillwell, Richard (ed.).", "''Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976: \"Abrittus (Razgrad), Bulgaria\"* Talbert Richard J.", "A.", "(ed.).", "''Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World'', Princeton University Press, 2000.", "* Wolfram, Herwig.", "''History of the Goths'' (transl.", "by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988," ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Berestechko" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Berestechko''' (Ukrainian: ''Битва під Берестечком'', Polish: ''Bitwa pod Beresteczkiem;'' 28 June — 10 July, 1651) was fought between the Cossack Hetmanate and Crimean Khanate against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a part of the Khmelnytsky Uprising.", "Near the site of the present-day city of Berestechko in Ukraine, a forces of the Zaporozhian Cossacks and Crimean Tatars under the command of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Otaman Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, Colonels Ivan Bohun and Fylon Dzhalaliy with Khan İslâm III Giray and Tugay Bey, who was killed in the battle, was defeated by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth’s forces under the command of the Polish King John II Casimir, Prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, Hetmans Marcin Kalinowski and Stanisław Lanckoroński.", "The battle took place in the Volhynian Voivodeship on the hilly plain south of the Styr River.", "The Polish–Lithuanian camp was on the Styr River opposite Berestechko and faced south, towards the Zaporozhian Cossacks about two kilometers away, whose right flank was against the Pliashivka (Pliashova) River and the Crimean Tatars on their left flank.", "It is considered to have been among the largest European land battles of the 17th century." ], [ "Armies", "The number of Polish troops is uncertain.", "One of the senior Polish commanders, Duke Bogusław Radziwiłł, wrote that the Crown Army had 80,000 soldiers, which included \"40,000 regulars and 40,000 nobles of the ''levée en masse'', accompanied by roughly the same number of various servants, footmen, and such.\"", "Some modern historians, such as Zbigniew Wójcik, Józef Gierowski, and Władysław Czapliński, have reduced this figure to 60,000–63,000 soldiers.There is no reliable source on the number of Zaporozhian Cossack and Crimean Tatar troops.", "The possible estimates range from 90,000 men to 130,000 men.", "The core of Cossack forces at Berestechko consisted of 12 regiments named after towns they were stationed in (list numbers provided according to the Treaty of Zboriv (1649):* Chyhyryn Regiment (Colonel Mykhailo Krysa) – 3220 Cossacks* Cherkasy Regiment (Colonel Yakiv Voronchenko) – 2990 Cossacks* Korsun Regiment (Colonel Ivan Gulyanitsky) – 3470 Cossacks* Bila Tserkva Regiment (Colonel Mykhailo Gromyka) – 2990 Cossacks* Uman Regiment (Colonel Yosyp Glukh) – 2977 Cossacks* Bratslav Regiment (Colonel Danylo Nechay) – 2662 Cossacks* Vinnytsia Regiment (Colonel Ivan Bohun) – 2050 Cossacks* Pereiaslav Regiment (Colonel Fedir Loboda) – 2986 Cossacks* Kropyvna Regiment (Colonel Filon Dzhelaliy) – 1993 Cossacks* Myrhorod Regiment (Colonel Matviy Hladky) – 3009 Cossacks* Poltava Regiment (Colonel Martyn Pushkar) – 2970 Cossacks* Pryluky Regiment (Colonel Tymofiy Nosach) – 1996 CossacksA total of 33,313 Registered Cossacks from the above.", "Additional 5 Cossack regiments (of Kyiv, Kaniv, Chernihiv, Nizhyn, Pavoloch) didn't participate in the battle being deployed mostly against the Lithuanian forces of Janusz Radziwiłł advancing on Kyiv.", "The Registered Cossack force was supported by a large number of Ukrainian peasants armed with scythes, flails and the likes which were rather undisciplined and organised poorly.", "The Crimean Tatar force is estimated to 25,000–30,000 men, though might be lower.", "There were also 2,000 Don Cossacks and a few thousand of Turks and Vlachs.On 19 June 1651, the Crown Army numbered 14,844 Polish cavalry, 2,250 German-style cavalry, 11,900 German-style infantry and dragoons, 2,950 Hungarian-style infantry (''haiduks''), 1,550 Lithuanian volunteers, and 960 Lipka Tatars.", "A number of registered Cossacks remained loyal and participated in the battle on the Polish side.", "Many magnates brought in their large private armies.", "In addition, there was a huge militia force, of limited value, numbering 30,000 noblemen of the ''levée en masse''.The Polish commanders were hoping to break the Cossack ranks with a charge of the Polish Winged Hussars, a tactic that had proven effective in many previous battles, including at Kircholm, and Kłuszyn (and which would later prove successful at the 1683 Battle of Vienna against the Turks).The Cossack Army was well acquainted with this Polish style of war, having had much experience fighting against the Poles and alongside them.", "Their preferred tactic was to avoid an open field battle, and to fight from the cover of a huge fortified camp." ], [ "First day of the battle", "2,000 Polish cavalry (one regiment under the command of Aleksander Koniecpolski, supported by Jerzy Lubomirski, six pancern cavalry companies of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki and Winged Hussars under the command of Stefan Czarniecki) repulsed the Crimean Tatars, who suffered heavy losses.", "During the first day of \"skirmishes by the Tatar and Cossack vanguard regiments\", the Poles were victorious \"since their army sustained that first attack cheerfully and in high spirits\"." ], [ "Second day of the battle", "The Poles, encouraged by their success on the first day, deployed all their available cavalry against the \"main Tatar horde\" and \"Cossack vanguard regiments\".", "The Polish infantry and artillery remained in camp and did not support the cavalry.", "This time, Tatar cavalry gained the upper hand, pushing the Poles back to their camp but were then \"barely repelled\" by heavy fire from the Polish infantry and artillery.", "The Poles lost 300 szlachta, including many officers of \"caliber\", and the \"escort troop of Hetman Mikołaj Potocki\".", "During the second day of the battle, the rebels were victorious, although \"the Tatars, too, were unpleasantly surprised by the determination and endurance of the Polish army in both battles and, having suffered rather painful losses of their own, they lost heart\".", "Tugay Bey and İslâm III Giray’s brother-in-law Mehmet Giray were killed." ], [ "Third day of the battle", "The \"king insisted, at a night council, on engaging the enemy in a decisive battle the next day, Friday, 30 June\".", "The Crown Army appeared out of the \"morning mist in full strength\" but only the Tatars engaged in skirmishes which was met by the Polish artillery.", "The Cossack defences consisted of two fortified camps, a larger for the registered Cossacks and a smaller for the peasant militia, both protected by 10 lines of chained wagons.", "At 3 p.m. Duke Jeremi Wiśniowiecki led a successful charge of 18 cavalry companies against the right wing of the Cossack-Tatar armies and \"the zealous cavalry attack was a success: it broke up the rows of Cossack infantry and the wagons moving in corral formation\".", "However the Cossacks regrouped, pushed the Polish cavalry out of the camp and advanced further with the help of the Tatars.", "The left flank of the Polish army started to retreat when the King reinforced it with all German mercenaries under command of Colonel Houwaldt who repulsed the attack and \"drove the Tatars from the field\".", "During the fighting, a Polish nobleman called Otwinowski noticed the Tatar Khan's standard, and Polish artillery was directed to fire at it.", "The Khan's brother Amurat was wounded mortally.", "With the battle already turning against them, the Tatar forces panicked, \"abandoning the Khan's camp as it stood\", and fled the battlefield leaving most of their belongings behind.", "Khmelnytsky and Vyhovsky with a few Cossacks chased Khan attempting to bring him with his force back, but were taken hostage to be released when the battle was over.", "A heavy rain started which complicated cavalry operations.", "With the Tatar cavalry gone, the Cossacks moved their wagons in the night to a better defensive position closer to the river, dug trenches and constructed walls to Polish surprise in the morning." ], [ "Siege of the Cossack–Tatar camp", "The Crown Army and Cossack camp exchanged artillery fire for ten days while both sides built fortifications.", "The Poles tried to blockade the camp.", "Leaderless without Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Cossacks were commanded by Colonel Fylon Dzhalaliy who was replaced by Ivan Bohun on 9 July.", "Other accounts state the commander was Matviy Hladky.", "The Cossack morale was decreasing and desertions started to the other river side, though they maintained a high rate of artillery fire and made occasional sorties.", "When the offered terms for surrender were rejected, the Poles prepared to dam the Pliashivka River so as to flood the Cossack camp.", "Stanisław Lanckoroński with a cavalry force of 2,000 moved across the river on 9 July to complete the encirclement of the Cossacks.", "When they found out about the Polish advance, Bohun called for a council with other leaders of the registered Cossacks on further actions.", "However none of the peasant militia was invited to the council.", "The Cossacks built three bridges and Bohun led 2,000 cavalry with two cannons to the other river side by the morning of 10 July to attack Lanckoroński.", "The uninformed peasants thought they were abandoned, started to panic and flee across the river.", "Lanckoroński didn't expect a large movement in his direction and retreated.", "Bohun returned to the camp and tried to restore order, but in vain.", "The main Polish force observed the disorder, but didn't launch an attack on the Cossack camp immediately thinking of a trap.", "They assaulted eventually, breached the defences and made their way to the river crossing.", "A few Cossack regiments managed to retreat in order though.", "Some Cossacks drowned, but archaeological excavations on the river crossing site revealed about a hundred Cossack human remains all showing damage from melee weapons which suggested heavy fighting.", "A rearguard of 200 to 300 Cossacks heroic protected the river crossing; all of them were killed in battle rejecting surrender offers.", "\"Khmelnytsky's tent was captured intact, with all his belongings\", which included two banners, one he received from John II Casimir's 1649 commission and one from Wladyslaw IV in 1646.Although it was difficult to estimate how many Cossacks and peasants were killed in the retreat, Piasecki and Brzostowski, who participated in the battle, mentioned 3,000 killed.", "Tsar's ambassador podyachy Bogdanov in his report to Moscow mentioned 4,000 killed.", "Most Cossack artillery pieces were either lost to the Poles or drowned in the marshes.", "Many spoils were collected in the Cossack camp including the army treasury of 30,000 talers.===Schematic map of the battle===center" ], [ "Aftermath", "As the battle ended, King John Casimir made the error of not pressing even harder the pursuit of the fleeing Cossacks, \"the first several days following ... defeat of the enemy were so blatantly wasted\" but there \"was the unwillingness of the nobility's levée en masse to proceed into Ukraine\" plus \"rainy weather and a lack of food and fodder, coupled with epidemics and diseases that were becoming active in the army, were generally undercutting any energy for war\".", "The \"king left the whole army to Potocki\" on 17 July 1651, and returned \"to Warsaw to celebrate his victories over the Cossacks\".", "After making promises of a pecuniary nature, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky was soon released by the Tatar Khan İslâm III Giray He was then able to reassemble the Zaporozhian Host, which was able to present a substantial army to confront the Poles at the Battle of Bila Tserkva (1651).", "Poland and \"the bulk of the rebels make peace in the Treaty of Bila Tserkva\" on 28 September 1651, which \"reduces the number of registered Cossacks from 40,000 to 20,000 and deprives them of the right to settle in or control various provinces of Ukraine previously allowed to them under the Treaty of Zboriv\".", "The Ukrainian revolt, far from ending, would continue for several more years under Khmelnytsky.", "''The Battle of Berestechko'' by Vernier''Th Battle of Beresteczko, 1651'' by Władysław Witkowski" ], [ "Legacy", "Samuel Twardowski's narrative poem, ''The Civil War'', describes the setting for the battle along the Styr River:There is a little town on it,In the middle of Volhynia, called Berestechko,Belonging to the Leszczynski family, that was not as famous in the pastAs it has now become – both ancient CannaeAnd Khotyn are far outshone by it, because as many heads hereOur eyes have seen as at ThermopylaeOr Marathon they counted, although there the whole strengthOf Europe and Asia had come together.Since our arrival – hilly roadsAnd steep slopes, until openMeadows unfold near the Styr'sLow banks.", "It was pleasant to look from the southAt the pyramid of the Pronskis and the groves that are greenIn winter always.", "And to th east there lies as if a naturalField for a camp – and there it was indeed placedLater, but first – this was pondered for a long time.The Battle of Berestechko is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription \"BERESTECZKO 28-30 VI 1651\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* http://www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/Berest.htm * ''Winged Hussars'', Radoslaw Sikora, Bartosz Musialowicz, ''BUM Magazine'', 2016." ] ]

[ [ "Bohdan Khmelnytsky" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky''' (Ruthenian: Ѕѣнові Богданъ Хмелнiцкiи; modern , Polish: ; 15956 August 1657) was a Ruthenian nobleman and military commander of Ukrainian Cossacks as Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host, which was then under the suzerainty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "He led an uprising against the Commonwealth and its magnates (1648–1654) that resulted in the creation of an independent Cossack state in Ukraine.", "In 1654, he concluded the Treaty of Pereiaslav with the Russian Tsar and allied the Cossack Hetmanate with Tsardom of Russia, thus placing central Ukraine under Russian protection.", "During the uprising the Cossacks led a massacre of thousands of Jewish people during 1648–1649 as one of the most traumatic events in the history of the Jews in Ukraine and Ukrainian nationalism." ], [ "Early life", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the reign of Władysław IV, c. 1635Although there is no definite proof of the date of Khmelnytsky's birth, Ukrainian-born historian Mykhailo Maksymovych suggests that it is likely 27 December 1595 Julian (St. Theodore's day).", "As was the custom in the Orthodox Church, he was baptized with one of his middle names, Theodore, translated into Ukrainian as Bohdan.", "A biography of Khmelnytsky by Smoliy and Stepankov, however, suggests that it is more likely he was born on 9 November (feast day of St Zenoby, 30 October in Julian calendar) and was baptized on 11 November (feast day of St. Theodore in the Catholic Church).", "In the work of Paul of Aleppo, \"the Travels of Macarius: Patriarch of Antioch\", Khmelnytsky is called as the Khatman Zenobius Akhmil.Khmelnytsky was probably born in the village of Subotiv, near Chyhyryn in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland at the estate of his father Mykhailo Khmelnytsky.", "He was born into Ukrainian lesser nobility.", "His father was a courtier of Great Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, but later joined the court of his son-in-law Jan Daniłowicz, who in 1597 became starosta of Korsuń and Chyhyryn and appointed Mykhailo as his deputy in Chyhyryn (pidstarosta).", "For his service, he was granted a strip of land near the town, where Mykhailo set up a khutor Subotiv.There has been controversy as to whether Bohdan and his father belonged to the Szlachta (Polish term for noblemen).", "Some sources state that in 1590 his father Mykhailo was appointed as a sotnyk for the Korsun-Chyhyryn starosta Jan Daniłowicz, who continued to colonize the new Ukrainian lands near the Dnieper river.", "Khmelnytsky identified as a noble, and his father's status as a pidstarosta of Chyhyryn helped him to be considered as such by others.", "During the Uprising, however, Khmelnytsky would stress his mother's Cossack roots and his father's exploits with the Cossacks of the Sich.Khmelnytsky attended a Jesuit college, possibly in Jarosław, but more likely in Lviv in the school founded by hetman Żółkiewski.", "He completed his schooling by 1617, acquiring a broad knowledge of world history and learning Polish and Latin.", "Later he learned Turkish, Tatar, and French.", "Unlike many of the other Jesuit students, he did not embrace Roman Catholicism but remained Orthodox.===Marriage and family===Khmelnytsky married Hanna Somkivna, a sister of a rich Pereyaslavl Cossack; the couple settled in Subotiv.", "By the second half of the 1620s, they had three daughters: Stepanyda, Olena, and Kateryna.", "His first son Tymish (Tymofiy) was born in 1632, and another son Yuriy was born in 1640." ], [ "Registered Cossack", "Upon completion of his studies in 1617, Khmelnytsky entered into service with the Cossacks.", "As early as 1619, he was sent together with his father to Moldavia, when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into war against the Ottoman Empire.", "During the battle of Cecora (Țuțora) on 17 September 1620, his father was killed, and young Khmelnytsky, among many others including future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, was captured by the Turks.", "He spent the next two years in captivity in Constantinople as a prisoner of an Ottoman Kapudan Pasha (presumably Parlak Mustafa Pasha).", "Other sources claim that he spent his slavery in Ottoman Navy on galleys as an oarsman, where he picked up a knowledge of Turkic languages.While there is no concrete evidence as to his return to Ukraine, most historians believe Khmelnytsky either escaped or was ransomed.", "Sources vary as to his benefactor – his mother, friends, the Polish king – but perhaps by Krzysztof Zbaraski, ambassador of the Commonwealth to the Ottomans.", "In 1622 he paid 30,000 thalers in ransom for all prisoners of war captured at the Battle of Cecora.", "Upon return to Subotiv, Khmelnytsky took over operating his father's estate and became a registered Cossack in the Chyhyryn Regiment.He most likely did not take part in any of the Cossack uprisings that broke out in Ukraine at that time.", "His loyal service achieved him the rank of military clerk (''pisarz wojskowy'') of the registered Cossacks in 1637.It happened after the capitulation of the Pavlyuk uprising in the town Borowica on 24 December 1637, when field hetman Mikołaj Potocki appointed new Cossack eldership.", "He had to do it because some of the elders either joined Pavlyuk or were killed by him (like former military clerk, Teodor Onuszkowicz).", "Because of his new position Khmelnytsky was the one who prepared and signed an act of capitulation.", "Fighting didn't stop in Borowica, rebel Cossacks rose up again under the new command of Ostryanyn and Hunia in the spring next year.", "Mikołaj Potocki was successful again and after a six week long siege, the rebel Cossacks were forced to capitulate on 3 August 1638.Like the year before, some registered Cossacks joined the rebels, while some of them remained loyal.", "Unlike the last time, Potocki decided not to punish the rebel Cossacks, but forced all of them to swear loyalty to the king and the state and swear not to seek revenge against each other.", "The Hetman also agreed to their request to send emissaries to the king to seek royal grace and preserve Cossack rights.", "They were elected on a council on 9 September 1638 in Kyiv.", "Bohdan Khmelnytsky was one of them; the other three were Iwan Bojaryn, colonel of Kaniów, Roman Połowiec and Jan Wołczenko.", "The emissaries didn't achieve much, mostly because all decisions were already made by the Sejm earlier this year, when deputies accepted the project presented by the grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski.", "Cossacks were forced to accept harsh new terms at the next council in Masłowy Staw, at the Ros river.", "According to one of the articles of the ''Ordynacya Woyska Zaporowskiego'' (\"Ordinance of the Zaporozhian Army\") registered Cossacks lost the right to elect their own officers and a commander, called elder (''starszy'') or commissar.", "From now on, the elder was to be nominated by the Sejm, from the Grand Hetman’s recommendation.", "The Grand Hetman also got the right to appoint all officers.", "Commissars, colonels and osauls had to be a noblemen, while sotniks and atamans had to be Cossacks, who were \"distinguished in a service for Us and the Commonwealth\".", "Khmelnytsky became one of the sotniks of Chyhryn regiment.In 1663 in Paris Pierre Chevalier published a book about Cossack uprising called ''Histoire de la guerre des Cosaques contre la Pologne'', which he dedicated to Nicolas Léonor de Flesselles, count de Brégy, who was an ambassador to Poland in 1645.In the dedication he described the meeting de Brégy had with Khmelnytsky in France, and group of Cossacks he brought to France to fight against Spain in Flanders.", "Chevalier also claimed that he himself commanded Cossacks in Flanders.", "Although in distant parts of the book Chevalier doesn't mention either Cossacks or Khmelnytsky even once.", "In his other writing, ''Relation des Cosaques (avec la vie de Kmielniski, tirée d’un Manuscrit)'', published the same year, which also contains a biography of Khmelnytsky, there is no mention about his or any other Cossacks stay in France or Flanders.", "Moreover first Chevalier book is the only source that mention such an event, there is not trace of it even in correspondence of count de Brègy.", "Although it is true that he was conducting a recruitment of soldiers in Poland for French army in years 1646–1648.In fact he succeeded and about 3000 of them travelled via Gdańsk to Flanders and took part in fights around Dunkirk.", "French sources describes them as ''infanterie tout Poulonnois qu’Allemand''.", "They were commanded by colonels Krzysztof Przyjemski, Andrzej Przyjemski and Georges Cabray.", "Second recruitment that shipped off in 1647 were commanded by Jan Pleitner, Dutch military engineer in service of Władysław IV and Jan Denhoff, colonel of Royal Guard.", "17th century French historian Jean-François Sarasіn in his ''Histoire de siège de Dunkerque'' when describing participation of Polish mercenaries in fights over Dunkirk, notes that they were commanded by some \"Sirot\".", "Some historians identify him as Ivan Sirko, Cossack ataman.Claims that Khmelnytsky and Cossacks were actually in France are supported by some Ukrainian historians, while other and most Polish scholarship finds it unlikely." ], [ "Czapliński Affair", "Upon the death of magnate Stanisław Koniecpolski (March 1646) his successor, Aleksander, redrew the maps of his possessions.", "He laid claim to Khmelnytsky's estate, claiming it as his.", "Trying to find protection from this grab by the powerful magnate, Khmelnytsky wrote numerous appeals and letters to different representatives of the Polish crown but to no avail.", "At the end of 1645 the Chyhyryn starosta Daniel Czapliński officially received authority from Koniecpolski to seize Khmelnytsky's Subotiv estate.Portrait of Bohdan Khmelnytsky (c. 1650) in the District Museum in Tarnów.", "Khmelnytsky obtained ready-made garments from the East.", "According to a 1651 message, Sultan Mehmed IV sent to him \"a samite caftan, one of his honorable royal caftans.", "\"In the summer of 1646, Khmelnytsky arranged an audience with King Władysław IV to plead his case, as he had favourable standing at the court.", "Władysław, who wanted Cossacks on his side in the wars he planned, gave Khmelnytsky a royal charter, protecting his rights to the Subotiv estate.", "But, because of the structure of the Commonwealth at that time and the lawlessness of Ukraine, even the King was not able to prevent a confrontation with local magnates.", "In the beginning of 1647, Daniel Czapliński started to harass Khmelnytsky in order to force him off the land.", "On two occasions the magnate had Subotiv raided: considerable property damage was done and Khmelnytsky's son Yuriy was badly beaten.", "Finally, in April 1647, Czapliński succeeded in evicting Khmelnytsky from the land, and he was forced to move with his large family to a relative's house in Chyhyryn.In May 1647, Khmelnytsky arranged a second audience with the king to plead his case but found him unwilling to confront a powerful magnate.", "In addition to losing the estate, Khmelnytsky suffered the loss of his wife Hanna, and he was left alone with their children.", "He promptly remarried, to Motrona (Helena Czaplińska), by that time wife of Daniel Czapliński, the so-called \"Helen of the steppe\".", "He was less successful in real estate, and was unable to regain the land and property of his estate or financial compensation for it.", "During this time, he met several higher Polish officials to discuss the Cossacks' war with the Tatars, and used this occasion again to plead his case with Czapliński, still unsuccessfully.While Khmelnytsky found no support from the Polish officials, he found it in his Cossack friends and subordinates.", "His Chyhyryn regiment and others were on his side.", "All through the autumn of 1647 Khmelnytsky travelled from one regiment to another, and had numerous consultations with Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine.", "His activity raised suspicion among the local Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts; he was promptly arrested.", "Koniecpolski issued an order for his execution, but the Chyhyryn Cossack polkovnyk, who held Khmelnytsky, was persuaded to release him.", "Not willing to tempt fate any further, Khmelnytsky headed for the Zaporozhian Sich with a group of his supporters." ], [ "Uprising", "Bohdan Khmelnytsky (''left'') with Tugay Bey (''right'') at Lviv, oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1885, National Museum in WarsawWhile the Czapliński Affair is generally regarded as the immediate cause of the uprising, it was primarily a catalyst for actions representing rising popular discontent.", "Religion, ethnicity, and economics factored into this discontent.", "While the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a union of nations, a sizable population of Orthodox Ruthenians were ignored.", "Oppressed by the Polish magnates, they took their wrath out on Poles, as well as the Jews, who often managed the estates of Polish nobles.", "The advent of the Counter-Reformation worsened relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches.", "Many Orthodox Ukrainians considered the Union of Brest as a threat to their Orthodox faith." ], [ "Initial successes", "At the end of 1647 Khmelnytsky reached the estuary of the Dnieper river.", "On 7 December, his small detachment (300–500 men), with the help of registered Cossacks who went over to his side, disarmed the small Polish detachment guarding the area and took over the Zaporozhian Sich.", "The Poles attempted to retake the Sich but were decisively defeated as more registered Cossacks joined the forces.", "At the end of January 1648, a Cossack Rada was called and Khmelnytsky was unanimously elected a hetman.", "A period of feverish activity followed.", "Cossacks were sent with hetman's letters to many regions of Ukraine calling on Cossacks and Orthodox peasants to join the rebellion, Khortytsia was fortified, efforts were made to acquire and make weapons and ammunition, and emissaries were sent to the Khan of Crimea, İslâm III Giray.Initially, Polish authorities took the news of Khmelnytsky's arrival at the Sich and reports about the rebellion lightly.", "The two sides exchanged lists of demands: the Poles asked the Cossacks to surrender the mutinous leader and disband, while Khmelnytsky and the Rada demanded that the Commonwealth restore the Cossacks' ancient rights, stop the advance of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, yield the right to appoint Orthodox leaders of the Sich and of the Registered Cossack regiments, and to remove Commonwealth troops from Ukraine.", "The Polish magnates considered the demands an affront, and an army headed by Stefan Potocki moved in the direction of the Sich.Had the Cossacks stayed at Khortytsia, they might have been defeated, as in many other rebellions.", "However, Khmelnytsky marched against the Poles.", "The two armies met on 16 May 1648 at Zhovti Vody, where, aided by the Tatars of Tugay Bey, the Cossacks inflicted their first crushing defeat on the Commonwealth.", "It was repeated soon afterwards, with the same success, at the Battle of Korsuń on 26 May 1648.Khmelnytsky used his diplomatic and military skills: under his leadership, the Cossack army moved to battle positions following his plans, Cossacks were proactive and decisive in their manoeuvrers and attacks, and most importantly, he gained the support of both large contingents of registered Cossacks and the Crimean Khan, his crucial ally for the many battles to come.===Establishment of Cossack Hetmanate===Coat of arms of the Cossack HetmanateThe Patriarch of Jerusalem Paiseus, who was visiting Kyiv at this time, referred to Khmelnytsky as the Prince of Rus, the head of an independent Ukrainian state, according to contemporaries.", "In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation headed by Senator Adam Kysil, Khmelnytsky declared that he was \"the sole autocrat of Rus\" and that he had \"enough power in Ukraine, Podilia, and Volhynia... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Kholm (modern Chełm), and Halych.", "\"After the period of initial military successes, the state-building process began.", "His leadership was demonstrated in all areas of state-building: military, administration, finance, economics and culture.", "Khmelnytsky made the Zaporozhian Host the supreme power in the new Ukrainian state and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority.", "Khmelnytsky built a new government system and developed military and civilian administration.A new generation of statesmen and military leaders came to the forefront: Ivan Vyhovsky, Pavlo Teteria, Danylo Nechai and Ivan Nechai, Ivan Bohun, Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky.", "From Cossack polkovnyks, officers, and military commanders, a new elite within the Cossack Hetman state was born.", "Throughout the years, the elite preserved and maintained the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate in the face of Russia's attempt to curb it.", "It was also instrumental in the onset of the period of Ruin that followed, eventually destroying most of the achievements of the Khmelnytsky era.===Complications===Bohdan Khmelnytsky's banner that was taken at the battle of Berestechko.", "It was later taken by the Swedes in Warsaw 1655 and is now to be seen at Armémuseum, Stockholm, Sweden.Khmelnytsky's initial successes were followed by a series of setbacks as neither Khmelnytsky nor the Commonwealth had enough strength to stabilise the situation or to inflict a defeat on the enemy.", "What followed was a period of intermittent warfare and several peace treaties, which were seldom upheld.", "From spring 1649 onward, the situation turned for the worse for the Cossacks; as Polish attacks increased in frequency, they became more successful.", "The resulting Treaty of Zboriv on 18 August 1649 was unfavourable for the Cossacks.", "It was followed by another defeat at the battle of Berestechko on 18 June 1651 in which the Tatars betrayed Khmelnytsky and held the hetman captive.", "The Cossacks suffered a crushing defeat, with an estimated 30,000 casualties.", "They were forced to sign the Treaty of Bila Tserkva, which favoured the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Warfare broke open again and, in the years that followed, the two sides were almost perpetually at war.", "Now, the Crimean Tatars played a decisive role and did not allow either side to prevail.", "It was in their interests to keep both Ukraine and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from getting too strong and becoming an effective power in the region.Khmelnytsky started looking for another foreign ally.", "Although the Cossacks had established their ''de facto'' independence from Poland, the new state needed legitimacy, which could be provided by a foreign monarch.", "In search of a protectorate, Khmelnytsky approached the Ottoman sultan in 1651, and formal embassies were exchanged.", "The Turks offered vassalship, like their other arrangements with contemporary Crimea, Moldavia and Wallachia.", "However, the idea of a union with the Muslim monarch was not acceptable to the general populace and most Cossacks.The other possible ally was the Tsardom of Russia.", "However, despite appeals for help from Khmelnytsky in the name of the shared Orthodox faith, the tsar preferred to wait, until the threat of a Cossack-Ottoman union in 1653 finally forced him to action.", "The idea that the tsar might be favourable to taking Ukraine under his hand was communicated to the hetman and so diplomatic activity intensified." ], [ "Treaty with the tsar", "hetman (Г) of Host (В) of Zaporozhia (З) and of his (Е) king's (К) majesty (МЛС) of Rzecz Pospolita.After a series of negotiations, it was agreed that the Cossacks would accept overlordship by the Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.", "To finalize the treaty, a Russian embassy led by boyar Vasily Buturlin came to Pereiaslav, where, on 18 January 1654, the Cossack Rada was called and the treaty concluded.", "Historians have not come to consensus in interpreting the intentions of the tsar and Khmelnytsky in signing this agreement.", "The treaty legitimized Russian claims to the capital of Kievan Rus' and strengthened the tsar's influence in the region.", "Khmelnytsky needed the treaty to gain a legitimate monarch's protection and support from a friendly Orthodox power.Historians have differed in their reading of Khmelnytsky's goal with the union: whether it was to be a military union, a suzerainty, or a complete incorporation of Ukraine into the Tsardom of Russia.The differences were expressed during the ceremony of the oath of allegiance to the tsar: the Russian envoy refused to reciprocate with an oath from the ruler to his subjects, as the Cossacks and Ruthenians expected since it was the custom of the Polish king.Khmelnytsky stormed out of the church and threatened to cancel the entire treaty.", "The Cossacks decided to rescind the demand and abide by the treaty." ], [ "Final years", "As a result of the 1654 Treaty of Pereiaslav, the geopolitical map of the region changed.", "Russia entered the scene, and the Cossacks' former allies, the Tatars, had switched sides and gone over to the Polish side, initiating warfare against Khmelnytsky and his forces.", "Tatar raids depopulated whole areas of Sich.", "Cossacks, aided by the Tsar's army, took revenge on Polish possessions in Belarus, and in the spring of 1654, the Cossacks drove the Poles from much of the country.", "Sweden entered the mêlée.", "Old adversaries of both Poland and Russia, they occupied a share of Lithuania before the Russians could get there.The occupation displeased Russia because the tsar sought to take over the Swedish Baltic provinces.", "In 1656, with the Commonwealth increasingly war-torn but also increasingly hostile and successful against the Swedes, the ruler of Transylvania, George II Rákóczi, also joined in.", "Charles X of Sweden had solicited his help because of the massive Polish popular opposition and resistance against the Swedes.", "Under blows from all sides, the Commonwealth barely survived.Church of Subotiv, Ukraine, where Khmelnytsky was buriedRussia attacked Sweden in July 1656, while its forces were deeply involved in Poland.", "That war ended in status quo two years later, but it complicated matters for Khmelnytsky, as his ally was now fighting his overlord.", "In addition to diplomatic tensions between the tsar and Khmelnytsky, a number of other disagreements between the two surfaced.", "In particular, they concerned Russian officials' interference in the finances of the Cossack Hetmanate and in the newly captured Belarus.", "The tsar concluded a separate treaty with the Poles in Vilnius in 1656.The Hetman's emissaries were not even allowed to attend the negotiations.Khmelnytsky wrote an irate letter to the tsar accusing him of breaking the Pereiaslav agreement.", "He compared the Swedes to the tsar and said that the former were more honourable and trustworthy than the Russians.In Poland, the Cossack army and Transylvanian allies suffered a number of setbacks.", "As a result, Khmelnytsky had to deal with a Cossack rebellion on the home front.", "Troubling news also came from Crimea, as Tatars, in alliance with Poland, were preparing for a new invasion of Ukraine.", "Though already ill, Khmelnytsky continued to conduct diplomatic activity, at one point even receiving the tsar's envoys from his bed.Monument dedicated to Bohdan Khmelnytsky in Kyiv, Ukraine.", "The authors are Boris Krylov and Oles Sydoruk.On 22 July, he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and became paralysed after his audience with the Kyiv Colonel Zhdanovich.", "His expedition to Halychyna had failed because of mutiny within his army.", "Less than a week later, Bohdan Khmelnytsky died at 5 a.m. on 27 July 1657.His funeral was held on 23 August, and his body was taken from his capital, Chyhyryn, to his estate, at Subotiv, for burial in his ancestral church.", "In 1664 a Polish hetman Stefan Czarniecki recaptured Subotiv, which according to some Ukrainian historians, ordered the bodies of the hetman and his son, Tymish, to be exhumed and desecrated, while others claim that is not the case." ], [ "Influences", "Khmelnytsky had a crucial influence on the history of Ukraine.", "He not only shaped the future of Ukraine but affected the balance of power in Europe, as the weakening of Poland-Lithuania was exploited by Austria, Saxony, Prussia, and Russia.", "His actions and role in events were viewed differently by different contemporaries, and even now there are greatly differing perspectives on his legacy.===Ukrainian assessment===A five Ukrainian hryvnia banknote depicting Hetman Bohdan KhmelnytskyKhmelnytsky Monument in Kyiv in 1905In Ukraine, Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as a national hero.", "A city and a region of the country bear his name.", "His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian banknotes and his monument in the centre of Kyiv is a focal point of the Ukrainian capital.", "There have also been several issues of the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky – one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union.However, with all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in Ukraine it is far from being unanimous.", "He is criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country.", "Prominent Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko, was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics.", "Others criticize him for his alliance with the Crimean Tatars, which permitted the latter to take a large number of Ukrainian peasants as slaves, as the Cossacks as a military caste did not protect the ''kholopy'', the lowest stratum of the Ukrainian people.", "Folk songs capture this.", "On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, with some critics acknowledging that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times.In a 2018 Ukraine's Rating Sociological Group poll, 73% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive attitude to Khmelnytsky.===Polish assessment===Khmelnytsky's role in the history of the Polish State has been viewed mostly in a negative light.", "The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the Golden Age of the Commonwealth and the beginning of its demise.", "Although it survived the rebellion and the following war, within a hundred years it was divided amongst Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the partitions of Poland.", "Many Poles blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth.Khmelnytsky has been a subject to several works of fiction in the 19th century Polish literature, but the most notable treatment of him in Polish literature is found in Henryk Sienkiewicz's ''With Fire and Sword''.", "The rather critical portrayal of him by Sienkiewicz has been moderated in the 1999 movie adaptation by Jerzy Hoffman.Five hryvnia coin, Ukraine, 2018 (reverse)===Russian and Soviet history===The official Russian historiography stressed the fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with an expressed desire to \"re-unify\" Ukraine with Russia.", "This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow as an heir of the Kievan Rus', which appropriately gathered its former territories.Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the \"eternal union\" of all the Russias – Great (Russia), Little (Ukraine) and White (Belarus) Russia.", "As such, he was much respected and venerated during the existence of the Russian Empire.", "His role was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow: to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia.", "This view was expressed in a monument commissioned by the Russian nationalist Mikhail Yuzefovich, which was installed in the centre of Kyiv in 1888.Russian authorities decided the original version of the monument (created by Russian sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin) was too xenophobic; it was to depict a vanquished Pole, Jew, and a Catholic priest under the hooves of the horse.", "The inscription on the monument reads \"To Bohdan Khmelnytsky from one and indivisible Russia.\"", "Mikeshin also created the Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, which has Khmelnytsky shown as one of Russia's prominent figures.Soviet historiography followed in many ways the Imperial Russian theory of re-unification while adding the class struggle dimension to the story.", "Khmelnytsky was praised not only for re-unifying Ukraine with Russia, but also for organizing the class struggle of oppressed Ukrainian peasants against Polish exploiters.===Jewish history===The assessment of Khmelnytsky in Jewish history is overwhelmingly negative because he blamed Jews for assisting Polish ''szlachta'', as the former were often employed by them as tax collectors.", "Bohdan sought to eradicate Jews from Ukraine.", "Thus, according to the treaty of Zboriv all Jewish people were forbidden to live on the territory controlled by Cossack rebels.The Khmelnytsky Uprising led to the deaths of an estimated 18,000–100,000 Jews living in the territory.", "Due to the lack of reliable data for the assessment of the local Jewish population's size and the amount of victims, giving a more accurate estimate is a tough if not impossible task for historians.", "Atrocity stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond.", "The pogroms contributed to a revival of the ideas of Isaac Luria, who revered the Kabbalah, and the identification of Sabbatai Zevi as the Messiah.", "Orest Subtelny writes:Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history." ], [ "Commemoration", "*The Ukrainian city of Khmelnytskyi is named after Khmelnytsky.", "*In most Ukrainian cities there are streets named after Bohdan Khmelnytskyi.", "There is also Bohdan Khmelnytskyi Avenue in the city of Dnipro.", "*There are monuments to Khmelnytsky in Kyiv, Chyhyryn, Chernihiv, Khmelnytskyi, Cherkasy, Nikopol, Kropyvnytskyi, Zaporizhzhia, and Subotiv.", "*The Separate Presidential Brigade \"Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytskyi\", a unit of the Armed Forces of Ukraine tasked with protecting the president of Ukraine, is named in honor of Khmelnytsky.", "*The National Academy of the State Border Service of Ukraine is named after Khmelnytsky.", "*The Bohdan Khmelnytsky Battalion, a pro-Russian battalion allegedly formed from Ukrainian POWs is named in honor of Khmelnytsky." ], [ "See also", "* , known as ''Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky'' 1918–1922*Bohdan Khmelnytsky Bridge in Moscow*List of Ukrainian rulers*Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, a state military award in Ukraine*Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky (Soviet Union)*''With Fire and Sword'' (1884), an historical novel by Polish author Henryk Sienkiewicz about these events." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Władysław Andrzej Serczyk, ''Na dalekiej Ukrainie.", "Dzieje Kozaczyzny do 1648 roku'', Kraków 2008.", "* Władysław Andrzej Serczyk, ''Na płonącej Ukrainie.", "Dzieje Kozaczyzny 1648–1651'', Kraków 2009.", "* Valeriy Smoliy, Valeriy Stepankov, ''Bohdan Khmelnytsky.", "Sotsialno-politychnyi portret'' Second Edition.", "Lebid, Kyiv.", "1995..* Orest Subtelny.", "''Ukraine.", "A history.''", "University of Toronto press.", "1994..* Zbigniew Wójcik, '' Czy Kozacy Zaporoscy byli na służbie Mazarina?", "'', \"Przegląd Historyczny\", vol.", "64/3 (1973).", "* Stephen Velychenko, ''The influence of historical, political and social ideas on the politics of Bohdan Khmelnytsky and the Cossack officers between 1648 and 1657'', Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1981.", "*Mykhailo Hrushevsky.", "'''''History of Ukraine-Rus’''.", "Volume 8, ''The Cossack Age, 1626 to 1650''''': trans.", "Marta Daria Olynyk, ed.", "Frank Sysyn, with Myroslav Yurkevich.", "2002.", "*Mykhailo Hrushevsky.", "'''''History of Ukraine-Rus’''.", "Volume 9-1, ''The Khmelnytsky Era, 1651 to 1653''''': trans.", "Bohdan Strumiński, ed.", "Serhii Plokhy and Frank E. Sysyn, with Uliana M. Pasicznyk.", "2005.", "*Mykhailo Hrushevsky.", "'''''History of Ukraine-Rus’.''", "Volume 9-2, ''The Khmelnytsky Era, 1654 to 1657''''', part 1: trans.", "Marta Daria Olynyk, ed.", "Serhii Plokhy and Frank E. Sysyn, with Myroslav Yurkevich.", "2008.", "*Mykhailo Hrushevsky.", "'''''History of Ukraine-Rus’''.", "Volume 9-2, ''The Khmelnytsky Era, 1654 to 1657''''', part 2: trans.", "Marta Daria Olynyk, ed.", "Yaroslav Fedoruk and Frank E. Sysyn, with Myroslav Yurkevich.", "2010." ], [ "External links", "* *Oleksander Ohloblyn, Khmelnytsky, Bohdan, article originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol.", "2 (1989).", "* Cossack State after 1649 (map)* Biography of Bohdan Khmelnytsky* Mykola Mashchenko, Film about Khmelnytsky (2008), Dovzhenko Film Studios* Dr. Henry Abramson, Video on ''Nathan of Hanover and the Ukrainian Revolution of 1648–1649'', 19 February 2013, ''Jewish Biography as History,'' Jewish History lectures, Henry Abramson website" ] ]

[ [ "Ben Bova" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benjamin William Bova''' (November 8, 1932November 29, 2020) was an American writer and editor.", "During a writing career of 60 years, he was the author of more than 120 works of science fact and fiction, an editor of ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'', for which he won a Hugo Award six times, and an editorial director of ''Omni''; he was also president of both the National Space Society and the Science Fiction Writers of America." ], [ "Personal life and education", "Ben Bova was born on November 8, 1932, in Philadelphia.", "He graduated from South Philadelphia High School in 1949.In 1953, while attending Temple University in Philadelphia, he married Rosa Cucinotta; they had a son and a daughter.", "The couple divorced in 1974.That year he married Barbara Berson Rose.", "Barbara Bova died on September 23, 2009.Bova dedicated his 2011 novel ''Power Play'' to Barbara.", "In March 2013, he announced on his website that he had remarried, to Rashida Loya.Bova was an atheist and was critical of what he saw as the unquestioning nature of religion.", "He wrote an op-ed piece in 2012, in which he argued that atheists can be just as moral as religious believers.He went back to school in the 1980s, earning a Master of Arts degree in communications in 1987 from the State University of New York at Albany and a Doctor of Education degree from California Coast University in 1996.Bova died from COVID-19-related pneumonia and a stroke on November 29, 2020, at the age of 88." ], [ "Career", "Bova's novella ''The Towers of Titan'' was the cover story in the January 1962 issue of ''Amazing Stories'', illustrated by Ed Emshwiller.Bova worked as a technical writer for Project Vanguard in the 1950s and later for the Avco Everett Research LaboratoryIn 1972, Bova became editor of ''Analog Science Fact & Fiction'', after John W. Campbell's death in 1971.At ''Analog'', Bova won six Hugo Awards for Best Professional Editor.Bova served as the science advisor for the television series ''The Starlost'' (1973)'','' resigning as he lacked the \"contractual right to remove his name from the credits.\"", "His novel ''The Starcrossed'', loosely based on his experiences, featured a characterization of his friend and colleague Harlan Ellison as \"Ron Gabriel\".", "In 1974, he co-wrote the screenplay for an episode of the children's science-fiction television series ''Land of the Lost'', titled \"The Search\".", "After leaving ''Analog'' in 1978, Bova went on to edit ''Omni'', from 1978 to 1982.Bova held the position of President Emeritus of the National Space Society and served as President of Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA).In 2000, he attended the 58th World Science Fiction Convention (Chicon 2000) as the Author Guest of Honor.", "In 2007, Stuber/Parent Productions hired him as a consultant to provide insight into what the world may look like in the near future, for their film ''Repo Men'' (2010) starring Jude Law and Forest Whitaker.", "Also in 2007 he provided consulting services to Silver Pictures on the film adaptation of Richard K. Morgan's hardboiled cyberpunk science-fiction novel ''Altered Carbon'' (2002).", "He was awarded the Robert A. Heinlein Award in 2008 for his work in science fiction." ], [ "Bibliography", ", Bova had written over 124 books in various genres.", "He edited several works, including ''The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two'' (1973) and ''Nebula Awards Showcase 2008''.", "He wrote the ''Grand Tour'' novel series about exploration and colonization of the Solar System by humans.", "Reviewing a collection of 12 of the series published in 2004, ''The New York Times'' described Bova as \"the last of the great pulp writers\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * * Obituary at ''Analog''" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Okinawa" ], [ "Introduction", "The , codenamed '''Operation Iceberg''', was a battle of the Pacific War fought on the island of Okinawa by United States Army and United States Marine Corps forces against the Imperial Japanese Army.", "The initial invasion of Okinawa on 1 April 1945 was the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific Theater of World War II.", "The Kerama Islands surrounding Okinawa were preemptively captured on 26 March by the 77th Infantry Division.", "The 82-day battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945.After a long campaign of island hopping, the Allies were planning to use Kadena Air Base on the large island of Okinawa as a base for Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands, away.The United States created the Tenth Army, a cross-branch force consisting of the U.S. Army 7th, 27th, 77th and 96th Infantry Divisions with the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Marine Divisions, to fight on the island.", "The Tenth Army was unique in that it had its own Tactical Air Force (joint Army-Marine command) and was supported by combined naval and amphibious forces.", "Opposing the Allied forces on the ground was the Japanese Thirty-Second Army.The battle has been referred to as the \"typhoon of steel\" in English, of which Japanese original phrase was \"''tetsu no bōfū''\".", "The nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese ''kamikaze'' attacks and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island.", "The battle was the bloodiest in the Pacific, with around 50,000 Allied and 84,166–117,000 Japanese casualties, including Okinawans conscripted into the Japanese Army.", "According to local authorities, at least 149,425 Okinawan people were killed, died by coerced suicide or went missing.In the naval operations surrounding the battle, both sides lost considerable numbers of ships and aircraft, including the Japanese battleship .", "After the battle, Okinawa provided a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in proximity to Japan for US forces in preparation for a planned invasion of the Japanese home islands." ], [ "Order of battle", "===Allied===In all, the US Army had over 103,000 soldiers (of these, 38,000+ were non-divisional artillery, combat support and HQ troops, with another 9,000 service troops), over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly Seabees and medical personnel).", "At the start of the Battle of Okinawa, the US Tenth Army had 182,821 personnel under its command.", "It was planned that Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. would report to Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner until the amphibious phase was completed, after which he would report directly to Admiral Raymond A. Spruance.", "Total aircraft in the US Navy, Marine and Army Air Force exceeded 3,000 over the course of the battle, including fighters, attack aircraft, scout planes, bombers and dive-bombers.", "The invasion was supported by a fleet consisting of 18 battleships, 27 cruisers, 177 destroyers/destroyer escorts, 39 aircraft carriers (11 fleet carriers, 6 light carriers and 22 escort carriers) and various support and troop transport ships.The British naval contingent accompanied 251 British naval aircraft and included a British Commonwealth fleet with Australian, New Zealand and Canadian ships and personnel.===Japanese===The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 67,000-strong (77,000 according to some sources) regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku Naval Base (only a few hundred of whom had been trained and equipped for ground combat), supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people (including 24,000 hastily drafted rear militia called ''Boeitai'' and 15,000 non-uniformed laborers).", "The Japanese had used ''kamikaze'' tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but for the first time they became a major part of the defense.", "Between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major ''kamikaze'' attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes.The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th and 62nd Divisions and the 44th Independent Mixed Brigade.", "The 9th Division was moved to Taiwan before the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans.", "Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Colonel Hiromichi Yahara.", "Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one.In the north, Colonel Takehido Udo was in command.", "The naval troops were led by Rear Admiral Minoru Ōta.", "They expected the Americans to land 6–10 divisions against the Japanese garrison of two and a half divisions.", "The staff calculated that superior quality and numbers of weapons gave each US division five or six times the firepower of a Japanese division.", "To this, would be added the Americans' abundant naval and air firepower.====Japanese use of children====Tekketsu Kinnōtai child soldiers on OkinawaOn Okinawa, the Imperial Japanese Army mobilized 1,780 schoolboys aged 14–17 years into front line service as an ''Iron and Blood Imperial Corps'' (), while female Himeyuri students were organized into a nursing unit.", "This mobilization was conducted by an ordinance of the Ministry of the Army, not by law.", "The ordinances mobilized the students as volunteer soldiers for form's sake; in reality, the military authorities ordered schools to force almost all students to \"volunteer\" as soldiers; sometimes they counterfeited the necessary documents.", "About half of the ''Tekketsu Kinnōtai'' were killed, including in suicide bomb attacks against tanks and in guerrilla operations.Among the 21 male and female secondary schools that made up these student corps, 2,000 students died on the battlefield.", "Even with the female students acting mainly as nurses to Japanese soldiers, they were still exposed to the harsh conditions of war." ], [ "Naval battle", "The US Navy's Task Force 58, deployed to the east of Okinawa with a picket group of 6 to 8 destroyers, kept 13 carriers (7 fleet carriers and 6 light carriers) on duty from 23 March to 27 April and a smaller number thereafter.", "Until 27 April, a minimum of 14 and up to 18 escort carriers were in the area at all times.", "Until 20 April, British Task Force 57, with 4 large and 6 escort carriers, remained off the Sakishima Islands to protect the southern flank.The protracted length of the campaign under stressful conditions forced Admiral Chester W. Nimitz to take the unprecedented step of relieving the principal naval commanders to rest and recuperate.", "Following the practice of changing the fleet designation with the change of commanders, US naval forces began the campaign as the US 5th Fleet under Admiral Spruance, but ended it as the 3rd Fleet under Admiral Halsey.Japanese air opposition had been relatively light during the first few days after the landings.", "However, on 6 April the expected air reaction began with an attack by 400 planes from Kyushu.", "Periodic heavy air attacks continued through April.", "During the period of 26 March to 30 April, 20 American ships were sunk and 157 damaged by enemy action.", "By 30 April the Japanese had lost more than 1,100 planes to Allied naval forces alone.Between 6 April and 22 June, the Japanese flew 1,465 ''kamikaze'' aircraft in large-scale attacks from Kyushu, 185 individual ''kamikaze'' sorties from Kyushu, and 250 individual ''kamikaze'' sorties from Taiwan, then called Formosa.", "While US intelligence estimated there were 89 planes on Formosa, the Japanese actually had about 700, dismantled or well camouflaged and dispersed into scattered villages and towns; the US Fifth Air Force disputed Navy claims of ''kamikaze'' coming from Formosa.The ships lost were smaller vessels, particularly the destroyers of the radar pickets, as well as destroyer escorts and landing ships.", "While no major Allied warships were lost, several fleet carriers were severely damaged.", "Land-based Shin'yō-class suicide motorboats were also used in the Japanese suicide attacks, although Ushijima had disbanded the majority of the suicide boat battalions before the battle because of expected low effectiveness against a superior enemy.", "The boat crews were re-formed into three additional infantry battalions.File:Yamato battleship explosion.jpg|The super battleship explodes after persistent attacks from US aircraft.File:USS Bunker Hill hit by two Kamikazes.jpg|American aircraft carrier burns after being hit by two ''kamikaze'' planes within 30 seconds.===Operation Ten-Go===Operation Ten-Go (''Ten-gō sakusen'') was the attempted attack by a strike force of 10 Japanese surface vessels, led by ''Yamato'' and commanded by Admiral Seiichi Itō.", "This small task force had been ordered to fight through enemy naval forces, then beach ''Yamato'' and fight from shore, using her guns as coastal artillery and her crew as naval infantry.", "The ''Ten-Go'' force was spotted by submarines shortly after it left the Japanese home waters and was intercepted by US carrier aircraft.Under attack from more than 300 aircraft over a two-hour span, the world's largest battleship sank on 7 April 1945 after a one-sided battle, long before she could reach Okinawa.", "(US torpedo bombers were instructed to aim for only one side to prevent effective counter flooding by the battleship's crew, and to aim for the bow or the stern where armor was believed to be the thinnest.)", "Of ''Yamato''s screening force, the light cruiser and 4 of the 8 destroyers were also sunk.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy lost some 3,700 sailors, including Admiral Itō, at the cost of 10 US aircraft and 12 airmen.===British Pacific Fleet===The British Pacific Fleet, taking part as Task Force 57, was assigned the task of neutralizing the Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, which it did successfully from March 26 to April 10.On April 10, its attention was shifted to airfields in northern Formosa.", "The force withdrew to San Pedro Bay on April 23.On May 1, the British Pacific Fleet returned to action, subduing the airfields as before, this time with naval bombardment as well as aircraft.", "Several ''kamikaze'' attacks caused significant damage, but as the Royal Navy carriers had armoured flight decks, they experienced only a brief interruption to their force's operations.File:HMS Implacable AWM 019037.jpg|Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Avengers, Seafires and Fireflies on warm up their engines before taking off.File:HMS Formidable (67) on fire 1945.jpg| on fire after a ''kamikaze'' attack on May 4.The ship was out of action for fifty minutes." ], [ "Land battle", "The battleship shelling Okinawa on 1 April 1945The land battle took place over about 81 days beginning on 1 April 1945.The first Americans ashore were soldiers of the 77th Infantry Division who landed in the Kerama Islands, west of Okinawa on 26 March.", "Subsidiary landings followed, and the Kerama group was secured over the next five days.", "In these preliminary operations, the 77th Infantry Division suffered 27 dead and 81 wounded, while the Japanese dead and captured numbered over 650.The operation provided a protected anchorage for the fleet and eliminated the threat from suicide boats.On 31 March, Marines of the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion landed without opposition on Keise Shima, four islets just west of the Okinawan capital of Naha.", "A group of \"Long Tom\" artillery pieces went ashore on the islets to cover operations on Okinawa.===Northern Okinawa===US Marine reinforcements wade ashore to support the beachhead on Okinawa, 1 April 1945.The main landing was made by the XXIV Corps and the III Amphibious Corps on the Hagushi beaches on the western coast of Okinawa on 1 April.", "The 2nd Marine Division conducted a demonstration off the Minatoga beaches on the southeastern coast to deceive the Japanese about American intentions and delay movement of reserves from there.Tenth Army swept across the south-central part of the island with relative ease, capturing the Kadena and the Yomitan airbases within hours of the landing.", "In light of the weak opposition, General Buckner decided to proceed immediately with Phase II of his plan, the seizure of northern Okinawa.", "The 6th Marine Division headed up the Ishikawa Isthmus and by 7 April had sealed off the Motobu Peninsula.Six days later on 13 April, the 2nd Battalion, 22nd Marine Regiment, reached Hedo Point at the northernmost tip of the island.", "By this point, the bulk of the Japanese forces in the north (codenamed ''Udo Force'') were cornered on the Motobu Peninsula.", "The terrain was mountainous and wooded, with the Japanese defenses concentrated on Mount Yaedake, a twisted mass of rocky ridges and ravines on the center of the peninsula.", "There was heavy fighting before the Marines finally cleared Yaedake on 18 April.", "However, this was not the end of ground combat in northern Okinawa.", "On 24 May, the Japanese mounted Operation Gi-gou: a company of ''Giretsu Kuteitai'' commandos were airlifted in a suicide attack on Yomitan.", "They destroyed of fuel and nine planes before being killed by the defenders, who lost two men.Meanwhile, the 77th Infantry Division assaulted Ie Shima, a small island off the western end of the peninsula, on 16 April.", "In addition to conventional hazards, the 77th Infantry Division encountered ''kamikaze'' attacks and even local women armed with spears.", "There was heavy fighting before the area was declared secured on 21 April and became another airbase for operations against Japan.===Southern Okinawa===US Marines pass a dead Japanese soldier in a destroyed village, April 1945.77th Infantry Division listen impassively to radio reports of Victory in Europe Day on 8 May 1945.Soldiers of the 96th Infantry Division attack Japanese positions on Big Apple Ridge.US Operations in Southern OkinawaWhile the 6th Marine Division cleared northern Okinawa, the US Army 96th and 7th Infantry Divisions wheeled south across the narrow isthmus of Okinawa.", "The 96th Infantry Division began to encounter fierce resistance in west-central Okinawa from Japanese troops holding fortified positions east of Highway No.", "1 and about northwest of Shuri, from what came to be known as Cactus Ridge.", "The 7th Infantry Division encountered similarly fierce Japanese opposition from a rocky pinnacle located about southwest of Arakachi (later dubbed \"The Pinnacle\").", "By the night of 8 April, American troops had cleared these and several other strongly fortified positions.", "They suffered over 1,500 battle casualties in the process while killing or capturing about 4,500 Japanese.", "Yet the battle had only begun, for it was realized that \"these were merely outposts,\" guarding the Shuri Line.The next American objective was Kakazu Ridge (), two hills with a connecting saddle that formed part of Shuri's outer defenses.", "The Japanese had prepared their positions well and fought tenaciously.", "The Japanese soldiers hid in fortified caves.", "American forces often lost personnel before clearing the Japanese out from each cave or other hiding place.", "The Japanese sent Okinawans at gunpoint out to obtain water and supplies for them, which led to civilian casualties.", "The American advance was inexorable but resulted in a high number of casualties on both sides.As the American assault against Kakazu Ridge stalled, Lieutenant General Ushijima—influenced by General Chō—decided to take the offensive.", "On the evening of 12 April, the 32nd Army attacked American positions across the entire front.", "The Japanese attack was heavy, sustained, and well organized.", "After fierce close combat, the attackers retreated, only to repeat their offensive the following night.", "A final assault on 14 April was again repulsed.", "The effort led the 32nd Army's staff to conclude that the Americans were vulnerable to night infiltration tactics but that their superior firepower made any offensive Japanese troop concentrations extremely dangerous, and they reverted to their defensive strategy.The 27th Infantry Division, which had landed on 9 April, took over on the right, along the west coast of Okinawa.", "General John R. Hodge now had three divisions in the line, with the 96th in the middle and the 7th to the east, with each division holding a front of only about .", "Hodge launched a new offensive on 19 April with a barrage of 324 guns, the largest ever in the Pacific Ocean Theater.", "Battleships, cruisers, and destroyers joined the bombardment, which was followed by 650 Navy and Marine planes attacking the Japanese positions with napalm, rockets, bombs, and machine guns.", "The Japanese defenses were sited on reverse slopes, where the defenders waited out the artillery barrage and aerial attack in relative safety, emerging from the caves to rain mortar rounds and grenades upon the Americans advancing up the forward slope.A tank assault to achieve breakthrough by outflanking Kakazu Ridge failed to link up with its infantry support attempting to cross the ridge and therefore failed with the loss of 22 tanks.", "Although flame tanks cleared many cave defenses, there was no breakthrough, and the XXIV Corps suffered 720 casualties.", "The losses might have been greater except for the fact that the Japanese had practically all of their infantry reserves tied up farther south, held there by another feint off the Minatoga beaches by the 2nd Marine Division that coincided with the attack.At the end of April, after Army forces had pushed through the Machinato defensive line, the 1st Marine Division relieved the 27th Infantry Division and the 77th Infantry Division relieved the 96th.", "When the 6th Marine Division arrived, the III Amphibious Corps took over the right flank and Tenth Army assumed control of the battle.Lt.", "Col. Richard P. Ross Jr., commander of 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines braves sniper fire to place the United States' colors over the parapets of Shuri Castle on 30 May.", "This flag was first raised over Cape Gloucester and then Peleliu.A Japanese prisoner of war sits behind barbed wire after he and 306 others were captured within the last 24 hours of the battle by 6th Marine Division.On 4 May, the 32nd Army launched another counter-offensive.", "This time, Ushijima attempted to make amphibious assaults on the coasts behind American lines.", "To support his offensive, the Japanese artillery moved into the open.", "By doing so, they were able to fire 13,000 rounds in support, but effective American counter-battery fire destroyed dozens of Japanese artillery pieces.", "The attack failed.Buckner launched another American attack on 11 May.", "Ten days of fierce fighting followed.", "On 13 May, troops of the 96th Infantry Division and 763rd Tank Battalion captured Conical Hill ().", "Rising above the Yonabaru coastal plain, this feature was the eastern anchor of the main Japanese defenses and was defended by about 1,000 Japanese.", "Meanwhile, on the opposite coast, the 1st and 6th Marine Divisions fought for \"Sugar Loaf Hill\" ().", "The capture of these two key positions exposed the Japanese around Shuri on both sides.", "Buckner hoped to envelop Shuri and trap the main Japanese defending force.By the end of May, monsoon rains which had turned contested hills and roads into a morass exacerbated both the tactical and medical situations.", "The ground advance began to resemble a World War I battlefield, as troops became mired in mud, and flooded roads greatly inhibited evacuation of wounded to the rear.", "Troops lived on a field sodden by rain, part garbage dump and part graveyard.", "Unburied Japanese and American bodies decayed, sank in the mud and became part of a noxious stew.", "Anyone sliding down the greasy slopes could easily find their pockets full of maggots at the end of the journey.From 24 to 27 May the 6th Marine Division cautiously occupied the ruins of Naha, the largest city on the island, finding it largely deserted.On 26 May aerial observers saw large troop movements just below Shuri.", "On 28 May Marine patrols found recently abandoned positions west of Shuri.", "By 30 May the consensus among Army and Marine intelligence was that the majority of Japanese forces had withdrawn from the Shuri Line.", "On 29 May the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines (1/5 Marines) occupied high ground east of Shuri Castle and reported that the castle appeared undefended.", "At 10:15 Company A, 1/5 Marines occupied the castle.Shuri Castle had been shelled by the battleship for three days before this advance.", "The 32nd Army withdrew to the south and thus the Marines had an easy task of securing Shuri Castle.", "The castle, however, was outside the 1st Marine Division's assigned zone, and only frantic efforts by the commander and staff of the 77th Infantry Division prevented an American airstrike and artillery bombardment which would have resulted in many friendly fire casualties.On 29 May a Confederate flag was raised over Shuri Castle, before being removed and replaced by a US flag three days later on orders of General Buckner.The Japanese retreat, although harassed by artillery fire, was conducted with great skill at night and aided by the monsoon storms.", "The 32nd Army was able to move nearly 30,000 personnel into its last defense line on the Kiyan Peninsula, which ultimately led to the greatest slaughter on Okinawa in the latter stages of the battle, including the deaths of thousands of civilians.", "In addition, there were 9,000 IJN troops supported by 1,100 militia, with approximately 4,000 holed up at the underground headquarters on the hillside overlooking the Okinawa Naval Base in the Oroku Peninsula, east of the airfield.On 4 June, elements of the 6th Marine Division launched an amphibious assault on the peninsula.", "The 4,000 Japanese sailors, including Admiral Ōta, all committed suicide within the hand-built tunnels of the underground naval headquarters on 13 June.", "By 17 June, the remnants of Ushijima's shattered 32nd Army were pushed into a small pocket in the far south of the island to the southeast of Itoman.On 18 June, General Buckner was killed by Japanese artillery fire while monitoring the progress of his troops from a forward observation post.", "Buckner was replaced by Major General Roy Geiger.", "Upon assuming command, Geiger became the only US Marine to command a numbered army of the US Army in combat; he was relieved five days later by General Joseph Stilwell.", "On 19 June, Brigadier General Claudius Miller Easley, the commander of the 96th Infantry Division, was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire, also while checking on the progress of his troops at the front.The last remnants of Japanese resistance ended on 21 June, although some Japanese continued hiding, including the future governor of Okinawa Prefecture, Masahide Ōta.", "Ushijima and Chō committed suicide by ''seppuku'' in their command headquarters on Hill 89 in the closing hours of the battle.", "Colonel Yahara had asked Ushijima for permission to commit suicide, but the general refused his request, saying: \"If you die there will be no one left who knows the truth about the battle of Okinawa.", "Bear the temporary shame but endure it.", "This is an order from your army commander.\"", "Yahara was the most senior officer to have survived the battle on the island, and he later authored a book titled ''The Battle for Okinawa''.", "On 22 June Tenth Army held a flag-raising ceremony to mark the end of organized resistance on Okinawa.", "On 23 June a mopping-up operation commenced, which concluded on 30 June.On 15 August 1945, Admiral Matome Ugaki was killed while part of a kamikaze raid on Iheyajima island.", "The official surrender ceremony was held on 7 September, near the Kadena Airfield." ], [ "Casualties", "US Coast Guardsmen pay homage to their comrade killed in the Ryukyu Islands.The Battle of Okinawa was the bloodiest battle of the Pacific War.", "The most complete tally of deaths during the battle is at the Cornerstone of Peace monument at the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum, which identifies the names of each individual who died at Okinawa in World War II.", "As of 2022, the monument lists 241,686 names, including 149,611 Okinawans, 77,485 Imperial Japanese soldiers, 14,010 Americans, and smaller numbers of people from South Korea (382), the United Kingdom (82), North Korea (82) and Taiwan (34).The numbers correspond to recorded deaths during the Battle of Okinawa from the time of the American landings in the Kerama Islands on 26 March 1945 to the signing of the Japanese surrender on 2 September 1945, in addition to all Okinawan casualties in the Pacific War in the 15 years from the Manchurian Incident, along with those who died in Okinawa from war-related events in the year before the battle and the year after the surrender.", "234,183 names were inscribed by the time of unveiling, and new names are added as necessary.", "40,000 of the Okinawan civilians killed had been drafted or impressed by the Japanese army and are often counted as combat deaths.===Military losses=======American====Two wounded American soldiers make their way to a medical aid station on Okinawa, 20 April 1945.Two US M4 Sherman tanks knocked out by Japanese artillery at Bloody Ridge, 20 April 1945The Americans suffered some 48,000 casualties, not including some 33,000 non-battle casualties (psychiatric, injuries, illnesses), of whom over 12,000 were killed or missing.", "Killed in action were 4,907 Navy, 4,675 Army, and 2,938 Marine Corps personnel; when excluding naval losses at sea and losses on the surrounding islands (such as Ie Shima), 6,316 killed and over 30,000 wounded occurred on Okinawa proper.", "Other authors such as John Keegan have come up with higher numbers.The most famous American casualty was Lieutenant General Buckner, whose decision to attack the Japanese defenses head-on, although extremely costly in American lives, was ultimately successful.", "Four days from the closing of the campaign, Buckner was killed by Japanese artillery fire, which blew lethal slivers of coral into his body, while inspecting his troops at the front line.", "He was the highest-ranking US officer to be killed by enemy fire during the Second World War.", "The day after Buckner was killed, Brigadier General Easley was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire.", "War correspondent Ernie Pyle was also killed by Japanese machine-gun fire on Ie Shima, a small island just off of northwestern Okinawa.The last picture of US Army Lt. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. (right), taken on 18 June 1945.Later in the day, he was killed by Japanese artillery fire.The last picture of US Army Brig.", "Gen. Claudius Miller Easley, taken on 19 June 1945.He was later killed by Japanese machine-gun fire.Aircraft losses over the three-month period were 768 US planes, including those bombing the Kyushu airfields launching ''kamikaze''s.", "Combat losses were 458, and the other 310 were operational accidents.", "At sea, 368 Allied ships—including 120 amphibious craft—were damaged while another 36—including 15 amphibious ships and 12 destroyers—were sunk during the Okinawa campaign.", "The US Navy's dead exceeded its wounded, with 4,907 killed and 4,874 wounded, primarily from ''kamikaze'' attacks.American personnel casualties included thousands of cases of mental breakdown.", "According to the account of the battle presented in ''Marine Corps Gazette'':Medal of Honor recipients from Okinawa are:* Beauford T. Anderson – 13 April* Richard E. Bush – 16 April* Robert Eugene Bush – 2 May* Henry A. Courtney Jr. – 14–15 May* Clarence B.", "Craft – 31 May* James L. Day – 14–17 May* Desmond Doss – 29 April – 21 May* John P. Fardy – 7 May* William A.", "Foster – 2 May* Harold Gonsalves – 15 April* William D. Halyburton Jr. – 10 May* Dale M. Hansen – 7 May* Louis J. Hauge Jr. – 14 May* Elbert L. Kinser – 4 May* Fred F. Lester – 8 June* Martin O.", "May – 19–21 April* Richard M. McCool Jr. – 10–11 June* Robert M. McTureous Jr. – 7 June* John W. Meagher – 19 June* Edward J. Moskala – 9 April* Joseph E. Muller – 15–16 May* Alejandro R. Ruiz – 28 April* Albert E. Schwab – 7 May* Seymour W. Terry – 11 May====Allied naval vessels sunk or damaged at Okinawa====The following table lists the Allied naval vessels that received damage or were sunk in the Battle of Okinawa between 19 March – 30 July 1945.The table lists a total of 147 damaged ships, five of which were damaged by enemy suicide boats and another five by mines.", "During the naval battle, which started before the amphibious landings on Okinawa on 1 April, suffered over 800 killed and missing and suffered 396 killed and missing.", "These were the first and third largest loss of life on damaged or sunken American aircraft carriers during World War II.", "USS ''Franklin'' (hit by two bombs in a level bombing attack by a D4Y ''Suisei'' (Judy) on 19 March 1945) and USS ''Bunker Hill'' were the only two aircraft carriers that sustained very severe damage from Japanese attacks and as a result were the only aircraft carriers in the that did not experience any active service after the end of World War II.", "One source estimated that total Japanese sorties during the entire Okinawa campaign exceeded 3,700, with a large percentage being ''kamikaze'' attacks, and that the attackers damaged slightly more than 200 Allied vessels, with 4,900 naval officers and seamen killed and roughly 4,824 wounded or missing.", "USS ''Thorton'' was damaged as the result of a collision with another US ship.The Japanese air attacks were so intense that Fifth Fleet commander Admiral Spruance's flagships were struck two separate times ( was hit in March and had to retire for repairs which forced him to transfer to which was also hit in May).", "Fast Carrier Task Force commander Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher and his chief of staff Commodore Arleigh Burke were yards away from getting killed or wounded by kamikazes on his flagship USS ''Bunker Hill'', which killed three of Mitscher's staff officers and eleven of his enlisted staff members and also destroyed his flag cabin along with all of his uniforms, personal papers, and possessions.", "Just two days later Mitscher's new flagship was also struck by a kamikaze forcing him to have to change his flagship yet again.", "Both fleet carriers were knocked out for the rest of the war.", "sunk or had to be scuttled due to irreparable damage.", "Of those sunk, the majority were relatively smaller ships; these included destroyers of around 300–450 feet.", "A few small cargo ships were also sunk, several containing munitions which caught fire.", "scrapped or decommissioned as a result of damage.+ Allied Naval vessels sunk or damaged by Japanese forces at Okinawa, primarily kamikazes, 19 March – 30 July 1945DayShipTypeCauseKilledWounded 19 Mar 45 USS ''Wasp'' Carrier Air attack, bomb through flight, & hangar decks 101 269 19 Mar 45 USS ''Franklin'' Carrier Air attack 724 265 20 Mar 45 USS ''Hasley Powell'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze 12 29 26 Mar 45* USS ''Haligan'' Destroyer Mine, 3 miles SE of Maye Shima, exploded 2 forward magazines, bow blown off 153 39 26 Mar 45 USS ''Kimberly'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze 4 57 27 Mar 45 USS ''Murray'' Destroyer Air attack, bomb 1 116 27 Mar 45 USS ''O'Brian'' Destroyer Air attack, Val kamikaze with bomb 50 76 28 Mar 45* USS ''Skylark'' Small Minesweeper Mine, struck mines twice off Hagushi beaches 5 25 28 Mar 45 USS ''LSM(R)-188'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze 15 32 29 Mar 45 USS ''Wyandot'' Attack Cargo Ship Mine, possibly bomb 0 1 31 Mar 45 USS ''Indianapolis'' Cruiser Air attack, bomb through fuel tanks 9 20 1 Apr 45 USS ''Adams'' Destroyer Minelayer Air attack, kamikaze with bombs to fantail 0 0 1 Apr 45 USS ''Alpine'' Attack Transport Air attack, bomb and kamikaze 16 27 1 Apr 45 USS ''Hinsdale'' Attack Transport Air attack, kamikaze with bombs at waterline 16 39 1 Apr 45 # USS ''LST-884'' Tank Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze, scuttled 6 May 24 21 1 April 45 HMS ''Ulster'' Destroyer Air attack, near miss bomb, badly damaged 2 1 2 Apr 45* USS ''Dickerson'' Destroyer Transport Air attack, kamikaze Nick crashed bridge, towed, scuttled 54 23 2 Apr 45 USS ''Goodhue'' Attack Transport Air attack, kamikaze aimed at bridge glanced mainmast, hit cargo boom, gun tubs, over side 24 119 2 Apr 45 USS ''Henrico'' Attack Transport Air attack, kamikaze w/bombs hit bridge 49 125 2 Apr 45 USS ''Achernar'' Attack Cargo Ship Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb hit starboard 5 41 3 Apr 45 USS ''Wake Island'' Escort Carrier Air attack, kamikaze blew below waterline 0 0 3 Apr 45 USS ''Pritchett'' Destroyer Air attack, 500 lb bomb 0 0 3 Apr 45 USS ''Foreman'' Destroyer Air attack, bomb passed through her bottom, exploded below 0 3 3 Apr 45 USS LST-599 Tank Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze through main deck, fires 0 21 3 Apr 45 # USS ''LCT-876'' Landing Craft Tank Air attack 0 2 4 Apr 45* USS ''LCI(G)-82'' Landing Craft, Infantry Suicide Boat 8 11 5 Apr 45 USS ''Nevada'' Battleship Air attack 25 Mar and 5 April coastal battery 2 16 6 Apr 45* USS ''Bush'' Destroyer Air attack, 3 kamikaze hits 2 between stacks, blew forward engine room, broke in half 94 32 6 Apr 45* USS ''Colhoun'' Destroyer Air attack, 4 kamikaze hits, bombs blew forward, & aft fire rooms at waterline 35 21 6 Apr 45 USS ''Howorth'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze struck superstructure, fires put out 9 14 6 Apr 45 USS ''Hyman'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze Hampton hit torpedo tubes twixt stacks 10 40 6 Apr 45 # USS ''Leutze'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze blew at fantail, bad flooding 7 34 6 Apr 45 # USS ''Morris'' Destroyer Air attack, kate kamikaze portside 0 5 6 Apr 45 USS ''Mullany'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit depth charges 13 45 6 Apr 45 # USS ''Newcomb'' Destroyer Air attack, multiple kamikazes 40 24 6 Apr 45 USS ''Haynsworth'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze 7 25 6 Apr 45 # USS ''Witter'' Destroyer Escort Starboard waterline kamikaze 0 5 6 Apr 45 USS ''Fieberling'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze near miss 6 6 6 Apr 45* USS ''Emmons'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, 5 kamikaze hits, scuttled 7 April 64 71 6 Apr 45 USS ''Rodman'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, 4 kamikaze hits 16 20 6 Apr 45 USS ''Defense'' Small Minesweeper Air attack, two kamikaze strikes 0 9 6 Apr 45* USS ''LST-447'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze hit close above waterline, bomb blew 5 17 6 Apr 45* SS ''Hobbs Victory'' Cargo Air attack, kamikaze struck port, flames ignited ammunition 15 3 6 Apr 45* SS ''Logan Victory'' Cargo Air attack, kamikaze struck superstructure, flames ignited ammunition 16 11 7 Apr 45 USS ''Hancock'' Carrier Air attack, cartwheeling kamikaze 72 82 7 Apr 45 USS ''Maryland'' Battleship Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard 16 37 7 Apr 45 USS ''Bennett'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit engine room 3 18 7 Apr 45 USS ''Wesson'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze starboard 8 23 7 Apr 45* USS ''PGM-18'' Small Gunboat Mine, powerful explosion 14 14 7 Apr 45* ''YMS-103'' Small Minesweeper Mine, struck two mines, blowing off her bow and stem rescuing PGM-18 5 0 8 April 1945 USS ''Gregory'' Destroyer Air attack, port kamikaze amidships near waterline 0 2 8 Apr 45 USS ''YMS-92'' Small Sweeper Air attack 0 0 9 Apr 45 USS ''Charles J. Badger'' Destroyer Suicide Boat threw depth charge or mine 0 0 9 Apr 45 USS ''Sterett'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard at waterline 0 9 9 Apr 45 USS ''Hopping'' Destroyer Transport Coastal Battery, damaging hits off Buckner Bay 2 18 11 Apr 45 USS ''Kidd'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze 38 55 12 Apr 45 USS ''Tennessee'' Battleship Air attack, kamikaze hit signal bridge 25 104 12 Apr 45* USS ''Mannert L. Abele'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze 79 35 12 Apr 45 USS ''Purdy'' Destroyer Air attack, splashed kamikaze bomb skidded in 13 27 12 Apr 45 USS ''Cassin Young'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit foremast 1 59 12 Apr 45 USS ''Zellars'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze crashed port, bomb blew 29 37 12 Apr 45 USS ''Rall'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze starboard aft, bomb blew 21 38 12 Apr 45 USS ''Whitehurst'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb crashed pilot house 37 37 12 Apr 45 USS ''Lindsey'' Destroyer Minelayer Air attack, 2 kamikaze Val strikes 56 51 12 Apr 45 USS ''LSM(R)-189'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze 0 4 12 Apr 45* USS ''LCS(L)-33'' Landing Craft Air attack, kamikaze Val amidships 4 29 12 Apr 45 USS ''LCS(L)-57'' Landing Craft Air attack, 3 kamikaze strikes 2 6 14 Apr 45 USS ''Sigsbee'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze damaged port engine 4 74 16 Apr 45 USS ''Intrepid'' Carrier Air attack, kamikaze crashed deck, fires put out 10 87 16 Apr 45 USS ''Bryant'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze to bridge, w/explosion 34 33 16 Apr 45 USS ''Laffey'' Destroyer Air attack, multiple kamikaze hits 31 72 16 Apr 45* USS ''Pringle'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze Val hit abaft stack No.", "1, explosion, broke in half 65 110 16 Apr 45 USS ''Bowers'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze to bridge, bomb hit pilot house 48 56 16 Apr 45 # USS ''Harding'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, kamikaze struck side near bridge 22 10 16 Apr 45 USS ''Hobson'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, near miss kamikaze's bomb veered in 4 8 16 Apr 45 USS ''LCS(L)-116'' Landing Craft Air attack, kamikaze hit aft gun mount 12 12 18 Apr 45 USS ''LSM-28'' Landing Ship Air attack 0 0 22 Apr 45 USS ''Isherwood'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb crashed gun mount 42 41 22 Apr 45* USS ''Swallow'' Small Sweeper Air attack, bad kamikaze hit flooded her, 3 mins sunk 2 9 22 Apr 45 USS ''LCS(L)-15'' Landing Craft Air attack 15 11 27 Apr 45 # USS ''Hutchins'' Destroyer Suicide Boat explosive blew close 0 0 27 Apr 45 # USS ''Rathburne'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit port bow waterline 0 0 27 Apr 45* SS ''Canada Victory'' Cargo Air attack, kamikaze hit stern, lit ammo, sunk 10 mins 12 27 28 Apr 45 USS ''Pinkney'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit aft of superstructure, lit ammo 35 12 28 Apr 45 USS ''Comfort'' Hospital Ship Air attack, kamikaze through 3 decks to surgery 30 48 29 Apr 45 # USS ''Haggard'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze went through hull, blew engine room 11 40 29 Apr 45 USS ''Hazelwood'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze zero hit port bridge 46 26 29 Apr 45 # USS ''LCS(L)-37'' Landing Craft Suicide Boat 0 4 30 Apr 45 USS ''Terror'' Minelayer Air attack, kamikaze blew through main deck 48 123 3 May 45* USS ''Little'' Destroyer Air attack, 5 kamikaze strikes 30 79 3 May 45 # USS ''Aaron Ward'' Destroyer Minelayer Air attack; 3 kamikaze hits and bomb frags 45 49 3 May 45 USS ''Macomb'' Destroyer Minelayer Air attack, kamikaze 7 14 3 May 45* USS ''LSM(R)-195'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze hit rockets, sunk 8 16 4 May 45 USS ''Hopkins'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, Glancing blow by burning kamikaze 0 1 4 May 45 # USS ''Sangamon'' Escort Carrier Air attack, kamikaze & bomb blew through flight deck 46 116 4 May 45 USS ''Birmingham'' Light Cruiser Air attack, kamikaze hit forward 51 81 4 May 45 USS ''Ingraham'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze above port waterline, bomb blew 14 37 4 May 45* USS ''Luce'' Destroyer Air attack, 1st kamikaze bomb hit, 2nd kamikaze struck aft 149 94 4 May 45* USS ''Morrison'' Destroyer Air attack, 1st kamikaze hit bridge, then 3 more hit 159 102 4 May 45 USS ''Shea'' Destroyer Air attack Ohka kamikaze through starboard bridge 27 91 4 May 45 USS ''Carina'' Cargo Ship Suicide Boat ramming caused explosion 0 6 4 May 45* USS ''LSM(R)-190'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze set off her rockets 13 18 4 May 45* USS ''LSM(R)-194'' Landing Ship Air attack 13 23 9 May 45 # USS ''England'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze dive bomber 35 27 9 May 45 # USS ''Oberrender'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard gun mount, bomb through main deck 8 53 11 May 45 USS ''Bunker Hill'' Carrier Air attack, 3 kamikaze hits with bombs through flight deck 396 264 11 May 45 # USS ''Hugh W. Hadley'' Destroyer Air attack, Aft bomb, an Ohka, and 2 more kamikazes struck 28 67 11 May 45 # USS ''Evans'' Destroyer Air attack, Struck by 4 kamikazes, fires put out 30 29 11 May 45 USS ''LCS(L)-88'' Landing Craft Air attack 7 9 13 May 45 USS ''Enterprise'' Fast Carrier Air attack, 2 kamikazes, struck port, & under starboard bow 13 68 13 May 45 USS ''Bache'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit, bomb exploded amidships just above main deck 41 32 13 May 45 USS ''Bright'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze zero hit fantail, bomb exploded 0 2 17 May 45 USS ''Douglas H. Fox'' Destroyer 2 kamikaze strikes, one to forward gun mounts, one to fantail 9 35 18 May 45* USS ''Longshaw'' Destroyer Coastal Battery, 4 hits, one ignited magazine, blew off bow back to bridge 86 97 18 May 45* USS ''LST-808'' Landing Ship Tank Air attack 11 11 20 May 45 # USS ''Chase'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, Splashed kamikaze skidded in, bombs opened hull, w/flooding 0 35 20 May 45 # USS ''Thatcher'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze Oscar struck aft of bridge, large hole 14 53 20 May 45 # USS ''John C. Butler'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze hit to mast and antennas 0 0 25 May 45 USS ''Stormes'' Destroyer Air attack, crashed aft torpedo mount, bomb blew large hole, flooded aft 21 6 25 May 45 USS ''O'Neill'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze 0 16 25 May 45 USS ''Butler'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, kamikaze bombs exploded under keel 0 15 25 May 45 # USS ''Spectacle'' Small Minesweeper Air attack, kamikaze crashed port gun tub causing fires 29 6 25 May 45* USS ''Barry'' Destroyer Transport Air attack, kamikaze badly crashed starboard side, fires, abandoned 0 30 25 May 45* USS ''Bates'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, 2 kamikaze hits, fires, abandoned, towed, later sank 21 35 25 May 45 USS ''Roper'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit off Hanagushi, Okinawa 1 10 25 May 45* ''LSM-135'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze caused fires, beached, abandoned 11 10 25 May 45 SS ''William B. Allison'' (aka USS ''Inca'') Cargo Ship, Liberty Ship Air attack, Aerial Torpedo off Nakagusuku Wan 8 2 27 May 45 USS ''Braine'' Destroyer Air attack, 2 kamikazes, 1st hit bridge, and 2nd hit amidships 66 78 27 May 45 # USS ''Forrest'' Destroyer Minesweeper Air attack, kamikaze crashed starboard side waterline 5 13 27 May 45 USS ''Rednour'' Transport Air attack, 2 kmaikazes hits, one made 10 foot hole in main deck 3 13 27 May 45 USS ''Loy'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, kamikaze near miss sprayed fragments 3 15 27 May 45 ''LCS(L)-119'' Landing Craft Air attack 12 6 28 May 45* USS ''Drexler'' Destroyer Air attack, 1st kamikaze Frances hit topside, 2nd Francis w/bombs crashed superstructure 158 51 28 May 45 USS ''Sandoval'' Attack Transport Air attack, kamikaze hit portside of wheelhouse 8 26 29 May 45 USS ''Shubrick'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze bomb hit starboard causing hole, exploding depth charge 32 28 3 June 45 # USS ''LCI-90'' Landing Craft Infantry Air attack, kamikaze 1 7 6 June 45 # USS ''J.", "William Ditter'' Destroyer Minelayer Air attack, 1st kamikaze glanced, 2nd hit port near main deck 10 27 6 Jun 45 USS ''Harry F. Bauer'' Destroyer Minelayer Air attack, kamikaze hit superstructure 0 0 10 Jun 45* USS ''William D. Porter'' Destroyer Air attack, splashed kamikaze Val'sbomb exploded close underwater 0 61 11 Jun 45 USS ''LCS(L)-122'' Landing Craft Air attack kamikaze hit conning tower base, bomb fragments caused fires 11 29 16 Jun 45* USS ''Twiggs'' Destroyer Air attack, splashed kamikaze and bomb blew in hull plating, w/structural damage 126 34 21 Jun 45 USS ''Halloran'' Destroyer Escort Air attack, splashed kamikaze's bomb struck 3 24 21 Jun 45 USS ''Curtiss'' Seaplane Tender Air attack, kamikaze and bomb ripped 2 holes in hull and blew 41 28 21 Jun 45* USS ''LSM-59'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze strike while towing USS ''Barry'', sank in 4 minutes 2 8 22 Jun 45 USS ''LSM-213'' Landing Ship Air attack, kamikaze strike at Kimmu Wan, hull damage 3 10 22 Jun 45 USS ''LST-534'' Landing Ship Tank Air attack, While offloading on Nagagusuku Wan, kamikaze hit bow doors, tank deck 3 35 29 Jul 45* USS ''Callaghan'' Destroyer Air attack, bi-plane kamikaze hit,its bomb blew aft engine room, sunk 47 73 30 Jul 45 USS ''Cassin Young'' Destroyer Air attack, kamikaze hit forward, earlier hit 12 April 22 45 Total 3927 5063====Japanese losses====The US military estimates that 110,071 Japanese soldiers were killed during the battle.", "This total includes conscripted Okinawan civilians.A group of Japanese prisoners taken on the island of Okuku in June 1945A total of 7,401 Japanese regulars and 3,400 Okinawan conscripts surrendered or were captured during the battle of Okinawa.", "Additional Japanese and renegade Okinawans were captured or surrendered over the next few months, bringing the total to 16,346.This was the first battle in the Pacific War in which thousands of Japanese soldiers surrendered or were captured.", "Many of the prisoners were native Okinawans who had been pressed into service shortly before the battle and were less imbued with the Imperial Japanese Army's no-surrender doctrine.", "When the American forces occupied the island, many Japanese soldiers put on Okinawan clothing to avoid capture, and some Okinawans would come to the Americans' aid by offering to identify these mainland Japanese.The Japanese lost 16 combat vessels, including the super battleship ''Yamato''.", "Early claims of Japanese aircraft losses put the total at 7,800, however later examination of Japanese records revealed that Japanese aircraft losses at Okinawa were far below often-repeated US estimates for the campaign.", "The number of conventional and kamikaze aircraft actually lost or expended by the 3rd, 5th, and 10th Air Fleets, combined with about 500 lost or expended by the Imperial Army at Okinawa, was roughly 1,430.The Allies destroyed 27 Japanese tanks and 743 artillery pieces (including mortars, anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns), some of them eliminated by the naval and air bombardments but most knocked out by American counter-battery fire.===Civilian losses, suicides, and atrocities===Stinson Sentinel observation plane flies over the razed Naha, capital of Okinawa, in May 1945.Some of the other islands that saw major battles in World War II, such as Iwo Jima, were uninhabited or had been evacuated.", "Okinawa, by contrast, had a large indigenous civilian population; US Army records from the planning phase of the operation made the assumption that Okinawa was home to about 300,000 civilians.", "The official US Tenth Army count for the 82-day campaign is a total of 142,058 recovered enemy bodies (including those civilians pressed into service by the Imperial Japanese Army), with the deduction made that about 42,000 were non-uniformed civilians who had been killed in the crossfire.", "Okinawa Prefecture's estimate is over 100,000 losses.During the battle, American forces found it difficult to distinguish civilians from soldiers.", "It became common for them to shoot at Okinawan houses, as one infantryman wrote:There was some return fire from a few of the houses, but the others were probably occupied by civilians—and we didn't care.", "It was a terrible thing not to distinguish between the enemy and women and children.", "Americans always had great compassion, especially for children.", "Now we fired indiscriminately.foxhole with an Okinawan war orphan in April 1945.In its history of the war, the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum presents Okinawa as being caught between Japan and the United States.", "During the battle, the Imperial Japanese Army showed indifference to Okinawans' safety, and its soldiers used civilians as human shields or outright killed them.", "The Japanese military also confiscated food from the Okinawans and executed those who hid it, leading to mass starvation, and forced civilians out of their shelters.", "Japanese soldiers also killed about 1,000 people who spoke in the Okinawan language to suppress spying.", "The museum writes that \"some were blown apart by artillery shells, some finding themselves in a hopeless situation were driven to suicide, some died of starvation, some succumbed to malaria, while others fell victim to the retreating Japanese troops.", "\"With the impending Japanese defeat, civilians often committed mass suicide, urged on by the Japanese soldiers who told locals that victorious American soldiers would go on a rampage of killing and raping.", "''Ryūkyū Shimpō'', one of the two major Okinawan newspapers, wrote in 2007: \"There are many Okinawans who have testified that the Japanese Army directed them to commit suicide.", "There are also people who have testified that they were handed grenades by Japanese soldiers\" to blow themselves up.", "Thousands of civilians, having been induced by Japanese propaganda to believe that American soldiers were barbarians who committed horrible atrocities, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture at the hands of the Americans.", "Some of them threw themselves and their family members from the southern cliffs where the Peace Museum now resides.Okinawans \"were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy\".", "''Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power'' by Mark Selden states that the Americans \"did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned\".", "American Military Intelligence Corps combat translators such as Teruto Tsubota managed to convince many civilians not to kill themselves.", "Survivors of the mass suicides blamed also the indoctrination of their education system of the time, in which the Okinawans were taught to become \"more Japanese than the Japanese\" and were expected to prove it.leaflets, one of which is being read by a prisoner awaiting transport.Witnesses and historians claim that soldiers, mainly Japanese troops, raped Okinawan women during the battle.", "Rape by Japanese troops reportedly \"became common\" in June, after it became clear that the Imperial Japanese Army had been defeated.", "Marine Corps officials in Okinawa and Washington have said that they knew of no rapes by American personnel in Okinawa at the end of the war.", "There are, however, numerous credible testimony accounts which note that a large number of rapes were committed by American forces during the battle.", "This includes stories of rape after trading sexual favors or even marrying Americans, such as the alleged incident in the village of Katsuyama, where civilians said they had formed a vigilante group to ambush and kill three black American soldiers who they claimed would frequently rape the local girls there.====MEXT textbook controversy====There is ongoing disagreement between Okinawa's local government and Japan's national government over the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides during the battle.", "In March 2007, the national Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) advised textbook publishers to reword descriptions that the embattled Imperial Japanese Army forced civilians to kill themselves in the war to avoid being taken prisoner.", "MEXT preferred descriptions that just say that civilians received hand grenades from the Japanese military.", "This move sparked widespread protests among Okinawans.", "In June 2007, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly adopted a resolution stating, \"We strongly call on the (national) government to retract the instruction and to immediately restore the description in the textbooks so the truth of the Battle of Okinawa will be handed down correctly and a tragic war will never happen again.", "\"On 29 September 2007, about 110,000 people held the biggest political rally in the history of Okinawa to demand that MEXT retract its order to textbook publishers regarding revising the account of the civilian suicides.", "The resolution states, \"It is an undeniable fact that the 'multiple suicides' would not have occurred without the involvement of the Japanese military and any deletion of or revision to (the descriptions) is a denial and distortion of the many testimonies by those people who survived the incidents.\"", "In December 2007, MEXT partially admitted the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides.", "The ministry's Textbook Authorization Council allowed the publishers to reinstate the reference that civilians \"were forced into mass suicides by the Japanese military\", on condition it is placed in sufficient context.", "The council report states, \"It can be said that from the viewpoint of the Okinawa residents, they were forced into the mass suicides.\"", "That was not enough for the survivors who said it is important for children today to know what really happened.The Nobel Prize-winning author Kenzaburō Ōe wrote a booklet that states that the mass suicide order was given by the military during the battle.", "He was sued by revisionists, including a wartime commander during the battle, who disputed this and wanted to stop publication of the booklet.", "At a court hearing, Ōe testified \"Mass suicides were forced on Okinawa islanders under Japan's hierarchical social structure that ran through the state of Japan, the Japanese armed forces and local garrisons.\"", "In March 2008, the Osaka Prefecture Court ruled in favor of Ōe, stating, \"It can be said the military was deeply involved in the mass suicides.\"", "The court recognized the military's involvement in the mass suicides and murder-suicides, citing the testimony about the distribution of grenades for suicide by soldiers and the fact that mass suicides were not recorded on islands where the military was not stationed.In 2012, Korean-Japanese director Pak Su-nam announced her work on the documentary ''Nuchigafu'' (Okinawan for \"only if one is alive\") collecting living survivors' accounts to show \"the truth of history to many people\", alleging that \"there were two types of orders for 'honorable deaths'—one for residents to kill each other and the other for the military to kill all residents\".", "In March 2013, Japanese textbook publisher Shimizu Shoin was permitted by MEXT to publish the statements that \"Orders from Japanese soldiers led to Okinawans committing group suicide\" and \"The Japanese army caused many tragedies in Okinawa, killing local civilians and forcing them to commit mass suicide.\"" ], [ "Aftermath", "The Cornerstone of Peace Memorial with names of all military and civilians from all countries who died in the Battle of OkinawaMarines celebrate Victory over Japan Day on Okinawa, August 194590% of the buildings on the island were destroyed, along with countless historical documents, artifacts, and cultural treasures, and the tropical landscape was turned into \"a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots\".", "The military value of Okinawa was significant.", "Okinawa provided a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in proximity to Japan.", "The US cleared the surrounding waters of mines in Operation Zebra, occupied Okinawa, and set up the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, a form of military government, after the battle.", "In 2011, one official of the prefectural government told David Hearst of ''The Guardian'':===Effect on the wider war===Because the next major event following the Battle of Okinawa was the total surrender of Japan, the effect of this battle is more difficult to consider.", "Because Japan surrendered when it did, the anticipated series of battles and the invasion of the Japanese homeland never occurred, and all military strategies on both sides which presupposed this apparently-inevitable next development were immediately rendered moot.Some military historians believe that the Okinawa campaign led directly to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as a means of avoiding the planned ground invasion of the Japanese mainland.", "This view is explained by Victor Davis Hanson in his book ''Ripples of Battle'':Meanwhile, many parties continue to debate the broader question of \"why Japan surrendered\", attributing the surrender to a number of possible reasons including: the atomic bombings, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and Japan's depleted resources.===Memorial===In 1995, the Okinawa government erected a memorial monument named the Cornerstone of Peace in Mabuni, the site of the last fighting in southeastern Okinawa.", "The memorial lists all the known names of those who died in the battle, civilian and military, Japanese and foreign.", "As of 2022, the monument lists 241,686 names.===Modern US base===Significant US forces remain garrisoned on Okinawa as the United States Forces Japan, which the Japanese government sees as an important guarantee of regional stability, and Kadena remains the largest US air base in Asia.", "Local residents have long protested against the size and presence of the base." ], [ "See also", "* Himeyuri students* Chiran Special Attack Peace Museum* History of the Ryukyus* Josef R. Sheetz* Rape during the occupation of Japan * Suicide in Japan* Okinawa Memorial Day* Naval Base Okinawa* Marine Corps Air Station Futenma* Camp Hansen* Torii Station* Camp Schwab* Camp Foster* Camp Kinser* Giretsu Kuteitai* Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , famous Marine memoir* * * – Firsthand account of the battle by a surviving Japanese officer.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * US military on the Battle of Okinawa * New Zealand account with reference to Operation Iceberg* Cornerstone of Peace* Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum* The Peace Learning Archive in OKINAWA* A photographic record of aircraft carrier HMS ''Indomitable'', 1944–45, including Operation Iceberg, the attack on the Sakashimas* WWII: Battle of Okinawa – slideshow by ''Life magazine''* Operation Iceberg Operational Documents Combined Arms Research Library, Fort Leavenworth, KS* Oral history interview with Mike Busha, a member of the 6th Marine Division during the Battle of Okinawa from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University* Oral history interview with Albert D'Amico, a Navy Veteran who was aboard LST 278 during the landing at Okinawa from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University* ''Booknotes'' interview with Robert Leckie on ''Okinawa: The Last Battle of World War II'', September 3, 1995." ] ]

[ [ "Brezhnev Doctrine" ], [ "Introduction", "Eastern Bloc: the USSR and its satellite statesThe '''Brezhnev Doctrine''' was a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed that any threat to \"socialist rule\" in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to all of them, and therefore, it justified the intervention of fellow socialist states.", "It was proclaimed in order to justify the Soviet-led occupation of Czechoslovakia earlier in 1968, with the overthrow of the reformist government there.", "The references to \"socialism\" meant control by the communist parties which were loyal to the Kremlin.", "Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev repudiated the doctrine in the late 1980s, as the Kremlin accepted the peaceful overthrow of Soviet rule in all its satellite countries in Eastern Europe.The policy was first and most clearly outlined by Sergei Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 ''Pravda'' article entitled \"Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries\".", "Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: \"When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.", "\"This doctrine was announced to retroactively justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that ended the Prague Spring, along with earlier Soviet military interventions, such as the invasion of Hungary in 1956.These interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Soviet Bloc, which was considered by the Soviet Union to be an essential and defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out.In practice, the policy meant that only limited independence of the satellite states' communist parties was allowed and that none would be allowed to compromise the cohesiveness of the Eastern Bloc in any way.", "That is, no country could leave the Warsaw Pact or disturb a ruling communist party's monopoly on power.", "Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the power to define \"socialism\" and \"capitalism\".", "Following the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, numerous treaties were signed between the Soviet Union and its satellite states to reassert these points and to further ensure inter-state cooperation.", "The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the communist (but non-Warsaw Pact) nation of Afghanistan in 1979.The Brezhnev Doctrine stayed in effect until it was ended with the Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981.Mikhail Gorbachev refused to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989 and Solidarity defeated the Polish United Workers' Party.", "It was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1989, alluding to the Frank Sinatra song \"My Way\".", "The refusal to intervene in the emancipation of the Eastern European satellite states and the Pan-European Picnic then led to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the largely peaceful collapse of the Eastern Bloc." ], [ "Origins", "===1956 Hungarian Revolution and Soviet invasion===The period between 1953 and 1968 was saturated with dissidence and reformation within the Soviet satellite states.", "1953 saw the death of Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin, followed closely by Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 \"Secret Speech\" denouncing Stalin.", "This denouncement of the former leader led to a period of the Soviet Era known commonly as \"De-Stalinization.\"", "Under the blanket reforms of this process, Imre Nagy came to power in Hungary as the new Prime Minister, taking over for Mátyás Rákosi.", "Almost immediately Nagy set out on a path of reform.", "Police power was reduced, collectivized farms were split up and being returned to individual peasants, industry and food production shifted and religious tolerance was becoming more prominent.", "These reforms shocked the Hungarian Communist Party.", "Nagy was quickly overthrown by Rákosi in 1955, and stripped of his political livelihood.", "Shortly after this coup, Khrushchev signed the Belgrade Declaration which stated \"separate paths to socialism were permissible within the Soviet Bloc.\"", "With hopes for serious reform just having been extinguished in Hungary, this declaration was not received well by the Hungarians.", "Tensions quickly mounted in Hungary with demonstrations and calls for not only the withdrawal of Soviet troops, but for a Hungarian withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as well.", "By October 23 Soviet forces landed in Budapest.", "A chaotic and bloody suppression of revolutionary forces lasted from October 24 until November 7, ending with thousands of Hungarians murdered and many more fleeing the country.", "Although order was restored, tensions remained on both sides of the conflict.", "Hungarians resented the end of the reformation, and the Soviets wanted to avoid a similar crisis from occurring again anywhere in the Soviet Bloc.===A peaceful Brezhnev Doctrine===When the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was suppressed, the Soviets adopted the mindset that governments supporting both communism and capitalism must coexist, and more importantly, build relations.", "This idea stressed that all people are equal, and own the right to solve the problems of their own countries themselves, and that in order for both states to peacefully coexist, neither country can exercise the right to get involved in each other's internal affairs.", "While this idea was brought up following the events of Hungary, they were not put into effect for a great deal of time.", "This is further explained in the '''Renunciation''' section.===1968 Prague Spring===Notions of reform had been slowly growing in Czechoslovakia since the early-mid 1960s.", "However, once the Stalinist President Antonín Novotný resigned as head of the Czechoslovak Communist Party in January 1968, the Prague Spring began to take shape.", "Alexander Dubček replaced Novotný as head of the party, initially thought a friend to the Soviet Union.", "It was not long before Dubček began making serious liberal reforms.", "In an effort to establish what Dubček called \"developed socialism\", he instituted changes in Czechoslovakia to create a much more free and liberal version of the socialist state.", "Aspects of a market economy were implemented, travel restrictions were eased for citizens, state censorship loosened, the power of the secret police was limited, and steps were taken to improve relations with the west.", "As the reforms piled up, the Kremlin quickly grew uneasy as they hoped to not only preserve their power within Czechoslovakia, but to avoid another Hungarian-style revolution as well.", "Soviet panic compounded in March of 1968 when student protests erupted in Poland and Antonín Novotný resigned as the Czechoslovak President.", "On March 21, Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, issued a grave statement concerning the reforms taking place under Dubček.", "\"The methods and forms by which the work is progressing in Czechoslovakia remind one very much of Hungary.", "In this outward appearance of chaos…there is a certain order.", "It all began like this in Hungary also, but then came the first and second echelons, and then, finally the social democrats.", "\"Leonid Brezhnev sought clarification from Dubček on March 21, with the Politburo convened, on the situation in Czechoslovakia.", "Eager to avoid a similar fate as Imre Nagy, Dubček reassured Brezhnev that the reforms were totally under control and not on a similar path to those seen in 1956 in Hungary.", "Despite Dubček's assurances, other Soviet allies grew uneasy by the reforms taking place in an Eastern European neighbor.", "The First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party (banned after the restoration of Ukrainian independence in 1991) called on Moscow for an immediate invasion of Czechoslovakia in order to stop Dubček's \"socialism with a human face\" from spreading into the Ukrainian SSR and sparking unrest.", "By May 6, Brezhnev condemned Dubček's system, declaring it a step toward \"the complete collapse of the Warsaw Pact.\"", "After three months of negotiations, agreements, and rising tensions between Moscow and Czechoslovakia, the Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion began on the night of August 20, 1968, which was to be met with great Czechoslovak discontent and resistance for many months into 1970." ], [ "Formation of the Doctrine", "Brezhnev realized the need for a shift from Nikita Khrushchev's idea of \"different paths to socialism\" towards one that fostered a more unified vision throughout the socialist camp.", "\"Economic integration, political consolidation, a return to ideological orthodoxy, and inter-Party cooperation became the new watchwords of Soviet bloc relations.\"", "On November 12, 1968, Brezhnev stated that \"when external and internal forces hostile to socialism try to turn the development of a given socialist country in the direction of … the capitalist system ... this is no longer merely a problem for that country's people, but a common problem, the concern of all socialist countries.\"", "Brezhnev's statement at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers Party effectively classified the issue of sovereignty as less important than the preservation of Soviet-style socialism.", "While no new doctrine had been officially announced, it was clear that Soviet intervention was imminent if Moscow perceived any satellite to be at risk of jeopardizing the Soviet hegemony." ], [ "Brezhnev Doctrine in practice", "The vague, broad nature of the Brezhnev Doctrine allowed application to any international situation the USSR saw fit.", "This is clearly evident not only through the Prague Spring in 1968, and the indirect pressure on Poland from 1980 to 1981, but also in the Soviet involvement in Afghanistan starting in the 1970s.", "Any instance which caused the USSR to question whether or not a country was becoming a \"risk to international socialism\", the use of military intervention was, in Soviet eyes, not only justified, but necessary.===Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979===The Soviet government's desire to link its foreign policy to the Brezhnev Doctrine was evoked again when it ordered a military intervention in Afghanistan in 1979.This was perhaps the last chapter of this doctrine's saga.In April 1978, a coup in Kabul brought the Afghan Communist Party to power with Nur Muhammad Taraki being installed as the second president of Afghanistan.", "The previous president, Mohammed Daoud Khan was killed during the coup.", "The Saur Revolution (as the coup was known) took Moscow by surprise, who preferred that the pro-Soviet Daoud Khan stay in power.", "The previous regime had maintained a pro-Soviet foreign policy as Daoud Khan was a Pashtun who rejected the Durand Line as the frontier with Pakistan.", "The Afghan Communist Party was divided into a factional struggle between factions known as the Khalq and Parcham.", "The Parcham was the more moderate of the two factions, arguing that Afghanistan was not ready for socialism, requiring more gradual process while the ultra-Communist Khalq favored a more radical approach.", "The Khalq faction was victorious and the leader of the Pacham faction Babrak Karmal fled to Moscow in fear of his life, to take up the position as Afghan ambassador in Moscow.Islamic fundamentalists took issue with the Communist party in power.", "As a result, a ''jihad'' was proclaimed against the Communist government.", "Brezhnev and other Soviet leaders falsely portrayed the United States as the one behind the ''jihad'' in Afghanistan, and the rebellion in Afghanistan was seen in Moscow not so much in the context of Afghan politics with an unpopular government pursuing policies that much of the population rejected (such as the collectivisation of agriculture), but rather in the context of the Cold War, being seen as the first stage of an alleged American plot to instigate a ''jihad'' in Soviet Central Asia where the majority of the population was Muslim.", "To assist the government, the Soviet Union drastically increased its military aid to Afghanistan while sending Soviet advisers to train the Afghan military.Following a split in the Communist Party, the leader of the Khalq faction, Hafizullah Amin, overthrew President Nur Muhammad Taraki and had him murdered on 8 October 1979.Soviet diplomats in Kabul had a low opinion of Taraki's ability to handle the rebellion, and an even lower one of Amin, who was regarded as a fanatic, but incompetent leader who lost control of the situation.", "In the fall of 1979, the leaders who pressed the most strongly for an invasion of Afghanistan to replace the incompetent Amin with Karmal, who was the man better able to preserve the communist regime's existence, were the Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko, the Chairman of KGB, Yuri Andropov and the Defense Minister Marshal Dmitry Ustinov.", "The intervention was envisioned in Moscow was merely a short conflict to stabilize the situation and allow the Communist regime to regain power.", "Brezhnev was indecisive, fearing that an occupation of Afghanistan might not be the short war that Gromyko, Ustinov and Andropov kept insisting it would be, but was fearful of the possibility of an Islamic fundamentalist regime being established that would export Islam into Soviet Central Asia.", "As it was, the inability and unwillingness of much of the Soviet-controlled Afghan Army to fight led the Soviets to involve themselves in Afghanistan for almost 10 years.", "Ironically, despite what was being feared in Moscow, the United States was not supporting the Islamic fundamentalist rebellion in Afghanistan, and only started to support the ''mujahideen'' (\"warriors of Allah\") with weapons after the Soviet invasion, concentrating foreign policy matters in the form of linkage towards preventing Soviet expansion.During his talks with the Soviets during his time as Ambassador, Karmal coordinated with the Soviet government to replace Amin.", "It was this coordination that led to both Soviet soldiers and airborne units organizing a coup against the Amin-led Afghanistan government, during which Amin was assassinated.", "In his place, the Soviets installed their ally, former-Ambassador Babrak Karmal, as the new lead of the government in Afghanistan.The Soviet Union, once again, fell back to the Brezhnev Doctrine for rationale, claiming that it was both morally and politically justified.", "It was also explained by the Soviets that they owed help to their friend and ally Babrak Karmal." ], [ "Renunciation", "The long lasting struggle of the war in Afghanistan made the Soviets realize that their reach and influence was in fact limited.", "\"The war in Afghanistan had shown that socialist internationalism and Soviet national interests were not always compatible.\"", "Tensions between the USSR and Czechoslovakia since 1968, as well as Poland in 1980, proved the inefficiencies inherent in the Brezhnev Doctrine.", "The Solidarity trade union protests in Poland were suppressed without outside intervention, leaving the Brezhnev doctrine effectively dead.", "Although the Kremlin wanted to preserve communism in its satellites, the decision was not to intervene.", "Gorbachev's Glasnost and Perestroika finally opened the door for Soviet Bloc countries and republics to make reforms without fear of Soviet intervention.", "When East Germany desperately asked for Soviet troops to put down growing unrest in 1989, Gorbachev flatly refused." ], [ "Post-Brezhnev Doctrine", "With the agreement to terminate the Brezhnev Doctrine, later came on a new leader for the Soviets—Mikhail Gorbachev.", "His views were much more relaxed.", "This is most likely due to the fact that Brezhnev Doctrine was no longer at the disposal of the Soviet Union.", "This had a major effect on the way that the Soviets carried out their new mentality when dealing with countries they once tried to control.", "This was best captured by Gorbachev's involvement with a group by the name of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).", "This organization lessens the control that the Soviets had on all other partners of the agreement.", "This notion provided other countries that were once oppressed under communist intervention, to go about their own political reform.", "This actually carried over internally as well.", "In fact, the Soviet Union's biggest problem after the removal of the Brezhnev Doctrine, was the Khrushchev Dilemma.", "This did not address how to stop internal political reform, but how to tame the physical violence that comes along with it.", "It had become clear that the Soviet Union was beginning to loosen up.It is possible to pinpoint the renouncement of the Brezhnev Doctrine as to what started the end for the Soviet Union.", "Countries that were once micromanaged now could do what they wanted to politically, because the Soviets could no longer try to conquer where they saw fit.", "With that, the Soviet Union began to collapse.", "While the communist agenda had caused infinite problems for other countries, it was the driving force behind the Soviet Union staying together.", "After all, it seems that the removal of the incentive to conquer, and forcing of communism upon other nations, defeated the one thing Soviet Russia had always been about, the expansion of Communism.With the fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine, came the fall of the man, Brezhnev himself, the share of power in the Warsaw Pact, and perhaps the final moment for the Soviet Union, the fall of the Berlin Wall that had prevented the migration of East Germans to West Germany.", "The Brezhnev Doctrine coming to a close, was perhaps the beginning of the end for one of the strongest empires in the world's history, the Soviet Union." ], [ "In other Communist countries", "The Soviet Union was not the only Communist country to intervene militarily in fellow countries.", "Vietnam deposed the Khmer Rouge in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War of 1978, which was followed by a revenge Chinese invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979." ], [ "Criticisms", "===Brezhnev Doctrine as a UN violation===This doctrine was even furthermore a problem in the view of the United Nations.", "The UN's first problem was that it permits use of force.", "This is a clear violation of Article 2, Chapter 4 of the United Nations Charter which states, \"All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.\"", "When international law conflicts with the Charter, the Charter has precedent.", "It is this, that makes the Brezhnev Doctrine illegal." ], [ "See also", "*Captive Nations*Imperialism*Monroe Doctrine*Truman Doctrine*Russian-occupied territories*Soviet Empire*Sovietization*Soviet occupations*Satellite state*Tankie*Ulbricht Doctrine*Western betrayal" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Freedman, Lawrence, and Jeffrey Michaels.", "\"Soviet Doctrine from Brezhnev to Gorbachev.\"", "in ''The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy'' (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019) pp. 527–542.**.", "*Hunt, Lynn.", "''The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures'' (Bedford/St.", "Martin's, Boston and London.", "2009).", "* Jones, Robert A.", "''The Soviet Concept of 'Limited Sovereignty' from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Brezhnev Doctrine'' (Springer, 2016).", "* Kemp-Welch, Anthony.", "\"Poland and the Brezhnev Doctrine (1968–1989).\"", "''Wolność i Solidarność'' 10 (2017): 155–223.online in English** Kramer, Mark.", "\"The Kremlin, the Prague Spring, and the Brezhnev Doctrine.\"", "in ''Promises of 1968'' (2010) pp: 285–370.online* Lesaffer, Randall.", "\"Brezhnev Doctrine.\"", "in ''The Encyclopedia of Diplomacy'' (2018) pp: 1–5.", "* Loth, Wilfried.", "\"Moscow, Prague and Warsaw: Overcoming the Brezhnev Doctrine.\"", "''Cold War History'' 1.2 (2001): 103–118.", "* Mitchell, R. Judson.", "\"The Brezhnev doctrine and communist ideology.\"", "''The Review of Politics'' 34.2 (1972): 190–209.online*Ouimet, Matthew: ''The Rise and Fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine in Soviet Foreign Policy''.", "University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London.", "2003.", "*Pravda, September 25, 1968; translated by Novosti, Soviet press agency.", "Reprinted in L. S. Stavrianos, ''The Epic of Man'' (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1971), pp. 465–466.", "*** Valenta, Jiri.", "\"Soviet Decisionmaking on Afghanistan, 1979.\"", "im ''Soviet Decisionmaking for National Security'' (Routledge, 2021) pp.", "218–236." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bain-marie" ], [ "Introduction", "A bain-marie on a stovetopA '''bain-marie''' (; ), also known as a '''water bath''' or '''double boiler''', a type of heated bath, is a piece of equipment used in science, industry, and cooking to heat materials gently or to keep materials warm over a period of time.", "A bain-marie is also used to melt ingredients for cooking." ], [ "History", "An alchemical ''balneum Mariae'' from ''Coelum philosophorum'', Philip Ulstad, 1528, Science History Institute The name comes from the French or , in turn derived from the medieval Latin and the Arabic , all meaning 'Mary's bath'.", "In his books, the 300 AD alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis credits for the invention of the device Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist.", "However, the water bath was known many centuries earlier (Hippocrates and Theophrastus)." ], [ "Description", "Schematic of an improvised double boiler, as used in outdoor cookingThe double boiler comes in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and types, but traditionally is a wide, cylindrical, usually metal container made of three or four basic parts: a handle, an outer (or lower) container that holds the working fluid, an inner (or upper), smaller container that fits inside the outer one and which holds the material to be heated or cooked, and sometimes a base underneath.", "Under the outer container of the bain-marie (or built into its base) is a heat source.Typically, the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working fluid.The inner container, filled with the substance to be heated, fits inside the outer container filled with the working fluid (often water, but alternatively steam or oil).", "The outer container is heated at or below the base, causing the temperature of the working fluid to rise and thus transferring heat to the inner container.", "The maximum obtainable temperature of the fluid is dictated by its composition and boiling point at the ambient pressure.", "Since the surface of the inner container is always in contact with the fluid, the double boiler serves as a constant-temperature heat source for the substance being heated, without hot or cold spots that can affect its properties.When the working fluid is water and the bain-marie is used at sea level, the maximum temperature of the material in the lower container will not exceed , the boiling point of water at sea level.", "Using different working fluids such as oil in the outer container will result in different maximum temperatures obtainable in the inner container." ], [ "Alternatives", "A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric \"dry-heat\" bain-marie, heated by elements below both pots.", "The dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions.", "They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are often much less expensive than their traditional counterparts.Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using either hot water or vapor, or steam, in the heating process.", "The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub (or \"bath\"), and the vapour-type bain-marie heats with scalding-hot steam." ], [ "Culinary applications", "In cooking applications, a bain-marie usually consists of a pan of water in which another container or containers of food to be cooked is/are placed.An improvised bain-marie being used to melt chocolate* Chocolate can be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting (separation of cocoa butter and cocoa solids, breaking emulsion) and caking onto the pot.", "Special dessert bains-marie usually have a thermally insulated container and can be used as a chocolate fondue for the purposes of dipping foods (typically fruits) at the table.", "* Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the centre.", "* Baked custard desserts such as custard tarts may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked.", "In the case of the crème brûlée, placing the ramekins in a roasting pan and filling the pan with hot water until it is half to two-thirds of the way up the sides of the ramekins transfers the heat to the custard gently, which prevents the custard from curdling.", "The humidity from the steam that rises as the water heats helps keep the top of the custard from becoming too dry.", "* Classic warm high-fat sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, are often cooked using a bain-marie as they require enough heat to emulsify the mixture of fats and water but not enough to curdle or split the sauce.", "* Some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an \"oven-type\" bain-marie.", "* The making of clotted cream.", "* Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is done in a bain-marie.", "* Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings.", "* Bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful.", "* A bain-marie can be used to re-liquefy hardened honey by placing a glass jar on top of any improvised platform sitting at the bottom of a pot of gently boiling water." ], [ "Other uses", "In small scale soap-making, a bain-marie's inherent control over maximum temperature makes it optimal for liquefying melt-and-pour soap bases prior to molding them into bars.", "It offers the advantage of maintaining the base in a liquid state, or reliquefying a solidified base, with minimal deterioration.", "Similarly, using a water bath, traditional wood glue can be melted and kept in a stable liquid state over many hours without damage to the animal proteins it incorporates." ], [ "See also", "* Double steaming* Heated bath* Laboratory water bath" ], [ "References", "===Sources===****" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Belgian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Belgian''' may refer to:* Something of, or related to, Belgium* Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent* Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German*Ancient Belgian language, an extinct language formerly spoken in Gallia Belgica*Belgian Dutch or Flemish, a variant of Dutch*Belgian French, a variant of French*Belgian horse (disambiguation), various breeds of horse*Belgian waffle, in culinary contexts*SS ''Belgian'', a cargo ship in service with F Leyland & Co Ltd from 1919 to 1934*''The Belgian'', a 1917 American silent film" ], [ "See also", "**Belgica (disambiguation)*Belgic (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Ballu tundu" ], [ "Introduction", " Ballu tundu'''Ballu tundu''' or '''ballu sardu''' is a traditional Sardinian folk dance which is typically danced in a closed or open circle.", "The dance was described as early as 1805 by Mameli and by La Marmora in 1825.In northern and central Sardinia, the dance is lively and animated with leaps and agile movements and usually accompanied by a choir of three or more singers in the center of the circle.", "In other areas, the dance is done to ''launeddas'' and the shepherd's ''sulittu'' but the accordion had also made its appearance by the 19th century.", "The Introduction is in time but the dance itself is done in .At least in the past, the manner of holding hands was very important and followed strict rules.", "Married or engaged couples could hold hands palm to palm with fingers entwined, but a man could not do this with a young girl or another man's wife.", "If a stranger entered the circle, he had to do so to the woman's right so as not to come between her and her husband." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Barbagia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barbagia''' (; or ) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif.The name comes from Cicero, who described the land as inhabited by barbarians; Roman domination over this part of the island was in fact never more than nominal as a result of the Roman-Sardinian Wars.", "This word shares its etymology with the now antiquated ''Barbary''.The Sardinians, many of whose revolts came from this area, were also mocked by the ancient Romans with the pejorative term 'thieves wearing rough woolen garments'.In 594, Pope Gregory the Great wrote a letter to Hospito, a Christian whom he calls the \"leader of the Barbaricini\" ().", "Hospito apparently permitted the evangelisation of pagan Barbagia by Christian missionaries.The area is usually divided into five Barbagias: the Barbagia of Ollolai, the Barbagia of Seulo, the Barbagia of Belvì, the Mandrolisai, and finally the , the historical name by which the area of Ogliastra was once referred to.", "The latter two are named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages.The area is full of hard hills and mountains, and there is little human presence.", "Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe, which has allowed Barbagia to preserve better the island's cultural and natural treasures.", "According to a thesis by the archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, Sardinian history has always been characterised by what he called the \"constant of Sardinian resistance\", opposed to the invaders who attempted at various times to lord over the indigenous inhabitants.", "Barbagia is one of the few Sardinian regions where the Sardinian language in its own varieties, both Nuorese and Campidanese, is still spoken on an everyday basis, while the rest of the island has already mostly undergone thorough Italianization and language shift to Italian.One of the most important villages is Gavoi.", "Orgosolo was famous for its bandits and kidnappers and typical murals.", "Oliena is well known for its wines (especially the ''Nepente'', a wine made with Cannonau grapes).", "Another well known town is Fonni, the highest town in Sardinia at more than 1,000 meters above sea level.", "Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system.The economy consists of agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry." ], [ "See also", "*Roman-Sardinian Wars*Cantu a tenore" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Brabham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Motor Racing Developments Ltd.''', commonly known as '''Brabham''' (), was a British racing car manufacturer and Formula One racing team founded in 1960 by Australian driver Jack Brabham and British-Australian designer Ron Tauranac.", "The team won four FIA Formula One Drivers' and two Constructors' World Championships in its 30-year history, starting out with back-to-back wins of both in 1966 and 1967.Jack Brabham's 1966 Drivers' Championship remains the only such achievement using a car bearing the driver's own name.In the 1960s, Brabham was the world's largest manufacturer of open-wheel racing cars for sale to customer teams; by 1970 it had built more than 500 cars.", "During this period, teams using Brabham cars won championships in Formula Two and Formula Three.", "Brabham cars also competed in the Indianapolis 500 and in Formula 5000 racing.", "In the 1970s and 1980s, Brabham introduced such innovations as carbon brakes and hydropneumatic suspension, and reintroduced in-race refuelling.", "Its unique Gordon Murray-designed 'fan car' won its only race before being withdrawn.The team won two more Formula One Drivers' Championships in the 1980s with Brazilian Nelson Piquet.", "He won his first championship in in the ground effect BT49-Ford, and became the first to win a Drivers' Championship with a turbocharged car, in .", "In 1983 the Brabham BT52, driven by Piquet and Italian Riccardo Patrese, was powered by the BMW M12 straight-4 engine, and powered Brabham to four of the team's thirty-five Grand Prix victories.British businessman Bernie Ecclestone owned Brabham during most of the 1970s and 1980s, and later became responsible for administering the commercial aspects of Formula One.", "Ecclestone sold the team in 1988.Its last owner was the Middlebridge Group, a Japanese engineering firm.", "Midway through the 1992 season, the team collapsed financially as Middlebridge was unable to make repayments against loans provided by Landhurst Leasing.", "The case was investigated by the United Kingdom Serious Fraud Office.", "In 2009, an unsuccessful attempt was made by a German organisation to enter the 2010 Formula One season using the Brabham name." ], [ "Origins", "Jack Brabham was 40 when he won the F1 drivers' title in a Brabham carThe Brabham team was founded by Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac, who met in 1951 while both were successfully building and racing cars in their native Australia.", "Brabham was the more successful driver and went to the United Kingdom in 1955 to further his racing career.", "There he started driving for the Cooper Car Company works team and by 1958 had progressed with them to Formula One, the highest category of open-wheel racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), motor sport's world governing body.", "In 1959 and 1960, Brabham won the Formula One World Drivers' Championship in Cooper's revolutionary mid-engined cars.Despite their innovation of putting the engine behind the driver, the Coopers and their chief designer, Owen Maddock, were generally resistant to developing their cars.", "Brabham pushed for further advances, and played a significant role in developing Cooper's highly successful 1960 T53 \"lowline\" car, with input from his friend Tauranac.", "Brabham was confident he could do better than Cooper, and in late 1959 he asked Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him, initially producing upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors, but with the long-term aim of designing racing cars.", "Brabham describes Tauranac as \"absolutely the only bloke I'd have gone into partnership with\".", "Later, Brabham offered a Coventry-Climax FWE-engined version of the Herald, with and uprated suspension to match the extra power.Brabham in a 1965 Grand Prix carTo meet that aim, Brabham and Tauranac set up Motor Racing Developments Ltd. (MRD), deliberately avoiding the use of either man's name.", "The new company would compete with Cooper in the market for customer racing cars.", "As Brabham was still employed by Cooper, Tauranac produced the first '''MRD car''', for the entry level Formula Junior class, in secrecy.", "Unveiled in the summer of 1961, the \"MRD\" was soon renamed.", "Motoring journalist Jabby Crombac pointed out that \"the way a Frenchman pronounces those initials—written phonetically, 'em air day'—sounded perilously like the French word...", "''merde.''\"", "Gavin Youl achieved a second-place finish at Goodwood and another at Mallory Park in the MRD-Ford.", "The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams, with type numbers starting with BT for \"Brabham Tauranac\".By the 1961 Formula One season, the Lotus and Ferrari teams had developed the mid-engined approach further than Cooper.", "Brabham had a poor season, scoring only four points, and—having run his own private Coopers in non-championship events during 1961—left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team: the Brabham Racing Organisation, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments.", "The team was based at Chessington, England and held the British licence." ], [ "Racing history—Formula One", "===Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac (1961–1970)===The Brabham BT3, the first Brabham Formula One designMotor Racing Developments initially concentrated on making money by building cars for sale to customers in lower formulae, so the new car for the Formula One team was not ready until partway through the 1962 Formula One season.", "The Brabham Racing Organisation (BRO) started the year fielding a customer Lotus chassis, which was delivered at 3am to keep it a secret.", "Brabham took two points finishes in Lotuses, before the turquoise-liveried Brabham BT3 car made its debut at the 1962 German Grand Prix.", "It retired with a throttle problem after 9 of the 15 laps, but went on to take a pair of fourth places at the end of the season.From the 1963 season, Brabham was partnered by American driver Dan Gurney, the pair now running in Australia's racing colours of green and gold.", "Brabham took the team's first win at the non-championship Solitude Grand Prix in 1963.Gurney took the marque's first two wins in the world championship, at the 1964 French and Mexican Grands Prix.", "Brabham works and customer cars took another three non-championship wins during the 1964 season.", "The 1965 season was less successful, with no championship wins.", "Brabham finished third or fourth in the Constructors' Championship for three years running, but poor reliability marred promising performances on several occasions.", "Motor sport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results, a view echoed by Tauranac.The FIA doubled the Formula One engine capacity limit to 3 litres for the 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce.", "Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm Repco, which had never produced a Formula One engine before, based on aluminium V8 engine blocks from the defunct American Oldsmobile F85 road car project, and other off-the-shelf parts.", "Consulting and design engineer Phil Irving (of Vincent Motorcycle fame) was the project engineer responsible for producing the initial version of the engine.", "Few expected the Brabham-Repcos to be competitive, but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season.", "At the French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name.", "Only his former teammate, Bruce McLaren, has since matched the achievement.", "It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran.", "Brabham won his third title in 1966, becoming the only driver to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name (''cf'' Surtees, Hill and Fittipaldi Automotive).", "In 1967, the title went to Brabham's teammate, New Zealander Denny Hulme.", "Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Brabham's desire to try new parts first.", "The Brabham team took the Constructors' World Championship in both years.Brabham BT33.Technically conservative, Brabham did not produce a monocoque car until 1970.For 1968, Austrian Jochen Rindt replaced Hulme, who had left to join McLaren.", "Repco produced a more powerful version of their V8 to maintain competitiveness against Ford's new Cosworth DFV, but it proved very unreliable.", "Slow communications between the UK and Australia had always made identifying and correcting problems very difficult.", "The car was fast—Rindt set pole position twice during the season—but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them, and ended the year with only ten points.Although Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the 1969 season, Rindt left to join Lotus.", "His replacement, Jacky Ickx, had a strong second half to the season, winning in Germany and Canada, after Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident.", "Ickx finished second in the Drivers' Championship, with 37 points to Jackie Stewart's 63.Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top-3 finishes, but did not finish half the races.", "The team were second in the Constructors' Championship, aided by second places at Monaco and Watkins Glen scored by Piers Courage, driving a Brabham for the Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad.Brabham took his last win in the opening race of the 1970 season and was competitive throughout the year, although mechanical failures blunted his challenge.", "After losing secured victories in the last corner at both Monaco and England, Jack decided he had had enough, and sold his part in the company to former Jochen Rindt manager, a businessman named Bernie Ecclestone, at the end of the year.", "Aided by number-two driver Rolf Stommelen, the team came fourth in the Constructors' Championship.===Ron Tauranac (1971)===Brabham BT34.Graham Hill took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone.Tauranac signed double world champion Graham Hill and young Australian Tim Schenken to drive for the 1971 season.", "Tauranac designed the unusual 'lobster claw' BT34, featuring twin radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels, a single example of which was built for Hill.", "Although Hill, no longer a front-runner since his 1969 accident, took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone, the team scored only seven championship points.===Bernie Ecclestone (1972–1987)===Tauranac left Brabham early in the 1972 season after Ecclestone changed the way the company was organised without consulting him.", "Ecclestone has since said \"In retrospect, the relationship was never going to work\", noting that \"Tauranac and I both take the view: 'Please be reasonable, do it my way'\".", "The highlights of an aimless year, during which the team ran three different models, were pole position for Argentinian driver Carlos Reutemann at his home race at Buenos Aires and a victory in the non-championship Interlagos Grand Prix.", "For the 1973 season, Ecclestone promoted the young South African engineer Gordon Murray to chief designer and moved Herbie Blash from the Formula Two programme to become the Formula One team manager.", "Both would remain with the team for the next 15 years.", "For 1973, Murray produced the triangular cross-section BT42, with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the Drivers' Championship.The Brabham BT44 on display in 2003.The car was used in the and seasons.In the 1974 season, Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career, and Brabham's first since 1970.The team finished a close fifth in the Constructors' Championship, fielding the much more competitive BT44s.", "After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the team were favourites to win the 1975 title.", "The year started well, with a first win for Brazilian driver Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo.", "However, as the season progressed, tyre wear frequently slowed the cars in races, and the team was constantly outperformed by Ferrari and McLaren.", "Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship; while Reutemann had five podium finishes, including a dominant win in the 1975 German Grand Prix, and finished third in the Drivers' Championship.", "The team likewise ranked second in the Constructors' Championship at the end of the year.While rival teams Lotus and McLaren relied on the Cosworth DFV engine from the late 1960s to the early 1980s, Ecclestone sought a competitive advantage by investigating other options.", "Despite the success of Murray's Cosworth-powered cars, Ecclestone signed a deal with Italian motor manufacturer Alfa Romeo to use their large and powerful flat-12 engine from the 1976 season.", "The engines were free, but they rendered the new BT45s, now in red Martini Racing livery, unreliable and overweight.", "At that time, designer David North was hired to work alongside Murray.", "The 1976 and 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again.", "Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with Ferrari.", "Ulsterman John Watson replaced him at Brabham for 1977.Watson lost near certain victory in the French Grand Prix (Dijon) of that year when his car ran low on fuel on the last lap and was passed by Mario Andretti's Lotus, with Watson's second place being the team's best result of the season.", "The car often showed at the head of races, but the unreliability of the Alfa Romeo engine was a major problem.", "The team lost Pace early in the 1977 season when he died in a light aircraft accident.For the 1978 season, Murray's BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa Romeo engines.", "Ecclestone signed then two-time Formula One world champion Niki Lauda from Ferrari through a deal with Italian dairy products company Parmalat which met the cost of Lauda ending his Ferrari contract and made up his salary to the £200,000 Ferrari was offering.", "1978 was the year of the dominant Lotus 79 \"wing car\", which used aerodynamic ground effect to stick to the track when cornering, but Lauda won two races in the BT46, one with the controversial \"B\" or \"fan car\" version.The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the 1979 season, the team's first with young Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet.", "Murray designed the full-ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective \"carbon-carbon braking\" system—a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976.However, unexpected movement of the car's aerodynamic centre of pressure made its handling unpredictable and the new engine was unreliable.", "The team dropped to eighth in the Constructors' Championship by the end of the season.", "Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season, prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines, a move Murray described as being \"like having a holiday\".", "The new, lighter, Cosworth-powered BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the Canadian Grand Prix; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving, later saying that he \"was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles\".The Brabham BT49 competed over four seasons, winning one championship.The team used the BT49 over four seasons.", "In the 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took third in the Constructors' Championship with Piquet second in the Drivers' Championship.", "This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor, until the team's demise in 1992.With a better understanding of ground effect, the team further developed the BT49C for the 1981 season, incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride height limitations intended to reduce downforce.", "Piquet, who had developed a close working relationship with Murray, took the drivers' title with three wins, albeit amid accusations of cheating.", "The team finished second in the Constructors' Championship, behind the Williams team.Renault had introduced turbocharged engines to Formula One in 1977.Brabham had tested a BMW four-cylinder M12 turbocharged engine in the summer of 1981.For the 1982 season the team designed a new car, the BT50, around the BMW engine which, like the Repco engine 16 years before, was based on a road car engine block, the BMW M10.Brabham continued to run the Cosworth-powered BT49D in the early part of the season while reliability and driveability issues with the BMW units were resolved.", "The relationship came close to ending, with the German manufacturer insisting that Brabham use their engine.", "The turbo car took its first win at the Canadian Grand Prix.", "In the Constructors' Championship, the team finished fifth, the drivers Riccardo Patrese, who scored the last win of the Brabham-Ford combination in the Monaco Grand Prix, 10th and World Champion Piquet a mere 11th in the Drivers' Championship.", "In the 1983 season, Piquet took the championship lead from Renault's Alain Prost at the last race of the year, the South African Grand Prix to become the first driver to win the Formula One Drivers' World Championship with a turbo-powered car.", "The team did not win the Constructors' Championship in either 1981 or 1983, despite Piquet's success.", "Patrese was the only driver other than Piquet to win a race for Brabham in this period—the drivers in the second car contributed only a fraction of the team's points in each of these championship seasons.", "Patrese finished ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 13 points, dropping the team behind Ferrari and Renault to third in the Constructors' Championship.Nelson Piquet and his BT54 were hampered by Pirelli tyres in .Piquet took the team's last wins: two in 1984 by winning the seventh and eighth races of that season, the Canadian Grand Prix and the Detroit Grand Prix, and one in 1985 by winning the French Grand Prix.", "He finished fifth in 1984 and a mere eighth in 1985 in the respective Drivers' Championships.", "After seven years and two world championships, Piquet felt he was worth more than Ecclestone's salary offer for 1986, and reluctantly left for the Williams team at the end of the season.For the 1986 season, Patrese returned to Brabham, and was joined by Elio de Angelis.", "The season was a disaster for Brabham, scoring only two points.", "Murray's radical long and low BT55, with its BMW M12 engine tilted over to improve its aerodynamics and lower its centre of gravity, had severe reliability issues, and the Pirelli tyres performed poorly.", "De Angelis became the Formula One team's only fatality when he died in a testing accident at the Paul Ricard circuit.", "Derek Warwick, who replaced de Angelis, was close to scoring two points for fifth in the British Grand Prix, but a problem on the last lap dropped him out of the points.In August, BMW after considering running their own in-house team, announced their departure from Formula One at the end of the season.", "Murray, who had largely taken over the running of the team as Ecclestone became more involved with his role at the Formula One Constructors Association, felt that \"the way the team had operated for 15 years broke down\".", "He left Brabham in November to join McLaren.Ecclestone held BMW to their contract for the 1987 season, but the German company would only supply the laydown engine.", "The upright units, around which Brabham had designed their new car, were sold for use by the Arrows team.", "Senior figures at Brabham, including Murray, have admitted that by this stage Ecclestone had lost interest in running the team.", "The 1987 season was only slightly more successful than the previous year—Patrese and de Cesaris scoring 10 points between them, including two third places at the Belgian Grand Prix and the Mexican Grand Prix.", "Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier, the team missed the FIA deadline for entry into the 1988 world championship and Ecclestone finally announced the team's withdrawal from Formula One at the Brazilian Grand Prix in April 1988.During the season-ending Australian Grand Prix, Ecclestone announced he had sold MRD to EuroBrun team owner Walter Brun for an unknown price.===Joachim Lüthi (1989)===Brun soon sold the team on, this time to Swiss financier Joachim Lüthi, who brought it back into Formula One for the 1989 season.", "The new Brabham BT58, powered by a Judd V8 engine (originally another of Jack Brabham's companies), was produced for the 1989 season.", "Italian driver Stefano Modena, who had driven for the team in the 1987 Australian Grand Prix in a one off drive for the team, drove alongside the more experienced Martin Brundle who was returning to Formula One after spending 1988 winning the World Sportscar Championship for Jaguar.", "Modena took the team's last podium: a third place at the Monaco Grand Prix (Brundle, who had only just scraped through pre-qualifying by 0.021 seconds before qualifying a brilliant 4th, had been running third but was forced to stop to replace a flat battery, finally finishing sixth).", "The team also failed to make the grid sometimes: Brundle failed to prequalify at the Canadian Grand Prix and the French Grand Prix.", "The team finished 9th in the Constructors' Championship at the end of the season.===Middlebridge Racing (1989–1992)===After Lüthi's arrest on tax fraud charges in mid-1989, several parties disputed the ownership of the team.", "Middlebridge Group Limited, a Japanese engineering firm owned by billionaire Koji Nakauchi, was already involved with established Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing and gained control of Brabham for the 1990 season.", "Herbie Blash had returned to run the team in 1989 and continued to do so in 1990.Middlebridge paid for its purchase using £1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing, but the team remained underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons.Jack Brabham's youngest son, David, raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990 including the season-ending Australian Grand Prix (the first time a Brabham had driven a Brabham car in an Australian Grand Prix since 1968).", "1990 was another disastrous year, with Modena's fifth place in the season-opening United States Grand Prix being the only top six finish.", "The team finished ninth in the Constructors' Championship.", "Brundle and fellow Briton Mark Blundell, scored only three points during the 1991 season.", "Due to poor results in the first half of 1991, they had to prequalify in the second half of the season; Blundell failed to do so in Japan, as did Brundle in Australia.", "The team finished 10th in the Constructors' Championship, behind another struggling British team, Lotus.", "The 1992 season started with Eric van de Poele and Giovanna Amati after Akihiko Nakaya was denied a superlicense.", "Damon Hill, the son of another former Brabham driver and World Champion, debuted in the team after Amati was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise.", "Amati, the fifth and last () woman to race in Formula One, ended her career with three DNQs.Argentine Sergio Rinland designed the team's final cars around Judd engines, except for 1991 when Yamaha powered the cars.", "In the 1992 season the cars (which were updated versions of the 1991 car) rarely qualified for races.", "Hill gave the team its final finish, at the Hungarian Grand Prix, where he crossed the finish line 11th and last, four laps behind the winner, Ayrton Senna.", "After the end of that race the team ran out of funds and collapsed.Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing, which went into administration.", "The Serious Fraud Office investigated the case.", "Landhurst's managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned, having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge.", "It was one of four teams to leave Formula One that year.", "(''cf'' March Engineering, Fondmetal and Andrea Moda Formula).", "Although there was talk of reviving the team for the following year, its assets passed to Landhurst Leasing and were auctioned by the company's receivers in 1993.Among these was the team's old factory in Chessington, which was acquired by Yamaha Motor Sports and used to house Activa Technology Limited, a company manufacturing composite components for race and road cars run by Herbie Blash.", "The factory was bought by the Carlin DPR GP2 motor racing team in 2006." ], [ "Motor Racing Developments", "Several F1 teams used Brabhams (Piers Courage, FWRC, 1969).Brabham cars were also widely used by other teams, and not just in Formula One.", "Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac called the company they set up in 1961 to design and build formula racing cars to customer teams Motor Racing Developments (MRD), and this company had a large portfolio of other activities.", "Initially, Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 per cent of the shares.", "Tauranac was responsible for design and running the business, while Brabham was the test driver and arranged corporate deals like the Repco engine supply and the use of the MIRA wind tunnel.", "He also contributed ideas to the design process and often machined parts and helped build the cars.From 1963 to 1965, MRD was not directly involved in Formula One, and often ran works cars in other formulae.", "A separate company, Jack Brabham's Brabham Racing Organisation, ran the Formula One works entry.", "Like other customers, BRO bought its cars from MRD, initially at £3,000 per car, although it did not pay for development parts.", "Tauranac was unhappy with his distance from the Formula One operation and before the 1966 season suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement.", "Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO, however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category.", "After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969, the works Formula One team was MRD.The BT40 was the last Formula Two model from Brabham.Despite only building its first car in 1961, by the mid-1960s MRD had overtaken established constructors like Cooper to become the largest manufacturer of single-seat racing cars in the world, and by 1970 had built over 500 cars.", "Of the other Formula One teams which used Brabhams, Frank Williams Racing Cars and the Rob Walker Racing Team were the most successful.", "The 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete, only two of them from the works team, and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season.", "The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year, peaking with 89 cars in 1966.Brabham had the reputation of providing customers with cars of a standard equal to those used by the works team, which worked \"out of the box\".", "The company provided a high degree of support to its customers—including Jack Brabham helping customers set up their cars.", "During this period the cars were usually known as \"Repco Brabhams\", not because of the Repco engines used in Formula One between 1966 and 1968, but because of a smaller-scale sponsorship deal through which the Australian company had been providing parts to Jack Brabham since his Cooper days.Alfa Romeo 164 \"procar\" (1988)At the end of 1971 Bernie Ecclestone bought MRD.", "He retained the Brabham brand, as did subsequent owners.", "Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Ecclestone's ownership, he believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed.", "The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and the Formula Three BT41 of 1973, although Ecclestone sold ex-works Formula One BT44Bs to RAM Racing as late as 1976.In 1988 Ecclestone sold Motor Racing Developments to Alfa Romeo.", "The Formula One team did not compete that year, but Alfa Romeo put the company to use designing and building a prototype \"Procar\"—a racing car with the silhouette of a large saloon (the Alfa Romeo 164) covering a composite racing car chassis and mid-mounted race engine.", "This was intended for a racing series for major manufacturers to support Formula One Grands Prix, and was designated the Brabham BT57." ], [ "Racing history—other categories", "===IndyCar=== Brabham cars competed at the Indianapolis 500 from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s.", "After an abortive project in 1962, MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an IndyCar chassis powered by an American Offenhauser engine.", "The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the \"Zink-Urschel Trackburner\" at the 1964 event and retired with a fuel tank problem.", "The car was entered again in 1966, taking a third place for Jim McElreath.", "From 1968 to 1970, Brabham returned to Indianapolis, at first with a 4.2-litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One—with which Peter Revson finished fifth in 1969—before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970.The Brabham-Offenhauser combination was entered again in 1971 by J.C. Agajanian, finishing fifth in the hands of Bill Vukovich II.", "Although no Brabham car ever won at Indianapolis, McElreath won four United States Automobile Club (USAC) races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12.The \"Dean Van Lines Special\" in which Mario Andretti won the 1965 USAC national championship was a direct copy of this car, made with permission from Brabham by Andretti's crew chief Clint Brawner.", "Revson took Brabham's final USAC race win in a BT25 in 1969, using the Repco engine.===Formula Two===In the 1960s and early 1970s, drivers who had reached Formula One often continued to compete in Formula Two.", "In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category, with a Honda engine acting as a stressed component.", "The car was extremely successful, winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme.", "Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation, avoiding a direct conflict with Repco, their Formula One engine supplier.===Formula Three===The first Formula Three Brabham, the BT9, won only four major races in 1964.The BT15 which followed in 1965 was a highly successful design.", "58 cars were sold, which won 42 major races.", "Further developments of the same concept, including wings by the end of the decade, were highly competitive up until 1971.The BT38C of 1972 was Brabham's first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac.", "Although 40 were ordered, it was less successful than its predecessors.", "The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham.===Formula 5000===Brabham made one car for Formula 5000 racing, the Brabham BT43.Rolled out in late 1973 it was tested in early 1974 by John Watson at Silverstone before making its debut at the Rothmans F5000 Championship Round at Monza on 30 June 1974, driven by Martin Birrane.", "Former Australian Drivers' Champion Kevin Bartlett used the Chevrolet powered Brabham BT43 to finish 3rd in the 1978 Australian Drivers' Championship including finishing 5th in the 1978 Australian Grand Prix.===Sports cars===Tauranac did not enjoy designing sports cars and could only spare a small amount of his time from MRD's very successful single-seater business.", "Only 14 sports car models were built between 1961 and 1972, out of a total production of almost 600 chassis.", "The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965.The design was \"stretched\" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3-litre version of the Repco engine for Can-Am racing.", "It was quickly abandoned by MRD after engine reliability problems became evident." ], [ "Technical innovation", "BT46B \"Fan car\" won its only race before being banned.", "It was nicknamed the \"Fan Car\" due to the large fan at the rear of the car.Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s, chiefly because it persevered with traditional spaceframe cars long after Lotus introduced lighter, stiffer monocoque chassis to Formula One in 1962.Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis, and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD's customers.", "His \"old fashioned\" cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships, and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970.Despite the perceived conservatism, in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone its designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed.", "The practice became the norm in only the early 1980s, and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars.", "Towards the end of the 1960s, teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars' tyres down harder on the track and enable them to maintain faster speeds through high-speed corners.", "At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, Brabham was the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings to this effect.The team's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director.", "During 1976, the team introduced carbon-carbon brakes to Formula One, which promised reduced unsprung weight and better stopping performance due to carbon's greater coefficient of friction.", "The initial versions used carbon-carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon \"pucks.\"", "The technology was not reliable at first; in 1976, Carlos Pace crashed at at the Österreichring circuit after heat build-up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car.", "By 1979, Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads.Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid-1970s, the team, like the rest of the field, did not immediately understand Lotus's development of a ground effect car in 1977.The Brabham BT46B \"Fan car\" of 1978, generated enormous downforce with a fan, which sucked air from beneath the car, although its claimed use was for engine cooling.", "The car raced only once in the Formula One World Championship—Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix—before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA.Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight carbon fibre composite panels to stiffen Brabham's aluminium alloy monocoques, he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques.", "Murray was reluctant to build the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis.", "The team did not follow McLaren's 1981 MP4/1 with its own fully composite chassis until the \"lowline\" BT55 in 1986, the last team to do so.", "This technology is now used in all top level single seater racing cars.For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a minimum ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect.", "Gordon Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed.", "Brabham was accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations.", "No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects.At the 1982 British Grand Prix, Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car's tyres during the race, unseen since the 1957 Formula One season, to allow its drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres.", "After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States, the team was able to refuel and re-tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race.", "In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than \"get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning,\" but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic.", "Refuelling was banned for 1984, although it reappeared between 1994 and 2009, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One." ], [ "Controversy", "The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations.", "In the early 1980s, Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations.", "During 1981, Piquet's first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis.", "Driver Jacques Laffite was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering.", "The accusation was denied by Brabham's management.", "No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against it by the sporting authorities.From 1978, Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), a body formed by the teams to represent their interests.", "This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes.", "Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon its new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983.Brabham had to design and build a replacement, the BT52, in only three months.", "At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the Drivers' Championship by Piquet, protested that the Research Octane Number (RON) 102.4 of the team's fuel was above the legal limit of 102.The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit." ], [ "Later use of the Brabham name", "=== Revival attempts ===On 4 June 2009, Franz Hilmer confirmed that he had used the name to lodge an entry for the 2010 Formula One season as a cost-capped team under the new budget cap regulations.", "The Brabham family was not involved and announced that it was seeking legal advice over the use of the name.", "The team's entry was not accepted, and the Brabham family later obtained legal recognition of their exclusive rights to the Brabham brand.=== Brabham Racing ===In September 2014, David Brabham—the son of Brabham founder Sir Jack Brabham—announced the reformation of the Brabham Racing team under the name Project Brabham, with plans to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in the LMP2 category using a crowdsourcing business model.", "The company also expressed interest in returning to Formula One, but did not have the financial capacity to do so.In 2019, Brabham Automotive announced its goal to enter the 2021 FIA World Endurance Championship using a BT62 in the GTE class.", "The team competed in the 2019 GT Cup Championship.", "It also entered the final two races of the 2019 Britcar Endurance Championship, winning on its debut.In 2021, Brabham Automotive debuted their BT63 GT2 car at the season finale of the 2021 GT2 European Series." ], [ "Championship results", "Results achieved by the \"works\" Brabham team.", "'''Bold''' results indicate a championship win.+Summary of Brabham Formula One World Championship results Season Entrant Car Tyres Engine Drivers Constructors'Championship Brabham Racing Organisation Lotus 24Brabham BT3 Coventry Climax FWMV Jack Brabham 7th (9 points) Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT3Brabham BT7Lotus 25 Coventry Climax FWMV Jack BrabhamDan Gurney 3rd (28 points) Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT7 Brabham BT11 Coventry Climax FWMV Jack BrabhamDan Gurney 4th (33 points) Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT7Brabham BT11 Coventry Climax FWMV Jack BrabhamDan GurneyDenny HulmeGiancarlo Baghetti 3rd (27 pts) Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT19Brabham BT20Brabham BT22 Repco 620 Coventry Climax FPF '''Jack Brabham'''Denny Hulme '''Champion''' (42 pts) Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT19Brabham BT20Brabham BT24 Repco 620 Repco 740 Jack Brabham'''Denny Hulme''' '''Champion''' (37 pts) Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT24Brabham BT26 Repco 740 Repco 860 Jack BrabhamJochen RindtDan Gurney 8th (10 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT26A Cosworth DFV Jack BrabhamJacky Ickx 2nd (51 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT33 Cosworth DFV Jack BrabhamRolf Stommelen 4th (35 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT33Brabham BT34 Cosworth DFV Graham HillTim SchenkenDave Charlton 9th (5 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT33Brabham BT34Brabham BT37 Cosworth DFV Graham HillCarlos ReutemannWilson Fittipaldi 9th (7 pts) Motor Racing DevelopmentsCeramica Pagnossin Team MRD Brabham BT37Brabham BT42 Cosworth DFV Carlos ReutemannWilson FittipaldiAndrea de AdamichRolf StommelenJohn Watson 4th (49 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT42Brabham BT44 Cosworth DFV Carlos ReutemannCarlos PaceRikky von OpelRichard RobartsTeddy Pilette 5th (35 pts) Martini Racing Brabham BT44B Cosworth DFV Carlos ReutemannCarlos Pace 2nd (54 pts) Martini Racing Brabham BT45 Alfa Romeo 115-12 Carlos ReutemannCarlos PaceRolf StommelenLarry Perkins 9th (9 pts) Martini Racing Brabham BT45B Alfa Romeo 115-12 Carlos PaceJohn WatsonHans-Joachim StuckGiorgio Francia 5th (27 pts) Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT45CBrabham BT46/B/C Alfa Romeo 115-12 Niki LaudaJohn WatsonNelson Piquet 3rd (53 pts) Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT46Brabham BT48Brabham BT49 Alfa Romeo 115-12Alfa Romeo 1260Cosworth DFV Niki LaudaNelson PiquetRicardo Zunino 8th (6 pts) Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT49/B Cosworth DFV Nelson PiquetRicardo ZuninoHéctor Rebaque 3rd (55 pts) Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT49/B/C Cosworth DFV '''Nelson Piquet'''Héctor RebaqueRicardo Zunino 2nd (61 pts) Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT49DBrabham BT50 Cosworth DFVBMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetRiccardo Patrese 5th (41 pts) Fila Sport Brabham BT52/B BMW M12/13 '''Nelson Piquet'''Riccardo Patrese 3rd (72 pts) MRD International Brabham BT53 BMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetTeo FabiCorrado FabiManfred Winkelhock 4th (38 pts) Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT54 BMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetMarc SurerFrançois Hesnault 5th (26 pts) Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT54Brabham BT55 BMW M12/13/1 Elio de AngelisRiccardo PatreseDerek Warwick 9th (2 pts) Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT56 BMW M12/13/1 Riccardo PatreseAndrea de CesarisStefano Modena 8th (10 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT58 Judd EV Martin BrundleStefano Modena 9th (8 pts) Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT58Brabham BT59 Judd EV Stefano ModenaDavid BrabhamGregor Foitek 10th (2 pts) Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT59YBrabham BT60Y Yamaha OX99 Martin BrundleMark Blundell 9th (3 pts) Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT60B Judd GV Eric van de PoeleGiovanna AmatiDamon Hill NC (0 pts)" ], [ "See also", "* List of Brabham racing cars" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Books* * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ;Newspapers and Magazines* * * * * ;Websites* * Also available in hardcopy.", "Published by HMSO July 1998.All race and championship results are taken from the Official Formula 1 Website.", "1962 Season review.", "www.formula1.com.", "Retrieved 27 April 2006" ], [ "External links", "* www.forix.com Biography of Jack Brabham, with significant content on the early years of the Brabham team.", "* www.nvo.com Picture gallery of historic Brabhams.", "* www.motorracing-archive.com Summary history of Brabham 1961–1972, including significant race results and production numbers for all models.", "(Archived here).", "* www.oldracingcars.com Complete race history of all Brabham F1 models from 1966 to 1982 and links to Brabham research projects on other models.", "* www.f3history.co.uk History of Formula Three, including Brabham (under 'Manufacturers').", "(Archived here)* www.autocoursegpa.com Complete world championship Brabham team statistics" ] ]

[ [ "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''' is an American four-engined heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC).", "A fast and high-flying bomber of its era, the B-17 was used primarily in the European Theater of Operations and dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during World War II.", "It is the third-most produced bomber of all time, behind the American four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator and the German multirole, twin-engined Junkers Ju 88.It was also employed as a transport, antisubmarine aircraft, drone controller, and search-and-rescue aircraft.In a USAAC competition, Boeing's prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the Douglas B-18 Bolo.", "Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938.The B-17 evolved through numerous design advances but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the United States Army Air Forces, USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon.", "It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bombload.", "It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base.The B-17 saw early action in the Pacific War, where it conducted raids against Japanese shipping and airfields.", "But it was primarily employed by the SAAF in the daylight component of the Allied strategic bombing campaign over Europe, complementing RAF Bomber Command's night bombers in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets.", "Of the roughly of bombs dropped on Nazi Germany and its occupied territories by Allied aircraft, over (42.6%) were dropped from B-17s.As of February 2024, six aircraft remain airworthy, none of which had been flown in combat.", "Dozens more are in storage or on static display, the oldest of which is ''The Swoose'', a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II." ], [ "Development", "=== Origins ===On 8 August 1934, the USAAC tendered a proposal for a multiengine bomber to replace the Martin B-10.The Air Corps was looking for a bomber capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama, and Alaska.", "Requirements were for it to carry a \"useful bombload\" at an altitude of for 10 hours with a top speed of at least .They also desired, but did not require, a bomber with a range of and a speed of .", "The competition for the air corps contract was to be decided by a \"fly-off\" between Boeing's design, the Douglas DB-1, and the Martin Model 146 at Wilbur Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio.The prototype B-17, with the Boeing factory designation of Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and Edward Curtis Wells, and was built at Boeing's own expense.", "It combined features of the company's experimental XB-15 bomber and 247 transport.", "The B-17's armament consisted of five .30 caliber (7.62 mm) machine guns, with a payload up to of bombs on two racks in the bomb bay behind the cockpit.", "The aircraft was powered by four Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines, each producing at .The first flight of the Model 299 was on 1935 with Boeing chief test pilot Leslie Tower at the controls.", "The day before, Richard Williams, a reporter for ''The Seattle Times'', coined the name \"Flying Fortress\" when – observing the large number of machine guns sticking out from the new aircraft – he described it as a \"15-ton flying fortress\" in a picture caption.", "The most distinctive mount was in the nose, which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward nearly all frontal angles.Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use.", "Boeing also claimed in some of the early press releases that Model 299 was the first combat aircraft that could continue its mission if one of its four engines failed.", "On , the prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes with an average cruising speed of , much faster than the competition.At the fly-off, the four-engined Boeing's performance was superior to those of the twin-engine DB-1 and Model 146.In March 1935 Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur created GHQ Air Force and promoted lieutenant colonel Frank Maxwell Andrews to brigadier general to become the head of GHQ Air Force.", "MacArthur and Andrews both believed that the capabilities of large four-engined aircraft exceeded those of shorter-ranged, twin-engine aircraft, and that the B-17 was better suited to new, emerging USAAC doctrine.", "Their opinions were shared by the air corps procurement officers, and even before the competition had finished, they suggested buying 65 B-17s.On 30 October 1935, a test flight determining the rate of climb and service ceiling was planned.", "The command pilot was Major Ployer Peter Hill, Wright Field Material Division Chief of the Flying Branch, his first flight in the Model 299.Copilot was Lieutenant Donald Putt, while Boeing chief test pilot Leslie R. Tower was behind the pilots in an advisory role.", "Also on board were Wright Field test observer John Cutting and mechanic Mark Koegler.", "Tragically, the plane stalled and spun into the ground soon after takeoff, bursting into flames.", "Though initially surviving the impact, Hill died within a few hours, and Tower on 19 November.", "Post-accident interviews with Tower and Putt determined the control surface gust lock had not been released.", "Doyle notes, \"The loss of Hill and Tower, and the Model 299, was directly responsible for the creation of the modern written checklist used by pilots to this day.", "\"The crashed Model 299 could not finish the evaluation, thus disqualifying it from the competition.", "While the Air Corps was still enthusiastic about the aircraft's potential, Army officials were daunted by its cost; Douglas quoted a unit price of $58,200 () based on a production order of 220 aircraft, compared with $99,620 ( ) from Boeing.", "MacArthur's successor, Army Chief of Staff Malin Craig, canceled the order for 65 YB-17s and ordered 133 of the twin-engined Douglas B-18 Bolo, instead.", "Secretary of War Harry Hines Woodring in October 1938 decided that no four-engine bombers, including B-17s, would be purchased by the War Department in 1939.=== Initial orders ===Douglas plant in Long Beach, California, October 1942Despite the crash, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance, and on 1936, through a legal loophole, the Air Corps ordered 13 YB-17s (designated Y1B-17 after November 1936 to denote its special F-1 funding) for service testing.", "The YB-17 incorporated a number of significant changes from the Model 299, including more powerful Wright R-1820-39 Cyclone engines.", "Although the prototype was company-owned and never received a military serial (the B-17 designation itself did not appear officially until January 1936, nearly three months after the prototype crashed), the term \"XB-17\" was retroactively applied to the ''NX13372's'' airframe and has entered the lexicon to describe the first Flying Fortress.Between 1 March and 4 August 1937, 12 of the 13 Y1B-17s were delivered to the 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field in Virginia for operational development and flight tests.", "One suggestion adopted was the use of a preflight checklist to avoid accidents such as that which befell the Model 299.In one of their first missions, three B-17s, directed by lead navigator Lieutenant Curtis LeMay, were sent by General Andrews to \"intercept\" and photograph the Italian ocean liner ''Rex'' off the Atlantic coast.", "The mission was successful and widely publicized.", "The 13th Y1B-17 was delivered to the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio, to be used for flight testing.A 14th Y1B-17 (''37-369''), originally constructed for ground testing of the airframe's strength, was upgraded by Boeing with exhaust-driven General Electric turbo-superchargers, and designated Y1B-17A.", "Designed by Sanford Moss, engine exhaust gases turned the turbine's steel-alloy blades, forcing high-pressure ram air into the Wright Cyclone GR-1820-39 engine supercharger.", "Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers, and its first flight was delayed until 1938.The aircraft was delivered to the Army on 1939.Once service testing was complete, the Y1B-17s and Y1B-17A were redesignated B-17 and B-17A, respectively, to signify the change to operational status.", "The Y1B-17A had a maximum speed of , at its best operational altitude, compared to for the Y1B-17.Also, the Y1B-17A's new service ceiling was more than higher at , compared to the Y1B-17's .", "These turbo-superchargers were incorporated into the B-17B.Opposition to the Air Corps' ambitions for the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-17B were ordered to equip two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast.", "Improved with larger flaps and rudder and a well-framed, 10 panel plexiglass nose, the B-17Bs were delivered in five small batches between July 1939 and March 1940.In July 1940, an order for 512 B-17s was issued, but at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, fewer than 200 were in service with the army.A total of 155 B-17s of all variants were delivered between 1937 and 1941, but production quickly accelerated, with the B-17 once holding the record for the highest production rate for any large aircraft.", "The aircraft went on to serve in every World War II combat zone, and by the time production ended in May 1945, 12,731 B-17s had been built by Boeing, Douglas, and Vega (a subsidiary of Lockheed)." ], [ "Design and variants", "Waist position gun blister of Model 299, not adopted for production+ Production numbers Variant Produced First flight Model 299 1 28 July 1935 YB-17 13 2 December 1936 YB-17A 1 29 April 1938 B-17B 39 27 June 1939 B-17C 38 21 July 1940 B-17D 42 3 February 1941 B-17E 512 5 September 1941 B-17F (total) '''3,405''' 30 May 1942 B-17F-BO 2,300 B-17F-DL 605 B-17F-VE 500 B-17G (total) '''8,680''' 16 August 1943 B-17G-BO 4,035 B-17G-DL 2,395 B-17G-VE 2,250 Total '''12,731''' B-17s were built at Boeing Plant 2, Seattle, Washington (BO), Lockheed-Vega, Burbank, California (VE) and Douglas Aircraft, Long Beach, California (DL)The aircraft went through several alterations in each of its design stages and variants.", "Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd Bomb Group at Langley Field, Virginia, to develop heavy bombing techniques, and the 13th was used for flight testing at the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio.", "Experiments on this aircraft led to the use of a quartet of General Electric turbo-superchargers, which later became standard on the B-17 line.", "A 14th aircraft, the YB-17A, originally destined for ground testing only and upgraded with the turbochargers, was redesignated B-17A after testing had finished.As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon the basic design.", "To enhance performance at slower speeds, the B-17B was altered to include larger rudders and flaps.", "The B-17C changed from three bulged, oval-shaped gun blisters to two flush, oval-shaped gun window openings, and on the lower fuselage, a single \"bathtub\" gun gondola housing, which resembled the similarly configured and located ''Bodenlafette''/\"Bola\" ventral defensive emplacement on the German Heinkel He 111P-series medium bomber.While models A through D of the B-17 were designed defensively, the large-tailed B-17E was the first model primarily focused on offensive warfare.", "The B-17E was an extensive revision of the Model 299 design: The fuselage was extended by ; a much larger rear fuselage, vertical tailfin, rudder, and horizontal stabilizer were added; a gunner's position was added in the new tail; the nose (especially the bombardier's framed, 10-panel nose glazing) remained relatively the same as the earlier B through D versions had; a Sperry electrically powered manned dorsal gun turret just behind the cockpit was added; a similarly powered (also built by Sperry) manned ventral ball turret just aft of the bomb bay – replaced the relatively hard-to-use, Sperry model 645705-D remotely operated ventral turret on the earliest examples of the E variant.", "These modifications resulted in a 20% increase in aircraft weight.", "The B-17's turbocharged Wright R-1820 Cyclone 9 engines were upgraded to increasingly more powerful versions of the same powerplants throughout its production, and similarly, the number of machine gun emplacement locations was increased.Boeing-built B-17Fs, with the clear-view two-piece Plexiglas bombardier's nose.The B-17F variant was the primary version used by the Eighth Air Force to face the Germans in 1943, and standardized the manned Sperry ball turret for ventral defense, also replacing the earlier, 10-panel framed bombardier's nose glazing from the B subtype with an enlarged, nearly frameless Plexiglas bombardier's nose enclosure for improved forward vision.Two experimental versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations, the XB-38 'Flying Fortress' and the YB-40 'Flying Fortress.'", "The XB-38 was an engine testbed for Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled engines, should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable.", "The only prototype XB-38 to fly crashed on its ninth flight, and the concept was abandoned.", "The Allison V-1710 was reallocated to fighter aircraft.The YB-40 was a heavily armed modification of the standard B-17 used before the North American P-51 Mustang, an effective long-range fighter, became available to act as escort.", "Additional armament included an additional dorsal turret in the radio room, a remotely operated and fired Bendix-built \"chin turret\" directly below the bombardier's accommodation, and twin 50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns in each of the waist positions.", "The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds.", "All of these modifications made the YB-40 well over heavier than a fully loaded B-17F.", "The YB-40s with their greater weight, had trouble keeping up with the lighter bombers once they had dropped their bombs, so the project was abandoned and finally phased out in July 1943.The final production blocks of the B-17F from Douglas' plants did, however, adopt the YB-40's \"chin turret\", giving them a much-improved forward defense capability.By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to 13, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were completed.", "The B-17G was the final version of the Flying Fortress, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F, and in total, 8,680 were built, the last (by Lockheed) on 1945.Many B-17Gs were converted for other missions such as cargo hauling, engine testing, and reconnaissance.", "Initially designated SB-17G, a number of B-17Gs were also converted for search-and-rescue duties, later to be redesignated B-17H.Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls and television cameras, loaded with of high explosives and designated BQ-7 \"Aphrodite missiles\" for Operation Aphrodite against bombing-resistant German bunkers.", "The operation, which involved remotely flying the Aphrodite drones onto their targets by accompanying CQ-17 \"mothership\" control aircraft, was approved on 1944, and assigned to the 388th Bombardment Group stationed at RAF Fersfield, a satellite of RAF Knettishall.The first four drones were sent to Mimoyecques (V-3 site), the Siracourt V-1 bunker, and the V-2 Blockhaus d'Éperlecques at Watten, and La Coupole at Wizernes on 4 August, causing little damage and two pilots were killed.", "On August 12, a Consolidated B-24 Liberator, part of the United States Navy's contribution (\"Project Anvil\"), en route for Heligoland piloted by Lieutenant Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. (future U.S. president John F. Kennedy's elder brother) exploded over the Blyth estuary.", "Blast damage was caused over a radius of .", "Naval flights stopped but a few more missions were flown by the USAAF.", "The Aphrodite project was effectively scrapped in early 1945." ], [ "Operational history", "Boeing B-17E Flying Fortress of the 19th Bombardment Group USAAF, summer 1942The B-17 began operations in World War II with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1941, and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army.", "The 19th Bombardment Group had deployed to Clark Field in the Philippines a few weeks before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor as the first of a planned heavy bomber buildup in the Pacific.", "Half of the group's B-17s were wiped out on 8 December 1941 when they were caught on the ground during refueling and rearming for a planned attack on Japanese airfields on Formosa.", "The small force of B-17s operated against the Japanese invasion force until they were withdrawn to Darwin, in Australia's Northern Territory.", "In early 1942, the 7th Bombardment Group began arriving in Java with a mixed force of B-17s and LB-30/B-24s.", "A squadron of B-17s from this force detached to the Middle East to join the First Provisional Bombardment Group, thus becoming the first American B-17 squadron to go to war against the Germans.", "After the defeat in Java, the 19th withdrew to Australia, where it continued in combat until it was sent home by General George C. Kenney when he arrived in Australia in mid-1942.In July 1942, the first USAAF B-17s were sent to England to join the Eighth Air Force.", "Later that year, two groups moved to Algeria to join Twelfth Air Force for operations in North Africa.", "The B-17s were primarily involved in the daylight \"precision\" strategic bombing campaign against German targets ranging from U-boat pens, docks, warehouses, and airfields to industrial targets such as aircraft factories.In practice European weather meant there was often cloud cover obscuring the targets and bombing was intrument aided.", "In the campaign against German aircraft forces in preparation for the invasion of France, B-17 and B-24 raids were directed against German aircraft production while their presence drew the Luftwaffe fighters into battle with Allied fighters.During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide.", "The British heavy bombers, the Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax, dropped 608,612 long tons (681,645 short tons) and 224,207 long tons (251,112 short tons) respectively.=== RAF use ===serial ''AN529'', with He 111H-style \"bathtub\" ventral gondolaThe RAF entered World War II with no heavy bomber of its own in service; the biggest available were long-range medium bombers such as the Vickers Wellington, which could carry up to of bombs.", "While the Short Stirling and Handley Page Halifax became its primary bombers by 1941, in early 1940, the RAF agreed with the U.S. Army Air Corps to acquire 20 B-17Cs, which were given the service name Fortress I.", "Their first operation, against Wilhelmshaven on 1941 was unsuccessful.", "On three B-17s of 90 Squadron took part in a raid on the German capital ship Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen anchored in Brest from , to draw German fighters away from 18 Handley Page Hampdens attacking at lower altitudes, and in time for 79 Vickers Wellingtons to attack later with the German fighters refueling.", "The operation did not work as expected, with 90 Squadron's Fortresses being unopposed.By September, the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat and had experienced numerous mechanical problems, and Bomber Command abandoned daylight bombing raids using the Fortress I because of the aircraft's poor performance.", "The experience showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads, and more accurate bombing methods were required.", "However, the USAAF continued using the B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings by the RAF that attempts at daylight bombing would be ineffective.As use by Bomber Command had been curtailed, the RAF transferred its remaining Fortress I aircraft to Coastal Command for use as a long-range maritime patrol aircraft.", "These were augmented starting in July 1942 by 45 Fortress Mk IIA (B-17E) followed by 19 Fortress Mk II (B-17F) and three Fortress Mk III (B-17G).", "A Fortress IIA from No.", "206 Squadron RAF sank U-627 on 1942, the first of 11 U-boat kills credited to RAF Fortress bombers during the war.As sufficient Consolidated Liberators finally became available, Coastal Command withdrew the Fortress from the Azores, transferring the type to the meteorological reconnaissance role.", "Three squadrons undertook Met profiles from airfields in Iceland, Scotland, and England, gathering data for vital weather forecasting purposes.The RAF's No.", "223 Squadron, as part of 100 Group, operated several Fortresses equipped with an electronic warfare system known as \"Airborne Cigar\" (ABC).", "This was operated by German-speaking radio operators to identify and jam German ground controllers' broadcasts to their nightfighters.", "They could also pose as ground controllers themselves to steer nightfighters away from the bomber streams.=== Initial USAAF operations over Europe ===Marks and letters on the tails of B-17 during WWII in EuropeThe air corps – renamed United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 20 June 1941 – used the B-17 and other bombers to bomb from high altitudes with the aid of the then-secret Norden bombsight, known as the \"Blue Ox\", which was an optical electromechanical gyrostabilized analog computer.", "The device was able to determine, from variables put in by the bombardier, the point at which the aircraft's bombs should be released to hit the target.", "The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level altitude during the final moments before release.The USAAF began building up its air forces in Europe using B-17Es soon after entering the war.", "The first Eighth Air Force units arrived in High Wycombe, England, on 1942, to form the 97th Bomb Group.", "On 1942, 12 B-17Es of the 97th, with the lead aircraft piloted by Major Paul Tibbets and carrying Brigadier General Ira Eaker as an observer, were close escorted by four squadrons of RAF Spitfire IXs (and a further five squadrons of Spitfire Vs to cover the withdrawal) on the first USAAF heavy bomber raid over Europe, against the large railroad marshalling yards at Rouen-Sotteville in France, while a further six aircraft flew a diversionary raid along the French coast.", "The operation, carried out in good visibility, was a success, with only minor damage to one aircraft, unrelated to enemy action, and half the bombs landing in the target area.", "The raid helped allay British doubts about the capabilities of American heavy bombers in operations over Europe.Two additional groups arrived in Britain at the same time, bringing with them the first B-17Fs, which served as the primary AAF heavy bomber fighting the Germans until September 1943.As the raids of the American bombing campaign grew in numbers and frequency, German interception efforts grew in strength (such as during the attempted bombing of Kiel on 13 June 1943), such that unescorted bombing missions came to be discouraged.=== Combined offensive ===B-17F formation over Schweinfurt, Germany, 1943The two different strategies of the American and British bomber commands were organized at the Casablanca Conference in January 1943.The resulting \"Combined Bomber Offensive\" weakened the Wehrmacht, destroyed German morale, and established air superiority through Operation Pointblank's destruction of German fighter strength in preparation for a ground offensive.", "The USAAF bombers attacked by day, with British operations – chiefly against industrial cities – by night.Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe.", "General Ira C. Eaker and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories, and ball-bearing manufacturers.", "Attacks began in April 1943 on heavily fortified key industrial plants in Bremen and Recklinghausen.Since the airfield bombings were not appreciably reducing German fighter strength, additional B-17 groups were formed, and Eaker ordered major missions deeper into Germany against important industrial targets.", "The 8th Air Force then targeted the ball-bearing factories in Schweinfurt, hoping to cripple the war effort there.", "The first raid on 1943 did not result in critical damage to the factories, with the 230 attacking B-17s being intercepted by an estimated 300 Luftwaffe fighters.", "The Germans shot down 36 aircraft with the loss of 200 men, and coupled with a raid earlier in the day against Regensburg, a total of 60 B-17s were lost that day.A second attempt on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 later came to be known as \"Black Thursday\".", "While the attack was successful at disrupting the entire works, severely curtailing work there for the remainder of the war, it was at an extreme cost.", "Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 60 were shot down over Germany, five crashed on approach to Britain, and 12 more were scrapped due to damage – a loss of 77 B-17s.", "Additionally, 122 bombers were damaged and needed repairs before their next flights.", "Of 2,900 men in the crews, about 650 did not return, although some survived as prisoners of war.", "Only 33 bombers landed without damage.", "These losses were a result of concentrated attacks by over 300 German fighters.B-17Gs of the 384th Bomb Group on a bomb run, 1944Such high losses of aircrews could not be sustained, and the USAAF, recognizing the vulnerability of heavy bombers to interceptors when operating alone, suspended daylight bomber raids deep into Germany until the development of an escort fighter that could protect the bombers all the way from the United Kingdom to Germany and back.", "At the same time, the German nightfighting ability noticeably improved to counter the nighttime strikes, challenging the conventional faith in the cover of darkness.", "The 8th Air Force alone lost 176 bombers in October 1943, and was to suffer similar casualties on 1944 on missions to Oschersleben, Halberstadt, and Brunswick.", "Lieutenant General James Doolittle, commander of the 8th, had ordered the second Schweinfurt mission to be cancelled as the weather deteriorated, but the lead units had already entered hostile air space and continued with the mission.", "Most of the escorts turned back or missed the rendezvous, and as a result, 60 B-17s were destroyed.A third raid on Schweinfurt on 1944 highlighted what came to be known as \"Big Week\", during which the bombing missions were directed against German aircraft production.", "German fighters needed to respond, and the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fighters (equipped with improved drop tanks to extend their range) accompanying the American heavies all the way to and from the targets engaged them.", "The escort fighters reduced the loss rate to below 7%, with a total of 247 B-17s lost in 3,500 sorties while taking part in the Big Week raids.By September 1944, 27 of the 42 bomb groups of the 8th Air Force and six of the 21 groups of the 15th Air Force used B-17s.", "Losses to flak continued to take a high toll of heavy bombers through 1944, but the war in Europe was being won by the Allies.", "And by 1945, 2 days after the last heavy bombing mission in Europe, the rate of aircraft loss was so low that replacement aircraft were no longer arriving and the number of bombers per bomb group was reduced.", "The Combined Bomber Offensive was effectively complete.=== Pacific Theater === B-17C AAF S/N ''40-2074'' at Hickam Field: An onboard fire burnt the aircraft in two shortly after landing on 1941.One crewman was killed by a Zero attack.On 7 December 1941, a group of 12 B-17s of the 38th (four B-17C) and 88th (eight B-17E) Reconnaissance Squadrons, en route to reinforce the Philippines, was flown into Pearl Harbor from Hamilton Field, California, arriving while the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor was going on.", "Leonard \"Smitty\" Smith Humiston, co-pilot on First Lieutenant Robert H. Richards' B-17C, AAF S/N ''40-2049'', reported that he thought the U.S. Navy was giving the flight a 21-gun salute to celebrate the arrival of the bombers, after which he realized that Pearl Harbor was under attack.", "The Fortress came under fire from Japanese fighter aircraft, though the crew was unharmed with the exception of one member who suffered an abrasion on his hand.", "Japanese activity forced them to divert from Hickam Field to Bellows Field.", "On landing, the aircraft overran the runway and ran into a ditch, where it was then strafed.", "Although initially deemed repairable, ''40-2049'' (11th BG / 38th RS) received more than 200 bullet holes and never flew again.", "Ten of the 12 Fortresses survived the attack.By 1941, the Far East Air Force (FEAF) based at Clark Field in the Philippines had 35 B-17s, with the War Department eventually planning to raise that to 165.When the FEAF received word of the attack on Pearl Harbor, General Lewis H. Brereton sent his bombers and fighters on various patrol missions to prevent them from being caught on the ground.", "Brereton planned B-17 raids on Japanese airfields in Formosa, in accordance with Rainbow 5 war plan directives, but this was overruled by General Douglas MacArthur.", "A series of disputed discussions and decisions, followed by several confusing and false reports of air attacks, delayed the authorization of the sortie.", "By the time the B-17s and escorting Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighters were about to get airborne, they were destroyed by Japanese bombers of the 11th Air Fleet.", "The FEAF lost half its aircraft during the first strike, and was all but destroyed over the next few days.Another early World War II Pacific engagement, on 1941, involved Colin Kelly, who reportedly crashed his B-17 into the Japanese battleship ''Haruna'', which was later acknowledged as a near bomb miss on the heavy cruiser ''Ashigara''.", "Nonetheless, this deed made him a celebrated war hero.", "Kelly's B-17C AAF S/N ''40-2045'' (19th BG / 30th BS) crashed about from Clark Field after he held the burning Fortress steady long enough for the surviving crew to bail out.", "Kelly was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.Noted Japanese ace Saburō Sakai is credited with this kill, and in the process, came to respect the ability of the Fortress to absorb punishment.B-17E BO AAF S/N ''41-9211'' ''Typhoon McGoon II'' of the 11th BG / 98th BS, taken in January 1943 in New Caledonia: The antennae mounted upon the nose were used for radar tracking surface vessels.B-17s were used in early battles of the Pacific with little success, notably the Battle of Coral Sea and Battle of Midway.", "While there, the Fifth Air Force B-17s were tasked with disrupting the Japanese sea lanes.", "Air Corps doctrine dictated bombing runs from high altitude, but they soon found only 1% of their bombs hit targets.", "However, B-17s were operating at heights too great for most A6M Zero fighters to reach.The B-17's greatest success in the Pacific was in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, in which aircraft of this type were responsible for damaging and sinking several Japanese transport ships.", "On 2 March 1943, six B-17s of the 64th Squadron flying at attacked a major Japanese troop convoy off New Guinea, using skip bombing to sink , which carried 1,200 army troops, and damage two other transports, ''Teiyo Maru'' and ''Nojima''.", "On 3 March 1943, 13 B-17s flying at bombed the convoy, forcing the convoy to disperse and reducing the concentration of their anti-aircraft defenses.", "The B-17s attracted a number of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, which were in turn attacked by the P-38 Lightning escorts.", "One B-17 broke up in the air, and its crew was forced to take to their parachutes.", "Japanese fighter pilots machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew members as they descended and attacked others in the water after they landed.", "Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings, though these were also then lost.", "The allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed, while the B-17 crews claimed five more.", "Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged.", "The remaining seven transports and three of the eight destroyers were then sunk by a combination of low level strafing runs by Royal Australian Air Force Beaufighters, and skip bombing by USAAF North American B-25 Mitchells at , while B-17s claimed five hits from higher altitudes.", "On the morning of 4 March 1943, a B-17 sank the destroyer ''Asashio'' with a bomb while she was picking up survivors from ''Arashio''.At their peak, 168 B-17 bombers were in the Pacific theater in September 1942, but already in mid-1942 Gen. Arnold had decided that the B-17 was unsuitable for the kind of operations required in the Pacific and made plans to replace all of the B-17s in the theater with B-24s (and later, B-29s) as soon as they became available.", "Although the conversion was not complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat operations in the Pacific theater came to an end after a little over a year.", "Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the 54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop section and were used to drop supplies to ground forces operating in close contact with the enemy.", "Special airdrop B-17s supported Australian commandos operating near the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17 target in 1942 and early 1943.B-17s were still used in the Pacific later in the war, however, mainly in the combat search and rescue role.", "A number of B-17Gs, redesignated B-17Hs and later SB-17Gs, were used in the Pacific during the final year of the war to carry and drop lifeboats to stranded bomber crews who had been shot down or crashed at sea.", "These aircraft were nicknamed Dumbos, and remained in service for many years after the end of World War II.=== Bomber defense ===Formation flying through dense flak over Merseburg, GermanyBefore the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe.", "As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor.", "Defensive armament increased from four machine guns and one nose machine gun in the B-17C, to thirteen machine guns in the B-17G.", "But because the bombers could not maneuver when attacked by fighters and needed to be flown straight and level during their final bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack.A 1943 survey by the USAAF found that over half the bombers shot down by the Germans had left the protection of the main formation.", "To address this problem, the United States developed the bomb-group formation, which evolved into the staggered combat box formation in which all the B-17s could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns.", "This made a formation of bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters.", "In order to more quickly form these formations, assembly ships, planes with distinctive paint schemes, were utilized to guide bombers into formation, saving assembly time.", "''Luftwaffe'' fighter pilots likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a ''fliegendes Stachelschwein'', \"flying porcupine\", with dozens of machine guns in a combat box aimed at them from almost every direction.", "However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive maneuvers: they had to fly constantly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to German flak.", "Moreover, German fighter aircraft later developed the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict damage with minimum risk.", "As a result, the B-17s' loss rate was up to 25% on some early missions.", "It was not until the advent of long-range fighter escorts (particularly the North American P-51 Mustang) and the resulting degradation of the ''Luftwaffe'' as an effective interceptor force between February and June 1944, that the B-17 became strategically potent.The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely.", "Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth Air Force during World War II, said, \"The plane can be cut and slashed almost to pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew home.\"", "Martin Caidin reported one instance in which a B-17 suffered a midair collision with a Focke-Wulf Fw 190, losing an engine and suffering serious damage to both the starboard horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer, and being knocked out of formation by the impact.", "The B-17 was reported as shot down by observers, but it survived and brought its crew home without injury.", "Its toughness was compensation for its shorter range and lighter bomb load compared to the B-24 and British Avro Lancaster heavy bombers.", "Stories circulated of B-17s returning to base with tails shredded, engines destroyed and large portions of their wings destroyed by flak.", "This durability, together with the large operational numbers in the Eighth Air Force and the fame achieved by the ''Memphis Belle'', made the B-17 a key bomber aircraft of the war.", "Other factors such as combat effectiveness and political issues also contributed to the B-17's success.=== Luftwaffe attacks ===B-17G ''43-38172'' of the 8th AF 398th BG 601st BS which was damaged on a bombing mission over Cologne, Germany, on 1944; the bombardier was killed.After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that on average it took about 20 hits with 20 mm shells fired from the rear to bring them down.", "Pilots of average ability hit the bombers with only about two percent of the rounds they fired, so to obtain 20 hits, the average pilot had to fire one thousand rounds at a bomber.", "Early versions of the Fw 190, one of the best German interceptor fighters, were equipped with two MG FF cannons, which carried only 500 rounds when belt-fed (normally using 60-round drum magazines in earlier installations), and later with the better Mauser MG 151/20 cannons, which had a longer effective range than the MG FF weapon.", "Later versions carried four or even six MG 151/20 cannon and twin 13 mm machine guns.", "The German fighters found that when attacking from the front, where fewer defensive guns were mounted (and where the pilot was exposed and not protected by armor as he was from the rear), it took only four or five hits to bring a bomber down.To rectify the Fw 190's shortcomings, the number of cannons fitted was doubled to four, with a corresponding increase in the amount of ammunition carried, creating the ''Sturmbock'' bomber destroyer version.", "This type replaced the vulnerable twin-engine ''Zerstörer'' heavy fighters which could not survive interception by P-51 Mustangs flying well ahead of the combat boxes in an air supremacy role starting very early in 1944 to clear any Luftwaffe defensive fighters from the skies.", "By 1944, a further upgrade to Rheinmetall-Borsig's MK 108 cannons mounted either in the wing, or in underwing, conformal mount gun pods, was made for the ''Sturmbock'' Focke-Wulfs as either the /R2 or /R8 field modification kits, enabling aircraft to bring a bomber down with just a few hits.The adoption of the 21 cm Nebelwerfer-derived ''Werfer-Granate 21'' (Wfr.", "Gr.", "21) rocket mortar by the Luftwaffe in mid-August 1943 promised the introduction of a major \"stand-off\" style of offensive weapon – one strut-mounted tubular launcher was fixed under each wing panel on the Luftwaffe's single-engine fighters, and two under each wing panel of a few twin-engine Bf 110 daylight ''Zerstörer'' aircraft.", "However, due to the slow 715 mph velocity and characteristic ballistic drop of the fired rocket (despite the usual mounting of the launcher at about 15° upward orientation), and the small number of fighters fitted with the weapons, the Wfr.", "Gr.", "21 never had a major effect on the combat box formations of Fortresses.", "The Luftwaffe also fitted heavy-caliber ''Bordkanone''-series 37, 50 and even cannon as anti-bomber weapons on twin-engine aircraft such as the special Ju 88P fighters, as well as one model of the Me 410 ''Hornisse'' but these measures did not have much effect on the American strategic bomber offensive.", "The Me 262, however, had moderate success against the B-17 late in the war.", "With its usual nose-mounted armament of four MK 108 cannons, and with some examples later equipped with the R4M rocket, launched from underwing racks, it could fire from outside the range of the bombers' defensive guns and bring an aircraft down with one hit, as both the MK 108's shells and the R4M's warheads were filled with the \"shattering\" force of the strongly brisant Hexogen military explosive.=== Luftwaffe-captured B-17s ===Captured B-17F-27-BO in ''Luftwaffe'' markings, the USAAF-named \"Wulfe-Hound\", ''41-24585'', of the 360th BS/303rd BG, was downed on 12 December 1942 near Leeuwarden, Netherlands, while on a raid on Rouen, France.", "The first Flying Fortress to fall intact into German hands, it was operated by ''Kampfgeschwader'' 200 from March 1944.During World War II approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished by Germany after crash-landing or being forced down, with about a dozen put back into the air.", "Given German ''Balkenkreuz'' national markings on their wings and fuselage sides, and swastika tail fin–flashes, the captured B-17s were used to determine the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in attack tactics.", "Others, with the cover designations Dornier Do 200 and Do 288, were used as long-range transports by the ''Kampfgeschwader'' 200 special duties unit, carrying out agent drops and supplying secret airstrips in the Middle East and North Africa.", "They were chosen specifically for these missions as being more suitable for this role than other available German aircraft; they never attempted to deceive the Allies and always wore full ''Luftwaffe'' markings.", "One B-17 of KG200, bearing the ''Luftwaffe's'' KG 200 ''Geschwaderkennung'' (combat wing code) markings ''A3+FB'', was interned by Spain when it landed at Valencia airfield, 1944, remaining there for the rest of the war.", "It has been alleged that some B-17s kept their Allied markings and were used by the ''Luftwaffe'' in attempts to infiltrate B-17 bombing formations and report on their positions and altitudes.", "According to these allegations, the practice was initially successful, but Army Air Force combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any \"stranger\" trying to join a group's formation.=== Soviet-interned B-17s ===The U.S. did not offer B-17s to the Soviet Union as part of its war materiel assistance program, but at least 73 aircraft were acquired by the Soviet Air Force.", "These aircraft had landed with mechanical trouble during the shuttle bombing raids over Germany or had been damaged by a ''Luftwaffe'' raid in Poltava.", "The Soviets restored 23 to flying condition and concentrated them in the 890th Bomber Regiment of the 45th Bomber Aviation Division, but they never saw combat.", "In 1946 (or 1947, according to Holm), the regiment was assigned to the Kazan factory (moving from Baranovichi) to help the Soviet effort to reproduce the more advanced Boeing B-29 as the Tupolev Tu-4.=== Swiss-interned B-17s ===During the Allied bomber offensive, U.S. and British bombers sometimes flew into Swiss airspace, either because they were damaged or, on rare occasions, accidentally bombing Swiss cities.", "Swiss aircraft attempted to intercept and force individual aircraft to land, interning their crews; one Swiss pilot was killed, shot down by a U.S. bomber crew in September 1944.Official Swiss records identify 6,501 airspace violations during the course of the war, with 198 foreign aircraft landing on Swiss territory and 56 aircraft crashing there.", "In October 1943, the Swiss interned Boeing B-17F-25-VE, tail number 25841, and its U.S. flight crew after the Flying Fortress developed engine trouble after a raid over Germany and was forced to land.", "The aircraft was turned over to the Swiss Air Force, who then flew the bomber until the end of the war, using other interned but non-airworthy B-17s for spare parts.", "The bomber's topside surfaces were repainted a dark olive drab, but retained its light gray under wing and lower fuselage surfaces.", "It carried Swiss national white cross insignia in red squares on both sides of its rudder, fuselage sides, and on the topside and underside wings.", "The B-17F also carried light gray flash letters \"RD\" and \"I\" on either side of the fuselage's Swiss national insignia.=== Japanese-captured B-17s ===This captured USAAF Boeing B-17D, in Japanese livery, was flown to Japan for technical evaluationIn 1942, Japanese technicians and mechanics rebuilt three damaged B-17s, one \"D\" and two \"E\" series, using parts salvaged from abandoned B-17 wrecks in the Philippines and the Java East Indies.", "The three bombers, which still contained their top-secret Norden bombsights, were ferried to Japan where they underwent extensive technical evaluation by the ''Giken'', the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's Air Technical Research Institute (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo) at Tachikawa's air field.", "The \"D\" model, later deemed an obsolescent design, was used in Japanese training and propaganda films.", "The two \"E\"s were used to develop air combat tactics for use against B-17s; they were also used as enemy aircraft in pilot and crew training films.", "One of the two \"E\"s was photographed late in the war by U. S. aerial recon.", "It was code-named \"Tachikawa 105\" after the mystery aircraft's wingspan (104 feet) but not correctly identified as a captured B-17 until after the war.", "No traces of the three captured Flying Fortresses were ever found in Japan by Allied occupation forces.", "The bombers were assumed either lost by various means or scrapped late in the war for their vital war materials.=== Postwar history ======= U.S. Air Force ====BQ-17 Flying Fortress drones over New Mexico, April 1946After World War II, the B-17 was quickly phased out of use as a bomber and the Army Air Forces retired most of its fleet.", "Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States where the majority were sold for scrap and melted down, although many remained in use in second-line roles such as VIP transports, air-sea rescue and photo-reconnaissance.", "Strategic Air Command (SAC), established in 1946, used reconnaissance B-17s (at first called F-9 ''F'' for ''Fotorecon'', later RB-17) until 1949.The USAF Air Rescue Service of the Military Air Transport Service (MATS) operated B-17s as so-called \"Dumbo\" air-sea rescue aircraft.", "Work on using B-17s to carry airborne lifeboats had begun in 1943, but they entered service in the European theater only in February 1945.They were also used to provide search and rescue support for B-29 raids against Japan.", "About 130 B-17s were converted to the air-sea rescue role, at first designated B-17H and later SB-17G.", "Some SB-17s had their defensive guns removed, while others retained their guns to allow use close to combat areas.", "The SB-17 served through the Korean War, remaining in service with USAF until the mid-1950s.In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as drone aircraft for atmospheric sampling during the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, being able to fly close to or even through the mushroom clouds without endangering a crew.", "This led to more widespread conversion of B-17s as drones and drone control aircraft, both for further use in atomic testing and as targets for testing surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles.", "were converted to drones.", "The last operational mission flown by a USAF Fortress was conducted on 1959, when a DB-17P, serial'' 44-83684 '', directed a QB-17G, out of Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, as a target for an AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missile fired from a McDonnell F-101 Voodoo.", "A retirement ceremony was held several days later at Holloman AFB, after which ''44-83684'' was retired.", "It was subsequently used in various films and in the 1960s television show ''12 O'Clock High'' before being retired to the Planes of Fame aviation museum in Chino, California.", "Perhaps the most famous B-17, the ''Memphis Belle'', has been restored – with the B-17D ''The Swoose'' under way – to her World War II wartime appearance by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.==== U.S. Navy and Coast Guard ====Under project '''Cadillac II''', an AN/APS-20 radar was fitted onto the B-17G, making the PB-1W one of the first Airborne early warning aircraft.During the last year of World War II and shortly thereafter, the United States Navy (USN) acquired 48 ex-USAAF B-17s for patrol and air-sea rescue work.", "The first two ex-USAAF B-17s, a B-17F (later modified to B-17G standard) and a B-17G were obtained by the Navy for various development programs.", "At first, these aircraft operated under their original USAAF designations, but on 31 July 1945 they were assigned the naval aircraft designation PB-1, a designation which had originally been used in 1925 for the Boeing Model 50 experimental flying boat.Thirty-two B-17Gs were used by the Navy under the designation PB-1W, the suffix -W indicating an airborne early warning role.", "A large radome for an S-band AN/APS-20 search radar was fitted underneath the fuselage and additional internal fuel tanks were added for longer range, with the provision for additional underwing fuel tanks.", "Originally, the B-17 was also chosen because of its heavy defensive armament, but this was later removed.", "These aircraft were painted dark blue, the standard Navy paint scheme which had been adopted in late 1944.PB-1Ws continued in USN service until 1955, gradually being phased out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known in the USAF as the EC-121, a designation adopted by the USN in 1962), a military version of the Lockheed 1049 Constellation commercial airliner.In July 1945, 16 B-17s were transferred to the Coast Guard via the Navy; these aircraft were initially assigned U.S. Navy Bureau Numbers (BuNo), but were delivered to the Coast Guard designated as PB-1Gs beginning in July 1946.Coast Guard PB-1Gs were stationed at a number of bases in the U.S. and Newfoundland, with five at Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina, two at CGAS San Francisco, two at NAS Argentia, Newfoundland, one at CGAS Kodiak, Alaska, and one in Washington state.", "They were used primarily in the \"Dumbo\" air-sea rescue role, but were also used for iceberg patrol duties and for photo mapping.", "The Coast Guard PB-1Gs served throughout the 1950s, the last example not being withdrawn from service until 14 October 1959.=== Special operations ===B-17s were used by the CIA front companies Civil Air Transport, Air America and Intermountain Aviation for special missions.", "These included B-17G ''44-85531'', registered as N809Z.", "These aircraft were primarily used for agent drop missions over the People's Republic of China, flying from Taiwan, with Taiwanese crews.", "Four B-17s were shot down in these operations.In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been stripped of all weapons and painted black.", "One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was flown to Clark Air Base in the Philippines in mid-September, assigned for covert missions into Tibet.On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8, as Operation Coldfeet.", "Smith and LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and searched the station for several days.", "On 1 June, Seigrist and Price returned and picked up Smith and LeSchack using a Fulton Skyhook system installed on the B-17.N809Z was used to perform a Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie ''Thunderball'' in 1965.This aircraft, now restored to its original B-17G configuration, was on display in the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon until it was sold to the Collings Foundation in 2015." ], [ "Operators", "Military operators of the B-17Civil operators of the B-17The B-17, a versatile aircraft, served in dozens of USAAF units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in other roles for the RAF.", "Its main use was in Europe, where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft did not hamper it as much as in the Pacific Theater.", "Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "Forty-five planes survive in complete form, 38 in the United States.", "Four are airworthy." ], [ "Fortresses as a symbol", "The B-17's capacity to repel enemy attacks and still inflict heavy damage upon German military capability and production centers is rendered in this caricature.The B-17 Flying Fortress became symbolic of the United States of America's air power.", "In a 1943 Consolidated Aircraft poll of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated advertisements had been run in newspapers, 73% had heard of the B-24 and 90% knew of the B-17.After the first Y1B-17s were delivered to the Army Air Corps 2nd Bombardment Group, they were used on flights to promote their long range and navigational capabilities.", "In January 1938, group commander Colonel Robert Olds flew a Y1B-17 from the U.S. east coast to the west coast, setting a transcontinental record of 13 hours 27 minutes.", "He also broke the west-to-east coast record on the return trip, averaging in 11 hours 1 minute.", "Six bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group took off from Langley Field on 1938 as part of a goodwill flight to Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "Covering they returned on , with seven aircraft setting off on a flight to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, three days later.", "In a well-publicized mission on 12 May of the same year, three Y1B-17s \"intercepted\" and took photographs of the Italian ocean liner SS ''Rex'' off the Atlantic coast.Many pilots who flew both the B-17 and the B-24 preferred the B-17 for its greater stability and ease in formation flying.", "The electrical systems were less vulnerable to damage than the B-24's hydraulics, and the B-17 was easier to fly than a B-24 when missing an engine.", "During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the Eighth Air Force, had an open preference for the B-17.Lieutenant General Jimmy Doolittle wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping field forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their individual servicing and spares.", "For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth.", "His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose mission studies showed that the Flying Fortress's utility and survivability was much greater than those of the B-24 Liberator.", "Making it back to base on numerous occasions, despite extensive battle damage, the B-17's durability became legendary; stories and photos of B-17s surviving battle damage were widely circulated during the war.", "Despite an inferior performance and smaller bombload than the more numerous B-24 Liberators, a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction with the B-17." ], [ "Notable B-17s", "All American'' continues to fly after collision with an attacking Bf 109 fighter, eventually landing without crew injuries.", "* ''All American'' – This B-17F survived having her tail almost cut off in a mid-air collision with a Bf 109 over Tunisia but returned safely to base in Algeria.", "* ''Chief Seattle'' – sponsored by the city of Seattle, she disappeared (MIA) on 14 August 1942 flying a recon mission for the 19th BG, 435th BS and the crew declared dead on 7 December 1945.", "* ''Hell's Kitchen'' – B-17F 41-24392 was one of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to complete more than 100 combat missions.", "* ''Mary Ann'' – a B-17D that was part of an unarmed flight which left Hamilton Air Field, Novato, California on 6 December 1941 en route to Hickam Field in Hawaii, arriving during the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "The plane and her crew were immediately forced into action on Wake Island and in the Philippines during the outbreak of World War II.", "She became famous when her exploits were featured in ''Air Force'', one of the first of the patriotic war films released in 1943.", "* ''Memphis Belle'' – one of the first B-17s to complete a tour of duty of 25 missions in the 8th Air Force and the subject of a feature film, now completely restored and on display since 17 May 2018 at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio.", "* Milk Wagon - B-17G.", "Over the course of its tour of duty, ''Milk Wagon'' set a record in the 3rd Division, possibly the war, for 129 missions without aborting for mechanical failure.", "* ''Miss Every Morning Fix'n'' – B-17C.", "Previously named 'Pamela'.", "Stationed in Mackay, Queensland, Australia during World War II.", "On 14 June 1943, crashed shortly after takeoff from Mackay while ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to Port Moresby, with 40 of the 41 people on board killed.", "It remains the worst air disaster in Australian history.", "The sole survivor, Foye Roberts, married an Australian and returned to the States.", "He died in Wichita Falls, Texas, on 4 February 2004.", "* ''Murder Inc.'' – A B-17 bombardier wearing the name of the B-17 \"Murder Inc.\" on his jacket was used for propaganda in German newspapers.", "* ''Old 666'' – B-17E flown by the most highly decorated crew in the Pacific Theater* ''Royal Flush'' – B-17F ''42-6087'' from the 100th Bomb Group and commanded on one mission by highly decorated USAAF officer Robert Rosenthal, she was the lone surviving 100th BG B-17 of 10 October 1943 raid against Münster to return to the unit's base at RAF Thorpe Abbotts.", "* ''Sir Baboon McGoon'' – B-17F featured in the June 1944 issue of ''Popular Science'' magazine and the 1945 issue of ''Flying'' magazine.", "Articles discuss mobile recovery crews following October 1943 belly landing at Tannington, England.", "* ''The Swoose'' – Initially nicknamed ''Ole Betsy'' while in service, ''The Swoose'' is the only remaining intact B-17D, built in 1940, the oldest surviving Flying Fortress, and the only surviving B-17 to have seen action in the Philippines campaign (1941–1942); she is in the collection of the National Air and Space Museum and is being restored for final display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio.", "''The Swoose'' was flown by Frank Kurtz, father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, who named his daughter after the bomber.", "* ''Ye Olde Pub'' – A highly damaged B-17 piloted by Charlie Brown that was not shot down by Franz Stigler, as memorialized in the painting ''A Higher Call'' by John D.", "Shaw.", "* ''5 Grand'' – 5,000th B-17 made, emblazoned with Boeing employee signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe.", "Damaged and repaired after gear-up landing, transferred to 388th Bomb Group.", "Returned from duty following V-E Day, flown for war bonds tour, then stored at Kingman, Arizona.", "Following an unsuccessful bid for museum preservation, the aircraft was scrapped." ], [ "Accidents and incidents" ], [ "Noted B-17 pilots and crew members", "Maynard H. Smith receiving Medal of Honor from Secretary of War Henry L. StimsonForrest L. Vosler receiving Medal of Honor from President RooseveltNancy Love, pilot and Betty (Huyler) Gillies, co-pilot, the first women to fly the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber for the WASP=== Medal of Honor recipients ===Many B-17 crew members received military honors and 17 received the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration awarded by the United States:* Brigadier General Frederick Castle (flying as co-pilot) – awarded posthumously for remaining at controls so others could escape damaged aircraft.", "* 2nd Lt Robert Femoyer (navigator) – awarded posthumously* 1st Lt Donald J. Gott (pilot) – awarded posthumously* 2nd Lt David R. Kingsley (bombardier) – awarded posthumously for tending to injured crew and giving up his parachute to another* 1st Lt William R. Lawley Jr. – \"heroism and exceptional flying skill\"* Sgt Archibald Mathies (engineer-gunner) – awarded posthumously* 1st Lt Jack W. Mathis (bombardier) – posthumously, the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor* 2nd Lt William E. Metzger Jr. (co-pilot) – awarded posthumously* 1st Lt Edward Michael* 1st Lt John C. Morgan* Capt Harl Pease (awarded posthumously)* 2nd Lt Joseph Sarnoski (awarded posthumously)* S/Sgt Maynard H. Smith (gunner)* 1st Lt Walter E. Truemper (awarded posthumously)* T/Sgt Forrest L. Vosler (radio operator)* Brigadier General Kenneth Walker Commanding officer of V Bomber Command, killed while leading small force in raid on Rabaul – awarded posthumously* Maj Jay Zeamer Jr. (pilot) – earned on unescorted reconnaissance mission in Pacific, same mission as Sarnoski=== Other military achievements or events ===* Lincoln Broyhill (1925–2008), tail-gunner on a B-17 in the 483rd Bombardment Group.", "He received a Distinguished Unit Citation and set two individual records in a single day: (1) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner in one mission (two), and (2) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner during the entirety of World War II.", "* Allison C. Brooks (1917–2006), a B-17 pilot who was awarded numerous military decorations and was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and served in active duty until 1971.", "* 1st Lt Eugene Emond (1921–1998): Lead pilot for ''Man O War II Horsepower Limited''.", "Received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon.", "Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through his formation over Germany.", "One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces.", "* Immanuel J. Klette (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II.", "* Capt Colin Kelly (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action.", "* Col Frank Kurtz (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II.", "Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy.", "Clark Field Philippines attack survivor.", "Olympic bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945.Father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, herself named for the still-surviving B-17D mentioned above.", "* Gen Curtis LeMay (1906–1990): Became head of the Strategic Air Command and Chief of Staff of the USAF.", "* Lt Col Nancy Love (1914–1976) and Betty (Huyler) Gillies (1908–1998): The first women pilots to be certified to fly the B-17, in 1943 and to qualify for the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron.", "* SSgt Alan Magee (1919–2003): B-17 gunner who on 3 January 1943 survived a freefall after his aircraft was shot down by the Luftwaffe over St.", "Nazaire.", "* Col Robert K. Morgan (1918–2004): Pilot of ''Memphis Belle''.", "* Lt Col Robert Rosenthal (1917–2007): Commanded the only surviving B-17, ''Royal Flush'', of a US 8th Air Force raid by the 100th Bomb Group on Münster on 10 October 1943.Completed 53 missions.", "Earned sixteen medals for gallantry (including one each from Britain and France), and led the raid on Berlin on 3 February 1945, that is likely to have ended the life of Roland Freisler, the infamous \"hanging judge\" of the People's Court." ], [ "Specifications (B-17G)", "3-view projection of a B-17G, with inset detail showing the \"Cheyenne tail\" and some major differences with other B-17 variantsB-17G nose guns" ], [ "Notable appearances in media", "A Douglas Aircraft B-17 assembly line is featured in the 1944 drama ''An American Romance''.", "Hollywood featured the B-17 in its period films, such as director Howard Hawks' ''Air Force'' starring John Garfield and ''Twelve O'Clock High'' starring Gregory Peck.", "Both films were made with the full cooperation of the United States Army Air Forces and used USAAF aircraft and (for ''Twelve O'Clock High'') combat footage.", "In 1964, the latter film was made into a television show of the same name and ran for three years on ABC TV.", "Footage from ''Twelve O' Clock High'' was also used, along with three restored B-17s, in the 1962 film ''The War Lover''.", "An early model YB-17 also appeared in the 1938 film ''Test Pilot'' with Clark Gable and Spencer Tracy, and later with Clark Gable in ''Command Decision'' in 1948, in ''Tora!", "Tora!", "Tora!''", "in 1970, and in ''Memphis Belle'' with Matthew Modine, Eric Stoltz, Billy Zane, and Harry Connick Jr. in 1990.The most famous B-17, the ''Memphis Belle'', toured the U. S. with her crew to reinforce national morale (and to sell war bonds).", "She was featured in a USAAF documentary, ''Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress''.The Flying Fortress has also been featured in artistic works expressing the physical and psychological stress of the combat conditions and the high casualty rates that crews suffered.", "Works such as ''The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner'' by Randall Jarrell and ''Heavy Metal''s section \"B-17\" depict the nature of these missions.", "The Ball turret itself has inspired works like Steven Spielberg's ''The Mission''.", "Artists who served on the bomber units also created paintings and drawings depicting the combat conditions in World War II.", "\"Masters of the Air\", a 2024 American war drama television miniseries created by John Shiban and John Orloff, based on the 2007 book ''Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany'' by Donald L. Miller, follows the actions of the 100th Bomb Group, a B-17 unit in eastern England during World War II." ], [ "See also", "XT-34 turboprop.", "When testing concluded, the aircraft was restored to stock configuration as the \"Liberty Belle\", but was lost in a post-forced-landing fire near Oswego, Illinois, on 13 June 2011." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* Andrews, C.F.", "and E.B.", "Morgan.", "''Vickers Aircraft since 1908''.", "London: Putnam, 1988..* Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi.", "''Combat Aircraft of World War II, 1940–1941''.", "Westoning, Bedfordshire, UK: Military Press, 1988..* Arakaki, Leatrice R. and John R. Kuborn. ''", "1941: The Air Force Story''.", "Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii: Pacific Air Forces, Office of History, 1991..* Birdsall, Steve.", "''The B-24 Liberator''.", "New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1968..* Bowers, Peter M. ''Boeing Aircraft Since 1916''.", "London: Putnam, 1989..* Borth, Christy.", "''Masters of Mass Production''.", "Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945..* Bowers, Peter M. ''Fortress in the Sky'', Granada Hills, California: Sentry Books, 1976..* Bowman, Martin W. ''Castles in the Air: The Story of the B-17 Flying Fortress Crews of the U.S. 8th Air Force''.", "Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2000, .", "* * Caidin, Martin.", "''Black Thursday''.", "New York: E.P.", "Dutton & Company, 1960..* Caldwell, Donald and Richard Muller.", "''The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich''.", "London: Greenhill Books Publications, 2007..* Carey, Brian Todd.", "\"Operation Pointblank: Evolution of Allied Air Doctrine During World War II\".", "''historynet.com'', 12 June 2006.archived version 19 October 2014.", "* Chant, Christopher.", "''Warplanes of the 20th century''.", "London: Tiger Books International, 1996..* Cora, Paul B.", "''Diamondbacks Over Europe: B-17s of the 99th Bomb Group, Part Two''.", "''Air Enthusiast'' 111, May/June 2004, pp. 66–73.", "* Craven, Wesley Frank, James Lea Cate and Richard L. Watson, eds.", "\"The Battle of the Bismarck Sea\", pp.", "129–62; ''The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944'' (The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume IV.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950.", "* Donald, David, ed.", "''American Warplanes of World War Two''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995..* Donald, David.", "\"Boeing Model 299 (B-17 Flying Fortress).\"", "''The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''.", "Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada: Prospero Books, 1997..* Francillon, René J.", "''McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920''.", "London: Putnam, 1979..* Francillon, René J.", "''Lockheed Aircraft since 1913''.", "London: Putnam, 1982..* Freeman, Roger A.", "''B-17 Fortress at War''.", "New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977..* * Gamble, Bruce.", "''Fortress Rabaul: The Battle for the Southwest Pacific, January 1942 – April 1943''.", "Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2010..* * Gillison, Douglas.", "''Australia in the War of 1939–1945: Series 3 – Air'', Volume 1.Canberra, Australia: Australian War Memorial, 1962..* Gordon, Yefim.", "''Soviet Air Power in World War 2''.", "Hinckley, Lancashire, UK: Midland, Ian Allan Publishing, 2008..* Herman, Arthur.", "''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II'' New York: Random House, 2012..* Hess, William N. ''B-17 Flying Fortress: Combat and Development History of the Flying Fortress''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbook International, 1994..* Hess, William N. ''B-17 Flying Fortress Units of the MTO''.", "Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2003..* Hess, William N. ''Big Bombers of WWII''.", "Ann Arbor, Michigan: Lowe & B. Hould, 1998..* Hess, William N. and Jim Winchester.", "\"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress: Queen of the Skies\".", "''Wings of Fame''.", "Volume 6, 1997, pp.", "38–103.London: Aerospace Publishing.", ".", ".", "* Hoffman, Wally and Philippe Rouyer.", "''La guerre à 30 000 pieds''Available only in French.", "Louviers, France: Ysec Editions, 2008..* Jacobson, Capt.", "Richard S., ed.", "''Moresby to Manila Via Troop Carrier: True Story of 54th Troop Carrier Wing, the Third Tactical Arm of the U.S. Army, Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific''.", "Sydney, Australia: Angus and Robertson, 1945.", "* Johnsen, Frederick A.", "\"The Making of an Iconic Bomber\".", "''Air Force Magazine'', Volume 89, Issue 10, October 2006.Retrieved: 2012.", "* Knaack, Marcelle Size.", "''Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume II: Post-World War II Bombers, 1945–1973''.", "Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1988..***Listemann, Phil H. ''Allied Wings No.", "7, Boeing Fortress Mk.", "I''.", "www.raf-in-combat.com, 2009.First edition.", ".", "* Maurer, Maurer.", "''Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919–1939''.", "Washington, D.C.: United States Air Force Historical Research Center, Office of Air Force History, 1987, pp. 406–08..", "* * Parker, Dana T. ''Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II''.", "Cypress, California, Dana Parker Enterprises, 2013..* Parshall, Jonathon and Anthony Tulley.", "''Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway''.", "Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2005..* Ramsey, Winston G. ''The V-Weapons''.", "London, United Kingdom: ''After The Battle'', Number 6, 1974.", "* Roberts, Michael D. '' Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons: Volume 2: The History of VP, VPB, VP(HL) and VP(AM) Squadrons''.", "Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 2000.", "* Sakai, Saburo with Martin Caidin and Fred Saito.", "''Samurai!''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1996..* Salecker, Gene Eric.", "''Fortress Against The Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific''.", "Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing, 2001..* Serling, Robert J.", "''Legend & Legacy: The Story of Boeing and its People''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992..* Shores, Christopher, Brian Cull and Yasuho Izawa.", "''Bloody Shambles: Volume One: The Drift to War to The Fall of Singapore''.", "London: Grub Street, 1992..* Stitt, Robert M. ''Boeing B-17 Fortress in RAF Coastal Command Service''.", "Sandomierz, Poland: STRATUS sp.j., 2010 (second edition 2019).", ".", "* Swanborough, F. G. and Peter M. Bowers.", "''United States Military aircraft since 1909''.", "London: Putnam, 1963.", "* Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers.", "''United States Navy Aircraft since 1911''.", "London: Putnam, Second edition, 1976..* Tate, James P. ''The Army and its Air Corps: Army Policy toward Aviation 1919–1941''.", "Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, 1998.. Retrieved: 1 August 2008.", "* Trescott, Jacqueline.", "\"Smithsonian Panel Backs Transfer of Famed B-17 Bomber.\"", "''The Washington Post'' Volume 130, Issue 333, 3 November 2007.", "* Weigley, Russell Frank.", "''The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy''.", "Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977..* Wixley, Ken.", "\"Boeing's Battle Wagon: The B-17 Flying Fortress – An Outline History\".", "''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "78, November/December 1998, pp.", "20–33.Stamford, UK: Key Publishing.", ".", "* Wynn, Kenneth G. ''U-boat Operations of the Second World War: Career Histories, U511-UIT25''.", "Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1998..* Yenne, Bill.", "''B-17 at War''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2006..* Yenne, Bill.", "''The Story of the Boeing Company''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2005..* ; originally issued as an academic thesis ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Birdsall, Steve.", "''The B-17 Flying Fortress''.", "Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965..* * Davis, Larry.", "''B-17 in Action''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984..* Jablonski, Edward.", "''Flying Fortress''.", "New York: Doubleday, 1965..* Johnsen, Frederick A.", "''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''.", "Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 2001..* Gansz, David M. ''B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 4 January 1944 – 26 February 1944 B-17G-35 to G-45 42-31932 – 42-32116 and 42-97058 – 42-97407''.", "New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2020..* Gansz, David M. ''B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 26 February 1944 – 25 April 1944 B-17G-50 to G-60 42-102379 – 42-102978''.", "New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2013..* Gansz, David M. ''B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 25 April 1944 – 22 June 1944 B-17G-65 to G-75 43-37509 – 43-38073''.", "New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2017..* Lloyd, Alwyn T. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol.", "11: Derivatives, Part 2''.", "Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1983..* Lloyd, Alwyn T. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol.", "20: More derivatives, Part 3''.", "Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986..* Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore.", "''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol.", "1: Production Versions, Part 1''.", "Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1981..* O'Leary, Michael.", "''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress'' (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2).", "Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999..* * Thompson, Scott A.", "''Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress, The Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition''.", "Highland County, Ohio: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 2000..* Wagner, Ray, ''American Combat Planes of the 20th Century'', Reno, Nevada, 2004, Jack Bacon & Company, .", "* Willmott, H.P.", "''B-17 Flying Fortress''.", "London: Bison Books, 1980..* Wisker Thomas J.", "\"Talkback\".", "''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "10, July–September 1979, p. 79." ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Trieste (bathyscaphe)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Trieste''''' is a Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep-diving research bathyscaphe.", "In 1960, it became the first crewed vessel to reach the bottom of Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, the deepest point in Earth's seabed.", "The mission was the final goal for Project Nekton, a series of dives conducted by the United States Navy in the Pacific Ocean near Guam.", "The vessel was piloted by Swiss oceanographer Jacques Piccard and US Navy lieutenant Don Walsh.", "They reached a depth of about .The bathyscaphe was designed by Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, the father of pilot Jacques Piccard.", "It was built in Italy and first launched in 1953.The vessel was first owned and operated by the French Navy until it was purchased by the US Navy in 1958.It was taken out of service in 1966.Since the 1980s, it has been on exhibit in the National Museum of the United States Navy in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Design", "General arrangement, showing the key features''Trieste'' was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, based on his previous experience with the bathyscaphe ''FNRS-2''.", "The term bathyscaphe refers to its capacity to dive and manoeuvre untethered to a ship in contrast to a bathysphere, ''bathys'' being ancient Greek meaning \"deep\" and ''scaphe'' being a light, bowl-shaped boat.Built in Italy and launched on 26 August 1953 near the Isle of Capri on the Mediterranean Sea it was operated in the Mediterranean by the French Navy for several years until it was purchased by the United States Navy in 1958 for US$250,000, equivalent to $ million today.", "''Trieste'' consisted of a heavy crew sphere suspended from a hull containing tanks filled with gasoline (petrol) for buoyancy, ballast hoppers filled with iron shot and floodable water tanks to sink.", "This general configuration remained the same but after modifications to the hull for Project Nekton, which included the dive to Challenger Deep, ''Trieste'' was more than long.The hull was built by Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico, in the Free Territory of Trieste on the border between Italy and Yugoslavia, now in Italy, hence the name.", "The pressure sphere was built separately and installed on the hull in the Cantiere navale di Castellammare di Stabia, near Naples.Pressure sphere, with forward ballast hopper, leftThe pressure sphere was attached to the underside of the hull and accommodated two crew who accessed it via a vertical shaft through the hull; this access shaft was not pressurized and flooded with seawater on descent.", "The sphere was completely self-contained, having a closed-circuit rebreather system with oxygen provided from cylinders while carbon dioxide was scrubbed from the air by being passed through canisters of soda-lime.", "Batteries provided electrical power.Piccard's original pressure sphere was built by Acciaierie, Terni of steel forged in two hemispheres and welded to form a sphere in diameter and thick, This pressure sphere was replaced in December 1958 with another cast by the Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany in three sections; an equatorial ring and two caps, which were finely machined and joined by the Ateliers de Constructions Mécaniques de Vevey.", "The new sphere was also steel, but smaller at diameter and with thicker walls, at , calculated to withstand the pressure at the bottom of Challenger Deep plus a substantial factor of safety.", "The new sphere weighed in air and in water giving it an average specific gravity 2.6 times (or 1.6 times greater than) that of seawater (13÷(13−8)).Outside observations by the crew were made through a porthole made from a single, tapered block of acrylic glass; the only transparent material available that could withstand the pressure.", "Outside illumination was by quartz arc-light bulbs, which could withstand the pressure without modification.Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard aboard ''Trieste''The buoyancy tanks were filled with gasoline, which floats in water and is similarly incompressible.", "Changes in the volume of the gasoline caused by any slight compression or temperature changes were accommodated by the free flow of seawater into and out of the bottom of the tanks during a dive via valves, equalising the pressure and allowing them to be lightly built.Ballast was held in two conical hoppers fore and aft of the crew sphere each containing of iron shot.", "This shot ballast allowed the craft to sink, and its release caused it to ascend.", "The iron shot was locked in place at the throats of the hoppers by electromagnets and was released either by switching the electromagnets off or in the event of an electrical failure.", "Progressive release allowed buoyancy trim.", "Compressed-air–driven variable-buoyancy pressure vessels typically used in submarines are not feasible at extreme pressure.Water tanks at each end of the hull were pumped out for flotation, lifting, and towing on the surface and fully flooded to allow sinking.Following its acquisition by the United States Navy, ''Trieste'' was modified extensively by the Naval Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, California, tested in the Pacific Ocean over the next few years, and culminated in a dive to the bottom of Challenger Deep 23 January 1960." ], [ "The Mariana Trench dives", "USS ''Lewis''''Trieste'' departed San Diego on 5 October 1959 for Guam aboard the freighter ''Santa Maria'' to participate in ''Project Nekton'', a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench.On 23 January 1960, it reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh.", "This was the first time a vessel, crewed or uncrewed, had reached the deepest known point of the Earth's oceans.", "The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was revised later to ; fairly recently, more accurate measurements have found Challenger Deep to be between and deep.The descent to the ocean floor took 4 hours 47 minutes at a descent rate of .", "After passing , one of the outer Plexiglas window panes cracked, shaking the entire vessel.", "The two men spent twenty minutes on the ocean floor.", "The temperature in the cabin was 7 °C (45 °F) at the time.", "While at maximum depth, Piccard and Walsh unexpectedly regained the ability to communicate with the support ship, USS ''Wandank'' (ATA-204), using a sonar/hydrophone voice communications system.", "At a speed of almost – about five times the speed of sound in air – it took about seven seconds for a voice message to travel from the craft to the support ship and another seven seconds for answers to return.While at the bottom, Piccard and Walsh reported observing a number of sole and flounder (both flatfish).", "The accuracy of this observation has later been questioned and recent authorities do not recognize it as valid.", "The theoretical maximum depth for fish is at about , beyond which they would become hyperosmotic.", "Invertebrates such as sea cucumbers, some of which potentially could be mistaken for flatfish, have been confirmed at depths of and more.", "Walsh later said that their original observation could be mistaken as their knowledge of biology was limited.", "Piccard and Walsh noted that the floor of the Challenger Deep consisted of \"diatomaceous ooze\".", "The ascent took 3 hours and 15 minutes.", "The National Museum of the Navy commemorated the 60th anniversary of the dive in January 2020." ], [ "Other deep dives and retirement", "The ''Trieste'' at the National Museum of the United States NavyThe ''Trieste'' performed a number of deep dives in the Mediterranean prior to being purchased by the U.S. Navy in 1958.It conducted 48 dives exceeding between 1953 and 1957 as the ''Batiscafo Trieste''.Beginning in April 1963, ''Trieste'' was modified and used in the Atlantic Ocean to search for the missing nuclear submarine .", "''Trieste'' was delivered to Boston Harbor by USS ''Point Defiance'' (LSD-31) under the command of Captain H. H. Haisten.", "In August 1963, ''Trieste'' found debris of the wreck off the coast of New England, below the surface after several dives.", "''Trieste'''s participation in the search earned it the Navy Unit Commendation.Following the mission, ''Trieste'' was returned to San Diego and taken out of service in 1966.Between 1964 and 1966, ''Trieste'' was used to develop its replacement, the ''Trieste II'', with the original Terni pressure sphere reincorporated in its successor.", "In early 1980, it was transported to the Washington Navy Yard where it remains on exhibit today in the National Museum of the U.S. Navy, along with the Krupp pressure sphere." ], [ "Awards", "*Navy Unit Citation with star*Meritorious Unit Commendation with star*Navy E Ribbon*National Defense Service Medal with star" ], [ "See also", "* Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle* Deep Submergence Vehicle* ''Alvin'' (DSV-2)* Project Mohole* MIR (submersible)" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", "***" ], [ "External links", "* The Bathyscaph ''Trieste'' Celebrates the 50th Anniversary of the World's Deepest Dive* Dives of the Bathyscaph ''Trieste'' – dictabelt recordings (pdf, p. 38) * 50th anniversary recollection by retired Navy Captain Don Walsh.", "* 2008 obituary of diver Jaques Piccard* Trieste Program Dive Log from the Collection of the Naval Undersea Museum* The Bathyscaph Trieste Technical and Operational Aspects, 1958–1961 by LT Don Walsh, US Navy Electronics Laboratory* Conservation of the Trieste submarine at the National Museum of the United States Navy" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Bouvines" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Bouvines''' was fought on 27 July 1214 near the town of Bouvines in the County of Flanders.", "It was the concluding battle of the Anglo-French War of 1213–1214.Although estimates on the number of troops vary considerably among modern historians, at Bouvines, a French army commanded by King Philip Augustus routed a larger allied army led by Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV in one of the rare pitched battles of the High Middle Ages and one of the most decisive medieval engagements.In early 1214, a coalition was assembled against King Philip Augustus of France, consisting of Otto IV, King John of England, Count Ferrand of Flanders, Count Renaud of Boulogne, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg.", "Its objective was to reverse the conquests made by Philip earlier in his reign.After initial manoeuvring in late July, battle was offered near Bouvines on 27 July.", "The long allied column deployed slowly into battle order, leaving the allies at a disadvantage.", "The superior discipline and training of the French knights allowed them to carry out a series of devastating charges, shattering the Flemish knights on the allied left wing.", "In the centre, the allied knights and infantry under Otto enjoyed initial success, scattering the French urban infantry and nearly killing Philip.", "A counterattack by French knights smashed the isolated Allied infantry and Otto's entire centre division fell back.", "Otto fled the battle and his knightly followers were defeated by the French knights, who went on to capture the Imperial eagle standard.", "With the allied centre and left wing routed, only the soldiers of the right wing under Renaud of Boulogne and William de Longespee held on.", "They were killed, captured or driven from the field.", "A pursuit was not conducted as it was nearly dark.The crushing French victory dashed English and Flemish hopes of regaining their lost territories.", "Having lost all credibility as emperor following the battle, Otto IV was deposed by Pope Innocent III, leading to Frederick II's accession to the Imperial throne.", "King John was compelled to hand over Anjou, the ancient patrimony of the Angevin kings of England, to Philip in a peace settlement.", "This confirmed the collapse of the Angevin Empire.", "The disaster at Bouvines forever altered the political situation in England, as John was so weakened that his discontented barons forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215.Counts Ferrand, Renaud and Longespee were captured and imprisoned.", "The balance of power shifted, with the popes of the 13th century increasingly seeking the support of a powerful France.", "Philip had achieved remarkable success in the expansion of his realm and by the end of his reign, in 1223, had not only laid the foundations for the era of Capetian pre-eminence in Europe which followed and marked much of the Late Middle Ages, but also those of the absolutism that came to define the Ancien Régime." ], [ "Prelude", "In 1214, Ferdinand, Infante of Portugal and Count of Flanders, desired the return of the cities of Aire-sur-la-Lys and Saint-Omer, which he had recently lost to Philip II, King of France, in the Treaty of Pont-à-Vendin.", "He thus broke allegiance with Philip and assembled a broad coalition including Emperor Otto IV, King John of England, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg.The campaign was planned by John, who was the fulcrum of the alliance; his plan was to draw the French away from Paris southward towards his forces and keep them occupied, while the main army, under Emperor Otto IV, marched on Paris from the north.", "John's plan was followed initially, but the Allies in the north moved slowly.", "John, after two encounters with the French, retreated to Aquitaine on 3 July.On 23 July, having summoned his vassals, Philip had an army consisting of 6,000 to 8,000 soldiers.", "The Emperor finally succeeded in concentrating his forces at Valenciennes, although this did not include John, and in the interval Philip had counter-marched northward and regrouped.", "Philip now took the offensive himself, and after manoeuvring to obtain good ground for his cavalry he offered battle on 27 July, on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque.Otto was surprised by the speed of his enemy and was thought to have been caught unprepared by Philip, who probably deliberately lured Otto into his trap.", "Otto decided to launch an attack on what was then the French rearguard.The Allied army drew up facing south-west towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the centre, supported by a cavalry corps under Otto himself.", "The French army formed up opposite in a similar formation, cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the town militias, in the centre.", "Philip, with the cavalry reserve and the royal standard, the Oriflamme, positioned himself to the rear of the men on foot.", "It is said by William the Breton, chaplain to Philip at the battle, that the soldiers stood in line in a space of 40,000 steps (), which leaves very little clearance and predisposes to hand-to-hand fighting.", "William the Breton also says in his chronicle that \"the two lines of combatants were separated by a small space\"." ], [ "Order of battle", "===French===Pre-battle dispositions.The French army contained 1,200–1,360 knights (of whom 765 were from the royal demesne) and 300 mounted sergeants.", "Philip had launched an appeal to the municipalities in northern France, in order to obtain their support.16 of the 39 municipalities of the royal demesne answered the call to arms.", "They provided 3,160 infantry, broken down as:Amiens 250,Arras 1000,Beauvais 500,Compiegne 200,Corbie 200,Bruyeres 120,Cerny and Crepy-en-Laonnais 80,Crandelain 40,Hesdin 80,Montreuil-sur-Mer 150,Noyon 150,Roye 100,Soissons 160, andVailly 50.The balance of the infantry, possibly another 2,000 men, were composed of mercenaries.", "The other communes of the royal demesne were supposed to provide a further 1,980 infantry, but it is doubtful that they did.In total, the royal army totalled approximately 6,000–7,000 men.", "The royal standard bearer of the Fleur-de-lis was Galore of Montigny.The royal army was divided into three parts, or \"battles\":* The right wing, composed of the knights of Champagne and Burgundy, was commanded by Eudes, Duke of Burgundy, and his lieutenants: Gaucher of Châtillon, Count of Saint-Pol, Count Guillaume I de Sancerre, Count de Beaumont, Mathieu of Montmorency and Adam II Viscount of Melun.", "In the front of the right wing were men-at-arms and militia from Burgundy, Champagne, and Picardy led by 150 mounted sergeants from Soissons.", "* The central battle was led by Philip Augustus and his chief knights – Guillaume des Barres, Bartholomé de Roye, Girard Scophe, Guillaume de Garland, Enguerrand of Coucy and Gautier of Nemours.", "In front of the king and his 175 knights were 2,150 infantry from the towns of the Île de France and Normandy.", "* The left wing was led by Robert of Dreux, supported by Count William of Ponthieu.", "The main body of the left wing consisted of Bretons and militia from Dreux, Perche, Ponthieu, and Vimeux.", "* The bridge of Bouvines, the only means of retreat across the marshes, was guarded by 150 sergeants-at-arms, who also formed the French reserve.===Allied===Otto's army contained some 1,300–1,500 knights: 600–650 Flemish, 425–500 Hainaulter and 275–350 from elsewhere.", "He also fielded approximately 7,500 infantry, to give a total force of just under 9,000 men.", "The imperial army was also formed up in three battles:* The left flank, under the command of Ferrand of Flanders with his Flemish knights – directed by Arnaud of Oudenaarde.", "The infantry were from Flanders and Hainaut.", "* The centre was under the command of Otto and of Theobald, Duke of Lorraine, Henry, Duke of Brabant, and Philip Courtenay, Marquis of Namur.", "It included many Saxons and infantry from Brabant and Germany.", "In the front of the battle stood German pike phalanxes.", "Saxon infantry formed the second line.", "Otto stood between these with 50 German knights.", "* The right flank, under the command of Renaud de Dammartin, included Brabant infantry and English knights, the latter under the command of the Earl of Salisbury, William Longespée.", "* On the extreme right, English archers supported the flank of both the Brabant infantry and the nobles of the two Lorraines (i.e.", "of the Duchy of Lorraine and the County of Bar)." ], [ "Battle", "===Allied left===The capture of Ferdinand, Count of Flanders in an illustration of the battle made around 1330.The battle opened with an attack by 150 light cavalrymen from the Abbey of Saint-Médard de Soissons against the Flemish knights on the allied left, aiming to throw it into confusion.", "The Flemish knights easily drove off the unarmoured horsemen.", "Some Flemish knights left their formations and chased the retreating light cavalry.", "180 French knights from Champagne in turn attacked and killed or captured the over-aggressive Flemish knights.", "The Count of Flanders counter-attacked with his entire force of 600 knights and threw the French back.Gaucher de Châtillon launched his 30 knights at the Flemish force, followed by a further 250 knights.", "They carried out a continuous series of charges, and halted the allied advance.", "Many knights on both sides fell from their horses in the first clash.", "The French were better ordered than the more loosely formed Flemish knights, and the Allied ranks grew thinner as they were assaulted by the compact French masses.", "Châtillon and Melun with their knights broke through the ranks of their Flemish counterparts, then wheeled and struck them from the rear, constantly switching targets.", "St. Pol's knights and the Burgundians engaged in an exhausting struggle against the Flemings, taking no prisoners.", "The Duke of Burgundy's horse was killed and the Duke thrown to the ground, but he was saved by his knights, who beat off the Flemish and found him a fresh horse.The Flemings fought on for three hours despite their increasingly desperate situation, driven by knightly honour.", "Finally, the wounded and unhorsed Count of Flanders was captured by two French knights, triggering the collapse of his knights' morale.===Centre===King Philip unhorsed (shown wearing crown at left) and Hugh de Boves at right fleeing the Battle of Bouvines, from the ''Chronica Majora'', c. 1250, written and illustrated by Matthew Paris.The French urban militia infantry, 2,150 strong, were gathered under the Oriflamme in the centre, in front of Philip's knights and the ''fleur-de-lis'' standard.", "Soon after deploying, they were attacked by Allied knights and infantry under Otto and thrown back.", "Otto and his knights had nearly reached the French king when they were halted by French knights.", "The allied infantrymen broke through to Philip and his handful of knightly companions, unhorsing him with their hooked pikes.", "The French king's armour deflected an enemy lance and saved his life.", "Gales de Montigny used the royal standard to signal for help and another knight gave Philip a fresh horse.The allied infantry used daggers to stab unhorsed French knights through the openings in their helmets and other weak spots in their armour.", "The Norman knight Etienne de Longchamp was killed in this way and the French suffered heavy losses.", "After repeated French counterattacks and a prolonged fight the Allies were thrown back.The battle in the centre was now a mêlée between the two mounted reserves led by the King and the Emperor in person.", "The French knight Pierre Mauvoisin nearly captured Otto and his horse and Gérard la Truie stabbed the Emperor with a dagger, which bounced off his coat of mail and struck Otto's horse in the eye, killing it.", "Otto was saved by four German lords and their followers.", "As the French sent more knights to attack him personally he fled the field.", "The German knights fought to the bitter end to save their emperor, all being killed or captured.", "The Imperial Standard with the eagle and dragon was captured by the French knights, who brought it to their king.", "By this time, Allied resistance in the centre had ceased.===Allied right===Meanwhile, on the French left Robert de Dreux's troops were at first pressed by men led by William Longespée.", "William Longespée was unhorsed and taken prisoner by Philip of Dreux, the Bishop of Beauvais, and the English soldiers fled.", "Mathieu de Montmorency captured twelve enemy Imperial banners.", "(In memory of this feat, the shield of Montmorency includes an additional twelve eagles or sixteen altogether instead of the previous four.", ")===Last stand===Ferrand of Flanders and Renaud of Boulogne being conveyed as prisoners to Paris (from the ''Grandes Chroniques de France'', c. 1375–1380).", "Ferrand was released in 1227 and died soon after of a disease contracted in prison.", "Renaud was kept in chains and committed suicide in 1227.The day was already decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre.", "The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne (Renaud de Dammartin), a former vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of 400–700 Brabançon pikemen.", "They defied every attack by the French cavalry, while Reginald made repeated sorties with his small force of knights.", "Eventually, long after the Imperial army had retreated, the Brabant schiltrom was overrun by a charge of 50 knights and 1,000–2,000 infantry under Thomas de St. Valery.", "Reginald was taken prisoner in the melee.", "A pursuit was not conducted owing to the approaching nightfall and a fear that the prisoners might escape.", "The French formations were recalled using trumpets." ], [ "Aftermath", "''France victorious at Bouvines'', allegorical painting by Merry-Joseph Blondel, 1828, in the decoration of the LouvreThe French cavalry had 2 knights killed; the French infantry casualties are not recorded.", "The Allies had 169 knights killed and \"heavy\" but unquantified losses among the infantry; including between 400 and 700 Brabant infantry killed.", "As well as Reginald of Boulogne two other counts were captured by the French, Hainaut Ferrand and William Longespée, as well as twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights.The battle ended the threat from both Otto and John.", "According to Jean Favier, Bouvines is \"one of the most decisive and symbolic battles in the history of France\".", "For Philippe Contamine \"the Battle of Bouvines had both important consequences and a great impact\".", "Ferdinand Lot called it a \"medieval Austerlitz\".Philip returned to Paris triumphant, marching his captive prisoners behind him in a long procession, as his subjects lined the streets to greet the victorious king.", "In the aftermath of the battle, Otto retreated to his castle of Harzburg and was soon overthrown as Holy Roman Emperor by Frederick II, who had already been recognised as emperor in the south a year and a half earlier.", "Count Ferdinand remained imprisoned following his defeat, while King John obtained a five-year truce, on very lenient terms given the circumstances.A detail of one of the stained-glass windows installed in the parish church of Bouvines in 1914Philip's decisive victory was crucial to the political situation in England.", "The battle ended all hope of a restoration of the Angevin Empire.", "So weakened was the defeated King John that he soon needed to submit to his barons' demands and agree to Magna Carta in 1215, limiting the power of the crown and establishing the basis for common law." ], [ "Commemoration", "In thanksgiving for the victory, Philip Augustus founded the Abbey of Notre Dame de la Victoire, between Senlis and Mont l'Evêque.", "In 1914, to mark the seventh centenary, Félix Dehau had the parish church of Bouvines rebuilt with a number of stained-glass windows representing the history of the battle.", "In 2014, the eighth centenary was commemorated in Bouvines by an association called Bouvines 2014.A series of events, including an official ceremony and a show called \"Bouvines la Bataille\", attracted more than 6,000 viewers in Bouvines." ], [ "See also", "Anglo-French Wars" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Historical accounts" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Actium" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Actium''' was a naval battle fought between Octavian's maritime fleet, led by Marcus Agrippa, and the combined fleets of both Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII Philopator.", "The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC in the Ionian Sea, near the former Roman colony of Actium, Greece, and was the climax of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony.In early 31 BC, the year of the battle, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece.", "Mark Antony possessed 500 ships and 70,000 infantry, and made his camp at Actium, and Octavian, with 400 ships and 80,000 infantry, arrived from the north and occupied Patrae and Corinth, where he managed to cut Antony's southward communications with Egypt (via the Peloponnese) with help from Marcus Agrippa.", "Octavian previously gained a preliminary victory in Greece, where his navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Marcus Agrippa.", "Octavian landed on mainland Greece, opposite of the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and proceeded south, on land.Trapped on both land and sea, portions of Antony's army deserted and fled to Octavian's side (daily), and Octavian's forces became comfortable enough to make preparations for battle.", "Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade.", "It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more manoeuvrable ships under commanders Gaius Sosius and Agrippa.", "Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.", "Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions.", "He adopted the title of Princeps (\"first citizen\"), and in 27 BC was awarded the title of Augustus (\"revered\") by the Roman Senate.", "This became the name by which he was known in later times.", "As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire." ], [ "Background", "A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BCRoman bust of the consul and triumvir Mark Antony, Vatican MuseumsThe alliance among Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus, commonly known as the Second Triumvirate, was renewed for a five-year term at Tarentum in 37 BC.", "However, the triumvirate broke down when Octavian saw Caesarion, the professed son of Julius Caesar and Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, as a major threat to his power.", "This occurred when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of the triumvirate, abandoned his wife, Octavian's sister Octavia Minor.", "Afterward he moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, becoming Caesarion's ''de facto'' stepfather.", "Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate saw Antony as leading a separatist movement that threatened to break the Roman Republic's unity.Ballistae on a Roman shipOctavian's prestige and, more importantly, his legions' loyalty had been boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which he was officially adopted as Caesar's only son and the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth.", "Antony had been the most important and most successful senior officer in Caesar's army (''magister equitum'') and, thanks to his military record, claimed a substantial share of the political support of Caesar's soldiers and veterans.", "Both Octavian and Antony had fought against their common enemies in the Liberators' civil war that followed the assassination of Caesar.After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Antony started to act independently, eventually arousing his rival's suspicion that he was vying to become sole master of Rome.", "When he left Octavia Minor and moved to Alexandria to become Cleopatra's official partner, many Roman politicians suspected that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the East.", "As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him.", "Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated Caesarion, then 13, to power in 34 BC, giving him the title \"King of the Kings\" (Donations of Alexandria).", "Such an entitlement was seen as a threat to Roman republican traditions.", "It was widely believed that Antony had once offered Caesarion a diadem.", "Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome and asserting that he intended to establish a monarchy over the Roman Empire on Caesarion's behalf, circumventing the Roman Senate.", "It was also said that Antony intended to move the imperial capital to Alexandria.As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed.", "He hoped that it might regard him as its champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner.", "The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been accumulating.", "Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus, in taking over the countries held by Sextus Pompeius and in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him.", "Octavian complained that Antony had no authority to be in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; and that his connection with Cleopatra and acknowledgement of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself.In 32 BC, one-third of the Senate and both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, allied with Antony.", "The consuls had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands.", "Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet, but on 1 January Sosius made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed the confirmation of his act had it not been vetoed by a tribune.", "Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply that provoked both consuls to leave Rome to join Antony; Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, went at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion.", "After staying with his allies at Samos, Antony moved to Athens.", "His land forces, which had been in Armenia, came down to the coast of Asia and embarked under Publius Canidius Crassus.Octavian kept up his strategic preparations.", "Military operations began in 32 BC, when his general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony.", "But by the publication of Antony's will, which Lucius Munatius Plancus had put into Octavian's hands, and by carefully letting it be known in Rome what preparations were going on at Samos and how Antony was effectively acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31 BC, for which Antony had been designated.", "In addition to the deposition, Octavian procured a proclamation of war against Cleopatra.", "This was well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named.", "In issuing a war declaration, the Senate deprived Antony of any legal authority." ], [ "Battle", "Antony initially planned to anticipate an attack by descent upon Italy toward the end of 32 BC; he went as far as Corcyra.", "Finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, Antony retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet for the most part lay in the Ambracian Gulf, and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops.After Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony were scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the struggle the next year.", "The early months passed without any notable events, other than some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece, primarily designed to divert Antony's attention.", "In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait.", "Still, Antony could not be tempted out.", "It took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered.", "During these months Agrippa continued his attacks upon Greek towns along the coast, while Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes, so that Antony abandoned the strait's north side between the Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the southern camp.", "Cleopatra now advised that garrisons be put into strong towns and that the main fleet return to Alexandria.", "The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony, and it appears that this movement was agreed to.Octavian learned of this and debated how to prevent it.", "At first of a mind to let Antony sail and then attack him, he was prevailed upon by Agrippa to give battle.", "On 1 September he addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle.", "The next day was wet and the sea was rough.", "When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and remained quiet.", "Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships.", "For fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack.===Order of battle===Order of battle.The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium on the morning of 2 September.", "Antony's fleet had 250 larger galleys, with towers full of armed men.", "He led them through the straits towards the open sea.", "Octavian's fleet had 400 galleys.", "His fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius the centre and Marcus Lurius the right.", "Titus Statilius Taurus commanded Octavian's armies, and observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits.", "Antony and Lucius Gellius Poplicola commanded the Antonian fleet's right wing, Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, while Gaius Sosius commanded the left wing; Cleopatra's squadron was behind them.", "Sosius launched the initial attack from the fleet's left wing while Antony's chief lieutenant Publius Canidius Crassus commanded the triumvir's land forces.Pelling notes that the presence of two former consuls on Antony's side commanding the wings indicates that it was there that the major action was expected to take place.", "Octavius and Insteius, commanding Antony's centre, were lower-profile figures.===Combat===Plan of the battle by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, Paris, 1734It is estimated that Antony had around 140 ships, to Octavian's 260.Antony had shown up to Actium with a much larger force of around 500 ships, but could not man all of them.", "The problem facing Antony was desertion.", "Plutarch and Dio speak of how desertion and disease plagued Antony's camp.", "What Antony lacked in quantity was made up for in quality: his ships were mainly the standard Roman warship, quinqueremes with smaller quadriremes, heavier and wider than Octavian's, making them ideal weapon platforms, however, due to their larger size they were less manoeuvrable than Octavian's ships.", "Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals', was a \"ten\".", "An \"eight\" war galley had around 200 heavy marines, archers and at least six ballista catapults.", "Larger than Octavian's ships, Antony's war galleys were very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower ships.", "The harpax, Agrippa's device made for grappling and boarding enemy ships, made this task a bit easier.", "The galleys' bows were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult.", "The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet.", "Antony's ships' main weakness was lack of manoeuvrability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks.", "Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been a severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive.Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller \"Liburnian\" vessels.", "His ships, though smaller, were still manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat.", "Moreover, his crews were better-trained, professional, well-fed and rested.", "A medium ballista could penetrate the sides of most warships at close range and had an effective range of around 200 yards.", "Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the ships' fighting decks.Before the battle one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans.Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy.", "Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea.", "Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range.", "By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to attack.", "The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result.Cleopatra's fleet, in the rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging.", "A breeze sprang up in the right direction and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight.", "Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat.Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed the fleeing squadron.", "The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by the board.", "Some fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was the work done.", "Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering the remainder tightly together.", "With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible.", "Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines.", "Those left behind were captured or sunk.J.", "M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle.", "He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run.", "To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety.", "Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore.", "Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation.", "Eventually Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack.", "He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships, which until this point were tightly arranged.", "He sent Sosius to spread the remaining ships to the south.", "This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation.", "Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force.With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on board.", "The next day, as much of the land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war.===Alternative theories===Scientists researching the \"dead water\" phenomenon are investigating whether the Egyptian fleet may have been trapped in dead water, which can substantially reduce the speed of a ship." ], [ "Aftermath", "Roman statue of Cleopatra wearing a diadem and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, marble, found near the Tomba di Nerone, Rome along the Via Cassia, Museo Pio-ClementinoThe battle had extensive political consequences.", "Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle.", "Thus, after Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to Octavian's, deserted.", "Though he had not laid down his imperium, Antony was a fugitive and a rebel without that shadow of a legal position the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year.", "Some of the victorious fleet went in pursuit of him, but Octavian visited Greece and Asia and spent the winter at Samos, though he had to briefly visit Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land.At Samos Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favor of her sons.", "She was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his triumph.", "Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides.", "Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium and Octavian landed at Pelusium, with the connivance, it was believed, of Cleopatra.", "Antony was defeated by Gallus and, returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium.Despite a minor victory at Alexandria on 31 July 30 BC, more of Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian.", "A slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten.", "Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in the stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumours propagated by Cleopatra claiming that she had committed suicide.", "He did not die at once, and when he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, he insisted on being taken to the mausoleum where she was hiding and died in her arms.", "She was soon brought to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity.Cleopatra killed herself on 12 August 30 BC.", "Most accounts say she put an end to her life by the bite of an asp conveyed to her in a basket of figs.", "Octavian had Caesarion killed later that month, finally securing his legacy as Caesar's only 'son', while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son.", "Octavian admired the bravery of Cleopatra and gave her and Antony a public military funeral in Rome.", "The funeral was grand and a few of Antony's legions marched alongside the tomb.", "A day of mourning throughout Rome was enacted.", "This was partly due to Octavian's respect for Antony and partly because it further helped show the Roman people how benevolent Octavian was.", "Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.", "Further, after the battle, upon Octavian's return to Rome he celebrated his triple triumph spread over three days: the first for his victory over Illyria, the second for the Battle of Actium, and the third for his conquest of Egypt.Terrace wall of Octavian's campsite memorial, with cuttings for ship's ramsOctavian's victory at Actium gave him sole, uncontested control of \"Mare Nostrum\" (\"Our Sea\", i.e., the Roman Mediterranean) and he became \"Augustus Caesar\" and the \"first citizen\" of Rome.", "The victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked Rome's transition from republic to empire.", "Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked the demise of both the Hellenistic Period and the Ptolemaic Kingdom, turning it into a Roman province.To commemorate his victory, Octavian founded the nearby city of Nicopolis (\"City of Victory\") in 29 BC on the southernmost promontory of Epirus, opposite Actium at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf.", "On a hill just north of the new city, at the site where he had made his camp in 31 BC, he constructed a victory monument decorated with the bronze ''rostra'' (rams) taken from the captured warships of Antony's fleet." ], [ "See also", "* Altar of Victory* ''Antony and Cleopatra''* Nicopolis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * '''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Military Heritage published a feature about the Battle of Actium (Joseph M. Horodyski, August 2005, Volume 7, No.", "1, pp.", "58–63, 78), .", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Actium Project* The Naval Battle of Actium * Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 50" ] ]

[ [ "Zebrafish" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''zebrafish''' ('''''Danio rerio''''') is a freshwater fish belonging to the minnow family (Cyprinidae) of the order Cypriniformes.", "Native to India and South Asia, it is a popular aquarium fish, frequently sold under the trade name '''zebra danio''' (and thus often called a \"tropical fish\" although both tropical and subtropical).", "It is also found in private ponds.The zebrafish is an important and widely used vertebrate model organism in scientific research.", "Zebrafish has been used for biomedicine and developmental biology.", "The species is used for studies, such as neurobehavioral phenomena.", "It is also used for psychological reasons such as abuse, cognitive, and affective disorders.", "The species are used to study and observe behavioral research." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The zebrafish is a derived member of the genus ''Brachydanio'', of the family Cyprinidae.", "It has a sister-group relationship with ''Danio aesculapii''.", "Zebrafish are also closely related to the genus ''Devario'', as demonstrated by a phylogenetic tree of close species." ], [ "Distribution", "=== Range ===The zebrafish is native to freshwater habitats in South Asia where it is found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan.", "The northern limit is in the South Himalayas, ranging from the Sutlej river basin in the Pakistan–India border region to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in northeast Indian.", "Its range is concentrated in the Ganges and Brahmaputra River basins, and the species was first described from Kosi River (lower Ganges basin) of India.", "Its range further south is more local, with scattered records from the Western and Eastern Ghats regions.", "It has frequently been said to occur in Myanmar (Burma), but this is entirely based on pre-1930 records and likely refers to close relatives only described later, notably ''Danio kyathit''.", "Likewise, old records from Sri Lanka are highly questionable and remain unconfirmed.Zebrafish have been introduced to California, Connecticut, Florida and New Mexico in the United States, presumably by deliberate release by aquarists or by escape from fish farms.", "The New Mexico population had been extirpated by 2003 and it is unclear if the others survive, as the last published records were decades ago.", "Elsewhere the species has been introduced to Colombia and Malaysia.=== Habitats ===Zebrafish typically inhabit moderately flowing to stagnant clear water of quite shallow depth in streams, canals, ditches, oxbow lakes, ponds and rice paddies.", "There is usually some vegetation, either submerged or overhanging from the banks, and the bottom is sandy, muddy or silty, often mixed with pebbles or gravel.", "In surveys of zebrafish locations throughout much of its Bangladeshi and Indian distribution, the water had a near-neutral to somewhat basic pH and mostly ranged from in temperature.", "One unusually cold site was only and another unusually warm site was , but the zebrafish still appeared healthy.", "The unusually cold temperature was at one of the highest known zebrafish locations at above sea level, although the species has been recorded to ." ], [ "Description", "The zebrafish is named for the five uniform, pigmented, horizontal, blue stripes on the side of the body, which are reminiscent of a zebra's stripes, and which extend to the end of the caudal fin.", "Its shape is fusiform and laterally compressed, with its mouth directed upwards.", "The male is torpedo-shaped, with gold stripes between the blue stripes; the female has a larger, whitish belly and silver stripes instead of gold.", "Adult females exhibit a small genital papilla in front of the anal fin origin.", "The zebrafish can reach up to in length, although they typically are in the wild with some variations depending on location.", "Its lifespan in captivity is around two to three years, although in ideal conditions, this may be extended to over five years.", "In the wild it is typically an annual species." ], [ "Psychology", "In 2015, a study was published about zebrafishes' capacity for episodic memory.", "The individuals showed a capacity to remember context with respect to objects, locations and occasions (what, when, where).", "Episodic memory is a capacity of explicit memory systems, typically associated with conscious experience.The Mauthner cells integrate a wide array of sensory stimuli to produce the escape reflex.", "Those stimuli are found to include the lateral line signals by McHenry et al.", "2009 and visual signals consistent with looming objects by Temizer et al.", "2015, Dunn et al.", "2016, and Yao et al.", "2016." ], [ "Reproduction", "Stages of zebrafish development.", "Photos to scale except adult, which is about long.The approximate generation time for ''Danio rerio'' is three months.", "A male must be present for ovulation and spawning to occur.", "Zebrafish are asynchronous spawners and under optimal conditions (such as food availability and favorable water parameters) can spawn successfully frequently, even on a daily basis.", "Females are able to spawn at intervals of two to three days, laying hundreds of eggs in each clutch.", "Upon release, embryonic development begins; in absence of sperm, growth stops after the first few cell divisions.", "Fertilized eggs almost immediately become transparent, a characteristic that makes ''D.", "rerio'' a convenient research model species.", "Sex determination of common laboratory strains was shown to be a complex genetic trait, rather than to follow a simple ZW or XY system.The zebrafish embryo develops rapidly, with precursors to all major organs appearing within 36 hours of fertilization.", "The embryo begins as a yolk with a single enormous cell on top (see image, 0 h panel), which divides into two (0.75 h panel) and continues dividing until there are thousands of small cells (3.25 h panel).", "The cells then migrate down the sides of the yolk (8 h panel) and begin forming a head and tail (16 h panel).", "The tail then grows and separates from the body (24 h panel).", "The yolk shrinks over time because the fish uses it for food as it matures during the first few days (72 h panel).", "After a few months, the adult fish reaches reproductive maturity (bottom panel).To encourage the fish to spawn, some researchers use a fish tank with a sliding bottom insert, which reduces the depth of the pool to simulate the shore of a river.", "Zebrafish spawn best in the morning due to their Circadian rhythms.", "Researchers have been able to collect 10,000 embryos in 10 minutes using this method.", "In particular, one pair of adult fish is capable of laying 200–300 eggs in one morning in approximately 5 to 10 at time.", "Male zebrafish are furthermore known to respond to more pronounced markings on females, i.e., \"good stripes\", but in a group, males will mate with whichever females they can find.", "What attracts females is not currently understood.", "The presence of plants, even plastic plants, also apparently encourages spawning.Exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of diisononyl phthalate (DINP), commonly used in a large variety of plastic items, disrupt the endocannabinoid system and thereby affect reproduction in a sex-specific manner." ], [ "Feeding", "Zebrafish are omnivorous, primarily eating zooplankton, phytoplankton, insects and insect larvae, although they can eat a variety of other foods, such as worms and small crustaceans, if their preferred food sources are not readily available.In research, adult zebrafish are often fed with brine shrimp, or paramecia." ], [ "In the aquarium", "Zebrafish are hardy fish and considered good for beginner aquarists.", "Their enduring popularity can be attributed to their playful disposition, as well as their rapid breeding, aesthetics, cheap price and broad availability.", "They also do well in schools or shoals of six or more, and interact well with other fish species in the aquarium.", "However, they are susceptible to ''Oodinium'' or velvet disease, microsporidia (''Pseudoloma neurophilia''), and ''Mycobacterium'' species.", "Given the opportunity, adults eat hatchlings, which may be protected by separating the two groups with a net, breeding box or separate tank.In captivity, zebrafish live approximately forty-two months.", "Some captive zebrafish can develop a curved spine.The zebra danio was also used to make genetically modified fish and were the first species to be sold as GloFish (fluorescent colored fish)." ], [ "Strains", "In late 2003, transgenic zebrafish that express green, red, and yellow fluorescent proteins became commercially available in the United States.", "The fluorescent strains are tradenamed GloFish; other cultivated varieties include \"golden\", \"sandy\", \"longfin\" and \"leopard\".rightThe leopard danio, previously known as ''Danio frankei'', is a spotted colour morph of the zebrafish which arose due to a pigment mutation.", "Xanthistic forms of both the zebra and leopard pattern, along with long-finned strains, have been obtained via selective breeding programs for the aquarium trade.Various transgenic and mutant strains of zebrafish were stored at the China Zebrafish Resource Center (CZRC), a non-profit organization, which was jointly supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences.=== Wild-type strains ===The Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN) provides up-to-date information about current known wild-type (WT) strains of ''D.", "rerio'', some of which are listed below.", "*''AB'' (AB)*''AB/C32'' (AB/C32)*''AB/TL'' (AB/TL)*''AB/Tuebingen'' (AB/TU)*''C32'' (C32)*''Cologne'' (KOLN)*''Darjeeling'' (DAR)*''Ekkwill'' (EKW)*''HK/AB'' (HK/AB)*''HK/Sing'' (HK/SING)*''Hong Kong'' (HK)*''India'' (IND)*''Indonesia'' (INDO)*''Nadia'' (NA)*''RIKEN WT'' (RW)*''Singapore'' (SING)*''SJA'' (SJA)*''SJD'' (SJD)*''SJD/C32'' (SJD/C32)*''Tuebingen'' (TU)*''Tupfel long fin'' (TL)*''Tupfel long fin nacre'' (TLN)*''WIK'' (WIK)*''WIK/AB'' (WIK/AB)===Hybrids===Hybrids between different ''Danio'' species may be fertile: for example, between ''D.", "rerio'' and ''D.", "nigrofasciatus''." ], [ "Scientific research", "Zebrafish chromatophores, shown here mediating background adaptation, are widely studied by scientists.A zebrafish pigment mutant (bottom) produced by insertional mutagenesis.", "A wild-type embryo (top) is shown for comparison.", "The mutant lacks black pigment in its melanocytes because it is unable to synthesize melanin properly.''D.", "rerio'' is a common and useful scientific model organism for studies of vertebrate development and gene function.", "Its use as a laboratory animal was pioneered by the American molecular biologist George Streisinger and his colleagues at the University of Oregon in the 1970s and 1980s; Streisinger's zebrafish clones were among the earliest successful vertebrate clones created.", "Its importance has been consolidated by successful large-scale forward genetic screens (commonly referred to as the Tübingen/Boston screens).", "The fish has a dedicated online database of genetic, genomic, and developmental information, the Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN).", "The Zebrafish International Resource Center (ZIRC) is a genetic resource repository with 29,250 alleles available for distribution to the research community.", "''D.", "rerio'' is also one of the few fish species to have been sent into space.Research with ''D.", "rerio'' has yielded advances in the fields of developmental biology, oncology, toxicology, reproductive studies, teratology, genetics, neurobiology, environmental sciences, stem cell research, regenerative medicine, muscular dystrophies and evolutionary theory.===Model characteristics===As a model biological system, the zebrafish possesses numerous advantages for scientists.", "Its genome has been fully sequenced, and it has well-understood, easily observable and testable developmental behaviors.", "Its embryonic development is very rapid, and its embryos are relatively large, robust, and transparent, and able to develop outside their mother.", "Furthermore, well-characterized mutant strains are readily available.Other advantages include the species' nearly constant size during early development, which enables simple staining techniques to be used, and the fact that its two-celled embryo can be fused into a single cell to create a homozygous embryo.", "The zebraifsh embryos are transparent and they develop outside of the uterus, which allows scientists to study the details of development starting from fertilization and continuing throughout development.The zebrafish is also demonstrably similar to mammalian models and humans in toxicity testing, and exhibits a diurnal sleep cycle with similarities to mammalian sleep behavior.", "However, zebrafish are not a universally ideal research model; there are a number of disadvantages to their scientific use, such as the absence of a standard diet and the presence of small but important differences between zebrafish and mammals in the roles of some genes related to human disorders.===Regeneration===Zebrafish have the ability to regenerate their heart and lateral line hair cells during their larval stages.", "The cardiac regenerative process likely involves signaling pathways such as Notch and Wnt; hemodynamic changes in the damaged heart are sensed by ventricular endothelial cells and their associated cardiac cilia by way of the mechanosensitive ion channel TRPV4, subsequently facilitating the Notch signaling pathway via KLF2 and activating various downstream effectors such as BMP-2 and HER2/neu.", "In 2011, the British Heart Foundation ran an advertising campaign publicising its intention to study the applicability of this ability to humans, stating that it aimed to raise £50 million in research funding.Zebrafish have also been found to regenerate photoreceptor cells and retinal neurons following injury, which has been shown to be mediated by the dedifferentiation and proliferation of Müller glia.", "Researchers frequently amputate the dorsal and ventral tail fins and analyze their regrowth to test for mutations.", "It has been found that histone demethylation occurs at the site of the amputation, switching the zebrafish's cells to an \"active\", regenerative, stem cell-like state.", "In 2012, Australian scientists published a study revealing that zebrafish use a specialised protein, known as fibroblast growth factor, to ensure their spinal cords heal without glial scarring after injury.", "In addition, hair cells of the posterior lateral line have also been found to regenerate following damage or developmental disruption.", "Study of gene expression during regeneration has allowed for the identification of several important signaling pathways involved in the process, such as Wnt signaling and Fibroblast growth factor.In probing disorders of the nervous system, including neurodegenerative diseases, movement disorders, psychiatric disorders and deafness, researchers are using the zebrafish to understand how the genetic defects underlying these conditions cause functional abnormalities in the human brain, spinal cord and sensory organs.", "Researchers have also studied the zebrafish to gain new insights into the complexities of human musculoskeletal diseases, such as muscular dystrophy.", "Another focus of zebrafish research is to understand how a gene called Hedgehog, a biological signal that underlies a number of human cancers, controls cell growth.===Genetics=======Background genetics====Inbred strains and traditional outbred stocks have not been developed for laboratory zebrafish, and the genetic variability of wild-type lines among institutions may contribute to the replication crisis in biomedical research.", "Genetic differences in wild-type lines among populations maintained at different research institutions have been demonstrated using both Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and microsatellite analysis.====Gene expression====Due to their fast and short life cycles and relatively large clutch sizes, ''D.", "rerio'' or zebrafish are a useful model for genetic studies.", "A common reverse genetics technique is to reduce gene expression or modify splicing using Morpholino antisense technology.", "Morpholino oligonucleotides (MO) are stable, synthetic macromolecules that contain the same bases as DNA or RNA; by binding to complementary RNA sequences, they can reduce the expression of specific genes or block other processes from occurring on RNA.", "MO can be injected into one cell of an embryo after the 32-cell stage, reducing gene expression in only cells descended from that cell.", "However, cells in the early embryo (less than 32 cells) are interpermeable to large molecules, allowing diffusion between cells.", "Guidelines for using Morpholinos in zebrafish describe appropriate control strategies.", "Morpholinos are commonly microinjected in 500pL directly into 1–2 cell stage zebrafish embryos.", "The morpholino is able to integrate into most cells of the embryo.A known problem with gene knockdowns is that, because the genome underwent a duplication after the divergence of ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes, it is not always easy to silence the activity of one of the two gene paralogs reliably due to complementation by the other paralog.", "Despite the complications of the zebrafish genome, a number of commercially available global platforms exist for analysis of both gene expression by microarrays and promoter regulation using ChIP-on-chip.====Genome sequencing====The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute started the zebrafish genome sequencing project in 2001, and the full genome sequence of the Tuebingen reference strain is publicly available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)'s Zebrafish Genome Page.", "The zebrafish reference genome sequence is annotated as part of the Ensembl project, and is maintained by the Genome Reference Consortium.In 2009, researchers at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology in Delhi, India, announced the sequencing of the genome of a wild zebrafish strain, containing an estimated 1.7 billion genetic letters.", "The genome of the wild zebrafish was sequenced at 39-fold coverage.", "Comparative analysis with the zebrafish reference genome revealed over 5 million single nucleotide variations and over 1.6 million insertion deletion variations.", "The zebrafish reference genome sequence of 1.4GB and over 26,000 protein coding genes was published by Kerstin Howe ''et al.''", "in 2013.====Mitochondrial DNA====In October 2001, researchers from the University of Oklahoma published ''D.", "rerio's'' complete mitochondrial DNA sequence.", "Its length is 16,596 base pairs.", "This is within 100 base pairs of other related species of fish, and it is notably only 18 pairs longer than the goldfish (''Carassius auratus'') and 21 longer than the carp (''Cyprinus carpio'').", "Its gene order and content are identical to the common vertebrate form of mitochondrial DNA.", "It contains 13 protein-coding genes and a noncoding control region containing the origin of replication for the heavy strand.", "In between a grouping of five tRNA genes, a sequence resembling vertebrate origin of light strand replication is found.", "It is difficult to draw evolutionary conclusions because it is difficult to determine whether base pair changes have adaptive significance via comparisons with other vertebrates' nucleotide sequences.====Developmental genetics====T-boxes and homeoboxes are vital in ''Danio'' similarly to other vertebrates.", "The Bruce et al.", "team are known for this area, and in Bruce et al.", "2003 & Bruce et al.", "2005 uncover the role of two of these elements in oocytes of this species.", "By interfering via a dominant nonfunctional allele and a morpholino they find the T-box transcription activator Eomesodermin and its target ''mtx2'' – a transcription factor – are vital to epiboly.", "(In Bruce et al.", "2003 they failed to support the possibility that Eomesodermin behaves like Vegt.", "Neither they nor anyone else has been able to locate any mutation which – in the mother – will prevent initiation of the mesoderm or endoderm development processes in this species.", ")====Pigmentation genes====In 1999, the ''nacre'' mutation was identified in the zebrafish ortholog of the mammalian ''MITF'' transcription factor.", "Mutations in human ''MITF'' result in eye defects and loss of pigment, a type of Waardenburg Syndrome.", "In December 2005, a study of the ''golden'' strain identified the gene responsible for its unusual pigmentation as SLC24A5, a solute carrier that appeared to be required for melanin production, and confirmed its function with a Morpholino knockdown.", "The orthologous gene was then characterized in humans and a one base pair difference was found to strongly segregate fair-skinned Europeans and dark-skinned Africans.", "Zebrafish with the ''nacre'' mutation have since been bred with fish with a ''roy orbison (roy)'' mutation to make Casper strain fish that have no melanophores or iridophores, and are transparent into adulthood.", "These fish are characterized by uniformly pigmented eyes and translucent skin.====Transgenesis====Transgenesis is a popular approach to study the function of genes in zebrafish.", "Construction of transgenic zebrafish is rather easy by a method using the ''Tol2'' transposon system.", "''Tol2'' element which encodes a gene for a fully functional transposase capable of catalyzing transposition in the zebrafish germ lineage.", "''Tol2'' is the only natural DNA transposable element in vertebrates from which an autonomous member has been identified.", "Examples include the artificial interaction produced between LEF1 and Catenin beta-1/β-catenin/''CTNNB1''.", "Dorsky et al.", "2002 investigated the developmental role of Wnt by transgenically expressing a Lef1/β-catenin reporter.There are well-established protocols for editing zebrafish genes using CRISPR-Cas9 and this tool has been used to generate genetically modified models.====Transparent adult bodies====In 2008, researchers at Boston Children's Hospital developed a new strain of zebrafish, named Casper, whose adult bodies had transparent skin.", "This allows for detailed visualization of cellular activity, circulation, metastasis and many other phenomena.", "In 2019 researchers published a crossing of a ''prkdc-/-'' and a ''IL2rga-/-'' strain that produced transparent, immunodeficient offspring, lacking natural killer cells as well as B- and T-cells.", "This strain can be adapted to warm water and the absence of an immune system makes the use of patient derived xenografts possible.", "In January 2013, Japanese scientists genetically modified a transparent zebrafish specimen to produce a visible glow during periods of intense brain activity.In January 2007, Chinese researchers at Fudan University genetically modified zebrafish to detect oestrogen pollution in lakes and rivers, which is linked to male infertility.", "The researchers cloned oestrogen-sensitive genes and injected them into the fertile eggs of zebrafish.", "The modified fish turned green if placed into water that was polluted by oestrogen.====RNA splicing====In 2015, researchers at Brown University discovered that 10% of zebrafish genes do not need to rely on the U2AF2 protein to initiate RNA splicing.", "These genes have the DNA base pairs AC and TG as repeated sequences at the ends of each intron.", "On the 3'ss (3' splicing site), the base pairs adenine and cytosine alternate and repeat, and on the 5'ss (5' splicing site), their complements thymine and guanine alternate and repeat as well.", "They found that there was less reliance on U2AF2 protein than in humans, in which the protein is required for the splicing process to occur.", "The pattern of repeating base pairs around introns that alters RNA secondary structure was found in other teleosts, but not in tetrapods.", "This indicates that an evolutionary change in tetrapods may have led to humans relying on the U2AF2 protein for RNA splicing while these genes in zebrafish undergo splicing regardless of the presence of the protein.====Orthology====''D.", "rerio'' has three transferrins, all of which cluster closely with other vertebrates.===Inbreeding depression===When close relatives mate, progeny may exhibit the detrimental effects of inbreeding depression.", "Inbreeding depression is predominantly caused by the homozygous expression of recessive deleterious alleles.", "For zebrafish, inbreeding depression might be expected to be more severe in stressful environments, including those caused by anthropogenic pollution.", "Exposure of zebrafish to environmental stress induced by the chemical clotrimazole, an imidazole fungicide used in agriculture and in veterinary and human medicine, amplified the effects of inbreeding on key reproductive traits.", "Embryo viability was significantly reduced in inbred exposed fish and there was a tendency for inbred males to sire fewer offspring.===Aquaculture research===Zebrafish are common models for research into fish farming, including pathogens and parasites causing yield loss and/or spread to adjacent wild populations.This usefulness is less than it might be due to ''Danio''s taxonomic distance from the most common aquaculture species.", "Because the most common are salmonids and cod in the Protacanthopterygii and sea bass, sea bream,tilapia, and flatfish, in the Percomorpha, zebrafish results may not be perfectly applicable.", "Various other models Goldfish (''Carassius auratus''), Medaka (''Oryzias latipes''), Stickleback (''Gasterosteus aculeatus''), Roach (''Rutilus rutilus''), Pufferfish (''Takifugu rubripes''), Swordtail (''Xiphophorus hellerii'') are less used normally but would be closer to particular target species.The only exception are the Carp (including Grass Carp, ''Ctenopharyngodon idella'') and Milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') which are quite close, both being in the Cyprinidae.", "However it should also be noted that ''Danio'' consistently proves to be a useful model for mammals in many cases and there is dramatically more genetic distance between them than between ''Danio'' and any farmed fish.=== Neurochemistry ===In a glucocorticoid receptor-defective mutant with reduced exploratory behavior, fluoxetine rescued the normal exploratory behavior.", "This demonstrates relationships between glucocorticoids, fluoxetine, and exploration in this fish." ], [ "Drug discovery and development", "FDA research used Zebrafish to show the effects of ketamine on neurological development.The zebrafish and zebrafish larva is a suitable model organism for drug discovery and development.", "As a vertebrate with 70% genetic homology with humans, it can be predictive of human health and disease, while its small size and fast development facilitates experiments on a larger and quicker scale than with more traditional in vivo studies, including the development of higher-throughput, automated investigative tools.", "As demonstrated through ongoing research programmes, the zebrafish model enables researchers not only to identify genes that might underlie human disease, but also to develop novel therapeutic agents in drug discovery programmes.", "Zebrafish embryos have proven to be a rapid, cost-efficient, and reliable teratology assay model.===Drug screens===Drug screens in zebrafish can be used to identify novel classes of compounds with biological effects, or to repurpose existing drugs for novel uses; an example of the latter would be a screen which found that a commonly used statin (rosuvastatin) can suppress the growth of prostate cancer.", "To date, 65 small-molecule screens have been carried out and at least one has led to clinical trials.", "Within these screens, many technical challenges remain to be resolved, including differing rates of drug absorption resulting in levels of internal exposure that cannot be extrapolated from the water concentration, and high levels of natural variation between individual animals.===Toxico- or pharmacokinetics===To understand drug effects, the internal drug exposure is essential, as this drives the pharmacological effect.", "Translating experimental results from zebrafish to higher vertebrates (like humans) requires concentration-effect relationships, which can be derived from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis.Because of its small size, however, it is very challenging to quantify the internal drug exposure.", "Traditionally multiple blood samples would be drawn to characterize the drug concentration profile over time, but this technique remains to be developed.", "To date, only a single pharmacokinetic model for paracetamol has been developed in zebrafish larvae.===Computational data analysis===Using smart data analysis methods, pathophysiological and pharmacological processes can be understood and subsequently translated to higher vertebrates, including humans.", "An example is the use of systems pharmacology, which is the integration of systems biology and pharmacometrics.", "Systems biology characterizes (part of) an organism by a mathematical description of all relevant processes.", "These can be for example different signal transduction pathways that upon a specific signal lead to a certain response.", "By quantifying these processes, their behaviour in healthy and diseased situation can be understood and predicted.", "Pharmacometrics uses data from preclinical experiments and clinical trials to characterize the pharmacological processes that are underlying the relation between the drug dose and its response or clinical outcome.", "These can be for example the drug absorption in or clearance from the body, or its interaction with the target to achieve a certain effect.", "By quantifying these processes, their behaviour after different doses or in different patients can be understood and predicted to new doses or patients.By integrating these two fields, systems pharmacology has the potential to improve the understanding of the interaction of the drug with the biological system by mathematical quantification and subsequent prediction to new situations, like new drugs or new organisms or patients.Using these computational methods, the previously mentioned analysis of paracetamol internal exposure in zebrafish larvae showed reasonable correlation between paracetamol clearance in zebrafish with that of higher vertebrates, including humans." ], [ "Medical research", "===Cancer===Zebrafish have been used to make several transgenic models of cancer, including melanoma, leukemia, pancreatic cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma.", "Zebrafish expressing mutated forms of either the BRAF or NRAS oncogenes develop melanoma when placed onto a p53 deficient background.", "Histologically, these tumors strongly resemble the human disease, are fully transplantable, and exhibit large-scale genomic alterations.", "The BRAF melanoma model was utilized as a platform for two screens published in March 2011 in the journal ''Nature''.", "In one study, the model was used as a tool to understand the functional importance of genes known to be amplified and overexpressed in human melanoma.", "One gene, SETDB1, markedly accelerated tumor formation in the zebrafish system, demonstrating its importance as a new melanoma oncogene.", "This was particularly significant because SETDB1 is known to be involved in the epigenetic regulation that is increasingly appreciated to be central to tumor cell biology.In another study, an effort was made to therapeutically target the genetic program present in the tumor's origin neural crest cell using a chemical screening approach.", "This revealed that an inhibition of the DHODH protein (by a small molecule called leflunomide) prevented development of the neural crest stem cells which ultimately give rise to melanoma via interference with the process of transcriptional elongation.", "Because this approach would aim to target the \"identity\" of the melanoma cell rather than a single genetic mutation, leflunomide may have utility in treating human melanoma.===Cardiovascular disease===In cardiovascular research, the zebrafish has been used to model human myocardial infarction model.", "The zebrafish heart completely regenerates after about 2 months of injury without any scar formation.", "The Alpha-1 adrenergic signalling mechansim involved in this process was indentified in a 2023 study.", "Zebrafish is also used as a model for blood clotting, blood vessel development, and congenital heart and kidney disease.===Immune system===In programmes of research into acute inflammation, a major underpinning process in many diseases, researchers have established a zebrafish model of inflammation, and its resolution.", "This approach allows detailed study of the genetic controls of inflammation and the possibility of identifying potential new drugs.Zebrafish has been extensively used as a model organism to study vertebrate innate immunity.", "The innate immune system is capable of phagocytic activity by 28 to 30 h postfertilization (hpf) while adaptive immunity is not functionally mature until at least 4 weeks postfertilization.===Infectious diseases===As the immune system is relatively conserved between zebrafish and humans, many human infectious diseases can be modeled in zebrafish.", "The transparent early life stages are well suited for ''in vivo'' imaging and genetic dissection of host-pathogen interactions.", "Zebrafish models for a wide range of bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens have already been established; for example, the zebrafish model for tuberculosis provides fundamental insights into the mechanisms of pathogenesis of mycobacteria.", "Furthermore, robotic technology has been developed for high-throughput antimicrobial drug screening using zebrafish infection models.===Repairing retinal damage===The development of a single zebrafish retina captured on a light sheet microscope approx.", "every 12 hours from 1.5 days to 3.5 days after birth of the embryoAnother notable characteristic of the zebrafish is that it possesses four types of cone cell, with ultraviolet-sensitive cells supplementing the red, green and blue cone cell subtypes found in humans.", "Zebrafish can thus observe a very wide spectrum of colours.", "The species is also studied to better understand the development of the retina; in particular, how the cone cells of the retina become arranged into the so-called 'cone mosaic'.", "Zebrafish, in addition to certain other teleost fish, are particularly noted for having extreme precision of cone cell arrangement.This study of the zebrafish's retinal characteristics has also extrapolated into medical enquiry.", "In 2007, researchers at University College London grew a type of zebrafish adult stem cell found in the eyes of fish and mammals that develops into neurons in the retina.", "These could be injected into the eye to treat diseases that damage retinal neurons—nearly every disease of the eye, including macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetes-related blindness.", "The researchers studied Müller glial cells in the eyes of humans aged from 18 months to 91 years, and were able to develop them into all types of retinal neurons.", "They were also able to grow them easily in the lab.", "The stem cells successfully migrated into diseased rats' retinas, and took on the characteristics of the surrounding neurons.", "The team stated that they intended to develop the same approach in humans.=== Muscular dystrophies ===Muscular dystrophies (MD) are a heterogeneous group of genetic disorders that cause muscle weakness, abnormal contractions and muscle wasting, often leading to premature death.", "Zebrafish is widely used as model organism to study muscular dystrophies.", "For example, the ''sapje'' (''sap'') mutant is the zebrafish orthologue of human Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD).", "The Machuca-Tzili and co-workers applied zebrafish to determine the role of alternative splicing factor, MBNL, in myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) pathogenesis.", "More recently, Todd et al.", "described a new zebrafish model designed to explore the impact of CUG repeat expression during early development in DM1 disease.", "Zebrafish is also an excellent animal model to study congenital muscular dystrophies including CMD Type 1 A (CMD 1A) caused by mutation in the human laminin α2 (LAMA2) gene.", "The zebrafish, because of its advantages discussed above, and in particular the ability of zebrafish embryos to absorb chemicals, has become a model of choice in screening and testing new drugs against muscular dystrophies.=== Bone physiology and pathology ===Zebrafish have been used as model organisms for bone metabolism, tissue turnover, and resorbing activity.", "These processes are largely evolutionary conserved.", "They have been used to study osteogenesis (bone formation), evaluating differentiation, matrix deposition activity, and cross-talk of skeletal cells, to create and isolate mutants modeling human bone diseases, and test new chemical compounds for the ability to revert bone defects.", "The larvae can be used to follow new (''de novo'') osteoblast formation during bone development.", "They start mineralising bone elements as early as 4 days post fertilisation.", "Recently, adult zebrafish are being used to study complex age related bone diseases such as osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta.", "The (elasmoid) scales of zebrafish function as a protective external layer and are little bony plates made by osteoblasts.", "These exoskeletal structures are formed by bone matrix depositing osteoblasts and are remodeled by osteoclasts.", "The scales also act as the main calcium storage of the fish.", "They can be cultured ex-vivo (kept alive outside of the organism) in a multi-well plate, which allows manipulation with drugs and even screening for new drugs that could change bone metabolism (between osteoblasts and osteoclasts).=== Diabetes ===Zebrafish pancreas development is very homologous to mammals, such as mice.", "The signaling mechanisms and way the pancreas functions are very similar.", "The pancreas has an endocrine compartment, which contains a variety of cells.", "Pancreatic PP cells that produce polypeptides, and β-cells that produce insulin are two examples of those such cells.", "This structure of the pancreas, along with the glucose homeostasis system, are helpful in studying diseases, such as diabetes, that are related to the pancreas.", "Models for pancreas function, such as fluorescent staining of proteins, are useful in determining the processes of glucose homeostasis and the development of the pancreas.", "Glucose tolerance tests have been developed using zebrafish, and can now be used to test for glucose intolerance or diabetes in humans.", "The function of insulin are also being tested in zebrafish, which will further contribute to human medicine.", "The majority of work done surrounding knowledge on glucose homeostasis has come from work on zebrafish transferred to humans.=== Obesity ===Zebrafish have been used as a model system to study obesity, with research into both genetic obesity and over-nutrition induced obesity.", "Obese zebrafish, similar to obese mammals, show dysregulation of lipid controlling metabolic pathways, which leads to weight gain without normal lipid metabolism.", "Also like mammals, zebrafish store excess lipids in visceral, intramuscular, and subcutaneous adipose deposits.", "These reasons and others make zebrafish good models for studying obesity in humans and other species.", "Genetic obesity is usually studied in transgenic or mutated zebrafish with obesogenic genes.", "As an example, transgenic zebrafish with overexpressed AgRP, an endogenous melacortin antagonist, showed increased body weight and adipose deposition during growth.", "Though zebrafish genes may not be the exact same as human genes, these tests could provide important insight into possible genetic causes and treatments for human genetic obesity.", "Diet-induced obesity zebrafish models are useful, as diet can be modified from a very early age.", "High fat diets and general overfeeding diets both show rapid increases in adipose deposition, increased BMI, hepatosteatosis, and hypertriglyceridemia.", "However, the normal fat, overfed specimens are still metabolically healthy, while high-fat diet specimens are not.", "Understanding differences between types of feeding-induced obesity could prove useful in human treatment of obesity and related health conditions.=== Environmental toxicology ===Zebrafish have been used as a model system in environmental toxicology studies.=== Epilepsy ===Zebrafish have been used as a model system to study epilepsy.", "Mammalian seizures can be recapitulated molecularly, behaviorally, and electrophysiologically, using a fraction of the resources required for experiments in mammals." ], [ "See also", "* Japanese rice fish or medaka, another fish used for genetic, developmental, and biomedical research* List of freshwater aquarium fish species*Denison barb" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* British Association of Zebrafish Husbandry * International Zebrafish Society (IZFS)* European Society for Fish Models in Biology and Medicine (EuFishBioMed)* The Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN)* The Zebrafish International Resource Center (ZIRC)* The European Zebrafish Resource Center (EZRC)* The China Zebrafish Resource Center (CZRC)* The Zebrafish Genome Sequencing Project at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute* FishMap: The Zebrafish Community Genomics Browser at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB)* WebHome Zebrafish GenomeWiki Beta Preview at the IGIB* Genome sequencing initiative at the IGIB* ''Danio rerio'' at Danios.info* Sanger Institute Zebrafish Mutation Resource* Zebrafish genome via Ensembl* FishforScience.com – using zebrafish for medical research* FishForPharma* Breeding Zebrafish*" ] ]

[ [ "Balance" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Balance''' may refer to:" ], [ "Common meanings", "* Balance (ability) in biomechanics* Balance (accounting)* Balance or weighing scale* Balance, as in equality (mathematics) or equilibrium" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Film===* ''Balance'' (1983 film), a Bulgarian film* ''Balance'' (1989 film), a short animated film* ''La Balance'', a 1982 French film===Television===* ''Balance: Television for Living Well'', a Canadian television talk show* \"The Balance\" (Roswell), an episode of the television series ''Roswell''* \"The Balance\", an episode of the animated series ''Justice League''===Music=======Performers====* Balance (band), a 1980s pop-rock group====Albums====* ''Balance'' (Akrobatik album), 2003* ''Balance'' (Kim-Lian album), 2004* ''Balance'' (Leo Kottke album), 1978* ''Balance'' (Joe Morris album), 2014* ''Balance'' (Swollen Members album), 1999* ''Balance'' (Ty Tabor album), 2008* ''Balance'' (Van Halen album), 1995* ''Balance'' (Armin van Buuren album), 2019* ''The Balance'', a 2019 album by Catfish and the Bottlemen====Songs====* \"Balance\", a song by Axium from ''The Story Thus Far''* \"Balance\", a song by Band-Maid from ''Unleash''* \"Balance\", a song by Ed Sheeran from ''-'' (Deluxe vinyl edition)* \"The Balance\", a Moody Blues song on the 1970 album ''A Question of Balance''===Other===* Balance (game design), the concept and the practice of tuning relationships between a game's component systems* ''Balance'' (installation), a 2013 glazed ceramic installation by Tim Ryan* Balance (puzzle), a mathematical puzzle* \"Balance\", a poem by Patti Smith from the book ''kodak''" ], [ "Government and law", "* BALANCE Act (Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations Act), a proposed US federal legislation* Balance (apportionment), a criterion for fair allocation of seats among parties or states" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Balance'' (advertisement), a 1989 award-winning television advertisement for the Lexus LS 400* Balance (metaphysics), a desirable point between two or more opposite forces* Balance (stereo), the amount of signal from each channel reproduced in a stereo audio recording* The Balance, a personal finance website owned by Dotdash" ], [ "See also", "* Balancing (disambiguation)* Balanced, a wine tasting descriptor" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Adwa" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Adwa''' (; ; , also spelled ''Adowa'') was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War.", "The Ethiopian forces defeated the Italian invading force on Sunday 1 March 1896, near the town of Adwa.", "The decisive victory thwarted the campaign of the Kingdom of Italy to expand its colonial empire in the Horn of Africa.", "By the end of the 19th century, European powers had carved up almost all of Africa after the Berlin Conference; only Ethiopia and Liberia still maintained their independence.", "Adwa became a pre-eminent symbol of pan-Africanism and secured Ethiopian sovereignty until the Second Italo-Ethiopian War forty years later." ], [ "Background", "In 1889, the Italians signed the Treaty of Wuchale with the then King Menelik of Shewa.", "The treaty, signed after the Italian occupation of Eritrea, recognized Italy's claim over the coastal colony.", "In it, Italy also promised to provide financial assistance and military supplies.", "A dispute later arose over the interpretation of the two versions of the document.", "The Italian-language version of the disputed Article 17 of the treaty stated that the Emperor of Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italian authorities, effectively making Ethiopia a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy.", "The Amharic version of the article, however, stated that the Emperor could use the good offices of the Kingdom of Italy in his relations with foreign nations if he wished.", "However, the Italian diplomats claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and that Menelik II knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty.The Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty.", "As a result, Italy and Ethiopia came into confrontation, in what was later to be known as the First Italo-Ethiopian War.", "In December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akele Guzai, in what was then Italian controlled Eritrea.", "Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta.", "The Italian army then occupied the Tigrayan capital, Adwa.", "In January 1895, Baratieri's army went on to defeat Ras Mengesha Yohannes in the Battle of Coatit, forcing Mengesha to retreat further south.By late 1895, Italian forces had advanced deep into Ethiopian territory.", "On 7 December 1895, ''Ras'' Makonnen Wolde Mikael, ''Fitawrari'' Gebeyehu and ''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes commanding a larger Ethiopian group of Menelik's vanguard annihilated a small Italian unit at the Battle of Amba Alagi.", "The Italians were then forced to withdraw to more defensible positions in Tigray Province, where the two main armies faced each other.", "By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low.", "General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Emperor Menelik II's army would begin to melt away.", "However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act.The landscape of AdwaOn the evening of 29 February, Baratieri, about to be replaced by a new governor, General Baldissera, met with his generals Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Vittorio Dabormida, and Giuseppe Ellena, concerning their next steps.", "He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as Asmara.", "His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale.", "Dabormida exclaimed, \"Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat.\"", "Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait for some last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00am.", "His troops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight." ], [ "Order of battle", "An 1890s Italian map of Adwa.", "A small arrow indicates that north is to the right.===Ethiopian forces===* Shewa; ''Negus Negasti'' Menelik II: 25,000 rifles / 3,000 horses / 32 guns* Semien; ''Itaghiè'' Taytu: 3,000 rifles / 600 horses / 4 guns* Gojjam; ''Negus'' Tekle Haymanot: 5,000 rifles* Harar; ''Ras'' Makonnen: 15,000 rifles* Tigray; ''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula: 12,000 rifles / 6 guns* Wollo; ''Ras'' Mikael: 6,000 rifles / 5,000 horses* Gondar; ''Ras'' Olié: 8,000 rifles* Lasta; ''Wagshum'' Guangul: 6,000 rifles* In addition there were ~20,000 spearmen and swordsmen as well as an unknown number of armed peasants.Estimates for the Ethiopian forces under Menelik range from a low of 73,000 to a high of over 100,000 outnumbering the Italians by an estimated five times.", "The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress Taytu Betul, ''Ras'' Welle Betul, ''Ras'' Mengesha Atikem, ''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes, ''Ras'' Alula Engida (Abba Nega), ''Ras'' Mikael of Wollo, ''Ras'' Makonnen Wolde Mikael, ''Fitawrari'' Habte Giyorgis, ''Fitawrari'' Gebeyyehu, and ''Negus'' Tekle Haymanot Tessemma.", "Pétridès (as well as Pankhurst, with slight variations) break the troop numbers down (over 100,000 by their estimates) as follows: 35,000 infantry (25,000 riflemen and 10,000 spearmen) and 8,000 cavalry under Emperor Menelik; 5,000 infantry under Empress Taytu; 8,000 Amhara infantry (6,000 riflemen and 2,000 spearmen) under Ras Wale; 8,000 infantry (5,000 riflemen and 3,000 spearmen) under Ras Mengesha Atikem, 12,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engida; 6,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 5,000 Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael of Wollo; 15,000 Shewan riflemen under Ras Makonnen; 8,000 infantry under ''Fitawrari'' Gebeyyehu Gora; 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under ''Negus'' Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam.", "In addition, the armies were followed by a similar number of camp followers who supplied the army, as had been done for centuries.", "Most of the army consisted of riflemen, a significant percentage of whom were in Menelik's reserve; however, there were also a significant number of cavalry and infantry only armed with lances (those with lances were referred to as \"lancer servants\").===Italian forces===Immediately before the battle of Adwa, the Italian army consisted of 29,700 Italians and 14,000 askaris.", "However, as Harold Marcus notes, \"several thousand\" soldiers were needed in support roles and to guard the lines of communication to the rear.", "He accordingly estimates that the Italian force at Adwa consisted of just 14,519 effective combat troops.", "Where as, David L. Lewis estimates that the Italian army consisted of four brigades, totaling 17,770 troops with fifty-six artillery pieces.", "One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Eritrean Ascari led by Italian officers.", "The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Brigadiers Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi.", "While these included elite Bersaglieri and Alpini units, a large proportion of the troops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed \"d'Africa\" battalions for service in Africa.", "Additionally, a limited number of troops were from the Cacciatori d'Africa; units permanently serving in Africa and in part recruited from Italian settlers.According to historian Chris Prouty:The Italian operational corps in Eritrea was under the command of General Oreste Baratieri.", "The chief of staff was Lieutenant Colonel Giacchino Valenzano.", "* '''Right column''': (4,833 rifles / 18 cannons) 2nd Infantry Brigade (Gen. Vittorio Dabormida);** 3rd Africa Infantry Regiment, (Col. Ottavio Ragni)*** 5th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Giordano)*** 6th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Leopoldo Prato)*** 10th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Gennaro De Fonseca)** 6th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Cesare Airaghi)*** 3rd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Branchi)*** 13th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Alberto Rayneri)*** 14th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Secondo Solaro)** Native Mobile Militia Battalion (Maj. Lodovico De Vito)** Native Company from the Asmara ''Chitet'' (Cpt.", "Alberto Sermasi)** 2nd Artillery Brigade (Maj. Alberto Zola)*** 5th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Giuseppe Mottino)*** 6th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Giuseppe Regazzi)*** 7th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Vittorio Gisla)* '''Central column''': (3,324 rifles / 12 cannons) 1st Infantry Brigade (Gen. Giuseppe Arimondi);** 1st Africa Bersaglieri Regiment (Col. Francesco Stevani)*** 1st Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Matteo De Stefano)*** 2nd Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Lorenzo Compiano)** 1st Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Ugo Brusati)*** 2nd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Flaciano Viancini)*** 4th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi De Amicis)*** 9th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Giuseppe Baudoin)** 1st Company of the 5th Native Battalion (Cpt.", "Pietro Pavesi)** 8th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Vincenzo Loffredo)** 11th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Giocanni Franzini)* '''Left column''': (4,339 rifles / 14 cannons) Native Brigade (Gen. Matteo Albertone);** 1st Native Battalion (Maj. Domenico Turitto)** 6th Native Battalion (Maj. Giuseppe Cossu)** 5th Native Battalion (Maj. Rodolfo Valli)** 8th Native Battalion (Maj. Giocanni Gamerra)** \"Okulè Kusai\" Native Irregular Company (Lt. Alessandro Sapelli)** 1st Artillery Brigade (Maj. Francesco De Rosa)*** 1st Native Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Clemente Henry)*** 2nd Section of the 2nd Native Mountain Artillery Battery (Lt. Arnaldo Vibi)*** 3rd Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Edoardo Bianchini)*** 4th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Umberto Masotto)* '''Reserve column''': (3,032 rifles /12 cannons) 3rd Infantry Brigade (Gen. Giuseppe Ellena);** 4th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Giovanni Romero)*** 7th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Alberto Montecchi)*** 8th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Achille Violante)*** 11th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Sebastiano Manfredi)*** 12th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Rinaldo Amatucci)** 5th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Luigi Nava)*** 15th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Achille Ferraro)*** 16th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Bugenio Vandiol)*** 1st Africa Alpini Battalion (Lt. Col. Davide Menini)** 3rd Native Battalion (Lt. Col. Giuseppe Galliano)** 1st Quick Fire Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Giovanni Aragno)** 2nd Quick Fire Artillery Battery (Cpt.", "Domencio Mangia)** Sappers companyBudget restrictions and supply shortages meant that many of the rifles and artillery pieces issued to the Italian reinforcements sent to Africa were obsolete models, while clothing and other equipment was often substandard.", "The logistics and training of the recently arrived conscript contingents from Italy were inferior to the experienced colonial troops based in Eritrea." ], [ "Battle", "On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March, three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped.", "David Levering Lewis states that the Italian battle plan called for three columns to march in parallel formation to the crests of three mountains – Dabormida commanding on the right, Albertone on the left, and Arimondi in the center – with a reserve under Ellena following behind Arimondi.", "The supporting crossfire each column could give the others made the 'soldiers as deadly as razored shears'.", "Albertone's brigade was to set the pace for the others.", "He was to position himself on the summit known as Kidane Mehret, which would give the Italians the high ground from which to meet the Ethiopians.", "However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and by dawn were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain.", "Their sketchy maps caused Albertone to mistake one mountain for Kidane Meret, and when a scout pointed out his mistake, Albertone advanced directly into the Ethiopian positions.", "Menelik II at the Battle of AdwaUnbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops had exhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned to break camp the next day (2 March).", "The Emperor had risen early to begin prayers for divine guidance when spies from Ras Alula, brought him news that the Italians were advancing.", "The Emperor summoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress Taytu Betul beside him, ordered his forces forward.", "Negus Tekle Haymanot commanded the right wing with his troops from Gojjam, Ras Mengesha in the left with his troops from Tigray, Ras Makonnen leading the center with his troops, and Ras Mikael at the north side leading the Wollo Oromo cavalry.", "In the reserves on the hills just west of Adwa, were the Emperor Menelik and Empress Taitu, with the warriors of Ras Olié and Wagshum Guangul.", "The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on the hills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, who were exposed and vulnerable to crossfire.Albertone's Ascari Brigade was the first to encounter the onrush of Ethiopians at 06:00AM, near Kidane Meret.", "The Ethiopian units closest to Albertone’s advanced position on the slopes of the Hill of Enda Kidane Meret first moved to the attack.", "The first group to engage with Albertone was the Tigray army under the command of Ras Mengesha and Ras Alula.", "They were immediately joined by troops under Negus Tekle Haymanot, Ras Makonnen and Ras Mikael while those of Wagshum Guangul and Ras Olié came up soon after, so a large proportion of the Ethiopian army was soon concentrated against Albertone’s isolated Ascari Brigade.", "Initially the Italian artillery inflicted heavy casualties on the Ethiopian formations until a portion of the Ethiopians led by Balcha Safo deployed their quick-firing Hotchkiss guns on the lower side of Mount Abba Gerima.", "Albertone’s advantage in artillery fire was removed and his guns were silenced as his gunners were slaughtered by the Ethiopian artillery.", "Albertone's heavily outnumbered Ascaris held their position for two hours until Albertone's surrender, and under Ethiopian pressure the survivors sought refuge with Arimondi's brigade.", "Arimondi's brigade beat back the armies of Harar, Tigray, Wollo, Gondar and Lasta who repeatedly charged the Italian positions for three hours with gradually fading strength until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 Shewans and overran the Italian defenders.", "Arimondi’s brigade now broke and fled, the officers and a few ascari who remained with them were soon overwhelmed.", "Two companies of Bersaglieri who arrived at the same moment could not help and were cut down.Ethiopian painting commemorating the Battle of AdwaGeneral Baratieri, realizing that the battle was lost, ordered a general retreat.", "He tried to get the last uncommitted units of the Italian reserve column led by General Ellena to cover the retreat.", "But before they could form up, their lines were broken by a flood of fleeing Italian soldiers.", "The reserve had no chance to form a coherent defence and were overwhelmed within minutes.", "By noon, the Italian center was completely broken and the Ethiopian cavalry from Shewa and Wollo then pursued the fleeing Italians relentlessly, as Berkeley records from eyewitness accounts, “the Abyssinians wild with enthusiasm then rushed in upon them, reckless of losses and death.” General Arimondi's mule ran away in the confusion and Arimondi as well as almost all his officers were cut down.Dabormida's Italian Brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time.", "Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida was unaware that the other Italian troops had been annihilated as he had not received any communication from Baratieri.", "The Ethiopians who had just defeated Generals Arimondi’s and Ellena's brigades were now moving to encircle Dabormida's brigade from the rear.", "By 3:00PM Dabormida, still unaware of the rout of the rest of the army, now began a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement and make a hasty retreat.", "However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Wollo Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael virtually wiped out his brigade.", "Dabormida's remains were never found, although an old woman living in the area said that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italian officer, \"a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars\".The retreating columns under Baratieri were harried for nine miles before the Ethiopian cavalry gave up the pursuit, fires were then lit on the highest hilltops to signal local peasants to attack Italian and Ascari stragglers.", "Baratieri’s defeated army continued to retreat throughout the night, crossing the Belessa River and reaching Italian Eritrea by March 4.Back at the battlefield the Ethiopians were celebrating, chanting \"Mow, mow down the tender grass!", "The corn of Italy that was sown in Tigré has been reaped by Menelik, and he has given it to the birds!\"" ], [ "Immediate aftermath", "Italian survivors after the Battle of AdwaTomb of general Dabormida at Ado Scium Cohena, after the Battle of AdwaGeorge Berkeley records that the Italian casualties were approximately 6,100 men killed: 261 officers, 2,918 white NCOs and privates, with 954 permanently missing, and about 2,000 ascari dead.", "Another 1,428 were wounded – 470 Italians (including 31 officers) and 958 ascari.", "In addition, 1,865 Italians and 2,000 ascaris were taken prisoner.", "Richard Caulk estimates that the number of Italians killed were 300 officers, 4,600 Italian rank, and 1,000 askari for a total of 5,900 dead.", "Moreover, 1,000 escaped wounded and at least 2,000 were captured.", "Citing contemporary figures, Caulk records Ethiopian losses to be 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded.", "On the other hand, Berkeley estimates Ethiopian losses to be 7,000 killed and 10,000 wounded.", "In their desperate flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport.", "As Paul B. Henze notes, \"Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians.", "\"800 captured Eritrean Ascari, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.", "Augustus Wylde records that when he visited the battlefield months after the battle, the pile of severed hands and feet was still visible, \"a rotting heap of ghastly remnants.\"", "Many mutilated Ascari did not survive.", "Wylde wrote how the neighborhood of Adwa \"was full of their freshly dead bodies; they had generally crawled to the banks of the streams to quench their thirst, where many of them lingered unattended and exposed to the elements until death put an end to their sufferings.", "\"Despite some instances of abuse, the Italian prisoners were generally treated better by the Ethiopians.", "Among the prisoners was General Albertone.", "Chris Prouty notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and \"had a tent to himself, a horse and servants\".", "However, around 70 Italian prisoners were massacred in retaliation for the death of Bashah Aboye.", "The officer responsible for the massacre was reportedly imprisoned by Menelik.Public opinion in Italy was outraged.", "Chris Prouty offers a panoramic overview of the response in Italy to the news:" ], [ "Aftermath", "Italian prisoners of war waiting for repatriation, March 1897Emperor Menelik decided not to follow up on his victory by attempting to drive the routed Italians out of their colony.", "The victorious Emperor limited his demands to little more than the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale.", "In the context of the prevailing balance of power, the emperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence.", "In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine; Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service in the field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to a crawl would soon start to fall.", "At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage of cavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers.", "Chris Prouty observes that \"a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italian and Ethiopian sources.\"", "Lewis believes that it \"was his farsighted certainty that total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force the Italian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade\" that stayed his hand.As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state.", "Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations's weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis, the Italians launched a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.", "This time the Italians employed vastly superior military technology such as tanks and aircraft, as well as chemical warfare, and the Ethiopian forces were defeated by May 1936.Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia for five years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire forces and Ethiopian ''Arbegnoch'' guerillas." ], [ "Significance", "\"The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history,\" writes Henze.", "On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde observed that \"few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa\".This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for later African nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-African movement.", "As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains,On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military.", "Italian historian Tripodi argued that some of the roots of the rise of Fascism in Italy went back to this defeat and to the perceived need to \"avenge\" the defeat that started to be present in the military and nationalistic groups of the Kingdom of Italy.", "The same Mussolini declared when Italian troops occupied Addis Ababa in May 1936: ''Adua è vendicata'' (Adwa has been avenged).Indeed, one student of Ethiopia's History, Donald N. Levine, points out that for the Italians Adwa \"became a national trauma which demagogic leaders strove to avenge.", "It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935\".", "Levine also noted that the victory \"gave encouragement to isolationist and conservative strains that were deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture, strengthening the hand of those who would strive to keep Ethiopia from adopting techniques imported from the modern West – resistances with which both Menelik and Haile Selassie would have to contend\"." ], [ "Present-day celebrations of Adwa", "===Public holiday===The Adwa Victory Day is a public holiday in all regional states and charter cities across Ethiopia.", "All schools, banks, post offices and government offices are closed, with the exceptions of health facilities.", "Some taxi services and public transports choose not to operate on this day.", "Shops are normally open but most close earlier than usual.===Public celebrations===The Victory of Adwa, being a public holiday, is commemorated in public spaces.", "In Addis Ababa, the Victory of Adwa is celebrated at Menelik Square with the presence of government officials, patriots, foreign diplomats and the general public.", "The Ethiopian Police Orchestra play various patriotic songs as they walk around Menelik Square.The public dress up in traditional Ethiopian patriotic attire.", "Men often wear Jodhpurs and various types of vest; they carry the Ethiopian flag and various patriotic banners and placards, as well as traditional Ethiopian shields and swords called Shotel.", "Women dress up in different patterns of handcrafted traditional Ethiopian clothing, known in Amharic as Habesha kemis.", "Some wear black gowns over all, while others put royal crowns on their heads.", "Women's styles of dress, like their male counterparts, imitate the traditional styles of Ethiopian patriotic women.", "Of particular note is the dominant presence of the Empress Taytu Betul during these celebrations.The beloved and influential wife of Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu Betul, played a significant role during the Battle of Adwa.", "Although often overlooked, thousands of women participated in the Battle of Adwa.", "Some were trained as nurses to attend to the wounded, and others mainly cooked and supplied food and water to the soldiers and comforted the wounded.In addition to Addis Ababa, other major cities in Ethiopia, including Bahir Dar, Debre Markos and the town of Adwa itself, where the battle took place, celebrate the Victory of Adwa in public ceremonies.===Symbols===Several images and symbols are used during the commemoration of the Victory of Adwa, including the tri-coloured green, gold and red Ethiopian flag, images of Emperor Menelik II and Empress Taytu Betul, as well as other prominent kings and war generals of the time including King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, King Michael of Wollo, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde, and Fitawrari Gebeyehu, among others.", "Surviving members of the Ethiopian patriotic battalions wear the various medals that they collected for their participation on different battlefields.", "Young people often wear T-shirts adorned by Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu, Emperor Haile Selassie and other notable members of the Ethiopian monarchy.", "Popular and patriotic songs are often played on amplifiers.", "Of particular note are Ejigayehu Shibabaw's ballad dedicated to the Battle of Adwa and Teddy Afro's popular song \"Tikur Sew\", which literally translates to \"black man or black person\" – a poetic reference to Emperor Menelik II's decisive African victory over Europeans, as well as the Emperor's darker skin complexion." ], [ "See also", "* Scramble for Africa* Colonisation of Africa" ], [ "Notes", "===Footnotes======Citations===" ], [ "References", "* Berkeley, G.F.-H. (1902) ''The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik'', Westminster: A. Constable, 403 pp., * Brown, P.S.", "and Yirgu, F. (1996) ''The Battle of Adwa 1896'', Chicago: Nyala Publishing, 160 pp., * Bulatovich, A.K.", "(nd) ''With the Armies of Menelik II: Journal of an Expedition from Ethiopia to Lake Rudolf'', translated by Richard Seltzer, * Bulatovich, A.K.", "(2000) ''Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898'', translated by Richard Seltzer, Lawrenceville, N.J. : Red Sea Press, * Henze, P.B.", "(2004) ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'', London: Hurst & Co., * Jonas, R.A. (2011) ''The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire'', Bellknap Press of Harvard University Press, * Lewis, D.L.", "(1988) ''The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa'', 1st ed., London: Bloomsbury, * Marcus, H.G.", "(1995) ''The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913'', Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press, * Pankhurst, K.P.", "(1968) ''Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935'', Addis Ababa: Haile Sellassie I University Press, 772 pp., * Pankhurst, K.P.", "(1998) ''The Ethiopians: A History'', The Peoples of Africa Series, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, * Rosenfeld, C.P.", "(1986) ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910'', London: Ravens Educational & Development Services, * Uhlig, S.", "(ed.)", "(2003) ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'', '''1''' ''(A–C)'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, * Worrell, R. (2005) ''Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-Century Pan-African Formations in Barbados'', Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing, * Zewde, Bahru (1991) ''A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1974'', Eastern African Studies series, London: Currey, * With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com" ], [ "External links", "* Historynet: Ethiopia's Decisive Victory at Adowa* Who Was Count Abai?", "* ''The Colony of Eritrea from its Origins until March 1, 1899'' from 1899 which details the Battle of Adwa from the World Digital Library* Painting depicting the Battle of Adwa, Catalogue No.", "E261845, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution" ] ]

[ [ "Bistability" ], [ "Introduction", "A graph of the potential energy of a bistable system; it has two local minima and .", "A surface shaped like this with two \"low points\" can act as a bistable system; a ball resting on the surface can only be stable at those two positions, such as balls marked \"1\" and \"2\".", "Between the two is a local maximum .", "A ball located at this point, ball 3, is in equilibrium but unstable; the slightest disturbance will cause it to move to one of the stable points.In a dynamical system, '''bistability''' means the system has two stable equilibrium states.", "A '''bistable structure''' can be resting in either of two states.", "An example of a mechanical device which is bistable is a light switch.", "The switch lever is designed to rest in the \"on\" or \"off\" position, but not between the two.", "Bistable behavior can occur in mechanical linkages, electronic circuits, nonlinear optical systems, chemical reactions, and physiological and biological systems.In a conservative force field, bistability stems from the fact that the potential energy has two local minima, which are the stable equilibrium points.", "These rest states need not have equal potential energy.", "By mathematical arguments, a local maximum, an unstable equilibrium point, must lie between the two minima.", "At rest, a particle will be in one of the minimum equilibrium positions, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy.", "The maximum can be visualized as a barrier between them.A system can transition from one state of minimal energy to the other if it is given enough activation energy to penetrate the barrier (compare activation energy and Arrhenius equation for the chemical case).", "After the barrier has been reached, assuming the system has damping, it will relax into the other minimum state in a time called the relaxation time.Bistability is widely used in digital electronics devices to store binary data.", "It is the essential characteristic of the flip-flop, a circuit which is a fundamental building block of computers and some types of semiconductor memory.", "A bistable device can store one bit of binary data, with one state representing a \"0\" and the other state a \"1\".", "It is also used in relaxation oscillators, multivibrators, and the Schmitt trigger.Optical bistability is an attribute of certain optical devices where two resonant transmissions states are possible and stable, dependent on the input.Bistability can also arise in biochemical systems, where it creates digital, switch-like outputs from the constituent chemical concentrations and activities.", "It is often associated with hysteresis in such systems." ], [ "Mathematical modelling", "In the mathematical language of dynamic systems analysis, one of the simplest bistable systems is:This system describes a ball rolling down a curve with shape , and has three equilibrium points: , , and .", "The middle point is marginally stable ( is stable but will not converge to ), while the other two points are stable.", "The direction of change of over time depends on the initial condition .", "If the initial condition is positive (), then the solution approaches 1 over time, but if the initial condition is negative (), then approaches −1 over time.", "Thus, the dynamics are \"bistable\".", "The final state of the system can be either or , depending on the initial conditions.The appearance of a bistable region can be understood for the model systemwhich undergoes a supercritical pitchfork bifurcation with bifurcation parameter ." ], [ "In biological and chemical systems", "Three-dimensional invariant measure for cellular-differentiation featuring a two-stable mode.The axes denote cell counts for three types of cells: progenitor (), osteoblast (), and chondrocyte ().", "Pro-osteoblast stimulus promotes P→O transition.Bistability is key for understanding basic phenomena of cellular functioning, such as decision-making processes in cell cycle progression, cellular differentiation, and apoptosis.", "It is also involved in loss of cellular homeostasis associated with early events in cancer onset and in prion diseases as well as in the origin of new species (speciation).Bistability can be generated by a positive feedback loop with an ultrasensitive regulatory step.", "Positive feedback loops, such as the simple X activates Y and Y activates X motif, essentially link output signals to their input signals and have been noted to be an important regulatory motif in cellular signal transduction because positive feedback loops can create switches with an all-or-nothing decision.", "Studies have shown that numerous biological systems, such as ''Xenopus'' oocyte maturation, mammalian calcium signal transduction, and polarity in budding yeast, incorporate multiple positive feedback loops with different time scales (slow and fast).", "Having multiple linked positive feedback loops with different time scales (\"dual-time switches\") allows for (a) increased regulation: two switches that have independent changeable activation and deactivation times; and (b) noise filtering.Bistability can also arise in a biochemical system only for a particular range of parameter values, where the parameter can often be interpreted as the strength of the feedback.", "In several typical examples, the system has only one stable fixed point at low values of the parameter.", "A saddle-node bifurcation gives rise to a pair of new fixed points emerging, one stable and the other unstable, at a critical value of the parameter.", "The unstable solution can then form another saddle-node bifurcation with the initial stable solution at a higher value of the parameter, leaving only the higher fixed solution.", "Thus, at values of the parameter between the two critical values, the system has two stable solutions.", "An example of a dynamical system that demonstrates similar features is:where is the output, and is the parameter, acting as the input.Bistability can be modified to be more robust and to tolerate significant changes in concentrations of reactants, while still maintaining its \"switch-like\" character.", "Feedback on both the activator of a system and inhibitor make the system able to tolerate a wide range of concentrations.", "An example of this in cell biology is that activated CDK1 (Cyclin Dependent Kinase 1) activates its activator Cdc25 while at the same time inactivating its inactivator, Wee1, thus allowing for progression of a cell into mitosis.", "Without this double feedback, the system would still be bistable, but would not be able to tolerate such a wide range of concentrations.Bistability has also been described in the embryonic development of ''Drosophila melanogaster'' (the fruit fly).", "Examples are anterior-posterior and dorso-ventral axis formation and eye development.A prime example of bistability in biological systems is that of Sonic hedgehog (Shh), a secreted signaling molecule, which plays a critical role in development.", "Shh functions in diverse processes in development, including patterning limb bud tissue differentiation.", "The Shh signaling network behaves as a bistable switch, allowing the cell to abruptly switch states at precise Shh concentrations.", "''gli1'' and ''gli2'' transcription is activated by Shh, and their gene products act as transcriptional activators for their own expression and for targets downstream of Shh signaling.", "Simultaneously, the Shh signaling network is controlled by a negative feedback loop wherein the Gli transcription factors activate the enhanced transcription of a repressor (Ptc).", "This signaling network illustrates the simultaneous positive and negative feedback loops whose exquisite sensitivity helps create a bistable switch.Bistability can only arise in biological and chemical systems if three necessary conditions are fulfilled: positive feedback, a mechanism to filter out small stimuli and a mechanism to prevent increase without bound.Bistable chemical systems have been studied extensively to analyze relaxation kinetics, non-equilibrium thermodynamics, stochastic resonance, as well as climate change.", "In bistable spatially extended systems the onset of local correlations and propagation of traveling waves have been analyzed.Bistability is often accompanied by hysteresis.", "On a population level, if many realisations of a bistable system are considered (e.g.", "many bistable cells (speciation)), one typically observes bimodal distributions.", "In an ensemble average over the population, the result may simply look like a smooth transition, thus showing the value of single-cell resolution.A specific type of instability is known as ''modehopping'', which is bi-stability in the frequency space.", "Here trajectories can shoot between two stable limit cycles, and thus show similar characteristics as normal bi-stability when measured inside a Poincare section." ], [ "In mechanical systems", "A ratchet in action.", "Each tooth in the ratchet together with the regions to either side of it constitutes a simple bistable mechanism.Bistability as applied in the design of mechanical systems is more commonly said to be \"over centre\"—that is, work is done on the system to move it just past the peak, at which point the mechanism goes \"over centre\" to its secondary stable position.", "The result is a toggle-type action- work applied to the system below a threshold sufficient to send it 'over center' results in no change to the mechanism's state.Springs are a common method of achieving an \"over centre\" action.", "A spring attached to a simple two position ratchet-type mechanism can create a button or plunger that is clicked or toggled between two mechanical states.", "Many ballpoint and rollerball retractable pens employ this type of bistable mechanism.An even more common example of an over-center device is an ordinary electric wall switch.", "These switches are often designed to snap firmly into the \"on\" or \"off\" position once the toggle handle has been moved a certain distance past the center-point.A ratchet-and-pawl is an elaboration—a multi-stable \"over center\" system used to create irreversible motion.", "The pawl goes over center as it is turned in the forward direction.", "In this case, \"over center\" refers to the ratchet being stable and \"locked\" in a given position until clicked forward again; it has nothing to do with the ratchet being unable to turn in the reverse direction." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Żelazo na szczury, kuny, dziki - Piłka - 003408n.jpg|An animal foothold trapFile:Slap bracelet wiki loves earth logo.jpg|A slap braceletFile:Mechanischer Schalter (Schwarz).jpg|A toggle switchFile:Seesaw.jpg|A traditional seesawFile:BB clip.jpg|A snapclipFile:Two mouse traps.jpg|Mouse trapsFile:Iver Johnson Safety Hammer grip.jpg|Safety hammer of a revolverFile:オレンズ(0.5と0.3).jpg|Retractable pens" ], [ "See also", "* Multistability – the generalized case of more than two stable points* In psychology* ferroelectric, ferromagnetic, hysteresis, bistable perception* Schmitt trigger* strong Allee effect* Interferometric modulator display, a bistable reflective display technology found in mirasol displays by Qualcomm" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BiStable Reed Sensor" ] ]

[ [ "Bjørn Lomborg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bjørn Lomborg''' (; born 6 January 1965) is a Danish author and the president of the think tank Copenhagen Consensus Center.", "He is the former director of the Danish government's Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI) in Copenhagen.", "He became internationally known for his best-selling book ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' (2001).This book's claim that many environmental issues are overstated was criticized by the scientific community and brought Lomborg popular media attention.", "In 2002, Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus.", "In 2004, he was listed as one of ''Time's'' 100 most influential people.In his subsequent book, ''Cool It'' (2007), and its film adaptation, Lomborg outlined his views on global warming, many of which contradict the scientific consensus on climate change.", "These views include the claim that the negative impacts are overstated and the opinion that too much emphasis is put on climate change mitigation at the expense of climate change adaptation.", "Lomborg agrees that global warming is real and man-made and will have a serious impact but enumerates other disagreements with the scientific consensus.", "In 2009, ''Business Insider'' cited Lomborg as one of \"The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics\".Lomborg's views and work have attracted scrutiny from the scientific community.", "The majority of scientists reacted negatively to ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', and he was formally accused of scientific misconduct over the book; the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty concluded in an evaluation of the book that \"one couldn't prove that Lomborg had deliberately been scientifically dishonest, although he had broken the rules of scientific practice in that he interpreted results beyond the conclusions of the authors he cited.\"", "His positions on climate change have been challenged by experts and characterized as cherry picking." ], [ "Education", "Lomborg was an undergraduate at the University of Georgia, earned an M.A.", "degree in political science at the Aarhus University in 1991, and a PhD degree in political science at the University of Copenhagen in 1994." ], [ "Career", "Lomborg lectured in statistics in the Department of Political Science at the Aarhus University as an assistant professor (1994–1996) and associate professor (1997–2005).", "He left the university in February 2005 and in May of that year became an adjunct professor in Policy-making, Scientific Knowledge and the Role of Experts at the Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School.Early in his career, his professional areas of interest lay in the simulation of strategies in collective action dilemmas, simulation of party behavior in proportional voting systems, and the use of surveys in public administration.", "In 1996, Lomborg's paper, \"Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma\", was published in the academic journal ''American Sociological Review''.Later, Lomborg's interests shifted to the use of statistics in the environmental arena.", "In 1998, Lomborg published four essays about the state of the environment in the leading Danish newspaper ''Politiken'', which according to him \"resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers.\"", "This led to the ''Skeptical Environmentalist'', whose English translation was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001.The book brought him international prominence as an opponent of the scientific consensus on climate change.", "He later edited ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', which presented the first conclusions of the Copenhagen Consensus, published in 2004 by the Cambridge University Press.", "In 2007, he authored a book entitled ''Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming.", "''Loborg speaking at the Alliance for Responsible Citizenship, London, 2023In March 2002, the newly elected center-right prime minister, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, appointed Lomborg to run Denmark's new Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI).", "On 22 June 2004, Lomborg announced his decision to resign from this post to go back to the Aarhus University, saying his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector.", "As of 2020, Lomborg is a visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank.", "In 2023 he was a mainstage speaker at the inaugural Alliance for Responsible Citizenship" ], [ "Books", "=== ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' ===In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', a controversial book whose main thesis is that many of the most-publicized claims and predictions on environmental issues are wrong.", "The book received negative reviews among the scientific community, including from the Union of Concerned Scientists, ''Nature'' and ''Scientific American'', with many scientists criticising its assertions as poorly supported, selectively using data and misrepresenting sources.", "However, it was well received in popular media and brought Lomborg to international attention.==== Formal accusations of scientific dishonesty ====After the publication of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', Lomborg was formally accused of scientific dishonesty by a group of environmental scientists, who brought a total of three complaints against him to the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DCSD), a body under Denmark's Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI).", "Lomborg was asked whether he regarded the book as a \"debate\" publication, and thereby not under the purview of the DCSD, or as a scientific work; he chose the latter, clearing the way for the inquiry that followed.", "The charges claimed that ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' contained deliberately misleading data and flawed conclusions.", "Due to the similarity of the complaints, the DCSD decided to proceed on the three cases under one investigation.In January 2003, the DCSD released a ruling that sent a mixed message, finding the book to be scientifically dishonest through misrepresentation of scientific facts, but Lomborg himself not guilty due to his lack of expertise in the fields in question.", "That February, Lomborg filed a complaint against the decision with the MSTI, which had oversight over the DCSD.", "In December, 2003, the Ministry annulled the DCSD decision, citing procedural errors, including lack of documentation of errors in the book, and asked the DCSD to re-examine the case.", "In March 2004, the DCSD formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion.The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition signed by 287 Danish academics, primarily social scientists, who criticized the DCSD for evaluating the book as a work of science, whereas the petitioners considered it clearly an opinion piece by a non-scientist.", "The Danish Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency (DRA) to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices.", "In response to this, another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures, primarily from the medical and natural sciences community, to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the DRA.=== ''Cool It'' ===Lomborg's follow-up to ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', ''Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming'', was published in 2007.In it, Lomborg expanded on his views of climate change.", "Lomborg starts with the premise \"Global warming is real and man-made.", "It will have a serious impact on humans and the environment toward the end of this century.\"", "Lomborg argues at length that warming will result in ''reducing'' total deaths from extreme temperatures, due to warming in cold climates.", "The main theme is that then-current approaches for addressing climate change, such as the Kyoto Protocol on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, were not economically cost-effective.", "''The Lomborg Deception'', a 2010 Yale University Press book by Howard Friel, analyzed the ways in which Lomborg has \"selectively used (and sometimes distorted) the available evidence\", and alleged that the sources Lomborg provided in the footnotes did not support and, in some cases directly contradicted, Lomborg's assertions in the text of the book.", "Lomborg denied those claims in a 27-page argument-by-argument response.", "Friel wrote a reply to that response, in which he admitted two errors but otherwise rejected Lomborg's arguments.==== Documentary film ====Bjørn Lomborg was the subject of documentary feature film ''Cool It'', adapted from his book of the same name.", "It was released on 12 November 2010 in the US.", "The film in part explicitly challenged Al Gore's 2006 Oscar-winning environmental awareness documentary, ''An Inconvenient Truth''.\"", "The film received a media critic collective rating of 51% from Rotten Tomatoes and 61% from Metacritic." ], [ "Copenhagen Consensus", "Lomborg (right) with DeAnne Julius (center) and Stephen Sackur (left), at WTTC Global Summit 2014Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus in 2002, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics.", "A panel of prominent economists was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems every four years.", "The project was funded largely by the Danish government and was co-sponsored by ''The Economist''.", "A book summarizing the conclusions of the economists' first assessment, ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by Cambridge University Press.In 2006, Lomborg became director of the newly established Copenhagen Consensus Center, a Danish government-funded institute intended to build on the mandate of the EAI, and expand on the original Copenhagen Consensus conference.", "Denmark withdrew its funding in 2012 and the Center faced imminent closure.", "Lomborg left the country and reconstituted the Center as a non-profit organization in the United States.", "The Center was based out of a \"Neighborhood Parcel Shipping Center\" in Lowell, Massachusetts, though Lomborg himself was based in Prague in the Czech Republic.", "In 2015, Lomborg described the center's funding as \"a little more than $1m a year ... from private donations\", of which Lomborg himself was paid $775,000 in 2012.=== Australian Consensus Centre ===In 2014, the Australian Government offered the University of Western Australia $4 million to establish a \"consensus centre\", with Lomborg as director.", "The university accepted the offer, setting off a firestorm of opposition from its faculty and students, and from climate scientists around the world.", "In April 2015, the university reversed the decision and rejected the offer.", "The government continued to seek a sponsor for the proposed institution.", "On 21 October 2015, the offered funding was withdrawn.", "In April 2015, it was announced that an alliance between the Copenhagen Consensus Center and the University of Western Australia would see the establishment of the Australian Consensus Centre, a new policy research center at the UWA Business School.", "The University described the Center's goals as a \"focus on applying an economic lens to proposals to achieve good for Australia, the region and the world, prioritizing those initiatives which produce the most social value per dollar spent.\".", "This appointment came under intense scrutiny, particularly when leaked documents revealed that the Australian government had approached UWA and offered to fund the Consensus Centre, information subsequently confirmed by a senior UWA lecturer.", "Reports indicated that Prime Minister Tony Abbott's office was directly responsible for Lomborg's elevation.", "$4 million of the total funding for the Center was to be provided by the Australian federal government, with UWA not contributing any funding for the centre.On 8 May 2015, UWA cancelled the contract for hosting the Australian Consensus Centre as \"the proposed centre was untenable and lacked academic support\".", "The Australian federal education minister, Christopher Pyne, said that he would find another university to host the ACC.In July 2015, Flinders University senior management began quietly canvassing its staff about a plan to host the renamed Lomborg Consensus Centre at the University, likely in the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences.", "A week later the story was broken on Twitter by the NTEU (National Tertiary Education Union) and Scott Ludlam.", "The story appeared the next day in ''The Australian'', but described as \"academic conversations\" with no mention of Bjorn Lomborg's involvement and portrayed as a grassroots desire for the Centre by the University.", "The following week, a story appeared in ''The Guardian'' quoting two Flinders University academics and an internal document demonstrating staff's withering rejection of the idea.", "Flinders staff and students vowed to fight against the establishment of any Centre or any partnership with Lomborg, citing his lack of scientific credibility, his lack of academic legitimacy and the political nature of the process of establishing the Centre with the Abbott federal government.", "The Australian Youth Climate Coalition and 350.org launched a national campaign to support staff and students in their rejection of Lomborg.On 21 October 2015, education minister Simon Birmingham told a senate committee the offered funding had been withdrawn.", "It was subsequently unclear whether the Australian Government would honour its original commitment and transfer the funds directly to the Centre to cover the costs incurred." ], [ "Views on climate change", "global warming \"hiatus\", which Lomborg highlighted in the 2010s.Lomborg has set out his views on climate change in several books, articles, interviews, and opinion pieces.", "Lomborg believes that climate change is occurring and humans are responsible, but disputes that the effects and economic impacts will be negative.", "He argues that finances should be spent elsewhere, rather than on mitigation.", "He does not support solar panels, saying they are \"inefficient\", which is \"why you have to subsidise them\", despite fossil fuels also being subsidized.", "According to Reuters, \"many nations, especially in the developing world where food and water supplies are most vulnerable to climate shifts projected by the U.N. panel of climate scientists, reject Lomborg’s views\" that investment into technology is an adequate response to climate change.", "He has opposed the Kyoto Protocol and called the Paris Agreement a \"charade\".", "He has been accused of exaggerating the economic costs of climate change mitigation policies.Several of Lomborg's articles, in newspapers such as ''The Wall Street Journal'' and ''The Daily Telegraph'', have been checked by Climate Feedback, a worldwide network of scientists who assess the credibility of influential climate change media coverage.", "The Climate Feedback reviewers assessed that the scientific credibility of the articles ranged between \"low\" and \"very low\".", "The Climate Feedback reviewers came to the conclusion that in one case, Lomborg \"practices cherry picking\"; in a second case, he \"had reached his conclusions through cherry-picking from a small subset of the evidence, misrepresenting the results of existing studies, and relying on flawed reasoning\"; in a third case, \"his article is in blatant disagreement with available scientific evidence, while the author does not offer adequate evidence to support his statements\"; and in a fourth case, \"The author, Bjorn Lomborg, cherry-picks this specific piece of research and uses it in support of a broad argument against the value of climate policy.", "He also misrepresents the Paris Agreement to downplay its potential to curb future climate change.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Lomborg is gay and a vegetarian.", "As a public figure he has been a participant in information campaigns in Denmark about homosexuality, and states that \"Being a public gay is to my view a civic responsibility.", "It's important to show that the width of the gay world cannot be described by a tired stereotype, but goes from leather gays on parade-wagons to suit-and-tie yuppies on the direction floor, as well as everything in between\"." ], [ "Recognition and awards", "* The Global Leaders of Tomorrow (Class 2002) – World Economic Forum (2002)* The Stars of Europe (category: Agenda Setters) – ''BusinessWeek'' (17 June 2002): \"No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core.", "\"* The 2004 ''Time'' 100 (in Scientists & Thinkers) – ''Time'' (26 April 2004): \"Our list of the most influential people in the world today: He just might be the Martin Luther of the environmental movement.", "\"* Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#14) ''Foreign Policy'' and ''Prospect'' (2005)* Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#41) ''Foreign Policy'' and ''Prospect'' (2008)* 50 people who could save the planet – ''The Guardian'' (5 January 2008)* Glocal Hero Award – Transatlantyk – Poznań International Film and Music Festival (2011)* FP Top 100 Global Thinkers – ''Foreign Policy'' (2012): \"For taking the black and white out of climate politics\"" ], [ "Discussions in the media", "After the release of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the media.", "As in the scientific community, his scientific qualifications and integrity were criticized, although some popular media outlets supported him.", "The verdict of the Danish Committees for Scientific Dishonesty fueled this debate and brought it into the spotlight of international mass media.", "By the end of 2003 Lomborg had become an international celebrity, with frequent appearances on radio, television and print media around the world.", "He is also a regular contributor to Project Syndicate since 2005.", "* ''Scientific American'' published criticism of Lomborg's book.", "Lomborg responded on his own website, quoting the article at such length that ''Scientific American'' threatened to sue for copyright infringement.", "Lomborg eventually removed the rebuttal from his website; it was later published in PDF format on ''Scientific American''s site.", "The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal.", "* ''The Economist'' defended Lomborg, claiming the panel of experts that had criticized Lomborg in ''Scientific American'' was both biased and did not actually counter Lomborg's book.", "''The Economist'' argued that the panel's opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg's responses had not been reported.", "* ''Penn & Teller: Bullshit!''", "— the U.S. Showtime television programme featured an episode entitled \"Environmental Hysteria\" in which Lomborg criticized what he claimed was environmentalists' refusal to accept a cost–benefit analysis of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others.", "* ''Rolling Stone'' stated, \"Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty's concern for the fate of the planet.", "\"* The Union of Concerned Scientists criticized ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', claiming it to be \"seriously flawed and failing to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis\", accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature.", "The review was conducted by Peter Gleick, Jerry D. Mahlman, Edward O. Wilson, Thomas Lovejoy, Norman Myers, Jeff Harvey, and Stuart Pimm.", "* ''The New York Times'' criticized ''False Alarm'', stating \"This book proves the aphorism that a little knowledge is dangerous.", "It's nominally about air pollution.", "It's really about mind pollution.\"", "The review was conducted by Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz." ], [ "Publications", "* \"Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma\", ''American Sociological Review'', 1996.", "* * ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', Copenhagen Consensus, Cambridge University Press, 2004., as editor* ''How to Spend $50 Billion to Make the World a Better Place'', Cambridge University Press, 2006., as editor* ''Solutions for the World's Biggest Problems – Costs and Benefits'', Cambridge University Press, 2007., as editor* * ''Smart Solutions to Climate Change, Comparing Costs and Benefits'', Cambridge University Press, 2010, .", "* ''The Nobel Laureates Guide to the Smartest Targets for the World 2016–2030'', Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2015.", "* ''Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals'' Cambridge University Press, 2018, , as editor* * * ''Best Things First: The 12 Most Efficient Solutions for the World's Poorest and Our Global SDG Promises'', Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2023." ], [ "See also", "* Global warming controversy* Environmental skepticism* Project Syndicate" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Sarvis, Will.", "Embracing Philanthropic Environmentalism: The Grand Responsibility of Stewardship, (McFarland, 2019).", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Lomborg's personal website, with own articles, links to related broadcasts on radio and TV, and Lomborg's opinion on the issues with the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty* Column archive at ''The Guardian''* Column archive at Project Syndicate* * * * \"Lomborg Errors\" compilation of claims of errors in Lomborg's work* * ;Interviews***;Articles**** ****" ] ]

[ [ "Banda Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Location of the Banda Islands in the center of the Maluku IslandsMap of the Banda IslandsThe '''Banda Islands''' () are a volcanic group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea, about south of Seram Island and about east of Java, and constitute an administrative district (''kecamatan'') within the Central Maluku Regency in the Indonesian province of Maluku.", "The islands rise out of deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately .", "They had a population of 18,544 at the 2010 Census and 20,924 at the 2020 Census.", "Until the mid-19th century the Banda Islands were the world's only source of the spices nutmeg and mace, produced from the nutmeg tree.", "The islands are also popular destinations for scuba diving and snorkeling.", "The main town and administrative centre is Banda Neira, located on the island of the same name." ], [ "History", "===Pre-European history===The first documented human presence in the Banda Islands comes from a rock shelter site on Pulau Ay that was in use at least 8,000 years ago.The earliest mention of the Banda Islands is found in Chinese records dating as far back as 200 BCE though there is speculation that it is mentioned in earlier Indian sources.", "The Srivijaya Kingdom had extensive trade contacts with the Banda Islands.", "Also during this period (from the late 13th century and onwards) Islam arrived in the region.", "It soon became established in the area.Before the arrival of Europeans, Banda had an oligarchic form of government led by ('rich men') and the Bandanese had an active and independent role in trade throughout the archipelago.", "Banda was the world's only source of nutmeg and mace, spices used as flavourings, medicines, and preserving agents that were at the time highly valued in European markets.", "They were sold by Arab traders to the Venetians for exorbitant prices.", "The traders did not divulge the exact location of their source and no European was able to deduce their location.The first written accounts of Banda are in ''Suma Oriental'', a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires who was based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515 but visited Banda several times.", "On his first visit, he interviewed the Portuguese and the far more knowledgeable Malay sailors in Malacca.", "He estimated the early sixteenth century population to be 2500–3000.He reported the Bandanese as being part of an Indonesia-wide trading network and the only native Malukan long-range traders taking cargo to Malacca, although shipments from Banda were also being made by Javanese traders.In addition to the production of nutmeg and mace, Banda maintained significant entrepôt trade; goods that moved through Banda included cloves from Ternate and Tidore in the north, bird-of-paradise feathers from the Aru Islands and Western New Guinea, and ''massoi'' bark for traditional medicines and salves.", "In exchange, Banda predominantly received rice and cloth; namely light cotton ''batik'' from Java, ''calicoes'' from India and ''ikat'' from the Lesser Sundas.", "In 1603, an average quality ''sarong''-sized cloth traded for eighteen kilograms of nutmeg.", "Some of these textiles were then sold on, ending up in Halmahera and New Guinea.", "Coarser ''ikat'' from the Lesser Sundas was traded for sago from the Kei Islands, Aru and Seram.===Portuguese===In August 1511, on behalf of the king of Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was a major hub of Asian trade.", "In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learned of the Banda Islands' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his good friend António de Abreu to find them.", "Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512.The first Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained in Banda for about one month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg, mace, and cloves, in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade.", "D'Abreu sailed through Ambon and Seram while his second in command Francisco Serrão went ahead towards the Maluku islands, was shipwrecked and ended up in Ternate.Distracted by hostilities elsewhere in the archipelago, such as Ambon and Ternate, the Portuguese did not return to the Banda Islands until 1529, when Portuguese trader Captain Garcia Henriques landed troops.", "Five of the Banda islands were within gunshot of each other and Henriques realised that a fort on the main island Neira would give him full control of the group.", "The Bandanese were, however, hostile to such a plan, and their warlike behavior was both costly and tiresome to Garcia whose men were attacked when they attempted to build a fort.", "From then on, the Portuguese were infrequent visitors to the islands, preferring to buy their nutmeg from traders in Malacca.Unlike inhabitants of other eastern Indonesian islands visited by the Portuguese, such as Ambon, Solor, Ternate and Morotai, the Bandanese displayed no enthusiasm for Christianity or the Europeans who brought it in the sixteenth century, and no serious attempt was made to Christianise the Bandanese.", "Maintaining their independence, the Bandanese never allowed the Portuguese to build a fort or permanent post in the islands.", "Ironically, it was this lack of presence which attracted the Dutch to trade in Banda instead of the clove-producing islands of Ternate and Tidore.===Dutch control===Fort Nassau in 1646The Dutch followed the Portuguese to Banda but were to have a much more dominating and lasting presence.", "Dutch–Bandanese relations were mutually resentful from the outset, with Holland's first merchants complaining of Bandanese reneging on agreed deliveries and price, and cheating on quantity and quality.", "For the Bandanese, on the other hand, although they welcomed another competitor purchaser for their spices, the items of trade offered by the Dutch—heavy woolens, and damasks, unwanted manufactured goods, for example—were usually unsuitable in comparison to traditional trade products.", "The Javanese, Arab and Indian, and Portuguese traders for example brought indispensable items along with steel knives, copper, medicines, and prized Chinese porcelain.As much as the Dutch disliked dealing with the Bandanese, the trade was a highly profitable one with spices selling for 300 times the purchase price in Banda.", "This amply justified the expense and risk in shipping them to Europe.", "The allure of such profits saw an increasing number of Dutch expeditions; it was soon seen that in trade with the East Indies, competition from each would eat into all their profits.", "Thus the competitors united to form the (VOC) (the United East India Company, referred to in English as the Dutch East India Company) in 1602.Until the early seventeenth century the Bandas were ruled by a group of leading citizens, the (literally 'rich men'); each of these was head of a district.", "At the time nutmeg was one of the \"fine spices\" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian Fernand Braudel notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe.", "A number of Banda's were persuaded by the Dutch to sign a treaty granting the Dutch a monopoly on spice purchases.", "Even though the Bandanese had little understanding of the significance of the treaty known as 'The Eternal Compact', or that not all Bandanese leaders had signed, it would later be used to justify Dutch troops being brought in to defend their monopoly.In April 1609, Admiral Pieter Willemsz.", "Verhoeff arrived at Banda Neira with a request by Maurice, Prince of Orange to build a fort on the island (the eventual Fort Nassau).", "The Bandanese were not excited about this idea.", "On 22 May, before building of the fort had started, the called a meeting with the Dutch admiral, purportedly to negotiate prices.", "Instead, they led Verhoeff and two high-ranked men into an ambush and decapitated them and subsequently killed 46 of the Dutch visitors.", "Jan Pietersz Coen, who was a lower-ranked merchant on the expedition, managed to escape, but the traumatic event likely influenced his future attitude towards the Bandanese.Fort Belgica in 1824===English–Dutch rivalry===While Portuguese and Spanish activity in the region had weakened, the English had built fortified trading posts on tiny Ai and Run islands, ten to twenty kilometres from the main Banda Islands.", "With the English paying higher prices, they were significantly undermining Dutch aims for a monopoly.", "As Anglo-Dutch tensions increased in 1611 the Dutch built the larger and more strategic Fort Belgica above Fort Nassau.In 1615, the Dutch invaded Ai with 900 men, whereupon the English retreated to Run where they regrouped.", "Japanese mercenaries served in the Dutch forces.", "That same night, the English launched a surprise counter-attack on Ai, retaking the island and killing 200 Dutchmen.", "A year later, a much stronger Dutch force attacked Ai.", "This time the defenders were able to hold off the attack with cannon fire, but after a month of siege they ran out of ammunition.", "The Dutch killed the defenders, and afterwards strengthened the fort, renaming it 'Fort Revenge'.Colonial soldiers standing guard next to the statue of King Willem III of the Netherlands, representing Dutch dominance on Banda.===Massacre of the Bandanese===Newly appointed VOC governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen set about enforcing Dutch monopoly over the Banda's spice trade.", "In 1621 well-armed soldiers were landed on Bandaneira Island and within a few days they had also occupied neighbouring and larger Lontar.", "The were forced at gunpoint to sign an unfeasibly arduous treaty, one that was in fact impossible to keep, thus providing Coen an excuse to use superior Dutch force against the Bandanese.", "The Dutch quickly noted a number of alleged violations of the new treaty, in response to which Coen launched a punitive massacre.", "Japanese mercenaries were hired to deal with the , forty of whom were beheaded with their heads impaled and displayed on bamboo spears.", "The butchering and beheadings were carried out by the Japanese for the Dutch.The islanders were tortured and their villages destroyed by the Dutch.", "The Bandanese chiefs were also tortured by the Dutch and Japanese.The Dutch carved 68 parcels out of the islands after the enslavement and slaughter of the natives.The population of the Banda Islands prior to Dutch conquest is generally estimated to have been around 13,000–15,000 people, some of whom were Malay and Javanese traders, as well as Chinese and Arabs.", "The actual numbers of Bandanese who were killed, forcibly expelled or fled the islands in 1621 remain uncertain.", "But readings of historical sources suggest around one thousand Bandanese likely survived in the islands, and were spread throughout the nutmeg groves as forced labourers.", "The Dutch subsequently re-settled the islands with imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.", "Most survivors fled as refugees to the islands of their trading partners, in particular Keffing and Guli Guli in the Seram Laut chain and Kei Besar.", "Shipments of surviving Bandanese were also sent to Batavia (Jakarta) to work as slaves in developing the city and its fortress.", "Some 530 of these individuals were later returned to the islands because of their much-needed expertise in nutmeg cultivation (something sorely lacking among newly arrived Dutch settlers).Whereas up until this point the Dutch presence had been simply as traders, that was sometimes treaty-based, the Banda conquest marked the start of the first overt colonial rule in Indonesia, albeit under the auspices of the VOC.===VOC monopoly===Banda Neira in 1724Having nearly eradicated the islands' native population, Coen divided the productive land of approximately half a million nutmeg trees into sixty-eight 1.2-hectare .", "These land parcels were then handed to Dutch planters known as of which 34 were on Lontar, 31 on Ai and 3 on Neira.", "With few Bandanese left to work them, slaves from elsewhere were brought in.", "Now enjoying control of the nutmeg production, the VOC paid the nd of the Dutch market price for nutmeg; however, the still profited immensely, building substantial villas with opulent imported European decorations.The outlying island of Run was harder for the VOC to control and they exterminated all nutmeg trees there.", "The production and export of nutmeg was a VOC monopoly for almost two hundred years.", "Fort Belgica, one of many forts built by the Dutch East India Company, is one of the largest remaining European forts in Indonesia.===English–Dutch rivalry continues===Though not physically present at the Banda Islands, the English claimed the small island of Run until 1667 when, under the Treaty of Breda, the Dutch and English agreed to maintain the colonial status quo and relinquish their respective claims.View of the Island of Banda-Neira captured by the British on 9 August 1810In 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was a vassal of Napoleonic France and hence in conflict with Britain.", "The French and British were each seeking to control lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes.", "On 10 May 1810, a squadron consisting of the 36-gun frigate , HMS ''Piedmontaise'' (formerly a French frigate), 18-gun sloop , and the 12-gun transport left Madras with money, supplies and troops to support the garrison at Amboyna, recently captured from the Dutch.", "The frigates and sloop carried a hundred officers and men of the Madras European Regiment, while the ''Mandarin'' carried supplies.", "The squadron was commanded by Captain Christopher Cole, with Captain Charles Foote on the ''Piedmontaise'' and Captain Richard Kenah aboard the ''Barracouta''.", "After departing from Madras, Cole informed Foote and Kenah of Cole's plan to capture the Bandas; Foote and Kenah agreed.", "In Singapore, Captain Spencer informed Cole that over 700 regular Dutch troops may have been located in the Bandas.The squadron took a circuitous route to avoid alerting the Dutch.", "On 9 August 1810, the British appeared at Banda Neira.", "They quickly stormed the island and attacked Belgica Castle at sunrise.", "The battle was over within hours, with the Dutch surrendering Fort Nassau – after some subterfuge – and within days the remainder of the Banda Islands.", "After the Dutch surrender, Captain Charles Foote (of the ''Piedmontaise'') was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Banda Islands.", "This action was a prelude to Britain's invasion of Java in 1811.Before the Dutch retook control of the islands, the British removed many nutmeg trees and transplanted them to Ceylon and other British colonies.", "The competition largely destroyed the value of the Banda Islands to the Dutch.===Recent history===In the late 1990s, violence between Christians and Muslims spilled over from intercommunal conflict in Ambon.", "The disturbance and resulting deaths damaged the previously prosperous tourism industry." ], [ "Geography", "There are seven inhabited islands and several that are uninhabited.", "The inhabited islands are:The active volcano Banda Api in the Banda IslandsThe main island, Banda Neira (centre) viewed from the peak of Gunung Api volcano.", "In the background is Lontar Island (Banda Besar).Main group (formed from the drowned caldera of a former volcano):*Banda Neira, or Naira, the island with the administrative capital and a small airfield (as well as accommodation for visitors).", "Present on Banda Neira is Fort Belgica, one of the largest remaining Dutch forts that are still intact in Indonesia.", "*Banda Api, an active volcano (Gunung Api) with a peak of about 650 m*Banda Besar, or Lonthoir, is the largest island (Indonesian ''besar'', big), long and wide.", "It has three main settlements, Lonthoir, Selamon and Waer.Some distance to the west:*Pulau Ai or Pulau Ay*Pulau Run, further west again.", "In the 17th century, this island was involved in an exchange between the British and the Dutch: it was exchanged for the island of Manhattan in New York.To the east:*Pulau Pisang (Banana Island), also known as Syahrir.To the southeast:*Pulau Hatta, formerly Rosengain or RozengainOthers, possibly small and/or uninhabited, are:*Nailaka, a short distance northeast of Pulau Run*Batu Kapal, a small island northwest of Pulau Pisang*Manuk, an active volcano*Pulau Keraka or Pulau Karaka (Crab Island), a short distance north of Banda Api*Manukang or Suanggi, to the northwest of the main group*Hatta ReefThe islands are part of the Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests ecoregion." ], [ "Demographics", "===Language===Bandanese speak Banda Malay, which has several features distinguishing it from Ambonese Malay, a Malay dialect that is a lingua franca in central and southern Maluku alongside Indonesian.", "Banda Malay is famous in the region for its unique, lilting accent, but it also has a number of locally identifying words in its lexicon, many of them borrowings or loanwords from Dutch.Examples:* fork: (Dutch )* ant: (Dutch )* spoon: (Dutch )* difficult: (Dutch )* floor: (Dutch )* porch: (Dutch )Banda Malay shares many Portuguese loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in the national language, Indonesian.", "But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation.Examples:* turtle: (Banda Malay); (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese )* throat: (Banda Malay); (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese )Finally, and most noticeably, Banda Malay uses some distinct pronouns.", "The most immediately distinguishing is that of the second person singular familiar form of address: .The descendants of some of the Bandanese who fled Dutch conquest in the seventeenth century live in the Kai Islands (Kepulauan Kei) to the east of the Banda group, where a version of the original Banda language is still spoken in the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kai Besar Island.", "While long integrated into Kei Island society, residents of these settlements continue to value the historical origins of their ancestors." ], [ "Culture", "Most of the present-day inhabitants of the Banda Islands are descended from migrants and plantation labourers from various parts of Indonesia, as well as from indigenous Bandanese.", "They have inherited aspects of pre-colonial ritual practices in the Banda Islands that are highly valued and still performed, giving them a distinct and very local cultural identity." ], [ "See also", "*1938 Banda Sea earthquake*Dutch East India Company in Indonesia*History of Indonesia*List of earthquakes in Indonesia**Maluku Islands" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ghosh, Amitav (2021). ''", "The Nutmeg's Curse: Parables for a Planet in Crisis''.", "University of Chicago Press.", "ISBN 1529369479.", "*Giles Milton.", "''Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History'' (Sceptre books, Hodder and Stoughton, London)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "General references", "****Warburg, Otto (1897) ''Die Muskatnuss: ihre Geschichte, Botanik, Kultur, Handel und Verwerthung sowie ihre Verfälschungen und Surrogate zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte der Banda-Inseln''.", "Leipzig: Engelmann.", "***" ], [ "External links", "** Capture of Banda Neira by the British Royal Navy 1810** Forts of the Spice Islands" ] ]

[ [ "Brisbane Broncos" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Football Club Ltd.''', commonly referred to as the '''Broncos''', is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in Brisbane, Queensland.", "Founded in April 1987, the Broncos currently compete in the National Rugby League (NRL).", "The club has won six premierships, including two New South Wales Rugby League premierships, a Super League premiership and three NRL premierships.", "The Broncos have won two World Club Challenges, and four minor premierships in multiple competitions.", "Prior to 2015, Brisbane had never been defeated in a grand final, and since 1991, the club has failed to qualify for the finals five times.", "The club is one of the most successful clubs in the National Rugby League since it began in 1998, winning three premierships (second only to the Sydney Roosters, Penrith Panthers and Melbourne Storm's four).", "The club is one of the most successful clubs in the history of rugby league, having won 59.9% of games played since its induction in 1988, second only to Melbourne Storm with 67.3%.In 2012, the club recorded the highest annual revenue of all NRL clubs.", "Along with financial competitiveness in 2009, the Broncos was voted one of Australia's most popular and most watched football teams, and has one of the highest average attendances of any rugby league club in the world; 33,337 in the 2012 NRL season.The club was founded in April 1987 as part of the Winfield Cup's national expansion, becoming, along with the Gold Coast-Tweed Giants, one of Queensland's first two participants in the New South Wales Rugby League premiership.", "The Broncos later became the dominant force in the competition before playing a significant role in the Super League War of the mid-1990s, then continuing to compete successfully in the newly created National Rugby League competition.", "The Broncos are based in the Brisbane suburb of Red Hill where their training ground and Leagues club are located (), but they play their home games at Suncorp Stadium in nearby Milton.", "It is the only publicly listed sports club on the Australian Securities Exchange, trading as Brisbane Broncos Limited ().At the end of the 2020 regular season, head coach Anthony Seibold resigned after the club secured its first wooden spoon.", "Kevin Walters accepted an initial two-year contract as head coach." ], [ "History", "=== Beginnings (1988–1991) ===A Brisbane license was the Queensland Rugby League's direct response to the threat posed by the VFL's (now AFL) expansion team the Brisbane Bears which was granted a license in 1986 for entry in the 1987 season.", "Soon after the granting of the license, QRL officials mobilized, seeking a NSWRL franchise and rich backers.", "The aim of QRL general manager Ross Livermore was specifically to stifle the VFL's publicity and promotions in the state.The QRL's bid was bolstered by Queensland's success in the 1980s, the early years of the State of Origin series between Queensland and New South Wales, in addition to the inclusion of a combined Brisbane Rugby League team in the mid-week competition, convinced the New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) to invite a Queensland-based team into the competition.", "After tough competition between the various syndicates for the Brisbane licence, the QRL chose the bid of former Brisbane Rugby League (BRL) players, Barry Maranta and Paul Morgan.", "At the first meeting with the NSWRL hierarchy, the newly formed Brisbane Broncos were asked to pay a $500,000 fee.Darren Lockyer playing for the Broncos in 2004.Lockyer made his Broncos debut in 1995 and is a former captain of the Brisbane Broncos.The Broncos secured the services of Australia national rugby league team captain Wally Lewis to be the inaugural club captain and former BRL and then Canberra Raiders coach Wayne Bennett, on top of a host of other talented players including Chris Johns, Allan Langer, Terry Matterson, Gene Miles and Kerrod Walters.", "The team made their debut in the NSWRL's 1988 Winfield Cup premiership against reigning premiers, the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, and defeated them 44–10.They sat inside the Top 4 for a majority of the season, even sitting in 1st for 3 weeks.", "But the competition race was so tight, a 16–4 loss to the South Sydney Rabbitohs in Round 14 was enough to drop them from 2nd to 6th.", "Brisbane would not return to the Top 5, and a 20–10 loss to eventual runners up Balmain Tigers denied them the chance to enter a playoff for 5th place.", "Leading into 1989, Brisbane recruited Sam Backo from the Raiders while Steve Renouf was given his first grade debut.", "In their second season they won the mid-week knockout competition, the 1989 Panasonic Cup, but their league performance again revolved around a midseason slump, this time a 5-game losing streak which dropped them from 2nd to 7th.", "Brisbane would recover to enter a playoff for the 5th and final spot in the finals, but lost 38–14 to the Cronulla Sharks, ending their season.Leading up to the 1990 season, Brisbane recruited Kevin Walters from Canberra.", "However, the biggest news was the decision of Bennett to remove Lewis as club captain on the basis that he wasn't a good trainer or teammate, with Miles resuming the captaincy of the side.", "While the move was controversial, it seemed to have the desired effect, as the Broncos finished the season in 2nd, qualifying for their maiden finals series.", "Their finals debut was an upset 26–16 loss to the Penrith Panthers in the major Preliminary Semi, before they beat Manly 12–4 in the Minor Semi to qualify for a Preliminary Final showdown with Canberra.", "With a spot in the Grand Final on the line, Brisbane collapsed in sensational fashion at the Sydney Football Stadium (SFS), losing 32–4.Lewis, still upset about Bennett's treatment of his captaincy, left the club to go to the Gold Coast.", "He was replaced by Trevor Gillmeister, who joined from the Eastern Suburbs Roosters.", "Unfortunately, Brisbane endured their worst season to date in 1991, spending just 2 weeks total inside the Top 5 and hovering around 10th for much of the year before a 5-game winning streak saw them finish 7th, just a solitary draw outside a playoff for 5th place.=== The Golden Age and Super League (1992–1997) ===Leading up to 1992, Brisbane landed another major piece from the Raiders, premiership winning prop Glenn Lazarus.", "The retirement of Miles saw Langer appointed club captain.", "Despite the new captain, 1992 was by far their best season yet, never sitting below 4th on the ladder and finishing the season with the minor premiership.", "The Illawarra Steelers met them in the Major Semi-final, where Brisbane took a 22–12 win to go into the first Grand Final in club history.", "14 days later, they met the St George Dragons at the SFS.", "After a cagey first half which saw Brisbane lead 8–6 at the break, the Broncos dominated the second 40 minutes, with Langer and backrower Allan Cann crossing for 2 tries each in a 28–8 victory.", "Langer was named Clive Churchill Medallist for his phenomenal performance.Brisbane's Premiership defence in 1993 got off to a slow start, but they would recover to return to contention for the minor premiership.", "On the last round of the season, Brisbane took on St George, needing a win to keep their minor premiership hopes alive.", "St George won 16–10, and wins to Manly and the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs saw Brisbane drop from 2nd all the way to 5th, plunging them into sudden death football, all matches being played in Sydney.", "They ended Manly's season with a dominant 36–10 win, then took on a Canberra side whose form had plummeted following a broken leg to superstar halfback Ricky Stuart, and Brisbane cast them aside 30–12.Brisbane then met minor premiers Canterbury for a spot in the Grand Final, and their season looked on tenterhooks as the Bulldogs took a 16-10 halftime lead.", "But Brisbane steeled and won 23–16, and set up a Grand Final rematch with the Dragons.", "No team had ever won the NSWRL from 5th, however Brisbane became the first to do so when they won a defensive dogfight 14–6, winning back to back premierships, the last team to do so in a unified comp until the Roosters in 2018–19.During that season, they also handed future dual-international winger Wendell Sailor his first grade debut.1994 was a tough year for Brisbane, they didn't reach the Top 5 until Round 8 before dropping out and not returning until Round 17, ultimately finishing 5th.", "Brisbane again ended Manly's season in the first week of the finals, this time 16–4, but they could not repeat the magic of '93, with a Jason Taylor field goal ending their season in a heart breaking 15–14 loss to the North Sydney Bears.", "In 1995, the Super League War broke out.", "After threats of expulsion from the NSWRL, the Broncos were one of the last clubs to sign with the new league and all players followed suit (The Canberra Raiders, Canterbury Bulldogs and Cronulla Sharks were the first to sign, and it was only revealed many years later that the Broncos were in fact one of the last clubs to sign for either competition).", "Broncos CEO John Ribot moved to take over the running of the rebel Super League, leading to a perception that the conflict was orchestrated by the club.", "The 1995 season, the first under the ARL banner, went pretty well for Brisbane- they sat in the Top 4 for most of the year, finished 3rd, and unearthed a pair of future club legends- rugged prop Shane Webcke and future Golden Boot winner Darren Lockyer.", "Unfortunately, Brisbane couldn't capitalise in the first 8-team finals series, losing to the Raiders 14–8 in the qualifying final before falling 24–10 to the eventual Premiers, the now-Sydney Bulldogs.", "1996 went pretty similarly- sit comfortably in the Top 4 and ultimately finish 2nd, only to lose 21–16 to North Sydney and 22–16 to the Cronulla Sharks to end their season.Brisbane's decision to side with the Super League saw a host of players join them from the ARL- most notably St George pair Anthony Mundine and Gorden Tallis, which offset the departure of longtime hooker Kerrod Walters to the Adelaide Rams.", "Brisbane dominated the Super League season, never leaving 1st position after Round 5 and beating Cronulla 34-2 and then 2 weeks later 26–8 to win the title in convincing fashion.", "Brisbane also competed in the World Club Challenge, going undefeated in their group (including a 76-0 demolition of Halifax Blue Sox), before beating St Helens 66–12, the Auckland Warriors 22–16 and the Hunter Mariners 36–12 to win the only edition of the costly tournament.=== Unified competition, sixth premiership (1998–2006) ===Brisbane entered the 1998 NRL season as one of the favourites to win the unified competition- despite the return of Mundine to the Dragons and the departure of Lazarus to become the inaugural captain of the newly formed Melbourne Storm.", "Despite a rocky period which saw them drop to 6th after 14 rounds, Brisbane stormed home on a 12-game unbeaten run to seal the minor premiership.", "They were also able to fill the hole of Lazarus by debuting Petero Civoniceva.Despite this form however, they were stunned 15–10 by the Parramatta Eels in their first finals match, meaning they would need an extra game to qualify for the Grand Final.", "They responded in typical Brisbane style- routing Melbourne and Sydney City (formerly Eastern Suburbs) 30-6 and 46-18 respectively to qualify for the big dance, where they ended Canterbury's dream finals run with a 38–12 victory.", "The rampaging Tallis was named Clive Churchill Medallist after a dominant performance in the middle of the park, including a try from dummy half.1999 was disappointing for the club with a terrible early-season form hindering their attempt at a third consecutive premiership losing 8 of their first 10 matches.", "Club legend Langer retired mid-season, with Kevin Walters taking over the captaincy.", "The club went on another 12 game unbeaten run and ultimately qualified for the finals in 8th position, however their season ended in a dominant 42–20 loss against minor premiers Cronulla.", "The season wasn't all negative, as future Queensland representatives Dane Carlaw, Lote Tuqiri and Chris Walker all made first grade debuts for the club, although club legend Renouf did leave to finish his career with the Wigan Warriors.", "But Brisbane responded with a dominant 2000 season, buoyed by the signing of Ben Ikin to fill the hole left by Langer.", "Brisbane dominated the regular season, running away with the minor premiership, before beating the Sharks 34–20 and the Eels 16–10 to book a Grand Final matchup with the Roosters.", "The Broncos ground out a 14–6 victory for their 5th title in 9 years, with Lockyer receiving the Clive Churchill Medal for his performance.", "2000 also saw the debut of even more future representative players- Ashley Harrison, Justin Hodges, Brad Meyers and Carl Webb.", "After just one full season as captain, Walters retired (although he would have a 5-game comeback in 2001), with Tallis anointed as club captain, and young North Queensland Cowboys half Scott Prince was brought in as his replacementThe 2006 Grand final at Stadium Australia.2001 saw the beginning of the Broncos \"Post-Origin Slump\", a succession of losing streaks after Origin which sees Brisbane slide down the ladder and disappoint in the finals.", "In Round 19, Brisbane sat 2nd on the ladder, before losing 6 straight matches and finishing the year in 5th place.", "They fell 22–6 to Cronulla in the Qualifying Final, before beating the now-merged St George-Illawarra Dragons 44–28 to secure a Preliminary Final berth, where they were defeated 24–16 by minor premiers Parramatta.", "The year saw the debut of 2 more future stars- the speedy Brent Tate as well as goal kicking forward Corey Parker.", "A brutal knee injury suffered by Ikin would sideline him for all of 2002, and while a neck injury to Tallis threatened to end his career, he would return at the start of the next season.", "Sailor would also leave the club, enticed by a massive offer from the Queensland Reds to switch codes.", "Hodges also left the club, the offer of guaranteed gametime from the Roosters too much for him to ignore.", "After joining the Warrington Wolves and making a stunning comeback to the Queensland squad, Langer returned to the club for one last season in 2002 to help ease their halves problem.", "Brisbane finished the year in 3rd position, although they were challenging for the minor premiership until they lost 4 of their last 5 matches.", "Brisbane eliminated Parramatta with a 24–14 win, but fell in the Preliminary Final for the second year in a row, losing 16–12 to the eventual premiers, the Roosters.", "2002 also saw one of the greatest moments in Brisbane's club history- in a Round 12 clash with the Wests Tigers, missing 15 regular first graders as well as head coach Bennett due to injuries and Origin, a Broncos squad captained by Shane Walker and coached by assistant Craig Bellamy pulled off a stunning 28–14 victory.", "Just a year after Sailor went to Rugby Union, his former wing partner Tuqiri joined him, joining the New South Wales Waratahs.", "Wing partner Chris Walker also jumped ship, heading to the South Sydney Rabbitohs on a big contract.2003 saw one of the worst \"Post-Origin Slumps\" in club history.", "The club sat 1st as late as Round 17, and were comfortably positioned 3rd after 19 weeks before both Tallis and Lockyer were felled by injuries in the Round 19 win over Melbourne.", "Brisbane dropped their last 7 matches, even after the return of their 2 superstar for the last 2 weeks of the season, and dropped to 8th place on the ladder- their season ending in the Qualifying Final when minor premiers and eventual premiers Penrith reversed an 18–10 half time deficit to beat Brisbane 28–18.That year did see the debuts of Neville Costigan and Sam Thaiday.", "Meanwhile, Prince had struggled to find game time after 2001 and left for the Tigers, where he would win the 2005 Clive Churchill medal and captain the side to premiership glory in one of the biggest \"Ones that Got Away\" for the Broncos.", "The club again had a bounceback year in 2004, with the shock move of Lockyer from fullback to five-eighth a major catalyst for their success.", "Of course, it helped that his replacement at fullback, 17 year old sensation Karmichael Hunt, was able to fit straight into the Broncos side.", "Brisbane spent almost the entire season inside the Top 4 and finished in 3rd position, but were stunned 31–14 by Melbourne, who had Bellamy as their head coach.", "This set them up with a sudden death semi final against the Cowboys, who they were undefeated against leading into the match.", "Brisbane volunteered to move the match from Accor Stadium to Willows Sports Complex, and the Cowboys responded by using their raucous home support to stun their \"Big Brothers\" 10–0.The match would be the last for a host of club icons- captain Tallis and Ikin both retired, their NSW representative goal kicking winger Michael De Vere (Huddersfield Giants) and Queensland prop Meyers (Bradford Bulls) left for the English Super League, while their other Origin prop Webb joined the Cowboys.", "With Lockyer named club captain and Hodges returning to the club, Brisbane dominated the start of the 2005 season and sat in 1st position after 24 rounds, but 5 straight losses to end the season saw them again slide to 3rd, where they again lost in the opening week to Melbourne, this time 24–18.This sent them into another semi final, this time against Prince and the eventual premiers Tigers, who brushed the Broncos aside 34–6.Leading into 2006, Brisbane were able to retain a similar squad to 2005.Ben Hannant proved to be a key rotational piece after arriving from the Roosters, Darius Boyd made his first grade debut and would be a key part of Brisbane's backline, and longtime Queensland Cup veteran Shane Perry would become the solution for Brisbane's halfback spot.", "After being inside the Top 2 after Round 17, the Broncos again entered the post-Origin slump, losing 5 consecutive games.", "This season however, they reversed this run of form, winning 5 straight games to close out the regular season in 3rd.", "This had come after Bennett had signed a secret deal to become the Roosters coach from 2007, but reneged on the deal after it became public.", "Despite the reverse in form, it looked like their finals success was going on par with previous seasons after they fell 20–4 against the Dragons in the qualifying final.", "But Brisbane got a break against an injury hit Knights squad, and Brisbane took a crushing 50–6 victory to qualify for their first Preliminary Final in 4 seasons.", "Brisbane took on the Bulldogs, and their season was on life support when Canterbury led 20–6 at half time.", "The lead prompted Bulldogs prop Willie Mason to exclaim “We're going to the grand final!”.", "That sledge sparked a dramatic Broncos comeback, as they ran in a 31-0 second half to blitz the Bulldogs 37–20 and book a spot in the Grand Final against Melbourne.", "Despite being massive underdogs, Brisbane looked in control throughout the entire match, and a Darren Lockyer field goal sealed a dramatic 15–8 victory and Brisbane's 6th premiership.", "Unsung hooker Shaun Berrigan was awarded the Clive Churchill Medal for his aggressive performance in the ruck.", "Webcke had already announced his intention to retire, and did so as a champion.=== Bennett's final years (2007–2008) ===Once again, Brisbane started a premiership defence poorly, losing 7 of their first 10 to sit 15th, but their stay at the bottom of the table was abruptly ended when they produced a club record 71–6 victory over a battered Knights side.", "Brisbane climbed back up the ladder to sit 5th after Origin, but their season again took a turn in a Round 18 clash with the Cowboys, when Lockyer's season abruptly ended with a torn ACL.", "Brisbane would lose 5 of their last 7 matches, including a 68–22 thrashing at the hands of the Eels, and would end the season in 8th place and being thrashed 40-0 by the Storm in the Qualifying Final.", "Civoniceva left the club for Penrith, upset that they had prioritised the signing of Panthers prop Joel Clinton over retaining him.", "Tate also departed for the Warriors, while Berrigan left for Hull FC.", "In their place came Clinton, Eels hooker PJ Marsh and another ex-Panther, Peter Wallace, who would replace the ageing Perry as Lockyer's halves partner.Lockyer, however, missed some serious game time in 2008 and wasn't 100% healthy until Round 18, at which point Brisbane sat 7th on the ladder.", "But the bigger news to come out of the start of that season was Bennett's decision to walk out of the final year of his contract to become the head coach of the Dragons from 2009.Bennett had seen his relationship with the Broncos board deteriorate after his courtship with the Roosters, and decided to leave after 21 seasons with the club.", "His former assistant Bellamy seemed set for a return to Brisbane as his replacement, only to blindside the club by re-signing with the Storm after a botched interview.", "Ultimately, it was decided that longtime assistant Ivan Henjak would be promoted to the head coaching role from 2009, and he began taking more of a role in training.", "With Lockyer returning, Brisbane won 6 of their final 9 games to finish 5th, and upset the Roosters 24–16 in the qualifying final to set up a semi final showdown with Bellamy and the Storm.", "Brisbane led 14–12 with under 10 minutes to go, and seemed to have won the game when Hannant crossed the line, with Bennett seen displaying a rare show of emotion.", "But the video referee deemed Hannant was held up, and a few minutes later an Ashton Sims knock on saw Greg Inglis score for the Storm to seal a late 16–14 victory, breaking Brisbane hearts and ending their season.=== The Rebuild (2009–2014) ===2009 saw a wave of change around Red Hill- not only was there a new head coach, but a host of roster changes.", "Boyd joined Bennett at the Dragons, the representative foursome of Hannant, Greg Eastwood, Michael Ennis and David Stagg all joined the Bulldogs, and boom winger Denan Kemp, who tied the club record with 4 tries in a single game against the Eels, was lured away to the Warriors.", "In their place was boom teenager Israel Folau, young back rower Ben Te'o and a host of club-developed talent, including Gerard Beale, Alex Glenn, Josh McGuire, Andrew McCullough and Jharal Yow Yeh.", "Brisbane sat Top 4 until the Origin period, when they collapsed, conceding 40+ points in 3 straight games, an extra 44–12 loss to South Sydney and a then-club record 56–0 thrashing at the hands of the Raiders, leaving them dangling in 10th position.", "But 5 straight wins to close out the season, including a 22–10 win over Canberra just 36 days later, saw them finish in 6th position.", "This revival was largely due to the emergence of rampaging forward Dave Taylor.", "The Broncos stunned the 3rd place Titans 40–32 in the qualifying final, setting up a showdown with Bennett's Dragons in a sudden death semi final.", "Brisbane took one up on their former mentor with a dominant 24–10 victory, however Wallace fractured his ankle in the win, leaving them without a recognised halfback ahead of their preliminary final matchup with the Storm, one of the bigger reasons they fell 40–10.2010 saw significant roster changes: the injury-enforced retirement of Marsh, Taylor's decision to move to the Rabbitohs and Karmichael Hunt's decision to switch to the AFL with the Gold Coast Suns.", "Furthermore, they received a massive blow during pre-season when Hodges ruptured his achilles, causing him to miss the entire season.", "Brisbane stuttered and lost 6 of their first 8 matches, before reversing form and entering the Top 8.But in their Round 22 clash with the Cowboys, Lockyer took a hit and injured his rib cartilage.", "Despite his best efforts, Lockyer missed the rest of the regular season, and without him Brisbane slumped to 4 straight defeats, sliding from 7th to 10th and missing the finals for the first time since 1991.An even bigger blow for Brisbane was a contract saga involving Greg Inglis, who was departing the Melbourne Storm in the wake of their salary cap saga.", "Inglis had agreed in principle to join the Broncos for 2011 onward, but then decided to cancel a flight to Brisbane to sign the contract under the alibi that \"It's raining and I don't think the planes are flying\".", "Behind the scenes, former Bronco Anthony Mundine was convincing Inglis to join the Rabbitohs, which he did a week later.", "Inglis would've replaced Folau, who followed Hunt's lead in switching to the AFL, this time to the Greater Western Sydney Giants.", "On a positive note, the season saw the debut of future international Matt Gillett.In February 2011, it was announced that Henjak was to be sacked from the club, only three weeks before the beginning of the season.", "Anthony Griffin, Henjak's assistant, took over as coach for the 2011 season, becoming just the third head coach in the history of Broncos.", "Ben Hannant also returned to the club, but even more pressing was the decision of Lockyer to retire after the season, ending a 16-year playing career which, in Round 22, saw him overtake Terry Lamb and Steve Menzies for the most first grade games played, finishing at 355, a record which would stand until Cameron Smith overtook him in 2017.Brisbane stagnated for a little while, but finished the season in 3rd position, setting up a qualifying finals matchup with the Warriors which they won 40–10, meaning they would head to take on the Dragons once again in the semi-finals.", "Bennett, who had looked like he was set to rejoin the Broncos in 2012, had announced that he was joining Newcastle at the end of the season- meaning the match would either be the last of Lockyer's career, or Bennett's last with the Dragons.", "Brisbane led 12-6 towards the end of the game before Lockyer caught Beale's knee in his face, fracturing his cheekbone.", "St George Illawarra tied the game, necessitating Golden Point, where an injured Lockyer slotted home a field goal to seal a 13–12 win and keep Brisbane in the finals.", "Unfortunately, Lockyer was unable to play in the Preliminary Final against Manly, which the Sea Eagles won 26–14.2012 marked the Broncos' 25th season in the NRL competition.", "Civoniceva returned for one last season, and Thaiday was appointed club captain.", "The club also lost winger Jharal Yow Yeh in Round 4 to a brutal leg injury, suffering a compound fracture in his leg and an ankle dislocation.", "Yow Yeh retired in 2014, as he never fully recovered from the injury.", "Brisbane spent much of the season inside the Top 4, but another \"Post-Origin Slide\" saw them finish 8th, and they were eliminated by the Cowboys 33–16 in the Qualifying Final.", "Beale (Dragons) and Te'o (Rabbitohs) both left the club, along with the retiring Civoniceva, and Prince returned to the club for his swansong.", "Unfortunately, 2013 was not a good year for Brisbane- they were out of the Top 8 after Round 10 and never returned, finishing 12th, the lowest position in club history at the time.", "Future Origin winger Corey Oates made his debut during this season, however.", "Prince retired and Wallace returned to the Panthers, largely because of the emergence of Ben Hunt as the club's halfback.Perhaps one of their biggest signings in quite some time, former Dally M Medallist Ben Barba joined the club in 2014 as their marquee signing.", "Barba attempted to join the Broncos one year prior, but was refused a release by the Bulldogs.", "Todd Lowrie, Martin Kennedy and Daniel Vidot also joined the Broncos from the Warriors, Roosters and Dragons respectively.", "There was also a change in the club captaincy, with Thaiday standing down and being replaced by a co-captain structure of Hodges and Parker.The Broncos failed to find any sort of consistency during the season, their best patch of form being four straight wins against the Titans, Tigers, Sea Eagles and Raiders.", "They also experienced their worst collapse as a club against the Cronulla Sharks at home in Round 16, where they led the Sharks 22-0 at one stage, ultimately falling 24–22 by full time.", "Brisbane never really challenged for the title throughout the season and ultimately finished 8th, again being eliminated by the Cowboys in the Qualifying Final, this time by the score of 32–20.That game would be Griffin's last as head coach, as it had been announced mid-season that Wayne Bennett was set to return to the Broncos from 2015.=== Bennett's second stint (2015–2018) ===The roster change under Bennett was dramatic from the moment he returned.", "Ben Barba was released after just one season, eventually joining Cronulla.", "Ben Hannant left for the Cowboys, and Kiwi international Josh Hoffman departed for the Gold Coast.", "In return, Darius Boyd returned to the club, and was joined by ex-Tiger enforcer Adam Blair and boom Raider Anthony Milford, as well as a pair of up and coming rookies in Joe Ofahengaue and Kodi Nikorima making their debuts.", "The captaincy underwent another change as well, with Hodges given sole captaincy of the club.", "Their campaign started rocky, a 36-6 thrashing at the hands of South Sydney, but they soon found their feet and won 8 straight matches during the Origin period – a drastic change from the previous years – ultimately finishing the season in 2nd place.", "They took down the Cowboys 16–12 in the Qualifying Final to advance straight to a Preliminary Final showdown with the minor premier Roosters.", "A Boyd intercept try inside the first minute set the tone for the clash, and Brisbane would dominate 31–12 to advance to a Grand Final showdown with the Cowboys.", "In what is considered by some commentators to be one of the best Grand Finals in recent history, the Broncos led 16-12 for much of the second half before Cowboys winger Kyle Feldt scored in the corner on the last play of regulation to tie the match.", "Superstar half Johnathan Thurston missed the subsequent conversion, sending the clash to golden point.", "The Broncos won the golden point coin toss and elected to receive, putting them in a great position to win the match.", "However, off the kickoff, Ben Hunt knocked on, giving the Cowboys possession just metres out from the Broncos line.", "Thurston kicked a field goal 2 minutes into the Golden Point period to win the match for the Cowboys 17–16, ending the season in jubilation for Townsville and heartbreak for Brisbane.Justin Hodges retired after the Grand Final, and the captaincy was again given to Corey Parker.", "James Roberts, a speedy centre, had been lured away from the Titans at the last minute to join the Broncos, and he was joined by young Raiders forward Tevita Pangai Junior and young back rower Jai Arrow, who had emerged from Brisbane's development program.", "Brisbane started the season strongly but endured a \"Post-Origin Slump\" to drop out of the Top 4, finishing in 5th.", "After eliminating the Titans 44–28 in the Qualifying Final, Brisbane travelled to Townsville for a knockout clash with the Cowboys.", "In another classic between the two sides, the game went into extra time - a new rule brought in after their grand final thriller 12 months earlier.", "At 20-all, when a Michael Morgan try sealed a 26–20 win for the Cowboys, ending their season - the third time in 5 years their season had concluded in Townsville.", "Parker retired after the match, but Brisbane brought in embattled ex-New Zealand halfback Benji Marshall on a lifeline deal, as well as established prop Korbin Sims from Newcastle and experienced winger David Mead from the Gold Coast.", "Darius Boyd was also named club captain for 2017.Prior to the start of the 2017 season it was announced Hunt had signed a large contract with the Dragons beginning in 2018, and that likely contributed to a season where Hunt was dropped to reserve grade and the bench, before finishing the season at hooker after Andrew McCullough tore his ACL.", "Brisbane started their 2017 campaign in shaky fashion, winning two of their first five games, the club sitting in ninth position at the end of Round 5.Following this, the Broncos found their form and re-entered the top 8 without exiting it again, finishing the 2017 season in 3rd, but with a 4 win gap between them and the 1st placed Storm.", "Making matters worse, Boyd was injured in their Round 26 win over the Cowboys, and missed their 24–22 loss in a classic Qualifying Final against the Roosters, before the Boyd-less Broncos advanced to another Preliminary Final with a 13–6 win over the Panthers.", "Boyd was rushed back into the squad for the showdown with runaway favourites Melbourne, but was clearly not healthy and didn't do much to alter the 30–0 defeat.Along with Ben Hunt, Jai Arrow, Adam Blair and Benji Marshall also left the club, departing for the Titans, Warriors and Tigers respectively.", "Jack Bird was the club's marquee signing, joining from Cronulla, although his season lasted just 8 games as he dealt with injury.", "Wayne Bennett blamed Cronulla for Jack Bird's injury problems, as he had claimed that Cronulla had told Bird that he was not injured and did not require surgery before departing for Brisbane.The Broncos also had signed prop Matt Lodge on a one-year deal, a move which attracted controversy, as Lodge had been out of the NRL due to his arrest in New York during the 2015 off-season.", "While many in the media and the NRL fanbase called for Lodge's contract to be deregistered, Bennett and the Broncos stood by Lodge.2018 also saw a major success from Brisbane's youth, with debuts handed out to Payne Haas, David Fifita, Kotoni Staggs and Jake Turpin.", "Brisbane, however, were not the team they had been, and instead of being in the Top 4 race, they were just looking to make the finals.", "A big 48–16 win over Manly, which saw Corey Oates score 4 tries, saw the club finish in 6th, but just one win separated them from 1st, such was the tightness of the competition.", "The following week, Brisbane were eliminated from the finals series after being defeated 48–18 by a highly unfancied St George-Illawarra side.", "The loss was also the final game for the retiring Sam Thaiday.After the 2018 season, a rift emerged between Bennett and CEO Paul White, which ultimately saw Bennett sign with the Rabbitohs to become coach from 2020.Just weeks later, Bennett was sacked as the head coach for making preseason plans with the Rabbitohs for the following year, and in return South Sydney appointed Bennett as head coach with immediate effect, freeing up their coach Anthony Seibold, who had already signed with Brisbane from 2020, to become the Broncos head coach for 2019.=== Anthony Seibold era (2019–2020) ===Along with Bennett, a host of key players left Brisbane.", "Josh McGuire left for North Queensland and Korbin Sims for St. George Illawarra, then halfway through the season, James Roberts, Jaydn Su'A and Kodi Nikorima also departed the club for the Rabbitohs and Warriors.", "Jack Bird once again dealt with injuries, only playing 9 games, and it quickly became clear that the now 32 year old Darius Boyd had lost a step.", "The Broncos handed debuts to Patrick Carrigan, Xavier Coates, Tom Dearden, Herbie Farnworth and Keenan Palasia, while also signing Rhys Kennedy and James Segeyaro mid-season.", "A four match losing streak early in the season set the tone for the club, as they sat 14th after Round 16, only to go on a run of 6 wins and a draw from their last 10 games to ensure they finished in 8th place.", "They played Parramatta in week one of the finals at the new Bankwest Stadium and lost the match 58–0, marking the club's worst ever defeat.", "It was also the biggest finals loss in the history of the competition which eclipsed the previous record set by Newtown when they defeated St George 55–7 in the 1944 finals series.", "It also extended the club's longest ever premiership drought to thirteen seasons.", "The club signed out of favour half Brodie Croft from the Melbourne Storm on a three year deal, beginning in 2020.2020 started well for Brisbane, winning their first two games against North Queensland and South Sydney, before the competition was suspended upon completion of round 2 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "When the competition returned from its unscheduled hiatus in late May, the optimism at the Broncos fizzled out quickly, as they lost 34–6 to Parramatta in the first game of the season restart.", "The club then recorded their worst ever loss the following week against the Sydney Roosters, losing 59–0.The losses continued to pile up for Brisbane, the mid-season signing of Issac Luke and the return of Ben Te'o making almost no impact.", "The Broncos were also impacted by injuries, as many players missed more than half of the shortened season.The club's only post COVID lockdown victory came against fellow bottom of the ladder team, Canterbury-Bankstown in round 9.After a 28–10 loss to South Sydney, Anthony Seibold resigned as coach of the Brisbane Broncos, with assistant Peter Gentle taking over as caretaker coach until the end of the season.While the Brisbane club were more competitive under Gentle, the club would lose their final 11 matches of the season in a row including a 36–8 loss to the Canberra Raiders despite leading 8–6 at half time, another big loss against the Sydney Roosters, this time 58–12 at the Sydney Cricket Ground and a 32–16 loss in the final round to North Queensland which condemned Brisbane to the club's first ever wooden spoon after Canterbury-Bankstown beat Souths in round 19 to leap ahead of the Brisbane club on the ladder on points differential.", "Darius Boyd and Jordan Kahu both retired at the end of the 2020 season, while David Fifita would be departing as well to join the Titans.=== Kevin Walters era (2021–present) ===After missing out on the signature of Craig Bellamy as head coach, Kevin Walters was signed as coach for the 2021 NRL season for two years.", "Walters moved on two of Brisbane's players who were on large contracts in Jack Bird and Joe Ofahengaue, with the two signing with St. George Illawarra and Wests Tigers.", "Brisbane brought in experienced players, John Asiata, Albert Kelly, David Mead, Dale Copley and Danny Levi in an attempt to take pressure off the young players.", "Walters named Alex Glenn as the captain for the 2021 season.The problems at Red Hill continued, firstly surrendering a 16–0 lead against Parramatta in their season opener to concede the next 24 points without an answer to end up losing 16–24, followed by losing 16–28 to local rivals, the Gold Coast Titans to record their 13th loss in a row.", "In round 3, Brisbane recorded their first victory in 259 days after they beat Canterbury-Bankstown 24–0.In round 8 of the 2021 NRL season, Brisbane staged an incredible comeback against the Gold Coast.", "After being down 22–0, Brisbane would go on to win the match 36–28.An unlikely round 11 win against the Sydney Roosters at the Sydney Cricket Ground saw the Brisbane club end a 13-game losing streak outside of Queensland, however losses to Melbourne, St. George Illawarra, Canberra and South Sydney saw Brisbane once again fall to the bottom of the ladder as of round 15.The club would go on to win four of their last nine games to avoid the Wooden Spoon and finish in 14th place.", "Alex Glenn retired after this game, marking the end of a twelve year career.Even though Brisbane struggled, Tyson Gamble emerged as a serviceable half for the club.", "Gamble was limited to two games in 2020, but managed more game time under Walters, as he chopped and changed halves pairings throughout the season.", "The club also lured Karmichael Hunt back from the NSW Waratahs, twelve years after he initially departed the Broncos for Australian rules football.During the season, the Brisbane club ran the broom through the front office and the playing group.", "Paul White resigned as CEO and was replaced with Dave Donaghy from the Storm.", "Donaghy began his tenure in the middle of 2021, after a lengthy legal process that prevented him from commencing his role earlier in the year.", "Former Bronco Ben Ikin was hired as the Football and Performance Director.", "The turnaround for Brisbane's recruitment seemingly began when the club announced the signing of embattled Rabbitohs half Adam Reynolds on a three year deal from 2022 onwards.", "In addition to Reynolds, the club also signed Ryan James from the Raiders, Cowboys forward Corey Jensen, Kurt Capewell from the Panthers, as well as Jordan Pereira and Tyrone Roberts as depth signings.", "In addition to the new signings at the club, many of the young players extended their contracts to keep them at the Broncos, something that was becoming a rarity ever since 2018.Ben Te'o and Karmichael Hunt quietly retired from rugby league, while Danny Levi, Anthony Milford, John Asiata, Brodie Croft, Xavier Coates and Richard Kennar departed for other clubs.", "Jesse Arthars was also sent to the New Zealand Warriors on a loan deal for the 2022 season, expected to return for the 2023 campaign.", "Ex-Cowboy Te Maire Martin also made his NRL return with the Broncos, having initially retired three years prior due to a bleed on his brain.", "Adam Reynolds was named as the captain for the Brisbane in the 2022 season.2022 began well for Brisbane, despite losing captain Adam Reynolds to COVID-19 in their Round 1 clash against the South Sydney Rabbitohs.", "They won their opening games against South Sydney and the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs to sit in the top 8 at the end of the round for the first time since 2020.They then went on to lose three games in a row, before going on a seven game winning streak, including a 38–0 thrashing of Manly and another comeback victory against the Gold Coast Titans.", "This was the longest winning streak the Broncos had experienced since winning six straight games under Wayne Bennett in 2017.During the club's winning streak, the club was rocked by star forward Payne Haas requesting a release, which was denied.", "During the Round 12 clash against the Gold Coast, Haas was relentlessly booed by Brisbane fans when he had the ball.The Broncos' seven-game winning streak was broken by the Melbourne Storm, who had beaten the Brisbane side 32–20 after a shaky start.", "Brisbane were defeated 40–26 by North Queensland the following week, before winning three games in a row.", "The last placed Wests Tigers defeated Brisbane at home in an upset, winning 32–18.This match saw Patrick Carrigan placed on report for a 'hip drop' tackle on Jackson Hastings, which caused an injury to the Tigers' half and ended his season.", "Carrigan missed four matches due to suspension.", "After losing to the Sydney Roosters the following week, Brisbane seemed to be back on track after beating the Newcastle Knights 28–10.The final three rounds were a nightmare for the Broncos, as they recorded a 60–12 loss against the Storm, a 53–6 loss against the Eels, then a 22–12 loss to St. George Illawarra in the final round of the regular season.", "Brisbane's horrific performances saw them drop out of the top 8 and miss the finals for a third straight season, the longest consecutive finals drought in Brisbane's history to date.", "The club also made history for the wrong reasons, being the first club to miss the finals with more wins than losses since Canberra in 1999, as well as being the first club to sit in the top four after Round 17 and miss the finals.During the 2022 season, rumours had persisted that Warriors fullback Reece Walsh was seeking a return to Australia after the New Zealand Warriors had announced that they would be returning to New Zealand.", "However, both the Warriors and Walsh denied the rumours and insisted that he was committed to the move.", "In July, however, reports began emerging that Walsh was granted a release from the Warriors and that he was looking to return to a Queensland team.", "On July 7, the Broncos confirmed the signing of Walsh for 2023 and beyond.", "To accommodate Walsh in the salary cap, utility back Te Maire Martin was given permission to negotiate with other clubs and signed with the New Zealand Warriors from 2023 onwards.At the start of the final round (27) of the regular 2023 season, Brisbane was positioned on top of the NRL ladder.", "Having qualified for the finals, eleven of the thirteen regular players were rested.", "The Melbourne Storm subsequently won 32-22 at Suncorp Stadium and by the end of round 27, Brisbane missed out on their first minor premiership win since 2000 due to a lesser points differential than the Penrith Panthers.", "Notwithstanding, Brisbane qualified to play Penrith in the 2023 NRL Grand Final at Accor Stadium on 1 October; however, Brisbane conceded the largest comeback in NRL Grand Final history in the final twenty minutes to lose 24-26." ], [ "Emblem and colours", "It had originally been planned for the Brisbane Broncos to adopt a logo incorporating both a kangaroo and a stylised \"Q\" which had been featured in the logo for the Queensland Rugby League for many years.", "However, with the Australian national rugby league team also known as the Kangaroos, this was deemed inappropriate and conflicting.", "The state flower the Cooktown Orchid and the Poinsettia which had long been used by Brisbane representative teams in the Bulimba Cup and midweek knockout competitions was also ruled out, along with other Australian animals such as the brumby, possum, galah and the kookaburra, which was used on Brisbane's Kookaburra Queen paddleships.Having wanted to continue with the use of alliteration for local sporting teams such as the Brisbane Bullets and Brisbane Bears (later the Brisbane Lions), the club's directors eventually decided on the nickname Broncos.", "This name was chosen by Barry Maranta because he was a fan of an NFL team, the Denver Broncos.", "The Australian newspaper has described the name as \"Mystifyingly American\".The original club logo was first featured in the Broncos' inaugural season in the premiership in 1988 and was used until 1999.It used a mostly gold colour scheme, in line with the predominant colour on the team jerseys.", "In 2000, the club adopted a new logo with a more maroon design, which was much closer to the traditional colour associated with Queensland rugby league and Queensland sport in general.", "This design continues to be used to date.Traditionally, the colours of the Brisbane Broncos have been maroon, white and gold, which have all long been linked to the history of rugby league in Queensland.", "Initially, the founders of the club favored the official blue and gold colours of Brisbane City Council.", "However, Sydney advertiser John Singleton advised the board that \"Queenslanders had been booing players wearing blue for more than three-quarters of a century.\"", "As a result, the traditional maroon and white colours of Queensland along with gold, symbolizing the Queensland sunshine, were adopted as the club's colours.In the inaugural 1988 season, the club's jersey design featured the top third being gold, the middle being alternating hoops of maroon and white and the bottom third being maroon.", "Although this design featured gold strongly, it did not please everyone as the jersey had to differentiate from the maroon and white of Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles and the maroon of the Queensland rugby league team.", "Following a number of design changes in the 1990s including a predominantly white jersey from 1997 to 1998, blue was added to the jersey in 2001 as a minor colour to show the aforementioned historical link with the colours of Brisbane.", "However, this was later dropped from the design in favor of a mainly maroon jersey with gold trim.At the 1995 Rugby League World Sevens tournament, the club introduced a new combination of jersey colours – mauve, aqua and white.", "Brisbane Broncos Marketing Manager Shane Edwards stated that it \"will become our Sevens strip... but we will never change the Broncos' colours.\"", "In 2001, following the release of the club's predominantly white with navy-blue and maroon away jersey, the National Rugby League ordered the club to produce a third jersey since the new away jersey clashed with the home jerseys of the Penrith Panthers, Melbourne Storm and New Zealand Warriors.", "An aqua strip using the same design as the jerseys used from 1999 to 2001 was worn, which was much derided by the local media.", "Following two years of public pressure the club dropped the jersey in favor of the design worn against Newcastle in 2003.International Sports Clothing became Brisbane's kit provider in October 2016, replacing long-time suppliers Nike.File:Brisbane Jersey 1988.png|1988–1990File:Brisbane Jersey 1991.png|1991–1996File:Brisbane Jersey 1997.png|1997–1998File:Brisbane Jersey 1999.png|1999–2001File:Brisbane Jersey 2002.png|2002–2006File:Brisbane Jersey 2007.png|2007–2009File:Brisbane Jersey 2010.png|2010–2012File:Brisbane Broncos home jersey 2013.png|2013–2014" ], [ "Stadium", "View of the current Brisbane Broncos home ground, Lang Park.In their first five seasons, the Broncos played their matches at the 52,500 capacity Lang Park (or more commonly referred to as \"Suncorp Stadium\" due to sponsorship of Suncorp, Australia), the ground considered to be the home of rugby league in Queensland.", "However, following ongoing conflict with the Queensland Rugby League and Lang Park Trust due to a sponsorship conflict with the QRL having a commercial agreement with Castlemaine XXXX brewery with prominent signs around the ground, while the Broncos were sponsored by rival brewery Powers who were not permitted any permanent signs (the Broncos initially got around this by not using the change rooms at half time during games, instead sitting on the ground with a temporary protective banner surrounding them which just happened to have prominent Powers logos), the team relocated to the 60,000 capacity ANZ Stadium in 1993 (ANZ had been the main stadium of the 1982 Commonwealth Games).", "The club's home match attendance, which had averaged 19,637 at Lang Park, increased to 43,200 at the new ground in the first season following the club's first premiership title in the previous season.", "However, despite the team's second premiership in 1993, crowds gradually declined and it was not until 2002 that the club again registered more than the 1996 average attendance of 23,712.ANZ Stadium, as the Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre was called at the time due to sponsorship rights, was featured on an episode of ''The Mole'' in April 2002.With the Queensland Government's $280 million redevelopment of Lang Park, the team moved back to the refurbished and renamed Suncorp Stadium upon its completion in mid-2003.The more centrally-located stadium has begun to attract larger crowds, with the 2006 average attendance of 31,208 being significantly higher than the Newcastle Knights with 21,848 and about double the regular season competition average of 15,601.The club record attendance for a regular season match is 58,593, set against the St. George Dragons in the final round of the 1993 season.", "The record attendance for a match at Suncorp Stadium is 50,859 for Darren Lockyer's final home game.", "Before kick-off at the Stadium an instrumental version of Led Zeppelin's \"Kashmir\" is routinely played.", "Whenever the Broncos score a try, \"Chelsea Dagger\" by The Fratellis is played.The Broncos all-time home attendance record was set at ANZ Stadium during the 1997 Super League Grand Final when 58,912 saw the Broncos defeat the Cronulla Sharks 26–8 to claim the only Super League premiership played in Australia.=== Home venues ===+VenueYearsLang Park / Suncorp Stadium 1988–presentPioneer Oval1989–1994Parramatta Stadium1989Townsville Sports Reserve1989Carrington Park1989Wade Park1991Scully Park1991Bundaberg Showroom1991Eric Weissel Oval1992Athletic Park1992QEII Stadium1993–2003ANZAC Oval1994Hyatt Regency1995Bega Recreational Ground1995Coffs Coast International Stadium1995Lavington Sports Ground1995Carrara2001The Gabba2023" ], [ "Supporters", "The Brisbane Broncos have the largest fan base of any NRL club and they have been voted the most popular rugby league team in Australia for several years.", "A Broncos supporters group called \"The Thoroughbreds\" which is made up of prominent businessmen, made an unsuccessful bid to purchase News Ltd's controlling share of the club in 2007.", "'''Average regular season attendance'''* '''1988''': 16,111 (lowest home attendance)* '''1989''': 18,217* '''1990''': 22,709* '''1991''': 19,463* '''1992''': 21,687* '''1993''': 43,200 (largest home attendance)* '''1994''': 37,705* '''1995''': 35,902* '''1996''': 23,712* '''1997''': 19,298* '''1998''': 20,073* '''1999''': 22,763* '''2000''': 21,239* '''2001''': 19,710* '''2002''': 20,131* '''2003''': 24,326* '''2004''': 28,667* '''2005''': 30,331* '''2006''': 31,208* '''2007''': 32,868* '''2008''': 33,426* '''2009''': 34,587* '''2010''': 35,032* '''2011''': 33,209* '''2012''': 33,337* '''2013''': 30,480* '''2014''': 34,235* '''2015''': 36,096* '''2016''': 34,476* '''2017''': 31,929* '''2018''': 31,394* '''2019''': 29,516* '''2020''': 8,624 (Attendance numbers impacted by crowd restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic)* '''2021''': 21,444 (Attendance numbers impacted by crowd restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic)* '''2022''': 29,594* '''2023''': 33,793'''Notable supporters'''Notable supporters of this club, amongst others, include:* Mackenzie Arnold, Australian footballer and goalkeeper* Carl Barron, Australian comedian* Allan Border, Australian cricket captain* Quentin Bryce, 25th Governor General of Australia* Cate Campbell, Malawian-born Australian swimmer and Olympic gold medalist* Jim Chalmers, Treasurer of Australia* Cameron Dick, 36th Deputy Premier of Queensland* Andrew Fraser, 47th Treasurer of Queensland * Bernard Fanning, lead singer of Powderfinger* Katrina Gorry, Australian footballer* Wayne Goss, 34th Premier of Queensland* Ian Healy, former international wicket-keeper* Les Hiddins, former Australian soldier, known as \"The Bush Tucker Man\"* Mark Hunt, mixed martial artist* Dami Im, singer, winner of ''The X Factor Australia'' in 2013* Steve Irwin, TV personality and environmentalist* Marnus Labuschagne, Australian cricketer * Georgie Tunny, The Project co-host* Yvonne Sampson, Fox Sports Presenter * Lincoln Lewis, Australian actor* Craig Lowndes, V8 Supercars driver* Chris Lynn, Australian cricketer* Steven Miles, 40th Premier of Queensland* Patty Mills, professional basketballer* Sally Pearson, Olympic athlete* Rick Price, musician* Terry Price, professional golfer* Patrick Rafter, retired tennis player* Kevin Rudd, 26th Prime Minister of Australia* Cam Smith, professional golfer * Karl Stefanovic, television presenter* Samantha Stosur, professional tennis player and 2011 US Open champion* Andrew Symonds, international cricketer* Ken Talbot, mining magnate* Don Walker, musician" ], [ "Corporate", "The Broncos are the only publicly listed NRL club.", "The largest shareholder in the Broncos is Nationwide News Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of News Corp Australia, which as of 30 June 2021, owned 68.87%.", "BGM Projects is another major shareholder.John Ribot, a former first grade rugby league player in Queensland and New South Wales, was the club's original chief executive officer (CEO).", "Ribot left when he signed to become the CEO of the rebel Australian rugby league competition Super League.", "(p. 24,112) Shane Edwards, the Broncos Marketing Manager at the time, was promoted to CEO and later resigned.", "Bruno Cullen, who had been with the Broncos' off-field staff since 1989, became the club's third CEO in 2003.In 2011 Cullen was replaced by current CEO Paul White.", "Rugby league player Darren Lockyer is a member of the board of directors.Kia are the major sponsor of the Broncos as of 2020, replacing NRMA Insurance.", "Nova 106.9 are the main radio sponsors after taking over from rival station B105 FM in late 2006.Live broadcasts of all Broncos matches are provided by both ABC Radio Brisbane and Triple M. Channel Nine Queensland also sponsors the Broncos, although former player Shane Webcke is signed to rival Seven Queensland.In 2012, local Brisbane based company Firstmac replaced WOW Sight & Sound as sleeve sponsor for three years to launch into the retail financial services market.", "This sponsorship took only 9 days to negotiate following the announcement of WOW Sight & Sound going into receivership.", "Firstmac stipulated a unique clause in their contract that they could pay for 250 tickets to be distributed to WOW Sight & Sound staff that lost their jobs.", "Firstmac has since launched a Firstmac Broncos home loan in conjunction with their new sponsorship agreement.Asics are the Broncos current apparel provider as of November 2020.Between 1997 and 2016, the club's apparel was manufactured by Nike.", "Between 2017 and 2020, International Sports Clothing served as the club's apparel manufacturer.", "From the 2021 season, Asics will supply the club's on-and-off-field apparel." ], [ "Sponsors", "The Brisbane Broncos' first major sponsor was Powers Brewing who sponsored them until 1993.The Broncos currently have a number of sponsorship deals with the following: * Kia Motors* NRMA Insurance* ISC* Firstmac / loans.com.au* Asics* Coca-Cola* Powerade* Star Entertainment Group* Deadly Choices* Arrow Energy* New Era* Nova 106.9* Nine News Queensland* McDonald's* The Courier-Mail* Event Cinemas* XXXX Gold===Sponsor History=== Year Kit manufactuerer Major sponsor Back Top sponsor Sleeve sponsor Back Bottom sponsor Front Shorts sponsor Back Shorts sponsor Chest sponsor 1988-89 Peerless Sport Powers Brewing Powers Brewing Number - - - - 1990 TR Auscel Powers Brewing 1991 Sport M TDK 1992-93 - 1994 Traveland Traveland" ], [ "Players", "===2023 NRL squad====== Representative players ======Notable players===Due to the club's premiership success and its being the dominant Queensland team in the competition for the majority of its participation, the Brisbane Broncos' list of representative players is extensive.", "Consequently, there have been a large number of Queensland Maroons in the team.", "In 2007, a 20-man legends team was announced to celebrate the club's 20-year anniversary.=== 1988 first-ever squad ===* Colin Scott – Fullback* Joe Kilroy – Wing* Chris Johns – Centre* Gene Miles – Centre * Michael Hancock – Wing* Wally Lewis – Five-eighth* Allan Langer – Halfback* Terry Matterson – Lock* Brett Le Man – Second Row* Keith Gee – Second Row* Greg Dowling – Prop* Greg Conescu – Hooker* Bryan Niebling – Prop* Mark Hohn – Interchange* Billy Noke – Interchange* Craig Grauf – Interchange* Wayne Bennett – Coach" ], [ "Personnel", "=== Coaches ===+NameNo.Coaching YearsGamesWinsLossesDrawsWinning percentageWayne Bennett11988–2008, 2015–201862562500100%Craig Bellamy*220022200100%Ivan Henjak32009–2010515100100%Anthony Griffin42011–201410110100100%Anthony Seibold52019–2020383800100%Peter Gentle*620207700100%Kevin Walters72021–484800100%=== Current personnel ===+NamePositionDave DonaghyChief Executive OfficerKevin WaltersNRL Head CoachMatt FriendGeneral Manager – FinanceLouise LaniganCompany Secretary & Salary Cap ManagerGeneral Manager – Football OperationsSimon ScanlanHead of Recruitment & AcademyHarry HaversFootball Data & Insights AnalystChristine HalliwellGeneral Manager – Community & Government ProgramsTain DrinkwaterGeneral Manager – HR, Rise and GovernanceSteele TallonGeneral Manager – Communications and Digital MediaDan GlassExecutive Manager – Commercial Partnerships and SalesBelinda FindlayManager – Membership and Merchandise" ], [ "Statistics and records", "The Brisbane Broncos are the second most successful club in terms of percentage of total games won, having won 63.63% of their games, as of 29 August 2012.This is marginally less (0.01%) than first placed Melbourne Storm.", "In their twenty completed seasons, the club has made a total of seven Grand Finals, winning six and losing one to the North Queensland Cowboys in 2015.They are one of only two clubs to have won the World Club Challenge twice, and were the first club to do so on British soil.", "They also won the now defunct Panasonic Cup in 1989.Former team captain Darren Lockyer holds the record for the most First Grade games for the club.", "Lockyer also held the record for the most points scored for the club, tallying 1,171 since his debut in 1995, before Corey Parker overtook him in August 2015 with 1,222 career points for Brisbane Broncos.", "Darren Lockyer also holds the club record of 272 points in a season, having achieved this in 1998.Darren Lockyer was named Fullback in Queensland Rugby League's Team of the Century in 1998–2007 and he won 4 grand finals with the Brisbane Broncos (including a Clive Churchill Medal) and a World Cup title with Australia.", "He also won the Golden Boot Award for world's best player in this position before switching to Five-eighth.Steve Renouf also shares the club record for the most tries in a season with Darren Smith at 23.After over a decade after Steve Renouf's move from the Brisbane Broncos to Wigan Warriors, he was still the club's all-time try scorer with a 142 career tries.", "Five times, he scored 4 tries in a single match from 1991 to 1998 and was known as one of the greatest centres the game has ever seen.", "In 2008, Steve Renouf was named centre in the Indigenous Team of the Century.Lote Tuqiri's tally of 26 points from three tries and seven goals in a single match against the Northern Eagles remains the club record for most individual points in a game.", "He also won the 1999 Brisbane Broncos season's rookie of the year award.Corey Parker holds the record for most goals in a game kicking ten in a round one clash of 2008, breaking the previous mark of nine kicked by Lockyer in 1998 and matched by Michael De Vere in 2001.He also scored a try on debut during 2001.Parker converted ten from ten goals in the Broncos 48–12 win over the Penrith Panthers in which Parker scored 24 points placing him in equal second place on the most points in a match tally.", "In 2013, Corey Parker was named Dally M Lock of the Year and in 2009 received the Broncos' Paul Morgan Award.", "Corey Parker also received the Paul Morgan Award yet again in 2013 and 2015.Six players have scored four tries in a match for the Brisbane Broncos including Steve Renouf (5 times), Wendell Sailor, Karmichael Hunt, Justin Hodges, Denan Kemp and former Australian Wallabies player, Israel Folau.", "Wendell Sailor has held the record for the most tries scored in a finals match (four tries against St. George Illawarra Dragons, Semi-final 2001, Brisbane won 44–28).The most field goals in a match however hasn't been past one field goal which has been accomplished several times.The club's biggest winning margin is 65 points, achieved in 2007 in a 71–6 victory over the Newcastle Knights.", "Their heaviest defeat is a 59–0 loss by the Sydney Roosters on 4 June 2020 .", "The club's highest winning margin in a Grand Final is by 26 points (38–12, against Canterbury Bulldogs, 1998).In the 2017 NRL season, the Brisbane Broncos' highest try-scorer was former Gold Coast Titans centre James Roberts with 15 tries.", "The highest points-scorer was Jordan Kahu with 67 goals and 8 tries.", "The most metres run in the season was by Tautau Moga with 3410 metres.===Brisbane Broncos win–loss records===Source:====Active teams==== Opponent Played Won Drawn Lost Win % Dolphins 2 2 0 0 '''100''' Tigers 32 32 0 0 '''100''' Titans 35 20 0 15 '''100''' Knights 55 37 1 17 '''67.27''' Rabbitohs 48 32 1 15 '''66.67''' Sharks 62 40 0 22 '''64.52''' Cowboys 60 38 2 20 '''63.33''' Bulldogs 61 36 1 24 '''59.02''' Panthers 60 35 1 24 '''58.33''' Raiders 56 32 1 23 '''57.14''' Roosters 57 32 0 25 '''56.14''' Dragons 45 25 0 20 '''55.56''' Eels 65 36 1 28 '''55.38''' Warriors 47 26 1 20 '''55.32''' Sea Eagles 50 25 1 24 '''50.00''' Storm 55 14 1 40 '''25.45'''====Discontinued teams==== Opponent Played Won Drawn Lost Win % Western Reds 4 4 '''100''' Adelaide Rams 3 3 '''100''' South Queensland Crushers 2 2 '''100''' Gold Coast Chargers 14 12 2 '''85.71''' Western Suburbs Magpies 17 14 1 2 '''85.29''' Northern Eagles 5 4 1 '''80''' St. George Dragons 15 10 5 '''66.66''' Illawarra Steelers 14 9 5 '''64.28''' Balmain Tigers 17 10 1 6 '''61.76''' North Sydney Bears 18 11 7 '''61.11''' Hunter Mariners 2 1 1 '''50'''" ], [ "Season summary", "+ P=Premiers, R=Runners-up, M=Minor Premierships, F=Finals Appearance, W=Wooden Spoons (Brackets Represent Finals Games) Competition GamesPlayed GamesWon GamesDrawn GamesLost LadderPosition P R M F W Coach(es) Captain(s) Details 1988 NSWRL season 22 14 0 8 7/16 Wayne Bennett Wally Lewis 1988 Brisbane Broncos season 1989 NSWRL season 22 (1) 14 (0) 0 (0) 8 (1) 5/16 Wayne Bennett Wally Lewis 1989 Brisbane Broncos season 1990 NSWRL season 22 (3) 16 (1) 1 (0) 5 (2) 2/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Gene Miles 1990 Brisbane Broncos season 1991 NSWRL season 22 13 0 9 7 / 16 Wayne Bennett Gene Miles 1991 Brisbane Broncos season 1992 NSWRL season 22 (2) 18 (2) 0 (0) 4 (0) 1/16 ?", "?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1992 Brisbane Broncos season 1993 NSWRL season 22 (4) 16 (4) 0 (0) 6 (0) 5/16 ?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1993 Brisbane Broncos season 1994 NSWRL season 22 (2) 13 (1) 1 (0) 8 (1) 5/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1994 Brisbane Broncos season 1995 ARL season 22 (2) 17 (0) 0 (0) 5 (2) 3/20 ?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1995 Brisbane Broncos season 1996 ARL season 21 (2) 17 (0) 0 (0) 4 (2) 2/20 ?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1996 Brisbane Broncos season 1997 SL season 18 (2) 14 (2) 1 (0) 3 (0) 1/10 ?", "?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1997 Brisbane Broncos season 1998 NRL season 24 (4) 18 (3) 1 (0) 5 (1) 1/20 ?", "?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Allan Langer 1998 Brisbane Broncos season 1999 NRL season 24 (1) 13 (0) 2 (0) 9 (1) 8/17 ?", "Wayne Bennett Kevin Walters 1999 Brisbane Broncos season 2000 NRL season 26 (3) 18 (3) 2 (0) 6 (0) 1/14 ?", "?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Kevin Walters 2000 Brisbane Broncos season 2001 NRL season 26 (3) 14 (1) 1 (0) 11 (2) 5/14 ?", "Wayne Bennett Gorden Tallis 2001 Brisbane Broncos season 2002 NRL season 24 (2) 16 (1) 1 (0) 7 (1) 3/15 ?", "Wayne Bennett and Craig Bellamy Gorden Tallis 2002 Brisbane Broncos season 2003 NRL season 24 (1) 12 (0) 0 (0) 12 (1) 8/15 ?", "Wayne Bennett Gorden Tallis 2003 Brisbane Broncos season 2004 NRL season 24 (2) 16 (0) 1 (0) 7 (2) 3/15 ?", "Wayne Bennett Gorden Tallis 2004 Brisbane Broncos season 2005 NRL season 24 (2) 15 (0) 0 (0) 9 (2) 3/15 ?", "Wayne Bennett Darren Lockyer 2005 Brisbane Broncos season 2006 NRL season 24 (4) 14 (3) 0 (0) 10 (1) 3/15 ?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Darren Lockyer 2006 Brisbane Broncos season 2007 NRL season 24 (1) 11 (0) 0 (0) 13 (1) 8/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Darren Lockyer 2007 Brisbane Broncos season 2008 NRL season 24 (2) 14 (1) 1 (0) 9 (1) 5/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Darren Lockyer 2008 Brisbane Broncos season 2009 NRL season 24 (3) 14 (2) 0 (0) 10 (1) 6/16 ?", "Ivan Henjak Darren Lockyer 2009 Brisbane Broncos season 2010 NRL season 24 11 0 13 10/16 Ivan Henjak Darren Lockyer 2010 Brisbane Broncos season 2011 NRL season 24 (3) 18 (2) 0 (0) 6 (1) 3/16 ?", "Anthony Griffin Darren Lockyer 2011 Brisbane Broncos season 2012 NRL season 24 (1) 12 (0) 0 (0) 12 (1) 8/16 ?", "Anthony Griffin Sam Thaiday 2012 Brisbane Broncos season 2013 NRL season 24 10 1 13 12 / 16 Anthony Griffin Sam Thaiday 2013 Brisbane Broncos season 2014 NRL season 24 (1)12 (0)0 (0)12 (1) 8/16 ?", "Anthony Griffin Corey Parker and Justin Hodges 2014 Brisbane Broncos season 2015 NRL season 24 17 0 7 2/16 ?", "?", "Wayne Bennett Justin Hodges 2015 Brisbane Broncos season 2016 NRL season 24 (3) 15 0 9 5/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Corey Parker 2016 Brisbane Broncos season2017 NRL season 24 (3) 16 0 8 3/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Darius Boyd 2017 Brisbane Broncos season2018 NRL season 24 (1) 15 0 9 6/16 ?", "Wayne Bennett Darius Boyd 2018 Brisbane Broncos season 2019 NRL season 24 (1) 11 1 13 8/16 ?", "Anthony Seibold Darius Boyd 2019 Brisbane Broncos season 2020 NRL season 20 3 0 17 16/16 ?", "Anthony Seibold and Peter Gentle Alex Glenn 2020 Brisbane Broncos season 2021 NRL season 24 7 0 17 14/16 Kevin Walters Alex Glenn 2021 Brisbane Broncos season 2022 NRL season 24 13 0 11 9/16 Kevin Walters Adam Reynolds 2022 Brisbane Broncos season 2023 NRL season 24 (3) 18 (2) 0 6 (1) 2/17 ?", "?", "Kevin Walters Adam Reynolds 2023 Brisbane Broncos season===Finals appearances==='''28''' (1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2023)" ], [ "Honours", "* '''World Club Challenge: 2''':: 1992, 1997* '''Premiership: 6''':: 1992, 1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2006, * '''Minor Premiership: 4''':: 1992, 1997, 1998, 2000* '''Panasonic Cup: 1''':: 1989* '''Lotto Challenge Cup: 1''':: 1991* '''Tooheys Challenge Cup: 1''':: 1995" ], [ "Club rivalries", "=== North Queensland Cowboys ===Brisbane's biggest rivals are the North Queensland Cowboys.", "The two clubs had a long-standing 'sibling rivalry' with North Queensland characterized as the underdog.", "Brisbane initially were dominant in the fixture with Brisbane going undefeated against North Queensland for the first nine years until North Queensland recorded their first ever victory in the 2004 elimination final defeating Brisbane 10–0.The rivalry reached new heights after North Queensland won their first premiership, beating Brisbane at the 2015 Grand Final at Stadium Australia.", "Considered one of the greatest grand finals of all time, the win established North Queensland as competitive equals.", "Between 2015 and 2017 a staggering three of five games played between the two clubs led to a Golden Point finish.", "In the final round of the 2020 NRL season, North Queensland condemned Brisbane to their first ever Wooden Spoon.", "Brisbane needed to win the match to overtake Canterbury-Bankstown but lost the match.It is regarded as one of the greatest modern sports rivalries earning the nickname of the \"Queensland derby\".=== Gold Coast Titans ===The match between Brisbane and the Gold Coast is known as the South Queensland Derby.", "The media and supporters of both club's have described this fixture as Big Brother against Little Brother.", "Brisbane are the more successful team in the fixture with the Gold Coast only defeating Brisbane eleven times since 2007.The two club's have only met in two finals matches, the first being in 2009 when Brisbane won 40–32.The other time being in 2016 when the Gold Coast reached the finals by default due to Parramatta's salary cap points deduction.", "Brisbane won the match 44–28.The Gold Coast are geographically the closest club to Brisbane.", "Brisbane previously enjoyed derbies with the Gold Coast Chargers, until the Chargers exited the competition at the end of 1998 season, returning as the Gold Coast Titans in 2007 and before that with the Gold Coast Seagulls and Gold Coast-Tweed Giants.", "In the 2021 NRL season, Brisbane recorded the biggest ever comeback in their history by defeating the Gold Coast 36–28 after being down 22–0.===Melbourne Storm===Since the 2006 NRL Grand Final where Brisbane edged out Melbourne 15–8, a rivalry still continues today between the two clubs.", "The two sides have played each other in multiple finals matches.", "Adding to this, both Brisbane and Melbourne players usually feature heavily in Queensland's annual State of Origin side.", "Since the 2006 decider, Brisbane have played Melbourne on thirty-four occasions and only won five times.", "In round 27 of the 2023 NRL season, the two sides met in the final round of the regular campaign.", "Brisbane and Melbourne both rested regular players as each team had already qualified for the finals.", "Melbourne won 32-22 and by the end of the round, Brisbane missed out on their first Minor Premiership win since 2000.The two sides would meet the following week in the 2023 qualifying final with Brisbane defeating Melbourne 26-0 to book a place in the preliminary final.", "It was the first time Brisbane had beaten Melbourne at Suncorp Stadium since 2009 and the first time that they had defeated Melbourne in 14 attempts.===Dolphins===The Battle of Brisbane is a new rivalry which began with the Dolphins' admission as the second Brisbane club in 2023.This marked the first time that Brisbane has had two professional rugby league teams since the demise of the South Queensland Crushers in 1997.In round 4 of the 2023 NRL season, the two sides played against each other for the first time.", "In a match which saw both sides take the lead, Brisbane would go on to win 18–12 in front of 51,047 fans.", "This was the biggest crowd at Suncorp Stadium for a regular season game in its history." ], [ "Club affiliations", "The Brisbane Broncos have three split feeder clubs from the Queensland Cup: Northern Suburbs Devils, Souths Logan Magpies and Wynnum-Manly Seagulls.", "Former feeder clubs of the Broncos are the now-defunct Aspley Broncos and Toowoomba Clydesdales, active clubs Central Queensland Capras, who switched to The Dolphins, Ipswich Jets who switched to Newcastle Knights, Redcliffe Dolphins who switched to New Zealand Warriors, and Burleigh Bears who switched to the Gold Coast Titans." ], [ "Club victory song", "The current Broncos' victory song, \"We're The Broncos\" was written in 1995 (the earlier rock song \"Let's Go Broncos\" written by Bob Bax in 1988 remains a club anthem)Lyrics:'''We're the Broncos''''''The mighty Broncos''''''We keep fighting every second till the end''''''We're the Broncos''''''The greatest team on earth''''''We're the heart of all Queensland''''''Never stop''''''We never rest''''''On and on we beat the best''''''Never giving up we bleed maroon and gold''''''For the league''''''We risk it all''''''We're standing tall''''''We're the finest and the greatest club of all''''''We're the Broncos''''''The mighty Broncos''''''We keep fighting every second till the end''''''We breathe in our soul''''''The best game of all''''''We are the Broncos of Queensland''''''Hey'''" ], [ "Women's team", "In 2017, the Brisbane Broncos launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership in 2018.On 27 March 2018, the club won a license to participate in the inaugural NRL Women's season, on the back of a strong bid which included the NRL's desire for a geographical spread.", "Paul Dyer was named as the coach of the women's side, but stepped down after the inaugural season to concentrate on his role as game development manager.", "Kelvin Wright was named his replacement in May 2019.In June 2018, Ali Brigginshaw, Brittany Breayley, Heather Ballinger, Teuila Fotu-Moala and Caitlyn Moran were unveiled as the club's first five signings.", "Tain Drinkwater was also appointed the CEO of the team.The club won the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership title by defeating the Sydney Roosters by 34–12 in the 2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final.===Current squad===" ], [ "See also", "*Sport in Queensland*Rugby league in Queensland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "'''Official sites'''* Official website* Broncos Leagues Club* Brisbane Broncos results - Latest scores for Brisbane Broncos'''Statistics & information sites'''* Rugby League Tables* RL1908 Broncos History'''Supporter sites'''* BroncosHQ – Brisbane Broncos Fan Discussion Forum" ] ]

[ [ "Brisbane Lions" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Brisbane Lions''' are a professional Australian rules football club based in Brisbane, Queensland, that compete in the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's elite competition.The Lions came into existence in 1996 when the AFL expansion club the Brisbane Bears, established in 1987, absorbed the AFL operations of one of the league's foundation clubs, Fitzroy, established in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1883.Upon changing the club's official name, colours, song, and AFL nickname to reflect Fitzroy's, Brisbane contested its first AFL season as the Lions in 1997.Its colours of maroon, blue, and gold were drawn from both Fitzroy and the Bears.The club plays its home matches at the Gabba in Brisbane, and its headquarters and training facilities are located at Springfield Central Stadium.", "The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 2000s, appearing in four consecutive grand finals from 2001 to 2004, a period in which they won three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).", "They also finished runners-up in 2023.The Lions were a foundation team in the AFL Women's competition in 2017, and have featured in five grand finals in that time, winning the premiership in 2021 and again in 2023 also finishing runners-up on the other occasions.", "They also field a reserves men's team in the Victorian Football League, and operate an under-18s academy which contests Division 2 of the men's and women's underage national championships and the Talent League." ], [ "History of Fitzroy Football Club pre-1996, and Brisbane Bears", "===Fitzroy Football Club===The Melbourne-based Fitzroy Football Club was formed on 26 September 1883 at The Brunswick Hotel.", "The Victorian Football Association (VFA) made changes to their rules, allowing Fitzroy to join as the seventh club in 1884, playing in the maroon and blue colours of the local Normanby Junior Football Club.Fitzroy's 1898 premiership-winning sideThey quickly became one of the most successful clubs, consistently in the top four, and drawing large crowds to their home at the Brunswick Street Oval in Edinburgh Gardens.", "This success was capped off by Fitzroy winning the VFA premiership in 1895.Fitzroy would then go on to be one of the eight break-away clubs who formed the Victorian Football League in 1897.They would continue their VFA form and be a powerhouse in the early days of the new VFL, winning a total of eight premierships, of which seven (1898, 1899, 1904, 1905, 1913, 1916 and 1922) were won while they were nicknamed the Maroons, and one (1944) as the Gorillas.", "The club also boasted 6 Brownlow Medal winners who were Haydn Bunton Sr., Wilfred Smallhorn, Dinny Ryan, Allan Ruthven, Kevin Murray, and Bernie Quinlan.Haydn Bunton Sr. won three Brownlow Medals and two club best and fairest medals in his time at Fitzroy.The club changed its nickname to the Lions in 1957, but when Fitzroy was evicted from its home ground of Brunswick St Oval in 1965, this began a sustained period of poor on-field performance and financial losses.", "Fitzroy entered one of the least successful periods any VFL/AFL club has had.", "The club finished in the bottom three 11 times in the 1960s and 1970s, including three wooden spoons in four years between 1963 and 1966.The club won only a single game between 1963 and 1964 – known as the Miracle Match when it defeated eventual premiers Geelong in Round 10, 1963 – but its 1964 season was winless, and as of 2023 stands as the only winless season by any club since 1950.Despite a revival in the '80s, when the Lions made the finals four times under the coaching of Robert Walls and David Parkin, and the playing group of 1981 Brownlow Medallist Bernie Quinlan, Ron Alexander, Garry Wilson, Gary Pert and Paul Roos, the club's financial situation was perilous.The VFL's plans to move or merge struggling Fitzroy to Brisbane pre-dated the Brisbane Bears, and negotiations between the league and the club began in 1986 with the playing group voting for a move to Brisbane.", "However, Fitzroy resisted the move despite significant incentives and in response, the VFL made the decision to cut any further financial assistance to the club.", "By the start of the 1996 season, they were almost at the end of their financial tether.", "With no home ground, back to back wooden spoons, and their future under a cloud, Fitzroy began to consider options for survival.===Brisbane Bears (1987–1996)===Carrara Stadium was the original home ground of the Brisbane Bears.The Brisbane Bears were born in 1987 and initially played home matches at Carrara Stadium on the Gold Coast.", "In its early days, the club was uncompetitive on the field and struggled to shake the derisive tags which included \"The Carrara Koalas\" (in reference to the Gold Coast home and the somewhat tame marsupial) and \"The Bad News Bears\".After the collapse of the business empire belonging to Bears deputy chairman Christopher Skase and the resignation of chairman Paul Cronin, the club was taken over by the AFL and re-sold to Gold Coast hospitality businessman Reuben Pelerman.Off-field, Pelerman was losing millions of dollars annually on the club and at one point in 1991 told Bears coach Robert Walls that he was closing it down.", "The Bears would go on to finish last in 1990 and 1991.To survive, The Bears experimented with playing matches at the Gabba in Brisbane in 1991, moving all home matches to the venue ahead of the 1993 season.", "As part of the club's move to the Gabba, Pelerman agreed to release the Bears from private ownership and revert to a traditional club structure in which the club's members were able to elect the board.Membership and attendances instantly tripled now that the club was finally playing in their home city of Brisbane.The Bears only qualified for the finals series in 1995 and 1996, and the closest the club came to a Grand Final was a preliminary final in 1996.On extremely shaky financial ground, the Bears struggled to generate many revenue opportunities in their short and turbulent ten-year existence.", "Despite improving its on-field fortunes, and drafting exciting young players on such as Michael Voss, Justin Leppitsch, Jason Akermanis, Darryl White, and Nigel Lappin, the club's existence was still at threat due to severe financial problems, and since 1990, The Bears had been actively exploring merger options with Fitzroy.===Brisbane Bears absorb Fitzroy's AFL operations, become Brisbane Lions===Fitzroy's directors had agreed in principle to merge with the eventual 1996 premiers, North Melbourne, as the \"North-Fitzroy Kangaroos\".", "However, that proposal was rejected 15–1 by the club presidents, reportedly out of concern that an all-Victorian merge would be too powerful.", "Instead, Fitzroy was placed into administration, and its administrator accepted an offer to merge its AFL operations with Brisbane.Brisbane Bears then changed its name to Brisbane Bears-Fitzroy Football Club (trading as Brisbane Lions), remained at the Gabba, and was coached by Bears coach John Northey.", "However, the club's identity, logo, song, and guernsey would be based on those of Fitzroy, three Fitzroy representatives would serve on the board, and the Lions would keep an office in Melbourne.", "None of the Fitzroy representatives, former Fitzroy champion Laurie Serafini, David Lucas and Ken Levy, chosen to serve on Brisbane's board, were Fitzroy directors at that time.Eight Fitzroy players were allowed to be recruited to the Brisbane Lions outside of the normal draft or trade system.", "They were Brad Boyd, Chris Johnson, Jarrod Molloy, John Barker, Nick Carter, Simon Hawking, Scott Bamford and Shane Clayton.Fitzroy played its last VFL/AFL game on 1 September 1996 against Fremantle at Subiaco Oval, and the Bears' last match was a preliminary final on Saturday 21 September 1996 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against North Melbourne.The Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997." ], [ "Brisbane Lions history", "===Beginnings: 1997–2000===In 1997, the Lions narrowly made the finals, finishing eighth.", "They ended up with the same win–loss record as fellow 1997 newcomers Port Adelaide, who missed out due to having an inferior percentage.", "Their first two games were against the eventual grand finalists of that year, Adelaide and St Kilda.", "They went down to Adelaide by 36 points before recording an emphatic 97-point thrashing of St Kilda in round 2.The Lions met St Kilda again in a cut-throat away qualifying final, going down by 46 points after leading the Saints at half-time.", "The Brisbane Lions in 1997 remain the only team in VFL/AFL history to have made the finals in their first season.Despite a talented playing list, the disruption of the merger and injuries to key players Michael Voss and Brad Boyd took their toll.", "The Lions would go on to finish last at the end of the 1998 season.", "Accordingly, Northey was sacked as coach with eight rounds remaining in the season.", "During the off-season, the club hired Leigh Matthews, who in 1990 had delivered Collingwood its first premiership since 1958.Matthews, who was voted \"Player of the Century\" in 2000, played his entire career with Hawthorn and brought many of the Hawthorn disciplines to the Lions.", "Importantly, he forced the Lions to embrace and acknowledge their Fitzroy heritage with murals and records being erected at the Gabba, and past players names being placed on lockers.", "Within a year, the Lions rose from the bottom of the ladder to fourth.", "The 1999 season included a Round 20 Gabba match where the Lions led Fremantle by 113 points at half-time after having kicked 21 goals.", "Their half-time score of 21.5 (131) still remains the highest half-time score in VFL/AFL history.", "Brisbane would win their first finals as a merged entity against Carlton and the Western Bulldogs before losing to the eventual premiers, the Kangaroos, in a 1999 preliminary final.", "The Lions played finals again in 2000 but bowed out in the second week after losing an away game to Carlton by 82 points.In this period the club drafted and recruited key players who would go onto be pillars of the Lions triple premiership years.", "Victorian Luke Power, Fitzroy father-son selection Jonathan Brown, and exciting WA product Simon Black would come via the draft, and Brad Scott, Mal Michael, and ex-Fitzroy B&F winner Martin Pike would be recruited from Hawthorn, Collingwood, and North Melbourne respectively.=== Triple premiership success: 2001–2004 ===Michael Voss captained Brisbane to three successive premierships.The Lions began 2001 by making the final of the Ansett Australia Cup, their first pre-season grand final.", "They went down by 85 points away to Port Adelaide, who they had also been scheduled to play in Round 1 at the same venue.", "After an inconsistent start to their 2001 season, the Lions took on the reigning premiers Essendon in Round 10.Brisbane finished as 28-point victors, and head coach Leigh Matthews famously used a ''Predator'' quote, \"if it bleeds, we can kill it\", to inspire his team for the game.", "The Lions would then win 16 games straight, finishing the year undefeated and booking their place in the 2001 AFL Grand Final to play Essendon.Going in as underdogs, Brisbane started the game well, scoring the first goal of the match from a free kick awarded to Alastair Lynch for holding against Dustin Fletcher.", "Essendon fought back late in the first quarter and then took control of the game in the second term.", "The Lions' poor kicking for goal almost put them out of the game in the second quarter as Essendon blew their lead out to 20 points late in the term.", "2001 AFL Grand Final ''G''''B''''Total'' '''Brisbane Lions''' '''15''' '''18''' '''108''' Essendon 12 10 82 Venue: MCG Crowd: 91,482However, The Lions managed to overrun Essendon in the third term, kicking six goals to one and turning a 14-point deficit into a 16-point lead.", "Brisbane's pace in the midfield and the tiring legs of most of the Essendon players played a pivotal role in them taking full control of the game in the second half.", "The Lions won their first premiership comfortably, with a final score of 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82).The win was topped off with Lions utility player Shaun Hart winning the Norm Smith Medal after being judged best on ground in the Grand Final.", "2002 AFL Grand Final ''G''''B''''Total'' '''Brisbane Lions''' '''10''' '''15''' '''75''' Collingwood 9 12 66 Venue: MCG Crowd: 91,817In 2002, the Lions won a club-record 17 games, spending most of the season firmly entrenched in the top two with Port Adelaide.", "They narrowly missed out on the minor premiership following a final round defeat to the Power in Adelaide.", "In the finals, the Lions claimed easy home victories over the two Adelaide-based teams on their way to a second consecutive Grand Final.", "They faced Collingwood, who had surprised many that year after having missed the finals the previous seven seasons.", "Brisbane ended up defeating the Magpies 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.", "Early in the contest, the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.In 2003, the Lions became the first team in the national era to win three consecutive premierships.", "With a number of players under an injury cloud—and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously–the Lions went into the game as underdogs.", "However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions.", "At one stage in the final quarter, the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals.", "The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL.", "Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39-possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final; the record was equalled by Melbourne's Christian Petracca 18 years later in the 2021 Grand Final.", "2003 AFL Grand Final ''G''''B''''Total'' '''Brisbane Lions''' '''20''' '''14''' '''134''' Collingwood 12 12 84 Venue: MCG Crowd: 79,451Brunswick Street Oval has been called the spiritual home of both Fitzroy and the Brisbane Lions.During their premiership years, the club took the premiership cups to Brunswick Street Oval, Fitzroy, the home of the Fitzroy Football Club, each morning after the grand final.", "Honouring Fitzroy's history at their traditional home ground was seen as an important way of connecting with the Melbourne-based Fitzroy supporters who'd chosen to support the Brisbane Lions.", "2004 AFL Grand Final ''G''''B''''Total'' '''Port Adelaide''' '''17''' '''11''' '''113''' Brisbane Lions 10 13 73 Venue: MCG Crowd: 77,671The 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season.", "Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG.", "Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide.", "Former player Jason Akermanis has since claimed that coach Leigh Matthews was furious over the preliminary final location decision.", "Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the grand final for the fourth consecutive year.", "Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win in what was the first-ever all-non-Victorian grand final.", "The grand final is partly remembered for a wild punch-up between Port Adelaide's Darryl Wakelin and Alastair Lynch, who was playing in his last ever game and therefore immune from suspension.=== Rebuild and Michael Voss: 2005–2013 ===Players training in 2007The Lions endured a slow start to the 2005 season before having a form reversal towards the end of the year, which included ten-goal thrashings of top-four contenders Geelong and Melbourne.", "Going into Round 20, they were half a game clear inside the top eight and had one of the strongest percentages in the league.", "However, they would lose their final three games and miss the finals, with their season culminating in a record-breaking 139-point loss to St Kilda at the Telstra Dome.", "It remains the club's heaviest defeat, in addition to being the largest victory in the over-100-year history of St Kilda.", "Some believed that the St Kilda game, rather than the 2004 Grand Final, had signaled the end of Brisbane's triple premiership dynasty.The Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries plagued the club as they again missed the finals, with Brisbane's players recording an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.The Brisbane Lions' 2007 season started with them finishing runners-up to Carlton in the 2007 NAB Cup Grand Final.", "The Lions would fail to make the finals for a third successive year, again showing promising glimpses at stages, with a shock away win against reigning premiers the West Coast Eagles, and a 93-point hiding of finalists Collingwood at the MCG.", "They made history in 2007 by becoming the first club in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains.The team struggled during the 2008 season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games.", "Following the season, Coach Leigh Matthews resigned after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.", "The Lions appointed former player and Captain Michael Voss as the coach ahead of 2009.After only winning 2 games from the first 5 played in 2009, the club won 9 of the next 12 to sit in 6th on the ladder, where they would finish the season.", "They would also record a strong victory over eventual premiers Geelong during this timeframe by 43 points.", "The club beat Carlton in their Elimination Final, coming from 30 points behind in the final quarter to win by 7 points, before losing to the Western Bulldogs in a Semi Final.The 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, with a belief in the club that Fevola could help them capitalise and improve upon their strong 2009 season.", "Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that, to finish 13th by the end of the season.The Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations.", "On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year and finished 15th overall.", "The 2011 season saw the debut of another Queensland-based team, the Gold Coast Suns.", "The Suns, who were coming off a 139-point loss to Essendon the previous week, upset the Lions by 8 points in their first encounter.", "Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future.", "Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership-winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.The 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground.", "However, the club began its 2013 season with back-to-back losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide.", "Injuries took a toll on the team, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries.", "In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match, in what would become known as the Miracle on Grass.On 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told his contract would not be renewed.On 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions Hall of Famer Simon Black announced his retirement.=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===On 25 August 2013, a former premiership player for the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed as the senior coach of the Lions for the next three seasons.During Round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants.", "He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground.", "He suffered a concussion and subsequently retired from football.", "His retirement, alongside the retirement of Ash McGrath, meant there were no players from the triple-premiership era remaining at the club.On 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions after multiple disappointing seasons.=== Chris Fagan era: 2017–present ===On 4 October 2016, Hawthorn football manager Chris Fagan was announced as Brisbane's senior coach from the 2017 season onwards.The Lions claimed the 2017 wooden spoon, despite winning 5 games for the season, 2 more than the previous season.", "Their percentage of 74.3 was the worst in the league, behind Fremantle with a percentage of 74.4.The 2018 season was very similar, recording 5 wins to finish in 15th place, but multiple close losses showed signs of a young team about to breakout into finals contention.The Lions had a dramatically improved 2019 season, making the finals for the first time since 2009 and finishing second on the AFL ladder with 16 wins, behind minor premiers Geelong on percentage.", "However, Brisbane were bundled out of the finals in straight sets at the Gabba, losing to eventual premiers Richmond by 47 points in their qualifying final and then to eventual runners-up Greater Western Sydney by three points in their semi-final due to a late Brent Daniels goal.", "The Lions became the first team since Geelong in 1997 to finish second on the ladder and not progress to a preliminary final.Brisbane repeated their form displayed in 2019 the following year, once again finishing second on percentage at the conclusion of the home-and-away season.", "They won 14 games in a shortened 17-game season.", "During their qualifying final, they defeated Richmond for the first time since 2009 and qualified for a preliminary final berth, but went on to be beaten by a more experienced Geelong side in that match.After an inconsistent start to the 2021 season the Lions hit form, winning seven straight games to sit in the top four for most of the year.", "However, losses to Melbourne, Richmond, Hawthorn and St Kilda meant the Lions sat in fifth as of the final round.With the double chance on the line, the Lions regained fourth spot in the dying seconds of their final home-and-away game against West Coast.", "A behind kicked by Lincoln McCarthy put them ahead of the fourth-placed Bulldogs by a single point of ladder percentage, and a goal after the siren from Charlie Cameron then sealed the result for the Lions, who finished in the top four for the third year running under Chris Fagan.", "However, the Lions bowed out in straight sets for the second time in three years after suffering losses to eventual premiers Melbourne and eventual runners-up Western Bulldogs in the finals, with the latter winning by a single point, due to a contentious free kick paid to the Bulldogs in the final seconds of the game.Brisbane reached the finals once again in 2022, but this time missed the top four.", "With a win-loss record of fifteen wins and seven losses, the Lions finished sixth and hosted seventh-placed Richmond at the Gabba in an Elimination Final.", "After a close game which had 17 lead changes, the Lions prevailed, defeating the Tigers by a margin of two points in a 106–104 victory thanks to a late Joe Daniher goal.", "The Lions then played the Melbourne Demons in the Semi-Final, and upset the reigning premiers against all odds, bundling them out in straight sets with a score of 92–79 to progress to their second Preliminary Final under Fagan, taking on Geelong once again in a rematch of the 2020 Preliminary Final.Unfortunately for Brisbane, their impressive finals run came to an end against the Cats, suffering a 71-point defeat in the First Preliminary Final that ended their 2022 season.Brisbane reinforced their squad with multiple star signings in the off-season, such as star midfielder Josh Dunkley, tall forward Jack Gunston and father-son draftee Will Ashcroft, to make them one of the competition's flag favourites for the 2023 AFL season.", "Additionally, Fagan also penned a two-year contract extension to keep him at the club until 2025, with Lachie Neale and Harris Andrews also taking over as co-captains from long-serving Lions veteran Dayne Zorko, who stepped down before the commencement of the 2023 season.Brisbane finished the 2023 Home & Away season in second position, finishing in the Top 2 for the third time under Fagan after previously doing so in 2019 and 2020, and finishing in the Top 4 for the fourth time after also doing so in 2021.They faced Port Adelaide in the Second Qualifying Final on the 9th of September at the Gabba, beating the Power by 48 points and going straight through to a home preliminary final, their third under Fagan, where they faced Carlton on the 23rd of September for a place in the 2023 AFL Grand Final.After conceding the first five goals, The Lions fought back, prevailing by 16 points over the Blues to progress to the AFL Grand Final for the first time since 2004.This meant that they faced Collingwood, exactly 20 years on since they faced the Magpies in the 2003 Grand Final and completed the historic three-peat.The Lions would fall short of the premiership in 2023, losing to the Magpies in an extremely close Grand Final with a final score of 12.18.", "(90) to 13.8.", "(86)." ], [ "Membership base and sponsorship", "Crowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final.The club still maintains healthy Victorian support, and The Royal Derby Hotel in Fitzroy is the official social venue for Victorian Lions fans, showing all televised games, and displaying a mural of club greats Kevin Murray and Jonathan Brown on its Alexandra Parade side.To add to this presence in Melbourne, the Lions Historical Society is based at Etihad Stadium, containing exhibits from Fitzroy, the Bears, and the Brisbane Lions.A 2000 Roy Morgan AFL survey of household incomes suggested that Brisbane Lions supporters were among the lowest-earning supporters in the league.", "Year Members Change from previous season Finishing position Finals result/Wooden spoon Average home crowd Profit (loss) 199716,769 8th Qualifying finalists 19,550 1998''16,108'' 661 16th ''Wooden spoon'' 16,675199916,931 823 3rd Preliminary finalists 21,890 200020,295 3,364 6th Semi-finalists 27,406 200118,330 1,965 '''2nd''' '''Premiers''' 27,638 ($845,000)200222,288 3,958 '''2nd''' '''Premiers''' 26,895 200324,365 2,077 3rd '''Premiers''' 31,717 $2,200,000200430,941 6,576 '''2nd''' Grand finalists '''33,619''' 200528,913 1,308 11th 33,267200626,459 2,454 13th 28,630200721,976 ''4,483'' 10th 28,848 $1,058,000 200822,737 761 10th 28,128 ($2,200,030)200924,873 2,136 6th Semi-finalists 29,172 ($603,207)201026,779 1,906 13th 29,933 ($2,713,848)201122,338 4,441 15th 20,462 ($1,855,926)201220,762 1,576 13th20,344 ($2,513,262)201324,130 3,368 12th 21,083 ($1,574,762)201424,012 118 15th 19,743 ''($3,543,138)'' 201525,408 1,396 17th 18,810 ($681,053)2016 23,286 2,122 17th 17,074 ($1,783,506) 2017 21,362 1,924 ''18th'' ''Wooden spoon'' ''16,455'' ($2,261,990) 2018 24,867 3,505 15th 18,405 ($230,641)2019 28,821 3,954 '''2nd''' Semi-finalists 24,741 $648,618, 202029,277 456'''2nd'''Preliminary finalists''10,648''$3,073,413202140,289 '''11,012'''4thSemi-finalists20,603 '''$2,938,037''' 202243,319 3,0306thPreliminary finalists25,818 $2,384,9972023'''52,373''' 9,054'''2nd'''Grand finalists27,455 Statistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best known season for Brisbane in that categoryStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst known season for Brisbane in that category===Non-playing/coaching staff===NamePosition Greg Swann Chief Executive Officer Andrew Wellington Chairman Sarah Kelly Deputy chairman Cyril Jinks Directors Leigh Matthews Peter McGregor Mick Power Ross Thornton Danny Daly General Manager of Football Dom Ambrogio List Manager Andrew Crowell Personal Excellence and Wellbeing Manager Damien Austin High Performance Manager Stephen Conole Senior Recruiting Manager Leon Harris Recruitment Consultant===Sponsorship=== Year Kit Manufacturer Major Sponsor Shorts Sponsor Back Sponsor Above number sponsor Neckline sponsor 1997–98 PumaCarlton & United BreweriesSpamCoca-Cola 1999 Devine Homes 2000 AAPTSpamCellular One 2001 Russell Athletic Bio Organics Vitamins AAPT Cellular One 2002 AAMI 2003–06 AAPT 2007 PumaVodafoneVodafone 2008 HBA 2009 MBF 2010 Bank of Queensland (Home) Conergy (Away)Conergy (Home) Bank of Queensland (Away) 2011–12 KoogaBupa 2013 Vero Insurance (Home) National Storage (Away)National Storage (Home) Vero Insurance (Away) 2014 BLKTechnology One 2015 Garuda Indonesia 2016 Vero Insurance (Home) Camperdown Dairy International (Away) – Camperdown Dairy International (Home) Vero Insurance (Away) 2017 Majestic AthleticXXXX 2018 Vero Insurance (Home) Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Away)Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Home) Vero Insurance (Away) 2019 Neds (Home) Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Away)The Coffee ClubOaks Hotels & Resorts (Home) Neds (Away) 2020 Classic Sportswear XL Express (Home) Neds (Away) Neds (Home) XL Express (Away) 2021 Taubmans 2022 XL Express (Home) Youi (Away)Youi (Home) XL Express (Away) Hyundai 2023 New Balance Caltex (Home) Youi (Away)XXXX Youi (Home) Caltex (Away) McDonald’s" ], [ "Relationship with the Fitzroy Football Club", "The Fitzroy Football Club came out of administration in 1998.For a brief time, it experimented in partnerships with other semi-professional and amateur clubs before incorporating the Fitzroy Reds in 2009 to play in the Victorian Amateur Football Association.", "Fitzroy largely resumed its original VFL/AFL identity playing in the VAFA through its continued use of its 1975–1996 VFL/AFL jumper, its club song, and its 1884–1966 home ground at the Brunswick Street Oval.The goal was to not only maintain a strong presence in Melbourne for Victorian-based Fitzroy/Brisbane Lions supporters, but to also provide for the Fitzroy supporters who chose not to support Brisbane in the AFL.", "This was all done with the full support of the Brisbane Lions.Brisbane Lions flag flying over Fitzroy Town Hall during the 2021 finals seriesFitzroy Football Club improved its relationship with the Brisbane Lions in the ten years from 1999 to 2009.In that time Brisbane have used the letters BBFFC printed below the back of the neck of the club's guernseys from 2002 onwards, in line with Brisbane's official name.", "Fitzroy played the curtain-raiser at the MCG when the Brisbane Lions met the Collingwood Magpies in the AFL Heritage Round of 2003.Brisbane also now wears a version of Fitzroy's AFL guernsey with red instead of maroon in most matches played in Victoria, consistent with Fitzroy's most recent colours.Relationships between Fitzroy and Brisbane however were strained in late 2009, when Brisbane announced that it was adopting a new logo for season 2010 and beyond, which Fitzroy Football Club believed contravened Section 7.2 c) of the Deed of Arrangement between Fitzroy and Brisbane.", "The new logo, a lion's head facing forward, replaced the former Fitzroy logo of a passant lion with a football.Mockingly referred to as 'The Paddlepop Lion', the new logo on the club jumper proved deeply unpopular amongst Lions fans who demanded it be changed back to the traditional Fitzroy passant Lion.On 22 December 2009, Fitzroy lodged a Statement of Claim with the Supreme Court of Victoria, seeking an order that the Brisbane Lions be restrained from using as its logo, the new logo or any other logo other than 'the Fitzroy lion logo', in line with Brisbane's legal obligations as specified in the Deed of Arrangement, including their obligation to use the Fitzroy logo in perpetuity.", "On 15 July 2010, the two clubs reached a settlement, agreeing that the Fitzroy logo symbolically represents the historic deal between Brisbane and Fitzroy, and represents the Brisbane Lions in the AFL.", "Fitzroy agreed to a compromise whereby Brisbane would use both the old and new logos alongside each other in an official capacity for the next 14 years on all official club stationary and club publications, as well as the Lions' official website for the shorter period of seven years.After immense pressure from both Lions and Fitzroy fans, Brisbane returned to using the old logo on its playing guernseys from 2015, but the new logo will remain for corporate purposes.The Brisbane Lions have renewed and maintained strong ties with the Fitzroy Football Club in the VAFA and the Fitzroy junior football club.", "Brisbane Lions sponsor a male and female Fitzroy player each year, conduct coaching workshops for Fitzroy, frequently invite the Fitzroy juniors to form a guard of honour for Victorian games, and have had Fitzroy past players and representatives as elected board members." ], [ "Club identity", "===Emblem===A 2019 match between Brisbane and the Sydney Swans at the Gabba, Brisbane's home groundThe Fitzroy passant lion became the emblem of the Brisbane Lions.In 1997, the club unveiled its new emblem, consisting of the golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge of Maroon and Blue.", "The club used this emblem from 1997 until the end of 2000.In 2001, the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football, emblazoned with the words \"Brisbane Lions\" and with the Fitzroy Lion located within the \"o\" of Lions.", "This emblem was used until 2010, when the emblem was again changed, this time in favour of a forward-facing Lion head.=== Guernseys ==='''Home Guernsey''' (worn 1997–2009 and since 2015): Predominantly maroon guernsey with a blue yoke featuring a golden Fitzroy Lion, with a gold collar and cuffs.", "For shorts, maroon home shorts are worn in home games, while white shorts are worn in away games.", "'''Away Guernsey''' (worn 2008–2009 and since 2015): Predominantly red guernsey with a blue yoke featuring a golden Fitzroy lion, with a blue collar and cuffs, and based on Fitzroy's final colours in the AFL.", "White away shorts are worn when this guernsey is used.", "'''Clash Guernsey''' (worn since 2023): This predominantly gold guernsey features a maroon Fitzroy lion on a gold background (reminiscent of the Bears' first guernsey), with a maroon yoke and golden cuffs.", "The same shorts as the Away Guernsey are worn.===Mascot===The Lions' Mascot Manor representative and club mascot was Bernie \"Gabba\" Vegas until 2016 when Roy the Lion (named Roy after the nickname for Fitzroy fans) replaced him as mascot.", "In 2021 the club unveiled their Lioness mascot Auroara.===Song===The club's team song, \"The Pride of Brisbane Town\", is based on the Fitzroy Football Club song written by ex-Fitzroy player Bill Stephen, and is sung to the music of \"La Marseillaise\", the French national anthem.===Training base===Springfield Central Stadium serves as both the training base of the Brisbane Lions and the home ground of Brisbane's AFLW team.Between 1997 and 2022, the club trained out of the Gabba during the football season.", "The club's administrative and indoor training facilities were also located in the stadium.", "Due to the cricket season in the summer which is during the off-season for the Lions, the club was required to train at alternative locations over the years, this has included the University of Queensland campus, Leyshon Park in Yeronga, Giffin Park in Coorparoo, Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex in Burpengary and elsewhere, meaning the club lacked a dedicated and permanent home year-round.", "In 2020 the club announced that it would move its training and administrative facilities into Springfield Central Stadium (known for ground-sponsorship purposes as Brighton Homes Arena), an 8,000-capacity high-class facility in Ipswich that enables the club to base itself in the single location and play reserve-grade and AFLW matches at the one location.", "The Lions moved into the facility in October 2022." ], [ "Rivalries", "===Collingwood===The Lions playing against Collingwood in a 1960s Fitzroy jumper for the 2003 heritage roundPre-1996, Fitzroy and Collingwood were fierce local rivals for over 100 years, sharing a suburban boundary down Smith Street, Melbourne, and both clubs topping the premiership tally in the early days of the VFL.", "The bad blood between The Bears and Collingwood began in 1993 after top draft pick Nathan Buckley walked out on them and went to the Magpies after playing only a single season in Brisbane.", "Buckley was adamant that the move was the right career direction, with the belief he had more chance of winning a premiership elsewhere.", "However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies was properly ignited in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park.", "The Lions emerged 42 point victors that day and consigned the Magpies to their second wooden spoon in their VFL/AFL history.", "The rivalry between the two clubs peaked in the early 2000s, as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions.===Gold Coast Suns===The Brisbane Lions have a rivalry with fellow Queensland AFL team the Gold Coast Suns.", "The two teams contest the '''QClash''' twice each season.", "The first QClash was held in 2011, with the game establishing the highest pay TV audience ever for an AFL game, with a total of 354,745 viewers watching the game.The medal for the player adjudged best on ground is known as the Marcus Ashcroft Medal.", "It is named after former footballer Marcus Ashcroft, who played junior football on the Gold Coast for Southport and 318 VFL/AFL games for the Brisbane Bears/Lions between 1989 and 2003.He later joined Gold Coast's coaching staff and was the first Queenslander to play 300 VFL/AFL games.", "Lion Dayne Beams has won the medal three times, the most by any player.The trophy awarded to the winner of the game is currently known as the \"QClash Trophy\".", "The trophy is a \"traditional style\" looking silver cup with a wooden base and a plaque.", "The plaque's inscription reads from left to right, \"Brisbane Lions AFC\", \"QCLASH\", \"Gold Coast Suns FC\".===Port Adelaide===The Port Adelaide Football Club entered the AFL in 1997 after Fitzroy's AFL operations were merged with Brisbane.", "Supporters of Fitzroy and the Brisbane Bears were aggrieved about Port's entry having taken place under these circumstances.In their early days, the two clubs could not be separated and had multiple close encounters, with a draw in two of their first three meetings.", "In the early 2000s, the rivalry reached its peak as the two clubs would be the most dominant of the era, consistently finishing at the top of the ladder.", "Between 2001 and 2004, the clubs met each other in the 2001 Ansett Australia Cup Grand Final, a 2001 qualifying final, a 2002 preliminary final and the 2004 Grand Final.", "Other notable encounters from this period include a round 22 match in 2002 to determine the minor premiership that year, which Port Adelaide won by a single goal, and a round 17 match in 2003 with 7 lead changes in the final quarter, which Port Adelaide won by a point." ], [ "Honours", "===Club honours===Historical Society at Docklands Stadium, Melbourne, covering the histories and records of Fitzroy, the Bears, and the Brisbane Lions.", "'''Premierships'''CompetitionTeamWinsSeasons Won'''Australian Football League'''Seniors32001, 2002, 2003'''AFL Women's'''Seniors22021, 2023'''Queensland Australian Football League''' (1998–2010)Reserves12001'''North East Australian Football League''' (2011–2019)42012, 2013, 2017, 2019'''Victorian Football League''' (2021–)0Nil '''Other titles and honours''''''AFL pre-season competition'''Seniors12013'''AFLX Tournament'''Seniors12018 '''Finishing positions''' '''Australian Football League'''Minor premiership0NilGrand Finalist22004, 2023Wooden spoons21998, 2017 '''AFL Women's'''Minor premiership22017, 2022 (S7)Grand Finalist32017, 2018, 2022 (S7)===Individual=======Team of the Decade====In June 2006, to recognise ten years since the creation of the Brisbane Lions, a Team of the Decade was announced.", "'''Team of the Decade'''Backs: Chris Johnson Mal Michael Darryl WhiteHalf-Backs: Marcus Ashcroft Justin Leppitsch Chris ScottMidfielders: Nigel Lappin Michael Voss (c) Brad ScottHalf-Forwards: Jason Akermanis Jonathan Brown Craig McRaeForwards: Luke Power Alastair Lynch Daniel BradshawFollowers: Clark Keating Simon Black Shaun HartInterchange: Martin Pike Tim Notting Jamie Charman Richard ChampionCoach:Leigh Matthews====Hall of Fame=========Legends====='''Name''''''Year inducted as inductee''''''Year inducted as legend''' '''Reference''' '''Hall of Fame profile''' N/A 2012 Profile N/A 2012 Profile 2012 2014 Profile 2012 2016 Profile N/A 2023 2019 2023 Profile=====Inductees====='''Name''''''Year inducted''' '''Reference''' '''Hall of Fame profile''' 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2012 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2014 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2016 Profile 2019 Profile 2019 Profile 2019 Profile 2019 Profile 2019 Profile 2019 Profile 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023" ], [ "Club facts", "=== Coaches (men's)=== '''No.'''", "'''Coach''' '''P''' '''W''' '''L''' '''D''' '''W%''' '''Years''' 1 John Northey 34 12 21 1 35.29 1997–1998 2 Roger Merrett 11 3 7 1 27.27 1998 3 Leigh Matthews 237 142 92 3 59.92 1999–2008 4 John Blakey 1 0 1 0 0.00 2005 5 Michael Voss 109 43 65 1 39.45 2009–2013 6 Mark Harvey 3 2 1 0 66.67 2013 7 Justin Leppitsch 66 14 52 0 21.21 2014–2016 8 Chris Fagan 162 92 70 0 56.79 2017–present=== Coaches (women's) === '''No.'''", "'''Coach''' '''P''' '''W''' '''L''' '''D''' '''W%''' '''Years''' 1 Craig Starcevich 25 14 10 1 56.00 2017– 2 Daniel Merrett 1 0 0 1 0.00 2020=== Captains (men's)=== Captain Image Season(s) Achievements alt=Colour photograph of Alastair Lynch in 2018 1997–2000 (co-captain) alt=Colour photograph of Michael Voss in 2008 1997–2000 (co-captain)2001–2006 (sole captain) *3× AFL premiership captain: 2001, 2002, 2003*2× All-Australian captain: 2002, 2003*4× AFLPA best captain: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004*Australian Football Hall of Fame alt=Colour photograph of Simon Black in 2008 2007–2008 (co-captain) alt=Colour photograph of Jonathan Brown in 2012 2007–2008 (co-captain)2009–2012 (sole captain)2013 (co-captain) *2× AFLPA best captain: 2007, 2009*All-Australian vice-captain: 2007 alt=Colour photograph of Chris Johnson 2007 (co-captain) 2007–2008 (co-captain) *Australian Football Hall of Fame alt=Colour photograph of Luke Power in 2008 2007–2008 (co-captain) alt=Colour photograph of Jed Adcock in 2016 2013 (co-captain)2014 (sole captain) alt=Colour photograph of Tom Rockliff in 2017 2015–2016 alt=Colour photograph of Dayne Beams in 2017 2017–2018 alt=Colour photograph of Dayne Zorko in 2017 2018–2022 alt=Colour photograph of Lauchie Neale in 2020 2023– (co-captain) alt=Colour photograph of Harris Andrews in 2018 2023– (co-captain) === Captains (women's) === Captain Image Season(s) Achievements alt=Colour photograph of Emma Zielke in 2017 2017–2018, 2020–2021 AFLW premiership captain: 2021 alt=Colour photograph of Leah Kaslar in 2017 2019 alt=Colour photograph of Breanna Koenen in 2023 2022 (S6)–present=== Match records (men's)===* '''Biggest winning margin:''' 141 points – 29.15 (189) vs. Adelaide 6.12 (48), the Gabba, 24 July 2004* '''Biggest losing margin:''' 139 points – 7.5 (47) vs. St Kilda 28.18 (186), Docklands Stadium, 27 August 2005* '''Highest score:''' 29.15 (189) vs. Adelaide, the Gabba, 24 July 2004* '''Lowest score:''' 2.5 (17) vs. Richmond, Melbourne Cricket Ground, 14 April 2018* '''Highest score conceded:''' 28.18 (186) vs. St Kilda, Docklands Stadium, 27 August 2005* '''Lowest score conceded:''' 3.10 (28) vs. Essendon, Carrara Stadium, 31 July 2020* '''Highest aggregate score:''' 293 points – Brisbane Lions 25.21 (171) vs. Fremantle 19.8 (122), the Gabba, 29 April 2001* '''Lowest aggregate score:''' 76 points – Brisbane Lions 6.6 (42) vs. Collingwood 5.4 (34), the Gabba, 4 September 2020* '''Most goals in a match:''' Jonathan Brown, ten goals vs. Carlton, the Gabba, 22 July 2007=== Biggest home crowds === Rank Crowd Round, Season Result Opponent Brisbane Lions Opposition Margin Venue Day/Night/Twilight1 37,478 QF2, 2019 Loss 8.17 (65) 18.4 (112) −47 The Gabba Night2 37,224 15, 2005 Win 19.19 (133) 7.13 (55) +78 The Gabba Night3 37,032 PF2, 2001 Win 20.16 (136) 10.8 (68) +68 The Gabba Night4 36,803 4, 2003 Win Collingwood 14.11 (95) 11.15 (81) +14 The Gabba Night5 36,780 2, 2010 Win Carlton 16.11 (107) 12.16 (88) +19 The Gabba Night6 36,467 3, 2004 Win Collingwood 21.11 (137) 12.5 (77) +60 The Gabba Night7 36,197 1, 2003 Win 14.20 (104) 8.13 (61) +43 The Gabba Night8 36,149 10, 2001 Win Essendon 15.12 (102) 10.14 (74) +28 The Gabba Night9 36,077 17, 2005 Win Essendon 17.12 (114) 14.17 (101) +13 The Gabba Night10 36,020 QF2, 2023 Win Port Adelaide 19.9 (123) 11.9 (75) +48 The Gabba Night===AFL finishing positions (1997–present)==='''Legend:''' '''Premiers''', '''Wooden spoon''' Finishing Position Year (Finals in Bold)Tally'''Premiers''''''2001''', '''2002''', '''2003''''''3''''''Runner-up''''''2004, 2023''''''2'''3rdnil'''0'''4th'''1999, 2020, 2022''''''3'''5th'''2000, 2019, 2021''''''3'''6th'''2009''''''1'''7thnil'''0'''8th'''1997''''''1'''9thnil'''0'''10th2007, 2008'''2'''11th2005'''1'''12th2013'''1'''13th2006, 2010, 2012'''3'''14thnil'''0'''15th2011, 2014, 2018'''3'''16th'''1998''''''1'''17th2015, 2016'''2'''18th'''2017''''''1'''" ], [ "Players", "===Current squad===" ], [ "Reserves team", "The '''Brisbane reserves''' are the reserves team of the club, currently competing in the Victorian Football League.===History===In the inaugural year of the Brisbane Lions (1997), the club affiliated with the Queensland Australian Football League (QAFL), allowing players not selected for the AFL team to be drafted to individual clubs.", "Reserves players not on an AFL list cannot be called up to the AFL team, they must first be drafted into the AFL.Between 1998 and 2010 the club's reserves team participated in the QAFL, where it was initially known as the \"Lion Cubs\".", "The club won their first reserve-grade premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final.", "In 2004, they began to compete as the Suncoast Lions Football Club.", "The side played home matches at the Gabba (as a curtain raiser game for Brisbane Lions matches) and, formerly, at the Fishermans Road football complex on the Sunshine Coast.In 2011, the team moved to the multi-state North East Australian Football League (NEAFL), where they won four premierships − 2012, 2013, 2017 and 2019.Following the NEAFL disbanding after the 2019 season, the reserves side moved to the Victorian Football League (VFL), with their first season in 2021.Since 2023, the side has played reserves matches at Springfield Central Stadium.===Premierships===YearCompetitionOpponentScoreVenue 2001 QAFL Southport Sharks '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' Giffin Park 2012 NEAFL Queanbeyan Tigers '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' Manuka Oval 2013 NEAFL Sydney Swans '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' Graham Road Oval 2017 NEAFL Sydney Swans '''12.13 (85) – 10.22 (82)''' Sydney Cricket Ground 2019 NEAFL Southport Sharks '''20.15 (135) – 8.11 (59)''' Fankhauser Reserve===Season summaries=== Season Competition Ladder position Finals result Coach 1998 QAFL Unknown Unknown Roger Merrett 1999 2000 2001 '''Premiers''' Craig Brittain 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell 2007 Craig Brittain 2008 Paul Hudson 2009 Craig Brittain 2010 6–12–0 8/10 Craig McRae 2011 NEAFL(Northern Conference) 4–13–1 10/10 Nathan Clarke 2012 14–4–0 2/10 '''Northern Conference Premiers''''''League Premiers''' 2013 16–2–0 '''1/10''' '''Northern Conference Premiers''''''League Premiers''' Leigh Harding 2014 NEAFL 6–12–0 9/14 2015 ''2–16–0'' 10/11 Shane Woewodin 2016 3–15–0 10/10 2017 15–3–0 2/17 '''Premiers''' Mitch Hahn 2018 10–7–1 5/10 Elimination finalists 2019 '''18–0–0''' '''1/10''' '''Premiers''' 2020 2021 VFL 3–7–0 ''17/22'' 2022 14–4–0 2/21 Preliminary finalists 2023 13–4–1 4/21 Preliminary finalists Ben HudsonStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best known season for Brisbane in that categoryStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst known season for Brisbane in that category" ], [ "AFL Women's team", "Brisbane Lions AFLW team during the S7 Grand Final at Springfield StadiumIn May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017.The Brisbane Lions were granted a licence on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season.", "Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women's CEO the following day.Tayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016.A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period.", "Emma Zielke captained the team for their inaugural season.Former Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016.The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.", "Car company Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, sponsored the team in 2017.The Lions have been a successful team in the AFLW, reaching the finals in six of the first seven seasons.", "They narrowly lost grand finals in 2017, 2018, and 2022 (S7), and only missed out on finals in 2019.Due to a shortened 2020 season, the Lions played a Qualifying Final against Carlton before the season was prematurely ended due to COVID border restrictions.", "No premiership was awarded in 2020.In 2021 the team finally broke through to win their first premiership by defeating arch-rival Adelaide in the grand final.In 2023 the Lions took out their second premiership by defeating North Melbourne at IKON Park by 17 points.", "Captain Breanna Koenen was adjudged best afield for her performance in the grand final.The team plays their home games at Springfield Central Stadium in Ipswich.===Current squad======Non-playing/coaching staff===NamePosition Breeanna Brock Chief Executive Officer Zachary Zropf Football Analyst Alex Gorman Sports Psychologist Michael Swann Wellbeing Mentor Matt Green High Performance Manager Alice Walker Head of Medical Jessica Clarey Physio Abbey Le Busque Head Trainer Kieran Miles Doctor===Season summaries=== Brisbane AFLW honour roll Season Ladder W–L–D Finals Coach Captain(s) Best and fairest Leading goal kicker20171st6–0–1Runners-upCraig StarcevichEmma ZielkeEmily BatesKate McCarthy (9)20182nd4–3–0Runners-upCraig StarcevichEmma ZielkeKate Lutkins Jess Wuetschner (13)20199th ^2–5–0DNQCraig StarcevichLeah KaslarAlly Anderson Jess Wuetschner (8)20207th ^3–2–1Qualifying finalCraig StarcevichEmma ZielkeEmily BatesJesse Wardlaw (9)20212nd7–2–0Craig StarcevichEmma ZielkeAlly AndersonDakota Davidson (16)2022 (S6)3rd8–2–0Preliminary finalCraig StarcevichBreanna KoenenEmily BatesGreta Bodey (13)2022 (S7)1st9–1–0Runners-upCraig StarcevichBreanna KoenenEmily BatesJesse Wardlaw (22)20234th7–3–0Craig StarcevichBreanna KoenenAlly AndersonDakota Davidson (23)^ Denotes the ladder was split into two conferences.", "Figure refers to the club's overall finishing position in the home-and-away season.", "Daniel Merrett was coach for round 3, and Starcevich was coach for all other matches." ], [ "Brisbane Lions Academy", "The '''Brisbane Lions Academy''' consists of the club's junior development signings.", "It was formed in 2010 as one of four Northern AFL Academies including the Gold Coast Suns Academy, Sydney Swans Academy and GWS Giants Academy.28 staff (including 3 full time) manage 220 selected underage players from age 12 up.The men's and women's U16 and U18 teams have contested Division 2 of the men's and women's underage championships since 2017.The Under 16 women's was crowned inaugural champions in 2023.The Lions Academy also joined the Talent League in 2019.===Notable members===Local Brisbane product and Lions captain Harris Andrews was recruited via the club's Academy as a 17 year old.Past academy members include the Brisbane Lions senior men's AFL players Harris Andrews, Ben Keays, Eric Hipwood, Keidean Coleman, Jack Payne, Jaspa Fletcher and Matthew Hammelmann.", "It also includes players who went on to other clubs : Mabior Chol, Noah Cumberland, Wylie Buzza, Samson Ryan and Will Martyn.", "Academy members who went on to excel in other sports include Kalyn Ponga and Corey Horsburgh.Notable female academy players include Brisbane Lions senior AFLW players Mikayla Pauga, Sophie Conway, Belle Dawes, Gabby Collingwood, Nat Grider, Tahlia Hickie, Jade Ellenger, Lily Postlethwaite, Luka Yoshida-Martin and Charlotte Mullins.", "Players who went on to other clubs include: Jesse Wardlaw, Zimmorlei Farquharson and Jacqui Yorston." ], [ "See also", "* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players* Merrett–Murray Medal* Australian rules football in Queensland* Sport in Queensland* Sport in Australia* Brisbane Broncos" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club* Brisbane Lions results – Latest scores for Brisbane Lions Football Club" ] ]

[ [ "Bloody Sunday (1972)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bloody Sunday''', or the '''Bogside Massacre''', was a massacre on 30 January 1972 when British soldiers shot 26 unarmed civilians during a protest march in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland.", "Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries.", "Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers, and some were shot while trying to help the wounded.", "Other protesters were injured by shrapnel, rubber bullets, or batons, two were run down by British Army vehicles, and some were beaten.", "All of those shot were Catholics.", "The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) to protest against imprisonment without trial.", "The soldiers were from the 1st Battalion of the Parachute Regiment (\"1 Para\"), the same battalion implicated in the Ballymurphy massacre several months before.Two investigations were held by the British government.", "The Widgery Tribunal, held in the aftermath, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame.", "It described some of the soldiers' shooting as \"bordering on the reckless\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers.", "The report was widely criticised as a \"whitewash\".", "The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident much more thoroughly.", "Following a twelve-year investigation, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were \"unjustified\" and \"unjustifiable\".", "It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown and that soldiers \"knowingly put forward false accounts\" to justify their firing.", "The soldiers denied shooting the named victims but also denied shooting anyone by mistake.", "On publication of the report, British Prime Minister David Cameron formally apologised.", "Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.", "One former soldier was charged with murder, but the case was dropped two years later when evidence was deemed inadmissible.", "Following an appeal by the families of the victims, however, the Public Prosecution Service resumed the prosecution.Bloody Sunday came to be regarded as one of the most significant events of the Troubles because so many civilians were killed by forces of the state, in view of the public and the press.", "It was the highest number of people killed in a shooting incident during the conflict and is considered the worst mass shooting in Northern Irish history.", "Bloody Sunday fuelled Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility to the British Army and worsened the conflict.", "Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose, and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.", "The Republic of Ireland held a national day of mourning, and huge crowds besieged and burnt down the chancery of the British Embassy in Dublin." ], [ "Background", "The City of Derry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \"fifty years of Unionist misrule\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority.", "The city was perceived to be deprived of public investment: motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the smaller (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in a generally poor state.", "Derry therefore became a major focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s.", "It was the scene of the major riot known as Battle of the Bogside in August 1969, which pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support.While many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force – in contrast to the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), which was regarded as a sectarian police force – relations between them soon deteriorated.In response to rising levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971.There was disorder across the region following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of violence.", "In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead eleven civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre.", "On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisional IRA) in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper in the Creggan housing estate.", "A month after internment was introduced, a British soldier shot dead 14-year-old Catholic schoolgirl Annette McGavigan in Derry.", "Two months later, Kathleen Thompson, a 47-year-old mother of six was shot dead in her back garden in Derry by the British Army.IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland, with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year.", "A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by end of 1971.At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, which also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.", "Both the Provisional IRA and the Official IRA had built barricades and established no-go areas for the British Army and RUC in Derry.", "By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, sixteen of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles.", "IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \"aggro corner\".", "Due to rioting and incendiary devices, an estimated worth of damage had been caused to local businesses.===Lead-up to the march===On 18 January 1972 the Northern Irish Prime Minister, Brian Faulkner, banned all parades and marches in the region until the end of the year.", "Four days later, in defiance of the ban, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry.", "Protesters marched to an internment camp but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment.", "When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges.", "The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers.", "These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press.", "Some in the British Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.NICRA intended to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on 30 January.", "The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Bogside, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers, to avoid rioting.", "Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest rioters.", "The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'.", "The Saville Report criticised Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\".", "March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA members would be near the march, although Tony Geraghty wrote that some of the stewards were probably IRA members." ], [ "Events of the day", "The Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot.", "On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions.", "Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks.", "He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para.", "He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who would launch the arrest operation.", "The protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall in the city centre, where they would hold a rally.", "The march set off at about 2:45p.m.", "There were 10,000–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route.", "Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.The march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers.", "The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead.", "However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers.", "The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannons.", "Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was no more violent than usual.Some of the crowd spotted paratroopers occupying a derelict three-story building overlooking William Street and began throwing stones up at the windows.", "At about 3:55p.m., these paratroopers opened fire.", "Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building.", "These were the first shots fired.", "The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.At 4:07p.m., the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters.", "The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside.", "Two people were knocked down by the vehicles.", "MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street.", "Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.", "There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse.", "The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\".One group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street.", "There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but were not near enough to hit them.", "The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.A large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats.", "This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats.", "The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others.", "This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.Another group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also surrounded by flats.", "Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about away.", "Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded.", "The Saville Report says it is probable that at least one soldier fired randomly at the crowd from the hip.", "The paratroopers went through the car park and out the other side.", "Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians.", "The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.About ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot.", "More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.", "No warnings were given before soldiers opened fire.Some of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes.", "They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances.", "The first ambulances arrived at 4:28p.m.", "The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by paratroopers.", "Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their armoured personnel carrier as if they were \"pieces of meat\".", "The Saville Report agreed that this is an \"accurate description of what happened\", saying the paratroopers \"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\".===Casualties===Bloody Sunday memorial in the BogsideIn all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; thirteen died on the day and another died of his injuries four months later.", "The dead were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side), and the car park of Glenfada Park.All of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers.", "No soldier said he missed his target and hit someone else by mistake.", "The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat.", "It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.The casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.", "*'''John''' \"'''Jackie'''\" '''Duddy''', age 17.Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats.", "The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest.", "Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran.", "He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday.", "Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Duddy was unarmed.", "*'''Michael Kelly''', age 17.Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street.", "Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded that 'Soldier F' shot Kelly.", "*'''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17.Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade.", "The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest.", "Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded that 'Private U' shot Gilmour.", "*'''William Nash''', age 19.Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade.", "Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.", "*'''John Young''', age 17.Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.", "*'''Michael McDaid''', age 20.Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.", "*'''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17.Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety.", "*'''James''' \"'''Jim'''\" '''Wray''', age 22.Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard.", "He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground.", "Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F'.", "*'''William McKinney''', age 26.Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F'.", "*'''Gerard''' \"'''Gerry'''\" '''McKinney''', age 35.Shot in the chest at Abbey Park.", "A soldier, identified as 'Private G', ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away.", "Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting, \"Don't shoot!", "Don't shoot!", "\", before being shot.", "The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.", "*'''Gerard''' \"'''Gerry'''\" '''Donaghy''', age 17.Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney.", "Both were apparently struck by the same bullet.", "Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house.", "A doctor examined him, and his pockets were searched for identification.", "Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at a British Army checkpoint.", "They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead.", "Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets.", "The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer all said that they did not see any bombs.", "This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings.Belt worn by Patrick Doherty.", "The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.", "*'''Patrick Doherty''', age 31.Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F', who came out of Glenfada Park.", "Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress.", "Despite testimony from 'Soldier F' that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.", "*'''Bernard''' \"'''Barney'''\" '''McGuigan''', age 41.Shot in the back of the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty.", "He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F'.", "*'''John Johnston''', age 59.Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street fifteen minutes before the rest of the shooting started.", "Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park.", "He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day.", "He was the only fatality not to die immediately or soon after being shot." ], [ "Aftermath", "Banner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration marchThirteen people were shot and killed, with another wounded man dying subsequently, which his family believed was from injuries suffered that day.", "Apart from the soldiers, all eyewitnesses—including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present—maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those helping the wounded.", "No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or bombs, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.", "The British Army's version of events, outlined by the Ministry of Defence and repeated by Home Secretary Reginald Maudling in the House of Commons the day after Bloody Sunday, was that paratroopers returned fire at gunmen and bomb-throwers.", "Bernadette Devlin, the independent Irish socialist republican Member of Parliament (MP) for Mid Ulster, slapped Maudling for his comments, and was temporarily suspended from Parliament.", "Having seen the shootings firsthand, she was infuriated that the Speaker of the House of Commons, Selwyn Lloyd, repeatedly denied her the chance to speak about it in Parliament, although convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be allowed to do so.On Wednesday 2 February 1972, tens of thousands attended the funerals of eleven of the victims.", "In the Republic of Ireland it was observed as a national day of mourning, and there was a general strike, the biggest in Europe since the Second World War relative to population.", "Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic, while schools closed and public transport stopped running.", "Large crowds had besieged the chancery of the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin, and embassy staff had been evacuated.", "That Wednesday, tens of thousands of protesters marched to the chancery and thirteen symbolic coffins were placed outside the entrance.", "The Union Jack was burnt and the building was attacked with stones and petrol bombs.", "The outnumbered Gardaí tried to push back the crowd, but the building was burnt down.", "Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland conflict.", "Kieran Conway, the head of the IRA's intelligence-gathering department for a period in the 1970s, stated in his memoir that after the massacre, the IRA Southern Command in Dublin received up to 200 applications from Southern Irish citizens to fight the British.Harold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles.", "William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland.On 22 February 1972, the Official IRA attempted to retaliate for Bloody Sunday by detonating a car bomb at Aldershot military barracks, headquarters of 16th Parachute Brigade, killing seven ancillary staff.An inquest into the deaths was held in August 1973.The city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement at the completion of the inquest.", "He declared:===Shankill shootings===Several months after Bloody Sunday, 1 Para—again under Lt Col Wilford's command—were involved in another controversial shooting incident.", "On 7 September, paratroopers raided the headquarters of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) and houses in the Shankill area of Belfast.", "Two Protestant civilians were shot dead and others wounded by the paratroopers, who claimed they were returning fire at loyalist gunmen.", "This sparked angry demonstrations by local Protestants, and the UDA declared: \"Never has Ulster witnessed such licensed sadists and such blatant liars as the 1st Paras.", "These gun-happy louts must be removed from the streets\".", "A unit of the British Army's Ulster Defence Regiment refused to carry out duties until 1 Para was withdrawn from the Shankill.At the end of 1972, Wilford, who was directly in charge of the soldiers involved in Bloody Sunday and Shankill, was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE)." ], [ "Widgery Inquiry", "Two days after Bloody Sunday, the British Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the shootings, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it.", "Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but many were eventually persuaded to take part.Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within ten weeks (on 10 April) and published within eleven weeks (on 19 April)—supported the British Army's account of the events of the day.", "It stated that the soldiers returned fire at gunmen and bomb-throwers.", "It said \"None of the deceased or wounded is proved to have been shot whilst handling a firearm or bomb.", "Some are wholly acquitted of complicity in such action; but there is a strong suspicion that some others had been firing weapons or handling bombs\".", "Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed.", "Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed.", "It has been argued that firearms residue on some victims may have come from contact with the soldiers themselves who moved some of the bodies, or that lead residue on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved using lead-based solder.", "Widgery held the march organisers responsible, concluding \"There would have been no deaths ... if those who organised the illegal march had not thereby created a highly dangerous situation\".Widgery stated there was no evidence the paratroopers were sent to \"flush out any IRA gunmen in the Bogside\" or to punish its residents for opposing the British Army.", "The Saville Inquiry also trawled classified documents and found no evidence of such a plan, but said \"It is of course possible for plans to be hatched in secret and kept out of documents\".Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash, the slogan, \"Widgery washes whiter\" – a play on the contemporary advertisement for Daz soap powder – emblazoned on walls in Derry, crystallised the views of many nationalists about the report.In 1992, British Prime Minister John Major, replying to John Hume's request for a new public inquiry, stated: \"The Government made clear in 1974 that those who were killed on 'Bloody Sunday' should be regarded as innocent of any allegation that they were shot whilst handling firearms or explosives\".", "Major was succeeded by Tony Blair.", "Blair's chief aide, Jonathan Powell, later described Widgery as a \"complete and utter whitewash\"." ], [ "Saville Inquiry", "Guildhall, home to the InquiryIn 1998, during the latter stages of the Northern Ireland peace process, Prime Minister Blair agreed to hold a public inquiry into Bloody Sunday.", "The inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in April 1998.The other judges were John Toohey, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and William Hoyt, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and member of the Canadian Judicial Council.", "The inquiry heard testimony at the Guildhall in Derry from March 2000 until November 2004.The Saville Inquiry was much more comprehensive than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians, and reviewing large amounts of photographs and footage.", "Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that this was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.Colonel Wilford expressed anger at the decision to hold the inquiry and said he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday.", "Two years later, in 2000, Wilford said: \"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed.", "But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act.", "It was done as an act of war\".", "In 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot\".", "This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than thirty years, that those killed had not been innocent.One former paratrooper testified that a lieutenant told them the night before Bloody Sunday: \"Let's teach these buggers a lesson - we want some kills tomorrow\".", "He did not see anyone with a weapon nor hear any explosions, and said some fellow soldiers were thrilled and were shooting out of bravado or frustration.", "The paratrooper said several soldiers \"fired their own personal supply of dum-dums\", which were banned, and that one \"fired 10 dum-dums into the crowd but as he still had his official quota he got away with saying he never fired a shot\".", "Furthermore, the paratrooper said his original statement to the Widgery Inquiry was torn up and replaced by one \"bearing no relation with fact\".Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence (MoD) acted in a way to impede the inquiry.", "Over 1,000 Army photographs and original Army helicopter video footage were never made available.", "Furthermore, guns used by the soldiers on Bloody Sunday, which could have been evidence in the inquiry, were lost by the MoD.", "The MoD claimed all the guns had been destroyed, but some were later recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history.", "It was also the longest and most expensive, taking twelve years and costing .", "The inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the 2010 general election.The 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007===Report===The report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010.It concluded, \"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury\".", "It stated that British paratroopers \"lost control\", shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to help the wounded.", "The civilians had not been warned by soldiers that they intended to shoot.", "Contrary to the soldiers' claims, the report concluded that the victims were unarmed, and no nail bombs or petrol bombs were thrown.", "\"None of them fired in response to attacks or threatened attacks by nail or petrol bombers\".", "It stated that while some soldiers probably fired out of fear and recklessness, others did not, and fired at civilians they knew were unarmed.", "The report stated that soldiers had concocted lies in attempting to hide their acts.", "Soldier H, who fired the most bullets, claimed to have fired 19 separate shots at a gunman behind a frosted glass window, but missed each time, and suggested all the bullets had gone through the same hole.The inquiry concluded that an Official IRA sniper, positioned in a block of flats, fired one round at British soldiers, who were at the Presbyterian church on the other side of William Street.", "The bullet missed the soldiers and hit a drainpipe.", "The inquiry concluded that it was fired shortly ''after'' the British soldiers had shot Damien Donaghey and John Johnston in this area.", "It rejected the sniper's account that he fired in reprisal, concluding that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position and probably fired simply because the opportunity presented itself.", "The inquiry also concluded an Official IRA member fired a handgun at a British APC from behind a gable wall near Rossville Flats, but there is no evidence the soldiers noticed this.", "The IRA member said he fired three rounds in anger after seeing civilians shot.", "He was seen by Father Edward Daly and others, who shouted at him to stop.Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, stated in his testimony that he was second-in-command of the Provisional IRA Derry Brigade and was at the march.", "Paddy Ward told the inquiry he was the local leader of Fianna Éireann, the IRA youth wing, in January 1972.He claimed that McGuinness and another unnamed IRA member gave him bomb detonators on the morning of Bloody Sunday, with the intent to attack premises in Derry city centre that day.", "McGuinness rejected the claims as \"fantasy\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry, stated that he, not Ward, was the Fianna leader at the time.", "The inquiry was unsure of McGuinness's movements on the day.", "It stated that while he had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to state whether he fired it, but concluded \"we are sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\".Regarding the soldiers in charge on Bloody Sunday, the inquiry arrived at the following findings:*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for the arrest operation.", "Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior, Brigadier Patrick MacLellan, by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).", "*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of Support Company, following orders from Lieutenant Colonel Wilford.", "Cleared of misconduct; the report stated that Loden \"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing ... a threat\".", "The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.", "*Captain Mike Jackson: Adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday.", "Cleared of sinister actions for compiling the \"Loden List of Engagements\".", "This was a brief account of what soldiers told Major Loden about why they had fired.", "This list played a role in the Army's initial explanations.", "The list did not include soldiers' names.", "Jackson told the inquiry it was simply a record of shots fired, not an investigative document.", "While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', it accepted Jackson's explanations.", "*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces in Northern Ireland and set the British strategy to oversee the march in Derry.", "Cleared of any fault, but his choice of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, as \"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\".", "*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Overall operational commander of the day.", "Cleared of any wrongdoing as he believed Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.", "*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day.", "The inquiry accepted that Steele did not know there was no longer a separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.", "*a Lance Corporal referred to as \"Soldier F\" was found responsible for five of the killings on Bloody Sunday.", "*Intelligence officers Colonel Maurice Tugwell, and Colin Wallace (an Army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing.", "The inquiry concluded the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not a deliberate attempt to deceive the public, but rather due to the inaccurate information received.Reporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, British Prime Minister David Cameron said:Cameron added: \"you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible\".", "He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed and that a British soldier had fired the first shots at civilians.", "He also said that this was not premeditated, though \"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\" as \"what happened should never, ever have happened\".", "Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government, saying he was \"deeply sorry\".", "A survey by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology.Stephen Pollard, a solicitor representing several of the soldiers, claimed that the report had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for its findings." ], [ "Murder charges", "Following the publication of the Saville Report, a murder investigation was begun by the Police Service of Northern Ireland's Legacy Investigation Branch.", "On 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment, referred to as \"Soldier J\" in the Saville Report, was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.", "He was released on bail shortly after.The Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland announced in March 2019 that there was enough evidence to prosecute \"Soldier F\" for the murders of James Wray and William McKinney, both of whom were shot in the back.", "He was also charged with four attempted murders.", "The Saville Inquiry concluded, based on the evidence, that \"Soldier F\" also killed Michael Kelly, Patrick Doherty and Barney McGuigan, but evidence from the inquiry was inadmissible to the prosecution and \"the only evidence capable of identifying the soldier who fired the relevant shots came from \"Soldier F\"'s co-accused, \"Soldier G\", who is deceased\".Relatives of the Bloody Sunday victims expressed dismay that only one soldier would face trial for some of the killings.", "In September 2020, it was ruled that there would be no charges against any other soldiers.", "The victims' relatives were supported by Irish nationalist political representatives.", "\"Soldier F\" received support from some Ulster loyalists and from the group Justice for Northern Ireland Veterans.", "The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) called for former British soldiers to be given immunity from prosecution.", "Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) leader and former soldier, Doug Beattie, said that if soldiers \"went outside the law, then they have to face the law\".In July 2021, the Public Prosecution Service decided it would no longer prosecute \"Soldier F\" because statements from 1972 were deemed inadmissible as evidence.", "On 13 July 2021 Social Democratic and Labour Party MP Colum Eastwood revealed the name of \"Soldier F\" using parliamentary privilege.", "On 17 July ''Village'' magazine published the identity of \"Soldier F\" and some pictures of him at the time of the massacre.In March 2022, the High Court overturned the decision not to press charges against \"Soldier F\" following an appeal by the family of William McKinney and ordered the Public Prosecution Service to reconsider the case.", "The PPS subsequently appealed the court's decision to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, but permission to appeal was refused that September and the PPS were forced to continue with the prosecution.", "In October 2022, it was announced that the committal hearing against \"Soldier F\" would resume on 16 January 2023.On 24 January 2023 the case against \"Soldier F\" was resumed at Derry Magistrate's Court.", "Following an adjournment, the case resumed on 26 May 2023.On 25 August 2023 Judge Ted Magill ruled that five statements given to the Widgery Report implicating \"Soldier F\" could be used as evidence at trial.In December 2023, an evidentiary hearing was held to decide whether or not to proceed to trial.", "Judge Magill ruled that \"Soldier F\" should face trial at Belfast Crown Court.", "A trial date has not yet been fixed." ], [ "Impact on Northern Ireland divisions", "When it was first deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by many Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant loyalist mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials.", "After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British Army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy.", "Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to armed republican groups.", "With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected youth.In the following twenty years, the Provisional IRA and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it.", "With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the republican and loyalist communities (such as the UDA, Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc.", "on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.In 1979, the Provisional IRA killed 18 British soldiers in the Warrenpoint ambush, most of them paratroopers.", "This happened the same day the IRA assassinated Lord Mountbatten.", "Republicans portrayed the attack as belated retaliation for Bloody Sunday, with graffiti declaring \"13 gone and not forgotten, we got 18 and Mountbatten\".Parachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in BallymenaIn 2012 a serving British soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred, due to their use of online social media to post sectarian slurs about the killings along with banners of the Parachute Regiment.In recent years, Parachute Regiment flags have been erected by some loyalists around the time of the Bloody Sunday anniversaries.", "In January 2013, shortly before the yearly Bloody Sunday remembrance march, several Parachute Regiment flags were flown in loyalist areas of Derry.", "The flying of the flags was condemned by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead.", "The MoD also condemned the flying of the flags.", "The flags were replaced by Union Jacks.", "Later that year, the Parachute Regiment flag was flown alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland.", "In 2014, loyalists erected the flags near the route of a Saint Patrick's Day parade in Cookstown." ], [ "Artistic reaction", "A mural in Derry commemorating Bloody SundayPaul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident.", "The single, entitled \"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\", expressed his views on the matter.", "This song was one of few McCartney released with Wings to be banned by the BBC.The 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \"The Luck of the Irish\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general.", "Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.Irish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.Black Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\" on the album of the same name in 1973.Butler stated, \"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.", "\"The Roy Harper song \"All Ireland\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long-term view with regard to a solution.", "In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\".Brian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.Irish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticises Britain for the death of his friend.The Irish rock band U2 commemorated the incident in their 1983 protest song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\".Christy Moore's song \"Minds Locked Shut\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.The events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.The Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \"Bloody Sunday\" from their 2002 album ''Folk-Lore''.Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland.", "\"30 January 1972\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.In mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin.", "The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance at the Tricycle Theatre.", "The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\"; and ''The Independent'': \"A necessary triumph\".In October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song \"Domhnach na Fola\" (Irish for \"Bloody Sunday\"), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "** (extracts available online)****English, Richard.", "''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003," ], [ "External links", "* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report* Guardian Coverage* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)* BBC Special Report* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008 * 1610: Soldiers open fire;The events of the day* BBC Interactive Guide* Guardian Interactive Guide* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry;Contemporary newspaper coverage* \"13 killed as paratroops break riot\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972* \"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972;Importance and impact* \"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001* Britain Acknowledges \"Bloody Sunday\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims' Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''" ] ]

[ [ "Bruno of Querfurt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – 14 February or 9/14 March 1009), also known as '''Brun''', was a Christian missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania for trying to spread Christianity.", "He is also called the second \"Apostle of the Prussians\"." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Bruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt).", "He is rumoured to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.", "At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, the seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Adalbert of Prague.", "While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg.", "The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court.", "In 995 Otto III appointed Bruno as his court chaplain.While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Adalbert of Prague, the first \"Apostle of the Prussians\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself.", "Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Adalbert.", "In 998, Bruno entered a Benedictine monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and later underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Romuald.=== Missionary life ===The lands given Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its southOtto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area.", "In 1001, two monks from his monastery travelled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II.", "In 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe.", "Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg.", "Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland, Bruno could not go directly to Poland so he set out for Hungary.", "There he went to the places that Adalbert of Prague had attended.Bruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under the jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks.", "Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\"Life of Adalbert of Prague,\"'' a literary memorial giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.After this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kyiv, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers.", "Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults.", "He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kyiv.Before leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs.", "While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland.", "Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003.Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.=== Mission to Prussia and death ===Poland and Prussia during the reign of Bolesław the BraveIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then travelled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia.Bruno met opposition in his efforts to evangelize the borderland and when he persisted in disregarding their warnings he was beheaded on 14 February (or 9 or 14 March) 1009, and most of his eighteen companions were hanged by Zebeden, brother of Netimer.", "Duke Boleslaus the Brave bought the bodies and brought them to Poland.", "(It was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018.)", "The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized.", "It was said that Braunsberg was named after Bruno." ], [ "See also", "*Name of Lithuania*Christianization of Lithuania" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* A. Bumblauskas.", "Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion.", "''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.", "* D. Baronas.", "ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION.", "''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14.p.", "41–52." ], [ "External links", "* Saint Bruno Querfurt" ] ]

[ [ "Bo Diddley" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ellas Otha Bates''' (December 30, 1928 – June 2, 2008), known professionally as '''Bo Diddley''', was an American guitarist and singer who played a key role in the transition from the blues to rock and roll.", "He influenced many artists, including Buddy Holly, Elvis Presley, the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Animals, George Thorogood, Syd Barrett, and the Clash.His use of African rhythms and a signature beat, a simple five-accent hambone rhythm, is a cornerstone of hip hop, rock, and pop music.", "In recognition of his achievements, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987, the Blues Hall of Fame in 2003, and the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame in 2017.He received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "Diddley is also recognized for his technical innovations, including his use of tremolo and reverb effects to enhance the sound of his distinctive rectangular-shaped guitars." ], [ "Early life", "Bo Diddley was born in McComb, Mississippi, as Ellas Otha Bates (also stated as Otha Ellas Bates or Elias Otha Bates).", "He was the only child of Ethel Wilson, a sharecropper's teenaged daughter, and Eugene Bates, whom he never knew.", "Wilson was only sixteen, and being unable to support a family, she gave her cousin, Gussie McDaniel, permission to raise her son.", "McDaniel eventually adopted him, and he assumed her surname.", "Diddley denied ever having the name \"Otha\" in a 2001 interview, saying \"I don't know where they got that 'Otha' from\", but his web site, maintained by his estate, confirms it as his middle name.After his adoptive father Robert died in 1934, when Diddley was five years old, Gussie McDaniel moved with him and her three children to the South Side of Chicago; he later dropped Otha from his name and became Ellas McDaniel.", "He was an active member of Chicago's Ebenezer Missionary Baptist Church, where he studied the trombone and the violin, becoming so proficient on the violin that the musical director invited him to join the orchestra, in which he played until he was 18.However, he was more interested in the joyful, rhythmic music he heard at a local Pentecostal Church and took up the guitar; his first recordings were based on that frenetic church music.", "Diddley said he thought that the trance-like rhythm he used in his rhythm and blues music came from the Sanctified churches he had attended as a youth in his Chicago neighborhood." ], [ "Career", "Inspired by a John Lee Hooker performance, Diddley supplemented his income as a carpenter and mechanic by playing on street corners with friends, including Jerome Green, in the Hipsters band, later renamed the Langley Avenue Jive Cats.", "Green became a near-constant member of McDaniel's backing band, the two often trading joking insults with each other during live shows.", "In the summers of 1943 and 1944, he played at the Maxwell Street market in a band with Earl Hooker.", "By 1951 he was playing on the street with backing from Roosevelt Jackson on washtub bass and Jody Williams, who had played harmonica as a boy but took up guitar in his teens after he met Diddley at a talent show, with Diddley teaching him some aspects of playing the instrument, including how to play the bass line.", "Williams later played lead guitar on \"Who Do You Love?\"", "(1956)In 1951, he landed a regular spot at the 708 Club, on Chicago's South Side, with a repertoire influenced by Louis Jordan, John Lee Hooker, and Muddy Waters.", "In late 1954, he teamed up with harmonica player Billy Boy Arnold, drummer Clifton James and bass player Roosevelt Jackson and recorded demos of \"I'm a Man\" and \"Bo Diddley\".", "They re-recorded the songs at Universal Recording Corp. for Chess Records, with a backing ensemble comprising Otis Spann (piano), Lester Davenport (harmonica), Frank Kirkland (drums), and Jerome Green (maracas).", "The record was released in March 1955, and the A-side, \"Bo Diddley\", became a number one R&B hit.===Origins of stage name===The origin of the stage name Bo Diddley is unclear.", "McDaniel said his peers gave him the name, which he suspected was an insult.", "''Diddly'' is a truncation of ''diddly squat'', which means \"absolutely nothing\".", "Diddley also said that the name first belonged to a singer his adoptive mother knew.", "Harmonicist Billy Boy Arnold said that it was a local comedian's name, which Leonard Chess adopted as McDaniel's stage name and the title of his first single.", "McDaniel also stated that his school classmates in Chicago gave him the nickname, which he started using when sparring and boxing in the neighborhood with The Little Neighborhood Golden Gloves Bunch.In the 1921 story \"Black Death\", by Zora Neale Hurston, Beau Diddely was a womanizer who impregnates a young woman, disavows responsibility, and meets his undoing by the powers of the local hoodoo man.", "Hurston submitted it in a contest run by the academic journal ''Opportunity'' in 1925, where it won an honorable mention, but it was never published during her lifetime.A diddley bow is a homemade single-string instrument that survived in the American Deep South, especially in Mississippi.", "Played mainly by children, the diddley bow in its simplest form was made by nailing a length of broom wire to the side of a house, using a rock placed under the string as a movable bridge, and played in the style of a bottleneck guitar, with various objects used as a slider.", "The apparent consensus among scholars is that the diddley bow is derived from the monochord zithers of central Africa.===Success in the 1950s and 1960s===On November 20, 1955, Diddley appeared on the popular television program ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "According to legend, when someone on the show's staff overheard him casually singing \"Sixteen Tons\" in the dressing room, he was asked to perform the song on the show.", "One of Diddley's later versions of the story was that upon seeing \"Bo Diddley\" on the cue card, he thought he was to perform both his self-titled hit single and \"Sixteen Tons\".", "Sullivan was furious and banned Diddley from his show, reputedly saying that he would not last six months.", "Chess Records included Diddley's cover of \"Sixteen Tons\" on the 1963 album ''Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger''.Diddley's hit singles continued in the 1950s and 1960s: \"Pretty Thing\" (1956), \"Say Man\" (1959), and \"You Can't Judge a Book by the Cover\" (1962).", "He also released numerous albums, including ''Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger'' and ''Have Guitar, Will Travel''.", "These bolstered his self-invented legend.", "Between 1958 and 1963, Checker Records released eleven full-length Bo Diddley albums.", "In the 1960s, he broke through as a crossover artist with white audiences (appearing at the Alan Freed concerts, for example), but he rarely aimed his compositions at teenagers.", "Diddley was among those musicians who capitalized on the mid-1960s surfing and beach party craze in the United States, and released the albums ''Surfin' with Bo Diddley'' and '' Bo Diddley's Beach Party''.", "These featured heavy, distorted blues, played on his Gretsch guitar with bended notes and minor key riffs, unlike the clean, undistorted sounds of the Fender guitars used by the California surf bands.", "The cover of ''Surfin' with Bo Diddley'' had a photograph of two surfers riding a big wave.In 1963, Diddley starred in a UK concert tour with the Everly Brothers and Little Richard along with the Rolling Stones (a little-known band at that time).Diddley wrote many songs for himself and also for others.", "In 1956, he and guitarist Jody Williams co-wrote the pop song \"Love Is Strange\", a hit for Mickey & Sylvia in 1957, reaching number 11 on the chart.", "Mickey Baker claimed that he (Baker) and Bo Diddley's wife, Ethel Smith, wrote the song.", "Diddley also wrote \"Mama (Can I Go Out)\", which was a minor hit for the pioneering rockabilly singer Jo Ann Campbell, who performed the song in the 1959 rock and roll film ''Go Johnny Go''.After moving from Chicago to Washington, D.C., Diddley built his first home recording studio in the basement of his home at 2614 Rhode Island Avenue NE.", "Frequented by several of Washington, D.C.'s musical luminaries, the studio was the site where he recorded the Checker LP (Checker LP-2977) ''Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger''.", "Diddley also produced and recorded several up-and-coming groups from the Washington, D.C. area.", "One of the first groups he recorded was local doo-wop group the Marquees, featuring Marvin Gaye and baritone-bass Chester Simmons, who moonlighted as Diddley's chauffeur.The Marquees appeared in talent shows at the Lincoln Theatre, and Diddley, impressed by their smooth vocal delivery, let them rehearse in his studio.", "Diddley got the Marquees signed to Columbia subsidiary label OKeh Records after unsuccessfully attempting to get them a contract with his own label, Chess.", "The OKeh label rivaled Chess in the promotion of rhythm and blues.", "On September 25, 1957, Diddley drove the group to New York City to record \"Wyatt Earp\", a novelty song written by Reese Palmer, lead singer of the Marquees.", "Diddley produced the session, with the group backed by his own band.", "They cut their first record, a single with \"Wyatt Earp\" on the A-side and \"Hey Little School Girl\" on the B-side, but it failed to become a hit.", "Diddley persuaded Moonglows founder and backing vocalist Harvey Fuqua to hire Gaye.", "Gaye joined the Moonglows as first tenor; the group then moved to Detroit with the hope of signing with Motown Records founder Berry Gordy Jr.Diddley included women in his band: Norma-Jean Wofford, also known as The Duchess; Gloria Jolivet; Peggy Jones, also known as Lady Bo, a lead guitarist (rare for a woman at that time); and Cornelia Redmond, also known as Cookie V.===Later years===In early 1971, writer-musician Michael Lydon, a founding editor of ''Rolling Stone'', conducted a lengthy, rambling interview of Diddley, at his then home in the San Fernando Valley, California.", "Lydon described him as a \"protean genius\" whose songs were \"hymns to himself\", and led the published piece with a Diddley quote: \"Everything I know I taught myself.", "\"Diddley on tour in Japan with the Japanese band Bo GumbosOver the decades, Diddley's performing venues ranged from intimate clubs to stadiums.", "On March 25, 1972, he played with the Grateful Dead at the Academy of Music in New York City.", "The Grateful Dead released part of this concert as Volume 30 of the band's concert album series, ''Dick's Picks''.", "Also in the early 1970s, the soundtrack of the ground-breaking animated film ''Fritz the Cat'' contained his song \"Bo Diddley\", in which a crow dances and finger-pops to the track.Diddley spent some years in New Mexico, living in Los Lunas from 1971 to 1978, while continuing his musical career.", "He served for two and a half years as a deputy sheriff in the Valencia County Citizens' Patrol; during that time he purchased and donated three highway-patrol pursuit cars.", "In the late 1970s, he left Los Lunas and moved to Hawthorne, Florida, where he lived on a large estate in a custom-made log cabin, which he helped to build.", "For the remainder of his life he divided his time between Albuquerque and Florida, living the last 13 years of his life in Archer, Florida, a small farming town near Gainesville.In 1979, he appeared as an opening act for the Clash on their US tour.In 1983, he made a cameo appearance as a Philadelphia pawn shop owner in the comedy film ''Trading Places''.", "He also appeared in George Thorogood's music video for the song \"Bad to the Bone,\" portraying a guitar-slinging pool shark.In 1985, he appeared on George Thorogood's set, alongside fellow blues legend Albert Collins, on the Live Aid American stage to perform Thorogood's popular cover of Diddley's song Who Do You Love?", "\".In 1989, Diddley and his management company, Talent Source, entered into a licensing with the sportswear brand.", "The Wieden & Kennedy-produced commercial in the \"Bo Knows\" campaign teamed Diddley with dual sportsman Bo Jackson.", "The agreement ended in 1991, but in 1999, a T-shirt of Diddley's image and \"You don't know diddley\" slogan was purchased in a Gainesville, Florida, sports apparel store.", "Diddley felt that Nike should not continue to use the slogan or his likeness and fought Nike over the copyright infringement.", "Despite the fact that lawyers for both parties could not come to a renewed legal arrangement, Nike allegedly continued marketing the apparel and ignored cease-and-desist orders, and a lawsuit was filed on Diddley's behalf, in Manhattan Federal Court.Diddley played a blues and rock musician named Axman in the 1990 comedy film ''Rockula'', directed by Luca Bercovici and starring Dean Cameron.In ''Legends of Guitar'' (filmed live in Spain in 1991), Diddley performed with Steve Cropper, B.B.", "King, Les Paul, Albert Collins, and George Benson, among others.", "He joined the Rolling Stones on their 1994 concert broadcast of ''Voodoo Lounge'', performing \"Who Do You Love?\"", "at Joe Robbie Stadium, in Miami.", "Bo Diddley at the Long Beach Jazz Festival, 1997 In 1996, he released ''A Man Amongst Men'', his first major-label album (and his final studio album) with guest artists like Keith Richards, Ron Wood and The Shirelles.", "The album earned a Grammy Award nomination in 1997 for the Best Contemporary Blues Album category.Bo Diddley in 2002Diddley performed a number of shows around the country in 2005 and 2006, with fellow Rock and Roll Hall of Famer Johnnie Johnson and his band, consisting of Johnson on keyboards, Richard Hunt on drums and Gus Thornton on bass.", "In 2006, he participated as the headliner of a grassroots-organized fundraiser concert to benefit the town of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, which had been devastated by Hurricane Katrina.", "The \"Florida Keys for Katrina Relief\" had originally been set for October 23, 2005, when Hurricane Wilma barreled through the Florida Keys on October 24, causing flooding and economic mayhem.In January 2006, the Florida Keys had recovered enough to host the fundraising concert to benefit the more hard-hit community of Ocean Springs.", "When asked about the fundraiser, Diddley stated, \"This is the United States of America.", "We believe in helping one another\".", "The all-star band included members of the Soul Providers, and famed artists Clarence Clemons of the E Street Band, Joey Covington of Jefferson Airplane, Alfonso Carey of The Village People, and Carl Spagnuolo of Jay & The Techniques.", "In an interview with Holger Petersen, on ''Saturday Night Blues'' on CBC Radio in the fall of 2006, he commented on racism in the music industry establishment during his early career.", "Diddley sold the rights to his songs early on, and until 1989 he received no royalties from the most successful part of his career.His final guitar performance on a studio album was with the New York Dolls on their 2006 album ''One Day It Will Please Us to Remember Even This''.", "He contributed guitar work to the song \"Seventeen\", which was included as a bonus track on the limited-edition version of the disc.In May 2007, Diddley suffered a stroke after a concert the previous day in Council Bluffs, Iowa.", "Nonetheless, he delivered an energetic performance to an enthusiastic crowd.", "A few months later he had a heart attack.", "While recovering, Diddley came back to his hometown of McComb, Mississippi, in early November 2007, for the unveiling of a plaque devoted to him on the Mississippi Blues Trail.", "This marked his achievements and noted that he was \"acclaimed as a founder of rock-and-roll.\"", "He was not supposed to perform, but as he listened to the music of local musician Jesse Robinson, who sang a song written for this occasion, Robinson sensed that Diddley wanted to perform and handed him a microphone, the only time that he performed publicly after his stroke." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Marriages and children ===Bo Diddley was married four times.", "His first marriage, at 18, to Louise Willingham, lasted a year.", "Diddley married his second wife Ethel Mae Smith in 1949; they had two children.", "He met his third wife, Kay Reynolds, when she was 15, while performing in Birmingham, Alabama.", "They soon moved in together and married, despite taboos against interracial marriage.", "They had two daughters.", "He married his fourth wife, Sylvia Paiz, in 1992; they were divorced at the time of his death.=== Health problems ===On May 13, 2007, Diddley was admitted to intensive care in Creighton University Medical Center in Omaha, Nebraska, following a stroke after a concert the previous day in Council Bluffs, Iowa.", "Starting the show, he had complained that he did not feel well.", "He referred to smoke from the wildfires that were ravaging south Georgia and blowing south to the area near his home in Archer, Florida.", "The next day, as he was heading back home, he seemed dazed and confused at the airport, and 911 was called, and he was immediately taken by ambulance to Creighton University Medical Center where he stayed for several days.", "He was then flown to Shands Hospital in Gainesville, FL, where it was confirmed that he had suffered a stroke.", "Diddley had a history of hypertension and diabetes, and the stroke affected the left side of his brain, causing receptive and expressive aphasia (speech impairment).", "The stroke was followed by a heart attack, which he suffered in Gainesville, Florida, on August 28, 2007." ], [ "Death", "Bo Diddley died on June 2, 2008, of heart failure at his home in Archer, Florida at the age of 79.many family members, were with him when he died at 1:45 am.", "EDT, at his home.", "His death was not unexpected.", "\"There was a Gospel song that was sung, at his bedside, and when it was done, he opened his eyes, gave a thumbs up, and said, \"Wow!", "I'm goin' to Heaven!\"", "The song was 'Walk Around Heaven', and those were his last words.", "\"He was survived by his children, Evelyn Kelly, Ellas A. McDaniel, Pamela Jacobs, Steven Jones, Terri Lynn McDaniel-Hines, and Tammi D. McDaniel; a brother, the Rev.", "Kenneth Haynes; and eighteen grandchildren, fifteen great-grandchildren and three great-great-grandchildren.His funeral, a four-hour \"homegoing\" service, took place on June 7, 2008, at Showers of Blessings Church in Gainesville, Florida.", "Many in attendance chanted \"Hey Bo Diddley\" as members of Diddley's band played a subdued version of the song.", "A number of notable musicians sent flowers, including Little Richard, George Thorogood, Tom Petty and Jerry Lee Lewis.", "Little Richard, who had been asking his audiences to pray for Bo Diddley, throughout his illness, had to fulfill concert commitments in Westbury and New York City, the weekend of the funeral.", "He remembered Diddley at the concerts, performing his namesake tune.", "Eric Burdon of the Animals flew to Gainesville to attend the service.After the funeral service, a tribute concert was held at the Martin Luther King Center in Gainesville, Florida, featuring guest performances by his son and daughter, Ellas A. McDaniel and Evelyn \"Tan\" Cooper; long-time background vocalist (and original Boette), Gloria Jolivet, and long-time bassist and bandleader, Debby Hastings, Eric Burdon, and former Bo Diddley & Offspring guitarist, Scott Free.", "In the days following his death, tributes were paid by then-President George W. Bush, the United States House of Representatives, and musicians and performers including B.", "B.", "King, Ronnie Hawkins, Mick Jagger, Ronnie Wood, George Thorogood, Eric Clapton, Tom Petty, Robert Plant, Elvis Costello, Bonnie Raitt, Robert Randolph and the Family Band and Eric Burdon.", "Burdon used video footage of the McDaniel family, and friends in mourning, for a video promoting his ABKCO Records release \"Bo Diddley Special\".", "Hastings is quoted as having said, \"He was the rock that the roll was built on.", "\"In November 2009, the guitar used by Bo Diddley in his final stage performance sold for $60,000 at auction.In 2019, members of Bo Diddley's family sued to regain control of the music catalog held in trust by attorney Charles Littell.", "The family was successful in appointing a new trustee, music industry veteran Kendall Minter.", "The family was represented by Charles David of Florida Probate Law Group in the 2019 lawsuit." ], [ "Accolades", "Bo Diddley was posthumously awarded a Doctor of Fine Arts degree by the University of Florida for his influence on American popular music.", "In its ''People in America'' radio series, about influential people in American history, the Voice of America radio service paid tribute to him, describing how \"his influence was so widespread that it is hard to imagine what rock and roll would have sounded like without him.\"", "Mick Jagger stated that \"he was a wonderful, original musician who was an enormous force in music and was a big influence on the Rolling Stones.", "He was very generous to us in our early years and we learned a lot from him\".", "Jagger also praised the late star as a one-of-a-kind musician, adding, \"We will never see his like again\".", "The documentary film ''Cheat You Fair: The Story of Maxwell Street'' by director Phil Ranstrom features Bo Diddley's last on-camera interview.He achieved numerous accolades in recognition of his significant role as one of the founding fathers of rock and roll.", "* 1986: Inducted into the Washington Area Music Association's Hall of Fame.", "* 1987: Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame* 1987: Inducted into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame* 1990: Lifetime Achievement Award from ''Guitar Player'' magazine* 1996: Lifetime Achievement Award from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation* 1998: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award* 1999: His 1955 recording of his song \"Bo Diddley\" inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame* 2000: Inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame* 2000: Inducted into the North Florida Music Association's Hall of Fame* 2002: Pioneer in Entertainment Award from the National Association of Black Owned Broadcasters* 2002: Honored as one of the first BMI Icons at the 50th annual BMI Pop Awards, along with BMI affiliates Chuck Berry and Little Richard.", "* 2003: Inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame* 2008: Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree posthumously conferred on Diddley by the University of Florida in August (the award had been confirmed before his death in June).", "* 2020: Induction into the Florida Artists Hall of Fame* 2010: Induction into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.", "* 2017: Inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame.", "* 2021: Inducted into the New Mexico Music Hall of Fame.In 2003, U.S. Representative John Conyers paid tribute to Bo Diddley in the United States House of Representatives, describing him as \"one of the true pioneers of rock and roll, who has influenced generations\".In 2004, Mickey and Sylvia's 1956 recording of \"Love Is Strange\" (a song first recorded by Bo Diddley but not released until a year before his death) was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of qualitative or historical significance.", "Also in 2004, Bo Diddley was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Blues Hall of Fame and was ranked number 20 on ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.In 2005, Bo Diddley celebrated his 50th anniversary in music with successful tours of Australia and Europe and with coast-to-coast shows across North America.", "He performed his song \"Bo Diddley\" with Eric Clapton and Robbie Robertson at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 20th annual induction ceremony.", "In the UK, ''Uncut'' magazine included his 1957 debut album, ''Bo Diddley'', in its listing of the '100 Music, Movie & TV Moments That Have Changed the World'.Bo Diddley was honored by the Mississippi Blues Commission with a Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker placed in McComb, his birthplace, in recognition of his enormous contribution to the development of the blues in Mississippi.", "On June 5, 2009, the city of Gainesville, Florida, officially renamed and dedicated its downtown plaza the Bo Diddley Community Plaza.", "The plaza was the site of a benefit concert at which Bo Diddley performed to raise awareness about the plight of the homeless in Alachua County and to raise money for local charities, including the Red Cross." ], [ "Beat", "The \"Bo Diddley beat\" is essentially the clave rhythm, one of the most common bell patterns found in sub-Saharan African music traditions.", "One scholar found this rhythm in 13 rhythm and blues recordings made in the years 1944–55, including two by Johnny Otis from 1948.Bo Diddley gave different accounts of how he began to use this rhythm.", "Ned Sublette says, \"In the context of the time, and especially those maracas heard on the record, 'Bo Diddley' has to be understood as a Latin-tinged record.", "A rejected cut recorded at the same session was titled only 'Rhumba' on the track sheets.\"", "The Bo Diddley beat is similar to \"hambone\", a style used by street performers who play out the beat by slapping and patting their arms, legs, chest, and cheeks while chanting rhymes.", "Somewhat resembling the \"shave and a haircut, two bits\" rhythm, Diddley came across it while trying to play Gene Autry's \"(I've Got Spurs That) Jingle, Jangle, Jingle\".", "Three years before his \"Bo Diddley\", a song with similar syncopation \"Hambone\", was cut by the Red Saunders Orchestra with the Hambone Kids.", "In 1944, \"Rum and Coca Cola\", containing the Bo Diddley beat, was recorded by the Andrews Sisters.", "Buddy Holly's \"Not Fade Away\" (1957) and Them's \"Mystic Eyes\" (1965) used the beat.", "\"Bo Diddley beat\"/Son clave .", "In its simplest form, the Bo Diddley beat can be counted out as either a one-bar or a two-bar phrase.", "Here is the count as a one-bar phrase: '''One''' e and '''ah''', two e '''and''' ah, three e '''and''' ah, '''four''' e and ah (the boldface counts are the clave rhythm).Many songs (for example, \"Hey Bo Diddley\" and \"Who Do You Love?\")", "often have no chord changes; that is, the musicians play the same chord throughout the piece, so that the rhythms create the excitement, rather than having the excitement generated by harmonic tension and release.", "In his other recordings, Bo Diddley used various rhythms, from straight back beat to pop ballad style to doo-wop, frequently with maracas by Jerome Green.", "His 1955 rhythm and blues hit, \"Bo Diddley\", had a \"driving African rhythm and ham-bone beat\".", "Beginning that same year, Diddley collaborated with various doo-wop vocal groups, using the Moonglows as a backing group on his first album, ''Bo Diddley'', released in 1958.In one of the most well-known of his 1958 doo-wop sessions, Diddley added harmonies by the Carnations recording as the Teardrops, who sang smooth, polished doo-wop in the backgrounds on the songs \"I'm Sorry\", \"Crackin' Up\", and \"Don't Let it Go\".An influential guitar player, Bo Diddley developed many special effects and other innovations in tone and attack, particularly the \"shimmering\" tremolo sound, and amp reverb.", "His trademark instrument was his self-designed, one-of-a-kind, rectangular-bodied \"Twang Machine\" (referred to as \"cigar-box shaped\" by music promoter Dick Clark), built by Gretsch.", "He had other uniquely shaped guitars custom-made for him by other manufacturers throughout the years, most notably the \"Cadillac\" and the rectangular \"Turbo 5-speed\" (with built-in envelope filter, flanger and delay) designs, made by Tom Holmes (who also made guitars for ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons, among others).", "In a 2005 interview on JJJ radio in Australia, he implied that the rectangular design sprang from an embarrassing moment.", "During an early gig, while jumping around on stage with a Gibson L5 guitar, he landed awkwardly, hurting his groin.", "He then went about designing a smaller, less-restrictive guitar that allowed him to keep jumping around on stage while still playing his guitar.", "He also played the violin, which is featured on his mournful instrumental \"The Clock Strikes Twelve\", a twelve-bar blues.Diddley often created lyrics as witty and humorous adaptations of folk music themes.", "His first hit, \"Bo Diddley\", was based on hambone rhymes.", "The first line of his song \"Hey Bo Diddley\" is derived from the nursery rhyme \"Old MacDonald\".", "The song \"Who Do You Love?\"", "with its rap-style boasting, and his use of the African-American game known as \"the dozens\" on the songs \"Say Man\" and \"Say Man, Back Again,\" are cited as progenitors of hip-hop music; for example, in the dialogue of the song, \"Say Man\", percussionist Jerome Green says the lines: \"You've got the nerve to call somebody ugly.", "Why, you so ugly till the stork that brought you in the world oughta be arrested.\"" ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums======Collaborations===* ''Chuck Berry Is on Top'', with Chuck Berry (Chess, 1959)* ''Two Great Guitars'', with Chuck Berry (Checker, 1964)* ''Super Blues'', with Muddy Waters and Little Walter (Checker, 1967)* ''The Super Super Blues Band'', with Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf (Checker, 1968)===Chart singles=== Year Single Chart Positions US Pop USR&B UK 1955 \"Bo Diddley\" /\"I'm a Man\" - 1 - \"Diddley Daddy\" - 11 - 1956 \"Pretty Thing\" – 4 34(in 1963) 1959 \"I'm Sorry\" – 17 – \"Crackin Up\" 62 14 – \"Say Man\" 20 3 – \"Say Man, Back Again\" – 23 – 1960 \"Road Runner\" 75 20 – 1962 \"You Can't Judge a Book by the Cover\" 48 21 – 1965 \"Hey Good Lookin'\" – – 39 1967 \"Ooh Baby\" 88 17 –" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Books", "* Arsicaud, Laurent (2012).", "''Bo Diddley, Je suis un homme''.", "Camion Blanc editions.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * \" Bo Diddley Talks About His Early Days, Including His Twelve Years of Classical Music Training\"" ] ]

[ [ "Bela Lugosi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó''' (; October 20, 1882 – August 16, 1956), known professionally as '''Bela Lugosi''' (; ), was a Hungarian–American actor, best remembered for portraying Count Dracula in the 1931 horror classic ''Dracula'', Ygor in ''Son of Frankenstein'' (1939) and his roles in many other horror films from 1931 through 1956.Lugosi began acting on the Hungarian stage in 1902.After playing in 172 productions in his native Hungary, Lugosi moved on to appear in Hungarian silent films in 1917.He had to suddenly emigrate to Germany after the failed Hungarian Communist Revolution of 1919 because of his former socialist activities (organizing a stage actors' union), leaving his first wife in the process.", "He acted in several films in Weimar Germany, before arriving in New Orleans as a seaman on a merchant ship, then making his way north to New York City and Ellis Island.In 1927, he starred as Count Dracula in a Broadway adaptation of Bram Stoker's novel, moving with the play to the West Coast in 1928 and settling down in Hollywood.", "He later starred in the 1931 film version of ''Dracula'' directed by Tod Browning and produced by Universal Pictures.", "Through the 1930s, he occupied an important niche in horror films, but his notoriety as Dracula and thick Hungarian accent greatly limited the roles offered to him, and he unsuccessfully tried for years to avoid typecasting.He co-starred in a number of films with Boris Karloff, who was able to demand top billing.", "To his frustration, Lugosi, a charter member of the American Screen Actors Guild, was increasingly restricted to mad scientist roles because of his inability to speak English more clearly.", "He was kept employed by the studios principally so that they could put his name on the posters.", "Among his teamings with Karloff, he performed major roles only in ''The Black Cat'' (1934), ''The Raven'' (1935), and ''Son of Frankenstein'' (1939); even in ''The Raven'', Karloff received top billing despite Lugosi performing the lead role.", "By this time, Lugosi had been receiving regular medication for sciatic neuritis, and he became addicted to doctor-prescribed morphine and methadone.", "This drug dependence (and his gradually worsening alcoholism) was becoming apparent to producers, and after 1948's ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'', the offers dwindled to parts in low-budget films; some of these were directed by Ed Wood, including a brief (posthumous) appearance in Wood's ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1957).Lugosi married five times and had one son, Bela G. Lugosi (with his fourth wife, Lillian)." ], [ "Early life", "Lugosi at age 18Lugosi, the youngest of four children, was born Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó in 1882 in Lugos, Kingdom of Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania) to Hungarian father István Blaskó, a baker who later became a banker, and Serbian-born mother Paula de Vojnich.", "He was raised in a Catholic family.At the age of 12, Lugosi dropped out of school and left home to work at a succession of manual labor jobs.", "His father died during his absence.", "He began his stage acting career in 1902.His earliest known performances are from provincial theatres in the 1903–04 season, playing small roles in several plays and operettas.", "He took the last name \"Lugosi\" in 1903 to honor his birthplace, and went on to perform in Shakespeare plays.", "After moving to Budapest in 1911, he played dozens of roles with the National Theatre of Hungary between 1913 and 1919.Although Lugosi would later claim that he \"became the leading actor of Hungary's Royal National Theatre\", many of his roles there were small or supporting parts, which led him to enter the Hungarian film industry.During World War I, he served as an infantryman in the Austro-Hungarian Army from 1914 to 1916, rising to the rank of lieutenant.", "He was awarded the Wound Medal for wounds he sustained while serving on the Russian front.", "Returning to civilian life, Lugosi became an actor in Hungarian silent films, appearing in many of them under the stage name \"Arisztid Olt\".Due to his activism in the actors' union in Hungary during the revolution of 1919 and his active participation in the Hungarian Soviet Republic, he was forced to flee his homeland when the government changed hands, initially accompanied by his first wife Ilona Szmik.", "They escaped to Vienna before settling in Berlin (in the Langestrasse), where he began acting in German silent films.", "During these moves, Ilona lost her unborn child, after which she left Lugosi and returned home to her parents where she filed for divorce, and soon after remarried.", "Lugosi eventually travelled to New Orleans, Louisiana in December, 1920 working as a crewman aboard a merchant ship, then made his way north to New York City, where he again took up acting in (and sometimes directing) stage plays in 1921–1922, then worked in the New York silent film industry from 1923 to 1926.In 1921, he met and married his second wife, Ilona von Montagh, a young Hungarian emigree and stage actress whom he had worked with years before in Europe.", "They only lived together for a few weeks, but their divorce took until October 1925 to be finalized.He later moved to California in 1928 to tour in the ''Dracula'' stage play, and his Hollywood film career took off.", "Lugosi claimed he performed the Dracula play around 1,000 times during his lifetime.", "He eventually became a U.S. citizen in 1931, soon after the release of his film version of ''Dracula''." ], [ "Career", "=== Early films ===Bela Lugosi in 1920Lugosi in Shadowland Magazine, 1923Lugosi's first film appearance was in the 1917 Hungarian silent film ''Leoni Leo''.", "When appearing in Hungarian silent films, he mostly used the stage name '''Arisztid Olt'''.", "Lugosi made at least 10 films in Hungary between 1917 and 1918 before leaving for Germany.", "Following the collapse of Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, leftists and trade unionists became vulnerable, some being imprisoned or executed in public.", "Lugosi was proscribed from acting due to his participation in the formation of an actors' union.", "Exiled in Weimar-era Germany, he co-starred in at least 14 German silent films in 1920, among them ''Hypnose: Sklaven fremden Willens'' (1920), ''Der Januskopf'' (1920) and an adaptation of the Karl May novel ''Caravan of Death'' (1920).Lugosi left Germany in October 1920, emigrating by ship to the United States, and entered the country at New Orleans in December 1920.He made his way to New York and was inspected by immigration officers at Ellis Island in March 1921.He only declared his intention to become a US citizen in 1928; on June 26, 1931, he was naturalized.On his arrival in America, the , Lugosi worked for some time as a laborer, and then entered the theater in New York City's Hungarian immigrant colony.", "With fellow expatriate Hungarian actors he formed a small stock company that toured Eastern cities, playing for immigrant audiences.", "Lugosi acted in several Hungarian language plays before starring in his first English Broadway play, ''The Red Poppy'' in 1922.Three more parts came in 1925–26, including a five-month run in the comedy-fantasy ''The Devil in the Cheese''.", "In 1925, he played an Arab Sheik in ''Arabesque'' which premiered in Buffalo, New York at the Teck Theatre before moving to Broadway.His first American film role was in the silent melodrama ''The Silent Command'' (1923) which was filmed in New York.", "Four other silent roles followed, villains and continental types, all in productions made in the New York area.", "A rumor has circulated for decades among film historians that Lugosi played an uncredited bit part as a clown in the 1924 Lon Chaney Hollywood film ''He Who Gets Slapped'', but this has been heavily disputed.", "The rumor originated from the discovery of a publicity still from this film found posthumously in Lugosi's scrapbook, which showed an unidentified clown in heavy makeup standing near Lon Chaney in one scene.", "It was thought to be evidence that Lugosi appeared in the film, but historians all agree that is very unlikely, since Lugosi was in both Chicago (appearing in a play called ''The Werewolf'') and New York at the time that film was being made in Hollywood.=== ''Dracula'' ===Lugosi as Count Dracula in 1931Lugosi was approached in the summer of 1927 to star in a Broadway theatre production of ''Dracula'', which had been adapted by Hamilton Deane and John L. Balderston from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel.", "The Horace Liveright production was successful, running in New York City for 261 performances before touring the United States to much fanfare and critical acclaim throughout 1928 and 1929.In 1928, Lugosi decided to stay in California when the play ended its first West Coast run.", "His performance had piqued the interest of Fox Film, and he was cast in the Hollywood studio's silent film ''The Veiled Woman'' (1929).", "He also appeared in the film ''Prisoners'' (also 1929), believed lost, which was released in both a silent and partial talkie version.Lugosi as the psychic Tarneverro, with Warner Oland, in ''The Black Camel'' (1931)In 1929, with no other film roles in sight, he returned to the stage as Dracula for a short West Coast tour of the play.", "Lugosi remained in California where he resumed his film work under contract with Fox, appearing in early talkies often as a heavy or an \"exotic sheik\".", "He also continued to lobby for his prized role in the film version of ''Dracula''.Despite his critically acclaimed performance on stage, Lugosi was not Universal Pictures' first choice for the role of Dracula when the company optioned the rights to the Deane play and began production in 1930.Different prominent actors, such as Paul Muni, Chester Morris, Ian Keith, John Wray, Joseph Schildkraut, Arthur Edmund Carewe, William Courtenay, John Carradine, and Conrad Veidt were considered.", "Lew Ayres was eventually hired to play Dracula, only to be replaced by Robert Ames after being cast in a different role in a different Universal Pictures film.", "Ames was in turn replaced with David Manners, who would instead come to play John Harker.", "Lugosi had played the role on Broadway, and was considered before director Tod Browning cast him in the role.", "The film was a major hit, but Lugosi was paid a salary of only $3,500, since he had too eagerly accepted the role.=== Typecasting ===Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi in ''The Raven'' (1935)Through his association with ''Dracula'' (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a horror villain in films such as ''Murders in the Rue Morgue'' (1932), ''The Black Cat'' (1934) and ''The Raven'' (1935) for Universal, and the independent ''White Zombie'' (1932).", "His accent, while a part of his image, limited the type of role he could play.Lugosi did attempt to break type by auditioning for other roles.", "He lost out to Lionel Barrymore for the role of Grigori Rasputin in ''Rasputin and the Empress'' (also 1932); C. Henry Gordon for the role of Surat Khan in ''Charge of the Light Brigade'' (1936), and Basil Rathbone for the role of Commissar Dimitri Gorotchenko in ''Tovarich'' (1937), a role Lugosi had played on stage.", "He played the elegant, somewhat hot-tempered General Nicholas Strenovsky-Petronovich in ''International House'' (1933).Regardless of controversy, five films at Universal – ''The Black Cat'' (1934), ''The Raven'' (1935), ''The Invisible Ray'' (1936), ''Son of Frankenstein'' (1939), ''Black Friday'' (1940), plus minor cameo performances in ''Gift of Gab'' (1934) and two at RKO Pictures, ''You'll Find Out'' (1940) and ''The Body Snatcher'' (1945) – paired Lugosi with Boris Karloff.", "Despite the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably received second billing, below Karloff.", "There are contradictory reports of Lugosi's attitude toward Karloff, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to gain good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were – for a time, at least – amicable.", "Karloff himself in interviews suggested that Lugosi was initially mistrustful of him when they acted together, believing that the Englishman would attempt to upstage him.", "When this proved not to be the case, according to Karloff, Lugosi settled down and they worked together amicably (though some have further commented that the English Karloff's on-set demand to break from filming for mid-afternoon tea annoyed Lugosi).", "Lugosi did get a few heroic leads, as in Universal's ''The Black Cat'' after Karloff had been accorded the more colorful role of the villain, ''The Invisible Ray'', and a romantic role in producer Sol Lesser's adventure serial ''The Return of Chandu'' (1934), but his typecasting problem appears to have been too entrenched to be alleviated by those films.Lugosi addressed his plea to be cast in non-horror roles directly to casting directors through his listing in the 1937 ''Players Directory'', published by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, in which he (or his agent) calls the idea that he is only fit for horror films \"an error.", "\"=== Career decline ===Lugosi developed severe, chronic sciatica, ostensibly aggravated by injuries received during his military service.", "Though at first he was treated with benign pain remedies such as asparagus juice, doctors increased the medication to opiates.", "The growth of his dependence on opiates, particularly morphine and (after 1947, when it became available in America) methadone, was directly proportional to the dwindling of Lugosi's screen offers.", "The problem first manifested itself in 1937, when Lugosi was forced to withdraw from a leading role in a serial production, ''The Secret of Treasure Island'', due to constant back pain.", "Historian John McElwee reports, in his 2013 book ''Showmen, Sell It Hot!", "'', that Bela Lugosi's popularity received a much-needed boost in August 1938, when California theater owner Emil Umann revived ''Dracula'' and ''Frankenstein'' as a special double feature.", "The combination was so successful that Umann scheduled extra shows to accommodate the capacity crowds, and invited Lugosi to appear in person, which thrilled new audiences that had never seen Lugosi's classic performance.", "\"I owe it all to that little man at the Regina Theatre,\" said Lugosi of exhibitor Umann.", "\"I was dead, and he brought me back to life.\"", "Universal took notice of the tremendous business and launched its own national re-release of the same two horror favorites.", "The studio then rehired Lugosi to star in new films, fortunately just as Lugosi's fourth wife had given birth to a son.Boris Karloff as Frankenstein's monster, Basil Rathbone as Dr. Frankenstein's son, and Lugosi as Ygor in ''Son of Frankenstein'' (1939)Universal cast Lugosi in ''Son of Frankenstein'' (1939), appearing in the character role of Ygor, a mad blacksmith with a broken neck, in heavy makeup and beard.", "Lugosi was third-billed with his name above the title alongside Basil Rathbone as Dr. Frankenstein's son and Boris Karloff reprising his role as Frankenstein's monster.", "Regarding ''Son of Frankenstein'', the film's director Rowland V. Lee said his crew let Lugosi \"work on the characterization; the interpretation he gave us was imaginative and totally unexpected ... when we finished shooting, there was no doubt in anyone's mind that he stole the show.", "Karloff's monster was weak by comparison.", "\"The same year saw Lugosi making a rare appearance in an A-list motion picture: he was a stern Soviet commissar in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer romantic comedy ''Ninotchka'', starring Greta Garbo and directed by Ernst Lubitsch.", "Lugosi was quite effective in this small but prestigious character part and even received top billing among the film's supporting cast, all of whom had significantly larger roles.", "It might have been a turning point for the actor, but within the year he was back on Hollywood's Poverty Row, playing leads for Sam Katzman.", "These horror, comedy and mystery B-films were mostly released by Monogram Pictures.", "At Universal, he often received star billing for what amounted to a supporting part.", "Lugosi as a butler in ''The Gorilla'' (1939)Lugosi went to 20th Century-Fox for ''The Gorilla'' (1939), which had him playing straight man (a butler) to Patsy Kelly and the Ritz Brothers.", "When Lugosi's ''Black Friday'' premiered in 1940 on a double bill with the Vincent Price film ''The House of the Seven Gables'', Lugosi and Price both appeared in person at the Chicago Theatre where it opened on Feb. 29, 1940 and remained for four performances.", "He was finally cast in the role of Frankenstein's monster for Universal's ''Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man'' (1943).", "(At the end of the previous film in the series, ''The Ghost of Frankenstein'' (1942), Lugosi's voice had been dubbed over that of Lon Chaney Jr. since Ygor's brain was now in the Monster's skull.)", "But at the last minute, Lugosi's heavily-accented dialogue was edited out after the film was completed, along with the idea of the Monster being blind, leaving his performance featuring groping, outstretched arms and moving lips seeming enigmatic (and funny) to audiences.Lugosi kept busy during the 1940s as a screen menace.", "In addition to his nine Monogram features, he worked in three features for RKO and one for Columbia (''The Return of the Vampire'', 1943).", "He also accepted the lead in an experimental, economical feature, shot in the semi-professional 16mm film format and blown up to 35mm for theatrical release, ''Scared to Death'' (produced in 1944 but not released until 1947).", "The feature is noteworthy as being Bela Lugosi's only color film.Lugosi played Dracula for a second and final time on film in ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'' (1948), which was his last \"A\" movie.", "For the remainder of his life, he appeared – less and less frequently – in obscure, forgettable, low-budget B features.", "From 1947 to 1950, he performed in summer stock, often in productions of ''Dracula'' or ''Arsenic and Old Lace'', and during the rest of the year, made personal appearances in a touring \"spook show\", and on early commercial television.In September 1949, Milton Berle invited Lugosi to appear in a sketch on ''Texaco Star Theatre''.", "Lugosi memorized the script for the skit, but became confused on the air when Berle began to ad lib.", "He also appeared on the anthology series ''Suspense'' on October 11, 1949, in a live adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Cask of Amontillado\".In 1951, while in England to play a six-month tour of ''Dracula'', Lugosi co-starred in a lowbrow film comedy, ''Mother Riley Meets the Vampire'' (also known as ''Vampire Over London'' and ''My Son, the Vampire''), released the following year.", "Following his return to the United States, he was interviewed for television, and reflected wistfully on his typecasting in horror parts: \"Now I am the boogie man\".", "In the same interview he expressed a desire to play more comedy, as he had in the ''Mother Riley'' farce.", "Independent producer Jack Broder took Lugosi at his word, casting him in a jungle-themed comedy, ''Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla'' (1952), starring nightclub comedians Duke Mitchell and Jerry Lewis look-alike Sammy Petrillo, whose act closely resembled that of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis (Martin and Lewis).", "Hal B. Wallis, Martin and Lewis's producer, unsuccessfully sued Broder.=== Stage and personal appearances ===Lugosi enjoyed a lively career on stage, with plenty of personal appearances.", "As film offers declined, he became more and more dependent on live venues to support his family.", "Lugosi took over the role of Jonathan Brewster from Boris Karloff for ''Arsenic and Old Lace''.", "Lugosi had also expressed interest in playing Elwood P. Dowd in ''Harvey'' to help himself professionally.", "He also made plenty of personal live appearances to promote his horror image or an accompanying film.The Vincent Price film, ''House of Wax'' premiered in Los Angeles at the Paramount Theatre on April 16, 1953.The film played at midnight with a number of celebrities in the audience that night (Judy Garland, Ginger Rogers, Rock Hudson, Broderick Crawford, Gracie Allen, Eddie Cantor, Shelley Winters and others).", "Producer Alex Gordon, knowing Lugosi was in dire need of cash, arranged for the actor to stand outside the theater wearing a cape and dark glasses, holding a man costumed as a gorilla on a leash.", "He later allowed himself to be photographed drinking a glass of milk at a Red Cross booth there.", "When Lugosi playfully attempted to bite the \"nurse\" in attendance, she overreacted and spilled a glass of milk all over his shirt and cape.", "Afterward, Lugosi was interviewed by a female reporter who botched the interview by asking the prearranged questions out of order, thoroughly confusing the aging star.", "Embarrassed, Lugosi left abruptly, without attending the screening.=== Ed Wood and final projects ===Lugosi in Ed Wood's ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1959)Tor Johnson and Lugosi in ''Bride of the Monster (1956)Late in his life, Bela Lugosi again received star billing in films when the ambitious but financially limited filmmaker Ed Wood, a fan of Lugosi, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as an anonymous narrator in ''Glen or Glenda'' (1953) and a mad scientist in ''Bride of the Monster'' (1955).", "During post-production of the latter, Lugosi decided to seek treatment for his drug addiction, and the film's premiere was arranged to raise money for Lugosi's hospital expenses (resulting in a paltry amount of money).", "According to Kitty Kelley's biography of Frank Sinatra, when the entertainer heard of Lugosi's problems, he visited Lugosi at the hospital and gave him a $1,000 check.", "Sinatra would recall Lugosi's amazement at his visit, since the two men had never met before.During an impromptu interview upon his release from the treatment center in 1955, Lugosi stated that he was about to begin work on a new Ed Wood film called ''The Ghoul Goes West''.", "This was one of several projects proposed by Wood, including ''The Phantom Ghoul'' and ''Dr.", "Acula''.", "With Lugosi in his Dracula cape, Wood shot impromptu test footage, with no particular storyline in mind, in front of Tor Johnson's home, at a suburban graveyard, and in front of Lugosi's apartment building on Carlton Way.", "This footage ended up posthumously in Wood's ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1957), which was filmed in 1956 soon after Lugosi died.", "Wood hired Tom Mason, his wife's chiropractor, to double for Lugosi in additional shots.", "Mason was noticeably taller and thinner than Lugosi, and had the lower half of his face covered with his cape in every shot, as Lugosi sometimes did in ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein''.Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, ''The Black Sleep'', for Bel-Air Pictures, which was released in the summer of 1956 through United Artists with a promotional campaign that included several personal appearances by Lugosi and his co-stars, as well as Maila Nurmi (TV's horror host \"Vampira\").", "To Lugosi's disappointment, however, his role in this film was that of a mute butler with no dialogue.", "Lugosi was intoxicated and very ill during the film's promotional campaign and had to return to L.A. earlier than planned.", "He never got to see the finished film.", "Tor Johnson said in interviews that Lugosi kept screaming that he wanted to die the night they shared a hotel room together.In 1959, a British film called ''Lock Up Your Daughters'' was theatrically released (in the U.K.), composed of clips from Bela Lugosi's Monogram pictures from the 1940s.", "The film is lost today, but a March 16, 1959, critical review in the ''Kinematograph Weekly'' mentioned that the movie contained new Lugosi footage (intriguing since Lugosi had died in 1956).", "Back in 1950 however, Lugosi had appeared on a one-hour TV program called ''Murder and Bela Lugosi'' (which WPIX-TV broadcast on Sept. 18, 1950) in which Lugosi was interviewed and provided commentary about a number of his old horror films while clips from the films were being shown; historian Gary Rhodes thinks some of this Lugosi TV production found its way into the 1959 British film, which would finally explain the mystery." ], [ "Personal life", "With first wife Ilona Szmik, 1917Lugosi repeatedly married.", "In June 1917, Lugosi married 19-year-old Ilona Szmik (1898–1991) in Hungary.", "The couple divorced after Lugosi was forced to flee his homeland for political reasons (risking execution if he stayed) and Ilona did not wish to leave her parents.", "The divorce became final on July 17, 1920 and was uncontested as Lugosi could not show up for the proceedings.", "(Szmik then married wealthy Hungarian architect Imre Francsek in December 1920, moved with him to Iran in 1930, had two children, and died in 1991.", ")After living briefly in Germany, Lugosi left Europe by ship and arrived in New Orleans on October 27, 1920, and, after making his way north, underwent his primary alien inspection at Ellis Island, N.Y. on March 23, 1921.In September 1921, he married Hungarian actress Ilona von Montagh in New York City, and she filed for divorce on November 11, 1924, charging him with adultery and complaining that he wanted her to abandon her acting career to keep house for him.", "The divorce became final in October, 1925.", "(Lugosi learned in 1935 that von Montagh and a female friend were both arrested for shoplifting in New York City, which was the last he heard of her.", ").Lugosi took his place in Hollywood society and scandal when he married wealthy San Francisco resident Beatrice Woodruff Weeks (1897–1931), widow of architect Charles Peter Weeks, on July 27, 1929.Weeks subsequently filed for divorce on November 4, 1929, accusing Lugosi of infidelity, citing actress Clara Bow as the \"other woman\", and claimed Lugosi tried to take her checkbook and the key to her safe deposit box away from her.", "She even claimed he slapped her in the face one night because she ate a pork chop he had hidden in their refrigerator.", "Lugosi complained of her excessive drinking and dancing with other men at social gatherings.", "The divorce became official on December 9, 1929.", "(Weeks died 17 months later (at age 34) from alcoholism in Panama, Lugosi never receiving a penny from her fortune.)", "On June 26, 1931, Lugosi became a naturalized United States citizen.In 1933, the 51-year-old Lugosi married 22-year-old Lillian Arch (1911–1981), the daughter of Hungarian immigrants living in Hollywood.", "Lillian's father was against her marriage to Lugosi at first as the actor was experiencing financial difficulties at the time, so Bela talked her into eloping with him to Las Vegas in January 1933.They remained married for 20 years and they had a child, Bela G. Lugosi, in 1938.", "(Bela eventually had four grandchildren (Greg, Jeff, Tim, and Lynne) and seven great-grandchildren, although he did not live long enough to meet any of them.", ")Lillian and Bela vacationed on their lakeshore property in Lake Elsinore, California (then called Elsinore), on several lots between 1944 and 1953.Lillian's parents lived on one of their properties, and Lugosi frequented the health spa there.", "Bela Lugosi Jr. was boarded at the Elsinore Naval and Military School in Lake Elsinore, and also lived with Lillian's parents while she and Bela were touring.", "After almost breaking up their marriage in 1944, Lillian and Bela finally divorced on July 17, 1953, at least partially because of Bela's excessive drinking and his jealousy over Lillian taking a full-time job as an assistant to actor Brian Donlevy on Donlevy's radio and television series ''Dangerous Assignment''.", "Lillian obtained custody of their son Bela Jr. Lugosi called the police one night after Lillian left him and threatened to commit suicide, but when the police showed up at his apartment, he denied making the call.", "(Lillian eventually did marry Brian Donlevy in 1966, by which time he had also become an alcoholic, and she died in 1981.", ")Lugosi married Hope Lininger, his fifth wife, in 1955; she was 37 years his junior.", "She had been a fan, writing letters to him when he was in the hospital recovering from his drug addiction.", "She would sign her letters \"A dash of Hope\".", "They remained married until his death in 1956.However Bela and Hope were actually discussing getting divorced before he died." ], [ "Death", "Lugosi's grave at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City, CaliforniaLugosi died of a heart attack on August 16, 1956, in the bedroom of his Los Angeles apartment while taking a nap.", "His wife, Hope, discovered him dead, on his bed dressed only in his underwear, when she came home from work that evening, he having apparently died peacefully in his sleep around 6:45 PM according to the medical examiner.", "He was 73 and weighed 140 pounds.", "The rumor that Lugosi was clutching the script for ''The Final Curtain'', a planned Ed Wood project, at the time of his death is not true.Lugosi was buried wearing one of the \"Dracula\" capes and his full costume as well as his Dracula ring in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.", "Contrary to popular belief, Lugosi never requested to be buried in his cloak; Bela G. Lugosi confirmed on numerous occasions that he and his mother, Lillian, made the decision but believed that it is what his father would have wanted.The funeral was held on Saturday, August 18 at the Utter-McKinley funeral home in Hollywood.", "Attendees included Forrest J. Ackerman, Ed Wood (who was a pall bearer), Tor Johnson, Conrad Brooks, Richard Sheffield, both of the widows (Hope and Lillian), Bela Lugosi Jr., Norma McCarty, Loretta King, Paul Marco and actor George Becwar.", "Bela's fourth wife Lillian paid for the cemetery plot and stone (which was inscribed \"Beloved Father\"), while Hope Lugosi paid for the coffin and the funeral service.", "Lugosi's will left several inexpensive pieces of real estate in Elsinore and only $1,000 cash to his son, but since the will had been written on Jan. 12, 1954 (before Lugosi's fifth marriage), Bela Jr. had to share the thousand dollars evenly with Hope Lugosi.Hope later gave most of Lugosi's personal belongings and memorabilia to Bela's young neighborhood friend Richard Sheffield, who gave Lugosi's duplicate Dracula cape to Bela Jr. and sold some of the other items to Forrest J. Ackerman.", "Hope told Sheffield she had searched the apartment for several days looking for $3,000 she suspected Lugosi had hidden there, but she never found it.", "Sheffield said years later \"Lugosi had probably spent it all on alcohol.\"", "Hope later moved to Hawaii, where she worked for many years as a caregiver in a leper colony.", "Hope died in Hawaii in 1997, at age 78, having never remarried.", "Before her death, she gave several interviews to the fan press." ], [ "California Supreme Court decision on personality rights", "In 1979, the ''Lugosi v. Universal Pictures'' decision by the California Supreme Court held that Lugosi's personality rights could not pass to his heirs, as a copyright would have.", "The court ruled that under California law, any rights of publicity, including the right to his image, terminated with Lugosi's death." ], [ "Legacy", "The cape Lugosi wore in ''Dracula'' (1931) was in the possession of his son until it was put up for auction in 2011.It was expected to sell for up to $2 million, but has since been listed again by Bonhams in 2018.In 2019, the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures announced acquisition of the cape via partial donation from the Lugosi family.", "In 2019 it was announced that the cape would be on display the following year.Andy Warhol's 1963 silkscreen ''The Kiss'' depicts Lugosi from ''Dracula'' about to bite into the neck of co-star Helen Chandler, who played Mina Harker.", "A copy sold for $798,000 at Christie's in May 2000.Lugosi was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.His star is mentioned in \"Celluloid Heroes\", a song performed by The Kinks and written by their lead vocalist and principal songwriter, Ray Davies.", "It appeared on their 1972 album ''Everybody's in Show-Biz''.In 1979, a song called \"Bela Lugosi's Dead\" was released by UK post-punk band Bauhaus and is a pioneering song in the gothic rock genre.", "On choosing the topic of the song, the band's bassist David J remarked \"There was a season of old horror films on TV and I was telling Daniel about how much I loved them.", "The one that had been on the night before was Dracula 1931.I was saying how Bela Lugosi was the quintessential Dracula, the elegant depiction of the character.", "\"An episode of ''Sledge Hammer!''", "titled \"Last of the Red Hot Vampires\" was an homage to Bela Lugosi; at the end of the episode, it was dedicated to \"Mr. Blasko\".Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff are referenced in the Curtis Stigers' song \"Sleeping with the Lights On\", from the 1991 album ''Curtis Stigers''.In Tim Burton's ''Ed Wood'', Bela Lugosi is portrayed by Martin Landau, who received the 1994 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the performance.", "According to Bela G. Lugosi (his son), Forrest Ackerman, Dolores Fuller and Richard Sheffield, the film's portrayal of Lugosi is inaccurate: In real life, he never used profanity, did not hate Karloff, owned no small dogs, nor did he sleep in a coffin.", "Also Ed Wood did not meet Lugosi in a funeral parlor, but rather through his roommate Alex Gordon.Péter Müller's 1998 theatrical play ''Lugosi – the Shadow of the Vampire'' () is based on Lugosi's life, telling the story of his life as he became typecast as Dracula and as his drug addiction worsened.", "In the Hungarian production, directed by István Szabó, Lugosi was played by Ivan Darvas.In 2001, BBC Radio 4 broadcast ''There Are Such Things'' by Steven McNicoll and Mark McDonnell.", "Focusing on Lugosi and his well-documented struggle to escape from the role that had typecast him, the play went on to receive the Hamilton Deane Award for best dramatic presentation from the Dracula Society in 2002.Bust of Lugosi on Vajdahunyad Castle in Budapest, Hungary.On July 19, 2003, German artist Hartmut Zech erected a bust of Lugosi on one of the corners of Vajdahunyad Castle in Budapest.The Ellis Island Immigration Museum in New York City features a live 30-minute play that focuses on Lugosi's illegal entry into the country via New Orleans and his arrival at Ellis Island months later to enter the country legally.In 2013 the Hungarian electronic music band Žagar recorded a song entitled \"Mr. Lugosi\", which contains a recording of the voice of Bela Lugosi.", "The song was a part of the ''Light Leaks'' record.According to Paru Itagaki, the creator of the Japanese manga/anime ''Beastars'', the main character Legoshi was inspired by Bela Lugosi (regarding the similar-sounding names).In 2020, Legendary Comics published an adaptation of Bram Stoker's 1897 ''Dracula'' novel, which used the likeness of Lugosi.A 2021 hardcover graphic novel depicting the life of Bela Lugosi was written and drawn by Koren Shadmi, entitled ''Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula.''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Ed Wood's Bride of the Monster'' by Gary D. Rhodes and Tom Weaver (2015) BearManor Media, * ''Tod Browning's Dracula'' by Gary D. Rhodes (2015) Tomahawk Press, * ''Bela Lugosi In Person'' by Bill Kaffenberger and Gary D. Rhodes (2015) BearManor Media, * ''No Traveler Returns: The Lost Years of Bela Lugosi'' by Bill Kaffenberger and Gary D. Rhodes (2012) BearManor Media, * ''Bela Lugosi: Dreams and Nightmares'' by Gary D. Rhodes, with Richard Sheffield, (2007) Collectables/Alpha Video Publishers, (hardcover)* ''Lugosi: His Life on Film, Stage, and in the Hearts of Horror Lovers'' by Gary D. Rhodes (2006) McFarland & Company, * ''The Immortal Count: The Life and Films of Bela Lugosi'' by Arthur Lennig (2003), (hardcover)* ''Bela Lugosi (Midnight Marquee Actors Series)'' by Gary Svehla and Susan Svehla (1995) (paperback)* ''Bela Lugosi: Master of the Macabre'' by Larry Edwards (1997), (paperback)* ''Films of Bela Lugosi'' by Richard Bojarski (1980) (hardcover)* ''Sinister Serials of Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi and Lon Chaney, Jr.'' by Leonard J. Kohl (2000) (paperback)* ''Vampire over London: Bela Lugosi in Britain'' by Frank J. Dello Stritto and Andi Brooks (2000) (hardcover)* ''Lugosi: The Man Behind the Cape'' by Robert Cremer (1976) (hardcover)* ''Bela Lugosi: Biografia di una metamorfosi'' by Edgardo Franzosini (1998) * ''Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula'' by Koren Shadmi (Life Drawn graphic novel)(2021)" ], [ "External links", "* * https://www.retroagogo.com/categories/collections/bela-lugosi/* * * * * Video Biography at CinemaScream.com* * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bride of the Monster" ], [ "Introduction", "Tor Johnson and Bela Lugosi in ''Bride of the Monster'' (1955)'''''Bride of the Monster''''' is a 1955 American independent science fiction horror film, co-written, produced and directed by Edward D. Wood Jr., and starring Bela Lugosi and Tor Johnson with a supporting cast featuring Tony McCoy and Loretta King.The film is considered to have Wood's biggest budget ($70,000).", "Production commenced in 1954 but, due to further financial problems, was not completed until 1955.It was released in May 1955, initially on a double bill with ''Macumba''." ], [ "Plot", "In a stretch of woods, two hunters are caught in a thunderstorm.", "They decide to seek refuge in Willows House, supposedly abandoned and haunted.", "They find Willows House occupied, and the current owner repeatedly denies them hospitality.", "They attempt to force their entry into the house, but a giant octopus is released from its tank and sent after them.", "One of the fleeing hunters is killed by the octopus, while the giant captures the other.", "The owner is a scientist, Dr. Eric Vornoff, and the giant is his mute assistant, Lobo.", "Vornoff explains that he will experiment on the unwilling hunter, who dies on the operating table.In a police station, Officer Tom Robbins sees Lieutenant Dick Craig.", "There are now 12 missing victims, and the police still do not know what happened to them.", "The reporter behind the newspaper reports is Janet Lawton, Craig's fiancée.", "Janet forces her way into the office and argues with Robbins, and vows to go to Lake Marsh to investigate.", "At the police station, Robbins and Craig have a meeting with an intellectual from Europe, Professor Vladimir Strowski, who agrees to assist the police in investigating the Marsh but not at night.", "As night falls and another storm begins, Janet drives alone to Lake Marsh, but visibility is poor, and she drives off the road and into a ravine.", "Lobo rescues her.Janet awakens to find herself a prisoner of Vornoff, who uses hypnosis to put her back to sleep.", "The following day, Craig and his partner drive to the area around Lake Marsh, a swamp.", "The partners also discuss the strange weather and mention that the newspapers could be right about \"the atom bomb explosions distorting the atmosphere\".", "The duo eventually discovers Janet's abandoned car and realizes she is the 13th missing victim.", "They leave the swamp while Strowski drives a rented car to the swamp.Janet awakens at Willows House.", "Vornoff assures her that Lobo is harmless, but the giant seems fascinated with the female captive and approaches her with questionable intent.", "Vornoff explains the giant is human and that Vornoff found him in the \"wilderness of Tibet\".", "Vornoff then hypnotically places Janet back to sleep.", "He orders Lobo to transport the captive to Vornoff's private quarters.Meanwhile, Strowski silently approaches Willows House and enters through the unlocked front door.", "While Strowski searches the house, Vornoff arrives to greet him.", "Their country of origin is interested in Vornoff's groundbreaking experiments with atomic energy and wants to recruit him.", "Vornoff narrates that two decades prior, Vornoff had suggested using experiments with nuclear power, which could create superhumans of great strength and size.", "In response, he was branded a madman and exiled by his country.", "Strowski reveals that he dreams of conquest in their country's name, while Vornoff dreams of his creations conquering in his own name.", "Craig and his partner return to the swamp by late evening and discover Strowski's abandoned car.", "The partners split up to search the area, Craig heading towards Willows House.", "Back in the secret laboratory, Vornoff uses a wave of his hand to summon Janet to his current location.", "She arrives dressed as a bride, summoned through telepathy.", "He has decided to use her as the next subject of his experiments.", "Lobo is reluctant to participate in this experiment, and Vornoff uses a whip to re-assert his control over his slave and assistant.", "Meanwhile, Craig has entered the house and accidentally discovers the secret passage.", "He is himself captured by Vornoff and Lobo.", "''Bride of the Monster'' (full film)As the experiment is about to begin, Lobo is visibly distressed.", "He decides to rebel and knocks Vornoff out.", "Lobo then releases Janet and transports the unconscious Vornoff to the operating table.", "The scientist becomes the subject of his own human experiment.", "This time the experiment works and Vornoff transforms into an atomic-powered superhuman being.", "He and Lobo physically struggle, and their fight destroys the laboratory and starts a fire.", "Vornoff grabs Janet and escapes from the flames.", "Robbins and other officers arrive to help Craig.", "The police pursue Vornoff through the woods.", "There is another thunderstorm, and a lightning strike further destroys Willows House.", "With his home and equipment destroyed, a distressed Vornoff abandons Janet and merely attempts to escape.", "Craig rolls a rock at him and lands him in the water with the octopus.", "They struggle until a nuclear explosion obliterates both combatants.", "Apparently, the end result of the chain reaction started at the destroyed laboratory.", "Robbins says of Vornoff \"he tampered in God's domain\"." ], [ "Cast", "* Bela Lugosi as Dr. Eric Vornoff* Tor Johnson as Lobo* Tony McCoy as Lt. Dick Craig* Loretta King as Janet Lawton* Harvey B. Dunn as Captain Robbins* George Becwar as Professor Strowski* Paul Marco as Officer Kelton* Don Nagel as Martin* Bud Osborne as Mac* John Warren as Jake* Ann Wilner as Tillie* Dolores Fuller as Margie* William \"Billy\" Benedict as Newsboy* Ben Frommer as Drunk" ], [ "Production and release", "Drive-in advertisement from 1956 for ''Bride of the Monster'' and co-feature, ''The Beast with a Million Eyes''The first incarnation of the film was a 1953 script by Alex Gordon titled ''The Atomic Monster'', but a lack of financing prevented any production.", "Later Ed Wood revived the project as ''The Monster of the Marshes''.", "Actual shooting began in October 1954 at the Ted Allan Studios, but further money problems quickly halted the production.", "The required funds were supplied by a meat packing plant owner named Donald McCoy, who became credited as the film's producer on the condition that his son Tony was to star as the film's hero.", "According to screenwriter Dennis Rodriguez, casting the younger McCoy as a protagonist was one of two terms Donald imposed on Wood.", "The other term was to include an atomic explosion at the film's finale.", "Production resumed in 1955 at Centaur Studios.Actor George Becwar, who played the bearded Russian agent Strowski, after getting paid for his one day of work on the film, complained that he had been underpaid to the Screen Actors Guild and caused the production to be temporarily shut down for an investigation.", "Wood as a result had to raise more money from backers and lost another piece of the ownership of the film as a result.", "An actor friend of Wood's, John Andrews, said in an interview: \"Eddie hated, loathed, despised, wanted murdered, George Becwar ....I'm not overdoin' it man, I'm telling you straight.", "He hated George Becwar to the day he deceased, and I mean with a passion!", "\"The film premiered at Hollywood's Paramount theater on May 11, 1955, under the title ''Bride of the Atom''.", "Wood related the story of how, after the film played, he asked the theater's manager what he thought of the picture, to which the manager replied \"Stinks\".", "Wood took scissors and physically cut the man out of an 8 X 10 group shot that was taken that night after the premiere as a publicity photo.", "When asked \"Who was that you cut out?", "\", Wood replied \"Well, he's not there any more, so it doesn't matter\".The film was reportedly completed and released through a deal with attorney Samuel Z. Arkoff.", "Arkoff profited from the film more than Wood, and his earnings contributed to the funding of his American International Pictures.", "Wood had oversold shares in the picture and wound up owning none of it himself.", "The ending credits identify the copyright holder of the film as \"Filmakers Releasing Organization\".", "Distribution rights were held by Banner Films in the United States, and by Exclusive in the United Kingdom." ], [ "Analysis", "===Genre and background===The film combines elements of science fiction and horror fiction, genres which were frequently combined in films of the 1950s.", "Like many of these contemporaries, ''Bride'' serves in part as a Cold War propaganda film.", "The country of origin for Vornoff and Strowski is left unnamed.", "The only clues is that it is European and has its own dreams of conquest.", "By implication, the country which exiled Vornoff in the 1930s could be Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union.", "Their role as villains for the American cinema had already been solidified by the 1950s, and Wood could be alluding to both of them.", "Strowski uses the term master race, which is a key concept in Nazism.Both the working title \"Bride of the Atom\" and the final title ''Bride of the Monster'' allude to the film ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935).", "The film otherwise follows the template of the Poverty Row horror films of the 1940s.", "The Atomic Age influences the film in its ominous implications concerning nuclear weapons and the threat they posed towards human civilization.===Content===This was Bela Lugosi's last speaking role in a feature film.", "Lugosi subsequently played a silent part in ''The Black Sleep'' (1956).", "''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1957) uses silent archive footage of Lugosi, since he died prior to the creation of its script.", "''Lock Up Your Daughters'' (1959) recycled footage from Lugosi's earlier films, possibly mixed with some new material.According to Rob Craig, in ''Bride'', Lugosi for the last time plays \"a charismatic villain whose megalomania leads to downfall and destruction\".", "Craig considers this to be one of Lugosi's finest roles, citing the surprisingly energetic performance of the aging actor.", "The scenes involving hypnosis contain close-ups of Lugosi's eyes.", "Wood was probably trying to recreate similar scenes from an older film of Lugosi's, ''White Zombie'' (1932).", "Lugosi did not actually play Vornoff in the scenes demanding physicality.", "The film made use of body doubles for Lugosi: Eddie Parker and Red Reagan.", "Parker was also the body-double of Lugosi in ''Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man'' (1943).", "Lugosi's fee for the film is estimated to have been $1,000.00.The story is similar to an earlier Bela Lugosi movie, ''The Corpse Vanishes'' (1942).", "In both movies, each bride at her wedding was given an orchid, which she sniffed before passing out.", "In ''The Corpse Vanishes'', Lugosi played a doctor who captured the brides and took some kind of liquid from each bride's body and injected it into his wife to make her temporarily young again.", "Characters included his wife, an old woman, the old woman's grown son, and a dwarf.", "In ''Bride of the Monster'', Lugosi again plays a doctor doing experiments, but his only housemate/assistant is Lobo, and when his experiment fails to turn someone into an \"atomic-powered superman\", he throws the dead subject to an octopus or an alligator, similar to Lugosi throwing a body into a river in ''Murders in the Rue Morgue'' (1932).The hunters of the opening scenes, Jake Long and Blake \"Mac\" McCreigh, were played by John Warren and Bud Osborne.", "The police station scenes feature cameos by a drunk and a newspaper seller.", "The former is played by Ben Frommer (known for playing Count Bloodcount in ''Transylvania 6-5000'').", "The latter is played by William Benedict (known as one of The Bowery Boys).", "Janet Lawton briefly speaks with a co-worker called Margie.", "Margie is played by Dolores Fuller (Ed Wood's girlfriend at the time).", "Dick Craig's partner, Martin, is played by Don Nagel.", "Both Fuller and Nagel had worked with Wood in Wood's previous film ''Jail Bait'' (1954).The film uses stock footage of a real octopus, and a fake, rubber octopus in scenes where \"the monster\" interacts with the actors.", "It is widely believed this was a prop from the John Wayne film ''Wake of the Red Witch'' (1948).", "Contradictory accounts claim that Wood either stole or legally rented the prop from Republic Pictures, which produced the earlier film.", "The struggle between Vornoff and the octopus was filmed at Griffith Park.Craig comments that there is a stark contrast between the characters of Dick Craig and Janet Lawton.", "Dick speaks in a deadpan unemotional way and seems to be a rather lethargic character.", "Janet is a \"brassy girl reporter\", a dynamic character with a sense of autonomy.", "The role of Janet was reportedly intended for Dolores Fuller.", "According to Fuller's recollections, Loretta King bribed Wood into casting her as Janet, with promises of securing further funding for the film.", "Fuller was thus reduced to playing a cameo role, \"Margie\", and this led to her later breakup with Ed Wood and her moving to New York to start a songwriting career with Elvis Presley.", "King always vehemently denied bribing Wood in any way, saying the story was ridiculous since she never had any money to invest in films in the 1950s.In a subplot of the film, there are storms every night for three months and strange weather patterns.", "The characters attribute the phenomenon to the effects the nuclear explosions have on the atmosphere.", "This probably reflects actual anxiety of the 1950s about potential climate change.", "Until the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), atmospheric nuclear weapons testing was used widely and recklessly.", "Rob Craig suggests that the months of constant storms could be inspired by the Genesis flood narrative.", "In the context of the film, the strange weather is implied to be a side-effect of the experiments of Vornoff which apparently release radioactivity into the atmosphere.The dialogue of the film includes lines such as \"Home?", "I have no home!", "\", \"One is always considered mad, when one discovers something which others cannot grasp\", and the closing \"He tampered in God's domain.\"", "The phrases could well apply to the fates of avant-garde artists and thinkers.", "The title \"''Bride of the Atom\"'', which Vornoff uses for Janet in the bridal dress, is inexplicable unless the scientist is actually attempting to use Janet to replace his long-lost wife.", "One of his reassuring lines to Janet concerning the experiment, \"It hurts, just for a moment, but then you will emerge a woman...\", sounds as if he is preparing her for the loss of her virginity.", "The scene of a young woman, in a bridal gown, restrained by leather shackles seems to be sadomasochistic in nature.Throughout the film, the mute Lobo is implied to have an unspecified intellectual disability and to be of sub-human intelligence.", "Yet he successfully operates complex machinery as if trained to do so.", "Craig views this scene as implying that supposedly \"dumb\" servants can have a capacity of learning the secrets of their masters.The final scenes, with the mushroom cloud of the nuclear explosion, use stock footage from the blast of a thermonuclear weapon (\"hydrogen bomb\").The apparent fetish of Lobo with angora wool is a reflection of Wood's own fetish for the material.", "This serves as the film's connection to ''Glen or Glenda'' (1953), where the fetish plays a more prominent role.", "In 1961's ''The Beast of Yucca Flats'', Johnson strangely pets and hugs a rabbit as he dies in that film's finale.The character of Lobo appeared again in Wood's ''Night of the Ghouls'', horribly burned but still alive.", "This film serves as a sequel of sorts to ''Bride''.", "Vornoff is absent from the later film, but there are references to the activities of \"the mad doctor\".", "Tor Johnson also plays a character called Lobo in ''The Unearthly'' (1957) who also serves as a henchman to the main villain.This film is part of what Wood aficionados refer to as \"The Kelton Trilogy\", a trio of films featuring Paul Marco as Officer Kelton, a whining, reluctant policeman.", "The other two films are ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' and ''Night of the Ghouls''.", "Kelton is the only character to appear in all three films." ], [ "Critical reception", "Writing for ''Famous Monsters'' in 1962, Joe Dante, Jr. included ''Bride of the Monster'' on his list of the worst horror films of all time.", "Dante declared it as \"definitely one of the most inexpensive thrillers ever.", "The sets were cardboard, and the direction card-boring.\"", "Film critic Glenn Erickson wrote in DVD Talk that \"nearly every dialogue exchange is an embarrassment and every camera setup somehow wrong,\" but noted that Lugosi's performance \"is better than okay, rising to the demands of the awful script,\" and that the film is \"too endearing to hate.\"", "A review by Bruce Eder in AllMovie noted that the film \"is ineptly made and it has seams - including mismatched interior and exterior sets and scenery that shakes during the fight scenes,\" that it has \"some of the strangest incidental dialogue that anyone had ever heard,\" and that \"there is a lot to laugh at in the movie, most of it unintentional.\"", "A review of the film in TV Guide described it as a \"masterpiece of involuntary farce,\" that the \"marvelously idiotic dialog keeps things moving along without stopping for breath or logic,\" and that the \"final images of poor old decrepit Lugosi struggling in the arms of a motionless rubber octopus are incomparably bathetic.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "In 1986, the film was featured in the syndicated series the ''Canned Film Festival'', and was later featured on the comedy series, ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''.", "The episode also features a musical parody of the Jam Handy short film \"Hired!", "\", with Joel Robinson, Crow T. Robot, Tom Servo and Gypsy performing \"Hired!", "The Musical\".The late 1990s dream trance track \"Alright\", by DJ Taucher, sampled a monologue from Bela Lugosi during the interlude of the song.In 2005, ''The Devil's Rejects'' footage of the film was played in the movie.In 2008, a colorized version was released by Legend Films.", "This version was also released on Amazon Video on Demand.In 2010, a retrospective on the movie entitled ''Citizen Wood: Making 'The Bride', Unmaking the Legend'' was included in the ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'' Volume 19 DVD set as a bonus feature for said episode featuring the movie.", "Horror host Mr. Lobo is among the interviewees of the 27 minute documentary." ], [ "Controversies", "In 1980, the book ''The Golden Turkey Awards'' claims that Lugosi's character declares his manservant Lobo (Tor Johnson) is \"as harmless as a kitchen\" .", "This allegedly misspoken line is cited as evidence of either Lugosi's failing health/mental faculties, or as further evidence of Wood's incompetence as a director.", "However, a viewing of the film itself reveals that Lugosi said this line correctly, the exact words being, \"Don't be afraid of Lobo; he's as gentle as a kitten.\"", "The easier explanation would be that authors Michael Medved and Harry Medved saw the film in a theater setting with inferior sound quality, or viewed a damaged print.", "A single viewing in such conditions could result in mishearing some lines of dialogue.", "The inaccurate claim managed to achieve urban legend status, and continues circulating.The biopic ''Ed Wood'' portrays the filmmakers stealing the mechanical octopus (previously used in the film ''Wake of the Red Witch'') from the Republic Studios backlot, while failing to steal the motor which enabled the prop to move realistically.", "These events are alleged to have actually occurred in the 2004 documentary ''The 50 Worst Movies Ever Made''.", "However, other stories circulated that Wood legitimately rented the octopus, along with some cars, for the picture.", "To remedy the lack of movement from the octopus prop, whenever someone was killed by the monster in the film, they simply flailed around in the shallow water while holding the tentacles around themselves to imitate its movements.Rudolph Grey's book ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.'' contains anecdotes regarding the making of this film.", "Grey notes that participants in the original events sometimes contradict one another, but he relates each person's information for posterity.", "He also includes Ed Wood's claim that only one of his films made a profit and surmises that it was most likely ''Bride of the Monster'', but that Wood had oversold the film and could not reimburse all of the backers afterward.", "Most biographies mention ''The Violent Years'' as being Wood's most profitable film." ], [ "See also", "* List of American films of 1955* List of killer octopus films* Ed Wood filmography" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Ed Wood's Bride of the Monster'' by Gary D. Rhodes and Tom Weaver (2015) BearManor Media, * ''Bela Lugosi: Dreams and Nightmares'' by Gary D. Rhodes, with Richard Sheffield, (2007) Collectables/Alpha Video Publishers, (hardcover)* * * * Rudolph Grey, ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood, Jr.'' (1992) * * * * * ''The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood, Jr.'' (1996), documentary film directed by Brett Thompson" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Berry paradox" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Berry paradox''' is a self-referential paradox arising from an expression like \"The smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters\" (a phrase with fifty-seven letters).Bertrand Russell, the first to discuss the paradox in print, attributed it to G. G. Berry (1867–1928), a junior librarian at Oxford's Bodleian Library.", "Russell called Berry \"the only person in Oxford who understood mathematical logic\".", "The paradox was called \"Richard's paradox\" by Jean-Yves Girard." ], [ "Overview", "Consider the expression::\"The smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters.", "\"Since there are only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet, there are finitely many phrases of under sixty letters, and hence finitely many positive integers that are defined by phrases of under sixty letters.", "Since there are infinitely many positive integers, this means that there are positive integers that cannot be defined by phrases of under sixty letters.", "If there are positive integers that satisfy a given property, then there is a ''smallest'' positive integer that satisfies that property; therefore, there is a smallest positive integer satisfying the property \"not definable in under sixty letters\".", "This is the integer to which the above expression refers.", "But the above expression is only fifty-seven letters long, therefore it ''is'' definable in under sixty letters, and is ''not'' the smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters, and is ''not'' defined by this expression.", "This is a paradox: there must be an integer defined by this expression, but since the expression is self-contradictory (any integer it defines is definable in under sixty letters), there cannot be any integer defined by it.Perhaps another helpful analogy to Berry's Paradox would be the phrase \"indescribable feeling\".", "If the feeling is indeed indescribable, then no description of the feeling would be true.", "But if the word \"indescribable\" communicates something about the feeling, then it may be considered a description: this is self-contradictory.Mathematician and computer scientist Gregory Chaitin in ''The Unknowable'' (1999) adds this comment: \"Well, the Mexican mathematical historian Alejandro Garcidiego has taken the trouble to find that letter of Berry's from which Russell penned his remarks, and it is rather a different paradox.", "Berry’s letter actually talks about the first ordinal that can’t be named in a finite number of words.", "According to Cantor’s theory such an ordinal must exist, but we’ve just named it in a finite number of words, which is a contradiction.\"" ], [ "Resolution", "The Berry paradox as formulated above arises because of systematic ambiguity in the word \"definable\".", "In other formulations of the Berry paradox, such as one that instead reads: \"...not nameable in less...\" the term \"nameable\" is also one that has this systematic ambiguity.", "Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies.", "Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal.", "To resolve one of these paradoxes means to pinpoint exactly where our use of language went wrong and to provide restrictions on the use of language which may avoid them.This family of paradoxes can be resolved by incorporating stratifications of meaning in language.", "Terms with systematic ambiguity may be written with subscripts denoting that one level of meaning is considered a higher priority than another in their interpretation.", "\"The number not nameable0 in less than eleven words\" may be nameable1 in less than eleven words under this scheme.However, one can read Alfred Tarski's contributions to the Liar Paradox to find how this resolution in languages falls short.", "Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in languages that are \"semantically closed\", by which he meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in the same language (or even of itself).", "To avoid self-contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth values to envision levels of languages, each of which can predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower level.", "So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of another, it is semantically higher.", "The sentence referred to is part of the \"object language\", while the referring sentence is considered to be a part of a \"meta-language\" with respect to the object language.", "It is legitimate for sentences in \"languages\" higher on the semantic hierarchy to refer to sentences lower in the \"language\" hierarchy, but not the other way around.", "This prevents a system from becoming self-referential.However, this system is incomplete.", "One would like to be able to make statements such as \"For every statement in level ''α'' of the hierarchy, there is a statement at level ''α''+1 which asserts that the first statement is false.\"", "This is a true, meaningful statement about the hierarchy that Tarski defines, but it refers to statements at every level of the hierarchy, so it must be above every level of the hierarchy, and is therefore not possible within the hierarchy (although bounded versions of the sentence are possible).", "Saul Kripke is credited with identifying this incompleteness in Tarski's hierarchy in his highly cited paper \"Outline of a theory of truth,\" and it is recognized as a general problem in hierarchical languages." ], [ "Formal analogues", "Using programs or proofs of bounded lengths, it is possible to construct an analogue of the Berry expression in a formal mathematical language, as has been done by Gregory Chaitin.", "Though the formal analogue does not lead to a logical contradiction, it does prove certain impossibility results.", "built on a formalized version of Berry's paradox to prove Gödel's incompleteness theorem in a new and much simpler way.", "The basic idea of his proof is that a proposition that holds of ''x'' if and only if ''x'' = ''n'' for some natural number ''n'' can be called a ''definition'' for ''n'', and that the set {(''n'', ''k''): ''n'' has a definition that is ''k'' symbols long} can be shown to be representable (using Gödel numbers).", "Then the proposition \"''m'' is the first number not definable in less than ''k'' symbols\" can be formalized and shown to be a definition in the sense just stated." ], [ "Relationship with Kolmogorov complexity", "It is not possible in general to unambiguously define what is the minimal number of symbols required to describe a given string (given a specific description mechanism).", "In this context, the terms ''string'' and ''number'' may be used interchangeably, since a number is actually a string of symbols, e.g.", "an English word (like the word \"eleven\" used in the paradox) while, on the other hand, it is possible to refer to any word with a number, e.g.", "by the number of its position in a given dictionary or by suitable encoding.", "Some long strings can be described exactly using fewer symbols than those required by their full representation, as is often achieved using data compression.", "The complexity of a given string is then defined as the minimal length that a description requires in order to (unambiguously) refer to the full representation of that string.The Kolmogorov complexity is defined using formal languages, or Turing machines which avoids ambiguities about which string results from a given description.", "It can be proven that the Kolmogorov complexity is not computable.", "The proof by contradiction shows that if it were possible to compute the Kolmogorov complexity, then it would also be possible to systematically generate paradoxes similar to this one, i.e.", "descriptions shorter than what the complexity of the described string implies.", "That is to say, the definition of the Berry number is paradoxical because it is not actually possible to compute how many words are required to define a number, and we know that such computation is not possible because of the paradox." ], [ "See also", "* , a 1981 paper on Bhartṛhari's 5th century discussion of self-referential paradox, including the fact that stating something to be unnameable makes it nameable* * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * Chaitin, Gregory (1993), Transcript of lecture given 27 October 1993 at the University of New Mexico* Chaitin, Gregory (1995) \" The Berry Paradox.\"", "''Complexity 1'': 26–30.", "* French, James D. (1988) \" The False Assumption Underlying Berry's Paradox,\" ''Journal of Symbolic Logic 53'': 1220–1223.", "* Russell, Bertrand (1906) \"Les paradoxes de la logique\", ''Revue de métaphysique et de morale 14'': 627–650* Russell, Bertrand; Whitehead, Alfred N. (1927) ''Principia Mathematica''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "1962 partial paperback reissue goes up to *56." ], [ "External links", "* Roosen-Runge, Peter H. (1997) \" Berry's Paradox.", "\"*" ] ]

[ [ "List of Olympic medalists in biathlon" ], [ "Introduction", "This is the complete '''list of Olympic medalists in biathlon'''.Medalists in military patrol, a precursor to biathlon, are listed separately." ], [ "Men", "The numbers in brackets denotes biathletes who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time.", "Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines.===Individual (20 km)===1960 Squaw Valley1964 Innsbruck1968 Grenoble1972 Sapporo1976 Innsbruck1980 Lake Placid1984 Sarajevo1988 Calgary1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver ''None awarded''2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing\t==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total'''1'''62412'''2'''''''3339'''3'''2002'''4'''1416'''5'''''''1315'''6'''10231023'''8'''''''1001''''1001'''10'''0213'''11'''0202'''12'''0112'''13'''0101'''14'''0011'''Total''' '''14 nations''''''17''''''18''''''16''' '''51'''===Sprint (10 km)===1980 Lake Placid1984 Sarajevo1988 Calgary1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1'''53210'''2'''3306'''3'''''''2013'''4'''1102'''5'''1012'''6'''''''0224'''7'''01120112'''9'''''''0101'''10'''0022'''11'''00110011'''Total''' '''12 nations''''''12''''''12''''''12''' '''36'''===Pursuit (12.5 km)===2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''4'''12'''7''''''2'''1'''2'''03'''3'''1102'''4'''01010101'''6'''00'''3'''3'''7'''''''0011 Total 6 6 6 18===Mass start (15 km)===2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''2'''0'''3''''''5''''''2''''''1''''''2'''03'''3''''''1'''102'''4''''''1'''001'''5'''01010101'''7'''00110011 Total 5 5 5 15===Relay (4×7.5 km)===1968 Grenoble1972 Sapporo1976 Innsbruck1980 Lake Placid1984 Sarajevo1988 Calgary1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi 2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''''''6'''006'''2'''421'''7''''''3'''3'''4'''07'''4'''1225'''5'''1023'''6'''0202'''7'''01'''3'''4'''8'''''''0123''''0123'''10'''0112'''11'''''''0101'''12'''01'''3'''4'''13'''0011''''0011 Total 15 15 15 45" ], [ "Women", "The numbers in brackets denotes biathletes who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time.", "Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines.===Individual (15 km)===1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1'''3137'''2'''1113'''3'''1023'''4'''101210121012'''7'''1001'''8'''0202'''9'''0101010101010101''''0101'''Total''' '''13 nations''''''9''''''9''''''9''' '''27'''===Sprint (7.5 km)===1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1'''2417'''2'''2002'''3'''11021102'''5'''1012''''1012'''7'''1001'''8'''0213'''9'''0101'''10'''0033'''11'''00110011'''Total''' '''12 nations''''''9''''''9''''''9''' '''27'''===Pursuit (10 km)===2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''3''''''2'''0'''5''''''2'''1113'''3'''1012'''4'''1001'''5'''0'''2'''02'''6'''0101'''7'''00'''2'''2'''8'''00110011 Total 6 6 6 18===Mass start (12.5 km)===2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''1''''''1'''2'''4''''''2''''''1''''''1'''02'''3''''''1'''001'''1'''001'''1'''001'''5'''0'''1'''010'''1'''01'''7'''0''''1''''''3''''''4''' Total 5 5 5 15===Relay (4×6 km)===The women's relay event has been competed over three different distances:* 3×7.5 km — 1992* 4×7.5 km — 1994–2002* 4×6 km — 2006–20181992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin2010 Vancouver2014 Sochi 2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''3'''115'''2'''2'''3'''2'''7''''''3'''11'''3'''5'''4'''1102'''5'''10011001'''7'''0213'''8'''1102'''10'''''''0011'''11'''''''0101'''12'''''''0011 Total 9 9 9 27" ], [ "Mixed", "===Relay===2014 Sochi2018 Pyeongchang2022 Beijing==== Medals ==== Rank Nation Gold Silver BronzeTotal'''1''''''2''''''1'''0'''3''''''2'''1'''1'''02'''3'''0'''1'''01'''4'''00'''2'''2'''5'''''''0011 Total 3 3 3 9" ], [ "Statistics", "===Medal table==='''Note'''* This table includes 1924 military patrol medals.===Biathlete medal leaders===Ole Einar Bjørndalen is the most successful male athlete at Winter Olympics.", "He is one of three Winter Olympians (and only biathlete) to win eight gold medals and earned more overall medals (13) than any male athlete in Winter Olympic history.", ";Men Biathlete Nation Olympics *'''Gold''''''Silver''''''Bronze'''Total 1994–2014 '''8''' '''4''' 1 13 2014–'''2022''' 5 2 1 8 1992–2006 4 3 1 8 2006–2018 4 3 1 8 1994–2006 4 2 2 8 2010–2018 5 2 0 7 1994–2010 3 2 1 6 2010–'''2022''' 3 2 1 6 1988–1994, 2002–2006 2 3 1 6 1968–1980 4 1 0 5 1988, 1994–2002 2 3 0 5 2018–'''2022''' 2 3 0 5 1980–1988 1 2 2 5;WomenDarya Domracheva, Ole Einar Bjørndalen's wife, is the only woman to win four gold medals in biathlon.", "Biathlete Nation Olympics *'''Gold''''''Silver''''''Bronze'''Total 1992–2006 2 '''4''' 3 9 2014–'''2022''' 2 2 '''4''' 8 2002–2010 3 3 1 7 2018–'''2022''' 3 2 2 7 2010–2018 '''4''' 1 1 6 2010–2018 3 3 0 6 1998–2006 1 1 3 5 1998–2006 2 1 1 4 2006–2014 2 1 1 4 2002–2014 2 1 1 4 1992–1994 1 3 0 4 2010–2018 1 1 2 4 denotes all Olympics in which mentioned biathletes took part.", "Boldface denotes latest Olympics.", "===Biathletes with most victories===Top 10 biathletes who won more gold medals at the Winter Olympics are listed below.", "Boldface denotes active biathletes and highest medal count among all biathletes (including those not in the tables) per type.====Men==== Rank Biathlete Country From * To * Gold Silver Bronze Total 1 Ole Einar Bjørndalen 1998 2014 '''8''' '''4''' 1 '''13''' 2 '''Johannes Thingnes Bø''' 2014 2022 5 2 1 8 3 Martin Fourcade 2010 2018 5 2 - 7 4 Ricco Groß 1992 2006 4 3 1 8 Emil Hegle Svendsen 2010 2018 4 3 1 8 6 Sven Fischer 1994 2006 4 2 2 8 7 Alexander Tikhonov 1968 1980 4 1 - 5 8 '''Tarjei Bø''' 2010 2022 3 2 1 6 Halvard Hanevold 1998 2010 3 2 1 6 10 Mark Kirchner 1992 1994 3 1 - 4====Women==== Rank Biathlete Country From * To * Gold Silver Bronze Total 1 Darya Domracheva 2010 2018 '''4''' 1 1 6 2 Kati Wilhelm 2002 2010 3 3 1 7 3 Anastasiya Kuzmina 2010 2018 3 3 - 6 4 '''Marte Olsbu Røiseland''' 2018 2022 3 2 2 7 5 Uschi Disl 1992 2006 2 '''4''' 3 '''9''' 6 '''Tiril Eckhoff''' 2014 2022 2 2 '''4''' 8 7 Katrin Apel 1998 2006 2 1 1 4 Tora Berger 2010 2014 2 1 1 4 Andrea Henkel 2002 2010 2 1 1 4 10 Magdalena Neuner 2010 2010 2 1 - 3 '''Hanna Öberg''' 2018 2022 2 1 - 3 Olga Zaitseva 2006 2010 2 1 - 3 denotes only those Olympics at which mentioned biathletes won at least one medal" ], [ "Medals per year", " × NOC did not exist or did not participate in biathlon events# Number of medals won by the NOC– NOC did not win any medals* '''bold'''ed numbers indicate the highest medal count at that year's Olympic Games.", "NOC241928–566064687276808488929498020610141822Total ×   × × 1 2 2 1 6 ×   × × × × × × × × × 1 1 2 4 2 1 11 ×   × × × × 1 1 2 ×   × × × × × × 1 2 3 ×   × × × × × × × × × × × 1 1 ×   × × × × × × × × × 5 2 7 '''1'''   '''1''' 1 2 1 1 7 '''1'''   1 3 2 4 '''6''' 4 5 7 33 ×   × × '''2''' 1 '''4''' 2 2 × × × × × × × × × 11 ×   × × 1 '''3''' 1 × × × × × × × × × 5 ×   × × × × × × × × '''7''' '''6''' '''5''' '''9''' '''11''' 5 2 '''7''' 2 54   × × × 2 1 1 2 1 7 ×   × × × × × × × × × 1 1 ×   1 2 1 '''3''' '''5''' 6 6 5 '''6''' 6 '''14''' '''55'''   × × × × 1 1 ×   '''1''' '''2''' '''3''' 1 '''3''' '''4''' 1 '''4''' × × × × × × × × × 19 ×   × × × × × × × × 6 × × × × × × × × 6 ×   × × × × × × × × × 5 3 3 5 4 3 × × 23 ×   × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × 4 4 ×   × × × × × × × × × 3 1 3 7 ×   × × × × × × × × 1 1 2 ×   '''1''' 1 1 2 2 2 1 4 4 18 '''1'''   1 2 ×   × × × × × × × × × 1 1 1 2 5" ], [ "See also", "*Biathlon World Championships*Biathlon World Cup*List of IOC country codes*Military patrol at the 1924 Winter Olympics" ], [ "References", "* International Olympic Committee results database" ] ]

[ [ "Biathlon World Championships" ], [ "Introduction", "The first '''Biathlon World Championships''' ('''BWCH''') was held in 1958, with individual and team contests for men.", "The original team event, Team (time), was held for the last time in 1965, to be replaced in 1966 by the team event, Relay (4 × 7.5 km), which we know today.", "The number of events has grown significantly over the years.", "Beginning in 1984, women biathletes had their own World Championships, and finally, from 1989, both genders have been participating in joint Biathlon World Championships.", "In 1978 the development was enhanced by the change from the large army rifle calibre to a small bore rifle, while the range to the target was reduced from 150 to 50 meters." ], [ "Venues", "The Biathlon World Championships of the season takes place during February or March.", "Some years it has been necessary to schedule parts of the Championships at other than the main venue because of weather and/or snow conditions.", "Full, joint Biathlon World Championships have never been held in Olympic Winter Games seasons.", "Biathlon World Championships in non-IOC events, however, have been held in Olympic seasons.", "In 2005, the then new event of Mixed Relay (two legs done by women, two legs by men) was arranged separately from the ordinary Championships.Past Championships:*1958 Saalfelden, Austria*1959 Courmayeur, Italy*1961 Umeå, Sweden*1962 Hämeenlinna, Finland*1963 Seefeld, Austria*1965 Elverum, Norway*1966 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, West Germany*1967 Altenberg, East Germany (first event in East Europe)*1969 Zakopane, Poland*1970 Östersund, Sweden*1971 Hämeenlinna, Finland*1973 Lake Placid, New York, United States (first event outside Europe and in the Americas)*1974 Minsk, USSR*1975 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy*1976 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy (Sprint)*1977 Vingrom, Norway*1978 Hochfilzen, Austria*1979 Ruhpolding, West Germany*1981 Lahti, Finland*1982 Minsk, USSR*1983 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy*1984 Chamonix, France (Women)*1985 Ruhpolding, West Germany (Men) and Egg am Etzel (near Einsiedeln), Switzerland (Women)*1986 Oslo, Norway (Men) and Falun, Sweden (Women)*1987 Lake Placid, New York, United States (Men) and Lahti, Finland (Women)*1988 Chamonix, France (Women)*1989 Feistritz an der Drau, Austria (first joint Biathlon World Championships)*1990 Minsk, USSR; Oslo, Norway and Kontiolahti, Finland*1991 Lahti, Finland*1992 Novosibirsk, Russia (Team) *1993 Borovets, Bulgaria*1994 Canmore, Canada (Team)*1995 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy*1996 Ruhpolding, Germany*1997 Brezno-Osrblie, Slovakia*1998 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Pursuit) and Hochfilzen, Austria (Team)*1999 Kontiolahti, Finland and Oslo, Norway*2000 Oslo, Norway and Lahti, Finland*2001 Pokljuka, Slovenia*2002 Oslo, Norway (Mass start)*2003 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia*2004 Oberhof, Germany*2005 Hochfilzen, Austria and Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed relay)*2006 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Mixed relay)*2007 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy*2008 Östersund, Sweden*2009 Pyeongchang, South Korea (first event in Asia)*2010 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed relay)*2011 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia*2012 Ruhpolding, Germany*2013 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech Republic*2015 Kontiolahti, Finland*2016 Oslo, Norway*2017 Hochfilzen, Austria*2019 Östersund, Sweden*2020 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy*2021 Pokljuka, Slovenia*2023 Oberhof, Germany*2024 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech RepublicUpcoming:*2025 Lenzerheide, Switzerland*2027 Otepää, Estonia" ], [ "Men", "Bold numbers in brackets denotes record number of victories in corresponding disciplines.===Individual (20 km)===This event was first held in 1958.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird19581959196119621963196519661967196919701971197319741975197719781979198119821983198519861987198919901991199319951996199719992000200120032004200520072008200920112012201320152016201720192020 '''(4)'''202120232024'''Medal table'''===Sprint (10 km)===This event was first held in 1974.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird1974197519761977197819791981198219831985198619871989199019911993199519961997199920002001200320042005200720082009 '''(4)'''20112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Pursuit (12.5 km)===This event was first held in 1997.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird19971998199920002001200320042005200720082009 '''(4)'''201120122013201520162017 '''(4)'''20192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Mass start (15 km)===This event was first held in 1999.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird199920002001200220032004 '''(4)'''200520072008200920112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Relay (4 × 7.5 km)===This event was first held unofficially in 1965.It was a success, and replacedthe team competition as an official event in 1966.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird19661967196919701971197319741975197719781979198119821983198519861987198919901991199319951996199719992000200120032004200520072008200920112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Team (time)===This event was held from 1958 to 1965.The times of the top 3 athletes from each country in the 20 km individual were added together(in 1958 the top 4).", "Year Gold Silver Bronze195819591961196219631965'''Medal table'''===Team===This event, a patrol race, was held from 1989 to 1998.1989–93: 20 km.", "1994–98: 10 km.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird1989199019911992199319941995199619971998'''Medal table'''" ], [ "Women", "Bold numbers in brackets denotes record number of victories in corresponding disciplines.===Individual (15 km)===This event was first held in 1984.Through 1988 the distance was 10 km.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird198419851986198719881989199019911993 '''(3)'''19951996199719992000200120032004200520072008200920112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Sprint (7.5 km)===This event was first held in 1984.Through 1988 the distance was 5 km.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird19841985198619871988198919901991199319951996199719992000200120032004200520072008200920112012 '''(3)'''201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Pursuit (10 km)===This event was first held in 1997.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird199719981999200020012003''None awarded''2004200520072008200920112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Mass start (12.5 km)===This event was first held in 1999.SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird1999200020012002 '''(2)'''20032004 '''(2)'''20052007200820092011 '''(2)'''2012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Relay (4 × 6 km)===This event was first held in 1984.Through 1988, the event was 3 × 5 km.", "1989–91: 3 × 7.5 km.", "1993–2001: 4 × 7.5 km.", "In 2003, the leg distance was set to 6 km.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird19841985198619871988198919901991199319951996199719992000200120032004200520072008200920112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Team===This event, a patrol race, was held from 1989 to 1998.1989–93: 15 km.", "1994–98: 7.5 km.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird1989199019911992199319941995199619971998'''Medal table'''" ], [ "Mixed", "Bold numbers in brackets denotes record number of victories in corresponding disciplines.===Mixed relay===This event was first held in 2005, at the Biathlon World Cup finals in Khanty-Mansiysk.", "In 2005–20, the women biathletes did the first two legs and the men did the following two (except 2006 when sequence was woman–man–woman–man), the women's ski legs were 6 km each while men ski legs were 7.5 km each (except 2005, 2006 and 2020 when ski legs were 6 km each for all relay members).", "In 2021, the starting gender became the result of a alternation: for the first time, men opened the relay and women closed it.", "Since then, this sequence alternates for each following edition.", "The distance skied became the same for all genders and depending on the one running the first leg (7.5 km if men run first, 6 km if women do), but in 2024 it became 6 km for every relay member no matter who runs first leg.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird20052006200720082009201020112012201320152016201720192020202120232024'''Medal table'''===Single mixed relay===This event was first held in 2019.Each team consists of two members - man and woman.", "The first of the team members runs the first and third legs (3 km each), the other team member – the second and fourth legs (3 km and 4.5 km respectively).", "In 2019 and 2020 the women biathletes started single mixed relay and the men biathletes finished it, in 2021 this order was reversed.", "Since then, this order alternates for each following edition.", "SeasonWinnerRunner-upThird20192020202120232024'''Medal table'''" ], [ "Total medals by country", "Updated after the 2024 Championships." ], [ "Multiple medalists", "Boldface denotes active biathletes and highest medal count among all biathletes (including these who not included in these tables) per type.===Men=======All events==== Rank Biathlete Country From To Gold Silver BronzeTotal 1 Ole Einar Bjørndalen 1997 2017 '''20''' '''14''' '''11''' '''45''' 2 '''Johannes Thingnes Bø''' 2015 2024 '''20''' 13 5 38 3 Martin Fourcade 2011 2020 13 10 5 28 4 Emil Hegle Svendsen 2007 2016 12 6 3 21 5 '''Tarjei Bø''' 2011 2024 11 7 8 26 6 Frank Luck 1989 2004 11 5 4 20 7 Alexander Tikhonov 1967 1979 11 4 2 17 8 Ricco Groß 1991 2007 9 5 6 20 9 Frank Ullrich 1977 1983 9 4 1 14 10 Raphaël Poirée 1998 2007 8 3 7 18====Individual events==== Rank Biathlete Country From To Gold Silver BronzeTotal 1 Ole Einar Bjørndalen 1997 2017 '''11''' 6 '''9''' '''26''' 2 Martin Fourcade 2011 2020 '''11''' 4 3 18 3 '''Johannes Thingnes Bø''' 2015 2024 10 '''7''' 2 19 4 Raphaël Poirée 1998 2007 7 2 5 14 5 Emil Hegle Svendsen 2008 2016 5 3 2 10 6 Frank Ullrich 1978 1983 5 3 – 8 7 Alexander Tikhonov 1969 1979 5 2 1 8 8 Ricco Groß 1995 2005 4 3 3 10 9 Mark Kirchner 1990 1993 4 – – 4 10 Eirik Kvalfoss 1982 1991 3 4 2 9===Women=======All events==== Rank Biathlete Country From To Gold Silver BronzeTotal 1 Marte Olsbu Røiseland 2016 2023 '''13''' – 4 17 2 Magdalena Neuner 2007 2012 12 4 1 17 3 Tiril Eckhoff 2015 2021 10 2 3 15 4 Elena Golovina 1985 1991 10 1 1 12 5 Petra Behle (Schaaf) 1988 1997 9 2 2 13 6 Uschi Disl 1991 2005 8 '''8''' 3 '''19''' 7 Andrea Henkel 2000 2013 8 6 2 16 8 Tora Berger 2006 2013 8 5 5 18 9 Liv Grete Poirée (Skjelbreid) 1997 2004 8 3 2 13 10 Laura Dahlmeier 2015 2019 7 3 5 15====Individual events==== Rank Biathlete Country From To Gold Silver BronzeTotal 1 Magdalena Neuner 2007 2012 '''6''' 2 – 8 2 Magdalena Forsberg (Wallin) 1996 2001 '''6''' 1 '''5''' '''12''' 3 Liv Grete Poirée (Skjelbreid) 2000 2004 '''6''' 1 2 9 4 Olena Zubrilova 1997 2005 4 '''4''' 3 11 5 Laura Dahlmeier 2015 2019 4 3 4 11 6 Tora Berger 2008 2013 4 3 2 9 7 Marie Dorin Habert 2015 2016 4 1 1 6 8 Andrea Henkel 2005 2013 4 1 – 5 9 Petra Schaaf 1988 1993 4 – 1 5 10 '''Hanna Öberg''' 2019 2023 3 2 1 6" ], [ "See also", "* Biathlon World Cup* Summer Biathlon World Championships* Biathlon Junior World Championships* List of Olympic medalists in biathlon" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Sports 123 biathlon results" ] ]

[ [ "Inedia" ], [ "Introduction", "1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months'''Inedia''' (Latin for 'fasting') or '''breatharianism''' () is the claimed ability for a person to live without consuming food, and in some cases water.", "It is a deadly pseudoscientific practice, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation or dehydration." ], [ "Scientific assessment", "Documented studies on the physiological effects of food restriction clearly show that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death.", "In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle.", "Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days.", "However, the hospital Jani attended has not published official documentation about the event.", "In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died.", "Scientific societies such as the British Dietetic Association strongly disadvise the breatharian diet, qualifying it as \"dangerous\", and stating that \"the basic fact is we all need food and liquid in our diet to live.\"" ], [ "Alleged practitioners", "===Rosicrucianism===The 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \"several years by taking only one-half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\".", "In this book, it is also stated that \"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.", "\"===Ram Bahadur Bomjon (\"Bakji\")===Ram Bahadur Bomjon is a Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal.", "Bomjon appears to go for long periods of time without ingesting either food or water.", "One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.", "The documentary makers were, however, prevented from filming Bomjon continuously for that period of time.", "His claims have never been objectively verified.", "Bomjon has attracted controversy for abuse and violence against his followers and against any who investigate him.", "He has been accused of rape, kidnapping, and physical violence.===Prahlad Jani (\"Mataji\")===Prahlad Jani was an Indian sadhu who claimed to have lived without food and water for more than 70 years.", "Doctors at Sterling Hospital investigated his claims in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, in 2003 and 2010.The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for ten days without food and water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis.", "Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras.", "Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests.", "The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests.", "Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees, and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe.", "Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored and accused Jani of having had some \"influential protectors\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.===Jasmuheen===Jasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s.", "She said, \"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea.", "My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\"", "Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter.", "In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods.", "Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air.", "\"I asked for fresh air.", "Seventy per cent of my nutrients come from fresh air.", "I couldn’t even breathe,\" she said.", "On the third day, the test was moved to a mountainside retreat, where her condition continued to deteriorate.", "After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.According to Wink, Jasmuheen's pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\".", "Towards the end of the test, she said, \"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started.", "The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure.", "''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue.", "She should stop now.\"", "The test was stopped.", "Wink said, \"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\"", "Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.", "\"Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\").", "She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''.", "Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \"more recent channelled material\" from St. Germain.", "She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \"absorb more hydrogen\".", "When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself., five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications.", "Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for three of the deaths.===Wiley Brooks===Wiley Brooks (1936–2016) was the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America.", "He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''", "Brooks stopped teaching shortly before his death in 2016 to \"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely\".", "Brooks claims to have found \"four major deterrents\" which prevented him from living without food: \"people pollution\", \"food pollution\", \"air pollution\", and \"electro pollution\".In 1983, he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies.", "He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance.Brooks later claimed that \"All McDonalds are constructed on properties that are protected by 5th Dimensional high energy/spiritual portals\", encouraging the consumption of Diet Coke and McDonald's Double-Quarter-Pounder/with cheese meal (\"It is also acceptable to combine 2 quarter-pounder with cheese burgers to make one double-quarter pounder if you can't get the double-quarter-pounder with cheese where you live\"), and discouraging the consumption of \"water of any kind\".", "The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds was a major part of Brooks' ideology, and Brooks encouraged his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as to meditate on a set of magical 5D words.Brooks's institute has set various prices for prospective clients wishing to learn how to live without food, ranging from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000, to fifty billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called an \"Immortality workshop\".", "A payment plan was also offered.", "These charges were typically presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.===Hira Ratan Manek===Hira Ratan Manek (1937–2022) claimed that since 18 June 1995, he lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk.", "Manek stated that sungazing was the key to his health, citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayas, and Native Americans as practitioners of the art.", "While he and his proponents stated that medical experts confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the Sun, a method which came to be known as \"HRM phenomenon\" (by his initials), he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.", "Manek died in March 2022, less than a month after his wife Vimala died.===Ray Maor===In a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות), hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of inedia Ray Maor (ריי מאור) appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights.", "According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing.", "The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment; that he lost after eight days; that blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment; and that cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \"baffled\"." ], [ "Mythology and religion", "===Hinduism===Some Hindu religious texts contain accounts of saints and hermits practising what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms.", "In Valmiki's ''Ramayana'', Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage.", "These included, among others, the \"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\" and \"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\".", "In Canto XI of the same book, a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).Paramahansa Yogananda's 1946 book ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Bala and Therese Neumann.There are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.Some breatharians claim that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism.", "According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of prana, and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone.===Taoism===Bigu (grain avoidance) is a fasting technique with various different interpretations, from simply avoiding eating specific grains, to avoiding all grains, to eating no food at all, and drawing sustenance from gulps of air.=== Jainism ===There are varying types of fasts practised by followers of Jainism.", "Some Jain monks and laities continuously fast for months.", "These fasts last six months or even longer.", "A Jain monk, Sahaj Muni Maharaj, is said to have completed his 365-day fast on 1 May 1998.Another Jain monk Hansaratna Vijayji was said to have completed 423-day fast in 494 days in 2015.He had previously claimed to have fasted for 108 days in 2013 and for 180 days in 2014.Several others have claimed to have fasted for six months." ], [ "See also", "* Fasting girls* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism* Kumbhaka* List of diets* Scientific skepticism* Sungazing* Starvation diet" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians * ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism" ] ]

[ [ "Bihar (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bihar''' is a state in India.", "'''Bihar''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===India===* Bihar Province, former colonial province in British India* Bihar Subah, a Bihar-based Mughal imperial province* Bihar Sharif, headquarters of Nalanda district, Bihar, India* Bihar Circuit, a Hindi film distribution circuit comprising Bihar, Jharkhand and Nepal* Bihar River, a border river of Palamu district, Jharkhand, India* Bihar, Unnao, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India===Elsewhere===* Bihar County, a historic county of the Kingdom of Hungary* Bihor County (''Bihar'' County in Hungarian), a county of current-day Romania* ''Bihar'', the Hungarian name for Biharia Commune, Bihor County, Romania" ], [ "People", "* Bihar (king), a khagan of the Khazars" ], [ "See also", "* Behar (disambiguation), a portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading* Bihar al-Anwar, a hadith compilation by Allamah Majlisi* Bihari (disambiguation)* Bihor (disambiguation)* Hajdú-Bihar, a county in Hungary* Cooch Behar (disambiguation), a district in West Bengal** Cooch Behar State, a former princely state in India" ] ]

[ [ "Belfast" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Belfast''' ( , ; from , meaning \"mouth of the sand-bank ford\") is the capital city and principal port of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan and connected to the open sea through Belfast Lough and the North Channel.", "It is second to Dublin as the largest city on the island of Ireland with a population in 2021 of 345,418 and a metro area population of 671,559.Established as an English settlement early in the 17th century, its early growth was driven by Scottish-descendant Presbyterians.", "Their disaffection with Ireland's Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain—later regarded as a key to the town's industrial transformation.", "When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the world's largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage.Sectarian tensions accompanied the growth of an Irish Catholic population drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts.", "Heightened by division over Ireland's future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920-22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets.", "A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts.Since the 1998 Belfast Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists.", "At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions.Belfast has seen significant services sector growth, with important contributions from financial technology (fintech), from tourism and, with facilities in the redeveloped Harbour Estate, from film.", "It retains a port with commercial and industrial docks, including a reduced Harland & Wolff shipyard and aerospace and defence contractors.", "Post Brexit, Belfast and Northern Ireland remain, uniquely, within both the British domestic and European Single trading areas for goods.The city is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport on the Lough shore and Belfast International Airport west of the city.", "It supports two universities: on the north-side of the city centre, Ulster University, and on the southside the longer established Queens University.", "Since 2021, Belfast has been a UNESCO designated City of Music." ], [ "City's history", "=== Name ===Thomas Phillips, showing the town's ramparts and Lord Chichester's castle, which was destroyed in a fire in 1708|left|200x200pxThe name Belfast derives from the Irish , later spelt (), which roughly translates as the \"mouth of the sandbar\".", "The sandbar, or tidal ford, was originally formed by the river Farset (''Feirste'') which, until culverted in the 1850s, ran down High Street to the Lagan at Donegall Quay (\"Mouth of the Farset\" might be an alternative interpretation).", "This area became the hub around which the early settlement developed.The compilers of Ulster-Scots use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of \"Belfast\" (with which they sometimes are also content) including ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst.", "''===Early settlements===The site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age.", "The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills.", "Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages.", "In the late 12th century or early 13th century, the Normans built a castle in what is now the city's central district.", "But it was smaller and of less strategic importance than Carrickfergus Castle, 11 miles (18 km) along the north shore of the Lough.", "This remained the principal English foothold in the north-east until the scorched- earth Nine Years' War at the end of the 16th century broke the remaining Irish power, the O'Neills.===Developing port, radical politics===With a commission from James I, in 1613 Sir Arthur Chichester undertook the Plantation of Belfast and the surrounding area, attracting mainly English and Manx settlers.", "The subsequent arrival of Scottish Presbyterians embroiled Belfast in its only recorded siege: in 1649 an English Parliamentarian army forced the newcomers' temporary expulsion.Together with French Huguenots, the Scots introduced the production of linen, a flax-spinning industry that in the 18th century carried Belfast trade to the Americas.", "Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed from the colonies.", "From the 1760s, profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the Lagan Canal, new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through Dublin.", "Abolitionist sentiment, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, Cunningham and Greg, in 1786 to commission ships for the Middle Passage.Volunteer Corps parade down High Street, 200x200pxAs \"Dissenters\" from the established Anglican church, Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament.", "Belfast's two MPs remained nominees of the Chichesters (Marquesses of Donegall).", "With their emigrant kinsmen in America, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from the CrownWhen early in the American War of Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled their own Volunteer militia.", "Formed ostensibly for defence of the Kingdom, Volunteer corps were soon pressing their own protest against \"taxation without representation\".", "Further emboldened by the French Revolution, a more radical element in the town, the Society of United Irishmen, called for Catholic emancipation and a representative national government.", "In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection.", "The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the Battle of Antrim and to the south at the Battle of Ballynahinch.Britain seized on the rebellion to abolish the Irish Parliament, unlamented in Belfast, and to incorporate Ireland in a United Kingdom.", "In 1832, British parliamentary reform permitted the town its first electoral contest – an occasion for an early and lethal sectarian riot.===Industrial expansion, sectarian division===High Street, c. 1906Beginning in the 1820s, and while other Irish towns experienced a loss of manufacturing, Belfast underwent rapid industrial expansion.", "As the global leader in the production of linen goods—mill, and finishing, work largely employing women and girls— it won the moniker \"Linenopolis\".", "Shipbuilding led the development of heavier industry.", "By the 1900s, her shipyards were building up to a quarter of the total United Kingdom tonnage.", "This included from the yard of Harland & Wolff the ill-fated ''RMS Titanic,'' at the time of her launch in 1911 the largest ship afloat.", "''''Industry drew in a new Catholic population—refugees from rural poverty and, in the 1840s, from famine—settling largely in the west of the town.", "The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity.", "Protestant workers organised and dominated the apprenticed trades and gave a new lease of life to the once largely rural Orange Order.", "Sectarian tensions, which frequently broke out in riots and workplace expulsions, were also driven by the \"constitutional question\": the prospect of a restored Irish parliament in which Protestants (and northern industry) feared being a minority interest.On 28 September 1912, unionists massed at Belfast's City Hall to sign the Ulster Covenant, pledging to use \"all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland\".", "This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000-strong Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF).", "The immediate crisis was averted by the onset of the Great War.", "The UVF formed the 36th (Ulster) Division whose sacrifices in the Battle of the Somme continue to be commemorated in the city by unionist and loyalist organisations.In 1920-22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six counties remaining as Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, there was widespread violence.", "8,000 \"disloyal\" workers were driven from their jobs in the shipyards: in addition to Catholics, \"rotten Prods\" – Protestants whose labour politics disregarded sectarian distinctions.", "Gunbattles, grenade attacks and house burnings contributed to as many as 500 deaths.", "A curfew remained in force until 1924.The lines drawn saw off the challenge to \"unionist unity\" posed by labour (industry had been paralysed by strikes in 1907and again in 1919).", "Until \"troubles\" returned at the end of the 1960s, it was not uncommon in Belfast for the Ulster Unionist Party to have its council and parliamentary candidates returned unopposed.In 1932, the opening of the new buildings for Northern Ireland's devolved Parliament at Stormont was overshadowed by the protests of the unemployed and ten days of running street battles with the police.", "The government conceded increases in Outdoor Relief, but labour unity short lived.", "In 1935, celebrations of King George V's Jubilee and of the annual Twelfth were followed by deadly riots and expulsions, a sectarian logic that extended itself to the interpretation of darkening events in Europe.", "Labour candidates found their support for the anti-clerical Spanish Republic characterised as another instance of No-Popery.", "(Today, the cause of the republic in the Spanish Civil War is commemorated by a \"No Pasaran\" stained glass window in City Hall).===The Blitz and post-war development===160x160pxIn the spring of 1941, the German Luftwaffe appeared twice over Belfast.", "In addition to the shipyards and the Short & Harland aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, and devastated the old town centre around High Street.", "In the greatest loss of life in any air raid outside of London, more than a thousand people were killed.At the end of World War II, the Unionist government undertook programmes of \"slum clearance\" (the Blitz had exposed the \"uninhabitable\" condition of much of the city's housing) which involved decanting populations out of mill and factory built terraces and into new peripheral housing estates.", "At the same time, a British-funded welfare state \"revolutionised access\" to education and health care.", "The resulting rise in expectations; together with the uncertainty caused by the decline of the city’s Victorian-era industries, contributed to growing protest, and counter protest, in the 1960s over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights.===The Troubles===Shankill Road|226x226pxFor reasons that nationalists and unionists dispute, the public protests of the late 1960s soon gave way to communal violence (in which as many as 60,000 people were intimidated from their homes) and to loyalist and republican paramilitarism.", "Introduced onto the streets in August 1969, the British Army committed to the longest continuous deployment in its history, Operation Banner.", "Beginning in 1970 with the Falls curfew, and followed in 1971 by internment, this included counterinsurgency measures directed chiefly at the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) who characterised their operations, including the bombing of Belfast's commercial centre, as a struggle against British occupation.Preceded by loyalist and republican ceasefires, the 1998 \"Good Friday\" Belfast Agreement returned a new power-sharing legislative assembly and executive to Stormont.", "In the intervening years in Belfast, some 20,000 people had been injured, and 1,500 killed.BallymurphyEighty-five percent of the conflict-related deaths had occurred within 1,000 metres of the communal interfaces, largely in the north and west of the city.", "The security barriers erected at these interfaces are an enduring physical legacy of the Troubles.", "The 14 neighbourhoods they separate are among the 20 most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.", "In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all peace lines by mutual consent.", "The target date of 2023 was passed with only a small number dismantled.The more affluent districts escaped the worst of the violence, but the city centre was a major target.", "This was especially so during the first phase of the PIRA campaign in the early 1970s, when the organisation hoped to secure quick political results through maximum destruction.", "Car bombs and incendiaries reduced the built heritage of what had probably been \"the most completely Victorian city in the British Isles\".=== 21st century ===Since the turn of the century, the accelerated loss of employment and population in the city centre has been reversed.", "This reflects the growth of the service economy, for which a new district has been developed on former dockland, the Titanic Quarter.", "The growing tourism sector paradoxically lists as attractions the murals and peace walls that echo the violence of the past.", "In recent years, \"Troubles tourism\" has presented visitors with new territorial markers: flags, murals and graffiti in which loyalists and republicans take opposing sides in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.The demographic balance of some areas has been changed by immigration (according to the 2021 census just under 10% of the city's population was born outside the British Isles), by local differences in births and deaths between Catholics and Protestants, and by a growing number of, particularly younger, people no longer willing to self-identify on traditional lines.In 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history.", "The election in 2011 saw Irish nationalist councillors outnumber unionist councillors for the first time, with Sinn Féin becoming the largest party, and the cross-community Alliance Party holding the balance of power.In the 2016 Brexit referendum, Belfast's four parliamentary constituencies returned a substantial majority (60 percent) for remaining within the European Union, as did Northern Ireland as a whole (55.8), the only UK region outside London and Scotland to do so.", "In February 2022, the Democratic Unionist Party, which had actively campaigned for Brexit, withdrew from the power-sharing executive and collapsed the Stormont institutions to protest the 2020 UK-EU Northern Ireland Protocol.", "With the promise of equal access to the British and European markets, this designates Belfast as a point of entry to the European Single Market within whose regulatory framework local producers will continue to operate.", "After two years, the standoff was resolved with an agreement to eliminate routine checks on UK-destined goods." ], [ "Cityscape", "=== Topography ===200x200pxBelfast is at the mouth of the River Lagan at the head of Belfast Lough open through the North Channel to the Irish Sea and to the North Atlantic.", "In the course of the 19th century, the location's estuarine features were re-engineered.", "With dredging and reclamation, the lough was made to accommodate a deep sea port, and extensive shipyards.", "The lagan was banked (in 1994 a weir raised its water level to cover what remained of the tidal mud flats) and its various tributaries were culverted (on the model pioneered in 2008 by the Connswater Community Greenway some are now being considered for \"daylighting\").It remains the case that much of the city centre is built on an estuarine bed of soft clay, silt, peat and mud (\"sleech\"), that presents a challenge for high-rise construction.", "(The soft foundation persuaded St Anne's Cathedral to abandon plans for a bell tower and, in 2007, to substitute a lightweight steel spire).", "The city centre is also subject to tidal flood risk.", "Rising sea levels could mean, that without significant investment, flooding in the coming decades will be persistent.The city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill (its basalt cliff profile once commonly referred to as ''Napoleon's Nose)''.", "The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.", "The Malone Ridge extends up river to the south-west.===North Belfast and Shankill===From 1820, Belfast began to spread rapidly beyond its 18th century limits.", "To the north, it stretched out along roads which drew into the town migrants from Scots-settled hinterland of County Antrim.", "Largely Presbyterian, they enveloped a number of Catholic-occupied “mill-row” clusters: New Lodge, Ardoyne and \"the Marrowbone\".", "Together with areas of more substantial housing in the Oldpark district, these are wedged between Protestant working-class housing stretching from Tiger's Bay out the Shore Road on one side, and up the Shankill (the original Antrim Road) on the other.The Greater Shankill area, including Crumlin and Woodvale, is over the line from the Belfast North parliamentary/assembly constituency, but is physically separated from the rest of Belfast West by an extensive series of separation barriers—peace walls—owned (together with five daytime gates into the Falls area) by the Department of Justice.", "These include Cupar Way where tourists are informed that, at 45 feet, the barrier is \"three times higher than the Berlin Wall and has been in place for twice as long\".With other working-class districts, Shankill suffered from the \"collapse of old industrial Belfast\".", "But it was also greatly affected from the 1960s by the city's most ambitious programme of \"slum clearance\".", "Red-brick, \"two up, two down\" terraced streets, typical of 19th century working-class housing, were replaced with flats, maisonettes, and car parks but few facilities.", "In a period of twenty years, due largely to redevelopment, 50,000 residents left the area leaving an aging population of 26,000 and more than 100 acres of wasteland.Meanwhile, road schemes, including the terminus of the M1 motorway and the Westlink, demolished a mixed dockland community, Sailortown and severed the streets linking the Shankill area and the rest of both north and west Belfast to the city centre.New \"green field\" housing estates were built on the outer edges of the city.", "The onset of the Troubles overwhelmed attempts to promote these as \"mixed\" neighbourhoods so that the largest of these developments on the city's northern edge, Rathcoole rapidly solidified as a loyalist community.", "In 2004, it was estimated that 98% of public housing in Belfast was divided along religious lines.Among the principal landmarks of north Belfast are the Crumlin Road Gaol (1845) now a major visitor attraction, the Clonard Monastery, (1890), the Waterworks Park (1889), and Belfast Zoo (1934).=== West Belfast ===In the 1840s, famine conditions to the west drove large numbers of Catholic tenant farmers, landless labourers and their families toward Belfast.", "Their route brought them down Falls Road and into what are now remnants of an older Catholic enclave around St Mary's Church, the town's first Catholic chapel (opened in 1784 with Presbyterian subscriptions), and Smithfield Market.", "Eventually an entire west side of the city, stretching up the Falls Road and out passed Andersonstown, and encompassing the new housing estates built 1950s and 60s along the Springfield Road (Highfield, New Barnsley, Ballymurphy, Whiterock and Turf Lodge) became near-exclusively Catholic (and in political terms nationalist).Reflecting the nature of available employment as mill workers, domestics and shop assistants, the population, initially, was disproportionately female.", "Further opportunities for women on Falls Road arose through developments in education and public health.", "In 1900, the Dominican Order opened St Mary's University College, Belfast|St Mary's Teacher Training College, and in 1903 King Edward VII opened the Royal Victoria Hospital at the junction with the Grosvenor Road.", "Extensively redeveloped and expanded, the hospital has a staff of more than 8,500.Landmarks in the area include the Gothic-revival St Peter's Cathedral (1866, signature twin spires added in 1886); the Conway Mill (1853/1901, re-developed as a community enterprise, arts and education centre in 1983); St Malachy's College (1833) and, best known for its republican graves, Milltown Cemetery (1869).The areas greatest visitor attraction are its wall and gable-end murals.", "In contrast to those to those in loyalist areas, where Israel is typically the only outside reference, these range more freely beyond the local conflict frequently expressing solidarity with Palestinians, with Cuba, and with Basque and Catalan separatists.=== South Belfast ===West Belfast is separated from South Belfast, and from the otherwise abutting loyalist districts of Sandy Row and the Donegall Road, by rail lines, the MI Motorway (to Dublin and the west); and industrial and retail parks.Belfast began stretching up-river in the 1840s and 50s: out the Ormeau and Lisburn roads and, between them, running along a ridge of higher ground, the Malone Road.", "From avenues of increasingly substantial (and in the course of time “mixed\") housing, the Upper Malone broadened out into areas of parkland and villas.Further out still, where they did not survive as public parks, from the 1960s the great-house demesnes of the city's former mill-owners and industrialists, were developed for public housing: loyalist estates such as Seymour Hill and Belvoir.", "Meanwhile, in Malone and along the river embankments, new houses and apartment blocks have been squeezed in, increasing the general housing density.Beyond the Queens University area the area's principal landmarks are the 15-storey tower block of Belfast City Hospital (1986) on the Lisburn Road, and the Lagan Valley Regional Park (through which a towpath extends from the City-centre quayside to Lisburn.Northern Ireland's three permanent diplomatic missions are situated on the Malone Road, the consulates of China, Poland and the United States.=== East Belfast ===The first district on the right bank of the Lagan (the County Down side) to be incorporated in Belfast was Ballymacarrett in 1840.Harland and Wolff, whose gantry cranes \"Samson & Goliath\" tower over the area, was long the mainstay of employment—although less securely so for the townland's Catholics (In 1970, when the yard still had a workforce of 10,000, only 400 Catholics were employed).", "Tolerated in periods of expansion as navvies and casual labourers, they concentrated in a small enclave, the Short Strand, which has continued into this century to feature as sectarian flashpoint.", "Home to around 3,500 people, it is the only distinctly nationalist area in the east of the river.East Belfast developed from the Queens Bridge (1843), through Ballymacarrett, east along the Newtownards Road and north (along the east shore of the Lough) up the Holywood Road; and from the Albert Bridge (1890) south east out the Cregagh and Castlereagh roads.", "The further out, the more substantial, and less religiously segregated, the housing until again encountering the city's outer ring of public housing estates: loyalist Knocknagoney, Lisnasharragh, and Tullycarnet.This century, efforts have been made to add to East Belfast's two obvious visitor attractions: Samson & Goliath (the \"banana yellow cranes\" date only from the early 1970s) and the Parliament Buildings at Stormont.", "What is marketed now as EastSide, features, at the intersection of the Connswater and Comber Greenways and next to the EastSide Visitor Centre, CS Lewis Square (2017), named and themed in honour of the local author of ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', and next to the former the Harland & Wolff Drawing Offices (now an hotel), the \"cultural nucleus to Titanic Quarter\", Titanic Belfast (2012) whose interactive galleries tell the liner's ill-fated story.=== City Centre ===Belfast City Centre is roughly bounded by the ring roads constructed since the 1970s: the M3 which sweeps across the dockland to the north; the Westlink that connects to the M1 for points south and west; and, with less certainty, the Bruce Street and Bankmore connectors that tie back toward the Lagan at the Gasworks Business Park and the beginning of the Ormeau Road.", "This embraces \"the Markets\", the one remaining inner-city area of housing.", "Of the various markets, including those for the sale and shipping of livestock, from which it derives its name, only one survives, the former produce market, St George's, now a food and craft market popular with visitors to the city.", "Clifton House, 1774.==== Architectural heritage ====Among surviving elements of the pre-Victorian town are the Belfast Entries, 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the elliptical First Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing) Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham); the Assembly Rooms (1769, 1776, 1845) on Bridge Street; St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church; and (although cut off by arterial roads) the oldest public building in Belfast, Clifton House (1771–74), the Belfast Charitable Society poorhouse on North Queen Street.", "In addition there are small sets of city-centre Georgian terraces.Scottish Provident Institution, 1902Of the much larger Victorian city a substantial legacy has survived the Blitz, The Troubles and planning and development.", "Among the more notable pieces are St Malachy's Roman Catholic Church (1844) and the original college building of Queen's University Belfast (1849), both in a Tudor style; the Palm House in the Botanic Gardens (1852); the Renaissance revival Union Theological College (1853) and Ulster Bank (now Merchant Hotel) (1860); the Italianate Ulster Hall (1862), and the National Trust restored ornate Crown Liquor Saloon (1885, 1898) (a setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason); the oriental-themed Grand Opera House (1895) (bombed several times during the Troubles); and the Renaissance and Baroque revival Scottish Provident Institution (1902),The Baroque revival City Hall was finished in 1906 on the site of the former White Linen Hall, and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888.Its Edwardian design influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa.", "The dome is high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\".", "The Royal Courts of Justice and St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral are of the same period.==== Redevelopment ====The opening Victoria Square Shopping Centre in 2008 was to symbolize the rebound of the city centre since its days as a restricted security zone during the Troubles.", "But retail footfall in the centre is limited by competition with out-of-town shopping centres and with internet retailing.", "As of November 2023, footfall had not recovered pre-COVID pandemic levels.", "There are compensating trends: the growth in tourism and hospitality which has included a sustained boom in hotel construction.The City Council also talks of a “residential-led regeneration”.", "New townhouse and apartments schemes are being developed for the city's quays, and for Titanic Quarter.", "The completion in 2023 of Ulster University’s enhanced Belfast campus (in \"one of the largest higher education capital builds in Europe\") and the determination of Queen's University to compete with the private sector in the provision of student housing, has fostered the construction downtown of multiple new student residences.=== The \"Quarters\" ===Aerial view of Belfast (2004)St Anne's CathedralSince 2001, buoyed by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has promoted a number of cultural quarters.The '''Cathedral Quarter''' comprises much of Belfast’s old trade and warehousing district in the narrow streets and entries around St Anne's Cathedral, with a concentration of bars, beer gardens, clubs and restaurants (including two establishments claiming descent from the early town, White's and The Duke of York) and performance spaces (most notably the Black Box and Oh Yeah).", "It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.", "The adjoining Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.Without defined geographical boundaries, the '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' encompasses Irish-speaking Belfast.", "(According to the 2021 census, 15.5% of people in the city have some knowledge of Irish, 4% speak it daily).", "It is generally understood as an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast served by the Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich cultural centre.", "It can be said to include, at the Skainos Centre in unionist east Belfast, Turas, a project that promotes Irish through night classes and cultural events in the belief that \"the language belongs to all\".The '''Linen Quarter''', an area south of City Hall once dominated by linen warehouses, now includes, in addition to cafés, bars and restaurants, a dozen hotels (including the 23-storey Grand Central Hotel), and the city's two principal Victorian-era cultural venues, the Grand Opera House and the Ulster Hall.Moving further south along the so-called \"Golden Mile\" of bars and clubs through Shaftesbury Square, there is the Queen's Quarter, Belfast|'''Queen's''' University '''Quarter'''.", "In addition to the university (spread over 250 buildings, of which 120 are listed as being of architectural merit), it is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum.Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''.", "Named after ''RMS Titanic'', launched here in 1911, work began in 2003 to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\".", "The current area houses Titanic Belfast, the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), two hotels, and multiple condo towers and shops, and the Titanic film Studios." ], [ "Culture", "=== Arts venues and festivals ===File:Mural Donegall St Belfast.jpg|thumb|\"True to Our Words\" - Christina Angelina (2015), Donegall Street: \"street art in Belfast has moved with political developments, and is facilitating a conscious cultural rebranding of the city\".From Georgian Belfast, the city retains a civic legacy.", "In addition to '''Clifton House''' (Belfast Charitable Society, 1774), this includes the '''Linen Hall Library''' (Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge, 1788), the '''Ulster Museum''' (founded by the Belfast Natural History Society as the Belfast Municipal Museum and Art Gallery in 1833), and the '''Botanic Gardens''' (established in 1828 by the Belfast Botanic and Horticultural Society).", "These remain important cultural venues: in the case of the Gardens, for outdoor festivities including the '''Belfast Melā''', the city’s annual celebration of global cultures.Of the many stage venues built in the nineteenth century, and film theatres built in the twentieth, there remains the '''Ulster Hall''' (1862), which hosts concerts (including those of the Ulster Orchestra), classical recitals and party-political meetings; the '''Grand Opera House''' (1895) badly damaged in bomb blasts in the early 1990s, restored and enlarged 2020; the '''Strand Cinema''' (1935) now being developed as an arts centre; and the '''Queens Film Theatre''' (QFT) (1968) focussed on art house and world cinema.", "The two independent cinemas offer their screens for the Belfast Film Festival and the '''Belfast International Arts Festival'''.The principal stage for drama remains the '''Lyric Theatre''' (1951), the largest employer of actors and other theatre professionals in the region.", "At Queens University, drama students stage their productions at the '''Brian Friel Theatre''', a 120-seat studio space (named after the renowned north of Ireland playwright.In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards.", "The event was made possible by the 11,000-seat Odyssey Arena (today the '''SSE Arena''') which opened in 2000 at the entrance to the Titanic Quarter A further large-scale venue is the '''Waterfront Hall''', a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre that first opened in 1997.The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is based on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall.", "In 2012, the Metropolitan Arts Centre, usually referred to as '''the MAC''', was opened in the Cathedral Quarter, offering a performance mix of music, theatre, dance and visual art.The city has a number of community arts, and arts education, centres, among them the '''Crescent Arts Centre''' in south Belfast, the Irish-language '''Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich''' in west Belfast, '''The Duncairn''' in north Belfast and, in the east of the city, '''EastSide Arts'''.", "'''Féile an Phobail''', a community arts organisation born out of the Internment Commemorations in the west of the city, stages one of the largest community festivals in Europe.", "It has grown from its original ''August Féile'' on the Falls Road, to a year-round programme with a broad range of arts events, talks and discussions.=== UNESCO City of Music ===In November 2021, Belfast became the third city in the British Isles to be designated by UNESCO as City of Music (after Glasgow in 2008 and Liverpool in 2016) and is one of 59 cities worldwide participating in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.The greater part of Belfast's music scene is accommodated in the city's pubs and clubs.", "Irish traditional music (\"trad\") is a staple, and is supported, along with Ulster-Scots snare drum and pipe music, by the city's '''TradFest''' summer school.Music offerings also draw on the legacy of the punk and the underground club scene that developed during The Troubles (associated with the groups Stiff Little Fingers and The Undertones, and celebrated in the award-winning 2013 film, Good Vibrations).", "Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody led a line up of private donors that together with public funders established the '''Oh Yeah''' music centre in 2008.The Cathedral Quarter non-profit supports young musicians and these have engaged with a range of genres including Alternative rock, Indie rock, Electronica, Post rock, Post punk, Crossover, and Experimental rock.Queens University hosts the '''Sonic Arts Research Centre''' (SARC), an institute for music-based practice and research.", "Its purpose designed building, Sonic Laboratory and multichannel studios were opened by Karlheinz Stockhausen, the German composer and \"father of electronic music\", in 2004.===Media===Broadcasting House, Belfast, headquarters of the BBC in Northern IrelandBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language daily newspaper in the world still in publication.The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Q Radio and U105.Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast.", "Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union.One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city.. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.=== Parades ===Since the lifting in 1872 of a twenty-year party processions ban, Orange parades in celebration of \"the Twelfth\" of July and the bonfires of the previous evening, the eleventh, have been a fixed fixture of the Belfast calendar.", "On what became a public holiday in 1926, Belfast and guest Orange lodges with their pipe, flute and drum bands muster at Carlisle Circus, and parade through the city centre passed the City Hall and out Lisburn Road to a gathering in \"the field\" at Barnett Demesne.", "While some local feeder and return marches have a history of sectarian disturbance, in recent years, events have generally passed off without serious incident.In 2015, the Orange Order opened the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road in East Belfast with the aim of educating the wider public about \"the origins, traditions and continued relevance\" of the parading institution, .What it sometimes referred to as the Catholic equivalent the Orangemen, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, confines its parades to home ground in west and north Belfast, as do republicans commemorating the Easter Rising.", "In August 1993, in a break with a history of nationalist exclusion from the city centre, a parade marking the introduction of internment in the 1971 proceeded up Royal Avenue toward the City Hall, where it was addressed by Sinn Féin president, Gerry Adams, in front of the statue of Queen Victoria.Since 1998, the Belfast City Council has funded a city-centre St. Patrick’s Day (March 17) celebration.", "It is organised by Féile an Phobail as a \"carnival\" complete with a parade featuring dancers, circus entertainers, floats, and giant puppets.", "Critical of what they perceive as an evolving nationalist festival, unionists on the City Council observe that \"a lot of the Protestant Unionist Loyalist (PUL) community will stay away from the city centre on St Patrick’s Day, the same as some stay away on the Twelfth of July\".In 1991, Belfast hosted its first gay pride event.", "Belfast Pride, culminating in a city-centre parade at the end of July, is now one of the biggest annual festivals in the city and, according to its organisers, the largest LGBT+ festival in Ireland.The Irish Congress of Trade Unions organises an annual city-centre May Day march and rally.", "The International Workers Day has been a public holiday since 1978." ], [ "Demography", "In 2021, there were 345,418 residents within the expanded 2015 Belfast local government boundary and 634,600 in the Belfast Metropolitan Area, approximately one third of Northern Ireland's 1.9 million population.As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery.", "Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south.", "Deprivation levels are notable in the inner parts of the north and the west of the city.", "The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) experience some of the highest levels of social deprivation including higher levels of ill health and poor access to services.", "These areas remain firmly segregated, with 80 to 90 percent of residents being of the one religious designation.Consistent with the trend across all of Northern Ireland, the Protestant population within the city has been in decline, while the non-religious, other religious and Catholic population has risen.", "The 2021 census recorded the following: 43% of residents as Catholic, 12% as Presbyterian, 8% as Church of Ireland, 3% as Methodist, 6% as belonging to other Christian denominations, 3% to other religions and 24% as having either no religion or no declared religion.In terms of community background, 47.93% were deemed to belong to, or to have been brought up in, the Catholic faith and 36.45% in a Protestant or other Christian-related denomination.", "The comparable figures in 2011 were 48.60% Catholic and 42.28% Protestant or other Christian-related denomination.With respondents free to indicate more than one national identity, in 2021 the largest national identity group was \"Irish only\" with 35% of the population, followed by \"British only\" 27%, \"Northern Irish only\" 17%, \"British and \"Northern Irish only\" 7%, \"Irish and Northern Irish only\" 2%, \"British, Irish and Northern Irish only\" 2%, British and Irish less than 1% and Other identities with 10%.From the mid to late 19th century, there was a community of central European Jews (among its distinguished members, Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff of Harland & Wolff) and of Italians in Belfast.", "Today, the largest immigrant groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.", "The 2011 census figures recorded a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland.", "Almost half of those born outside the British Isles lived in south Belfast, where they comprised 9.5% of the population.", "The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland resided in the Greater Belfast area.", "In the 2021 census the percentage of the city's residents born outside the United Kingdom had risen to 9.8.File:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up CatholicFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identityFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland" ], [ "Economy", "Samson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes=== Employment profile ===Services (including retail, health, professional & scientific) account for three quarters of jobs in Belfast.", "Only 6% remain in manufacturing.", "The balance is in distribution and construction.", "In recent years, unemployment has been comparatively low (under 3% in the summer of 2023) for the UK.", "On the other hand, Belfast, has a high rate of people economically inactive (close to 30%).", "It is a group, encompassing homemakers, full-time carers, students and retirees, that in Belfast has been swollen by the exceptionally large proportion of the population (27%) with long-term health problems or disabilities (and who, in Northern Ireland generally, are less likely to be employed than in other UK regions).=== Shipbuilding, aerospace and defence ===Of Belfast's Victorian-era industry, little remains The last working linen factory'''—'''Copeland Linens Limited, based in the Shankill area—closed in 2013.In recent years Harland and Wolff, which at peak production in the Second World War had employed around 35,000 people, has had a workforce of no more than two or three hundred refurbishing oil rigs and fabricating off-shore wind turbines.", "A £1.6 billion Royal Navy contract has offered the yard a new lease, returning it to shipbuilding in 2025 .In 1936, Short & Harland Ltd, a joint venture of Short Brothers and Harland and Wolff began the manufacture of aircraft in the docks area.", "In 1989, the British government, which had nationalised the company during the Second World War, sold it to the Canadian aerospace company Bombardier.", "In 2020, it was sold on to Spirit AeroSystems.", "Producing aircraft components it remains the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland.Originating in the Short Brothers' missile division, since since 2001 Thales Group owned Thales Air Defence Limited has been producing short range air defence and anti-tank missiles (including the NLAW shoulder-launched system deployed against the Russian invasion by Ukraine).=== Fintech and cybersecurity ===From the 1990s, Belfast established itself as a significant location for call centres and for other back-office services.", "Attracting U.S. operators such as Citi, Allstate, Liberty Mutual, Aflac and FD Technologies (Kx Systems), it as since been identified by the UK Treasury as \"key fintech financial technology hub\".", "Its key areas (its \"ABCD\") are artificial intelligence, blockchain, cloud computing, and big data.The sector's principal constraint, cyber security, has been addressed since 2004 by the Queens University Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology (IECIT), and its Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT).", "The IECIT is the anchor tenant at Catalyst (science park) in the Titanic Quarter, which hosts a cluster of companies seeking to offer innovative cyber-security solutions.=== Film ===Between 2018 and 2023, film and television production based largely in Belfast, and occupying significant new studio capacity in the ports area, contributed £330m to Northern Ireland's economy.", "There are two 8-acre media complexes (serviced by the adjacent City Airport): the Titanic Studios on Queen's Island (the Titanic Quarter) and across the Victoria Channel in Giant's Park on the Lough's north foreshore, the Belfast Harbour Studios.", "Together they offer 226,000 ft² of studio space, plus offices and workshops, and have attracted U.S. production companies such as Amazon, HBO (including all eight series of its fantasy drama ''Game of Thrones''), Paramount, Playtone, Universal, and Warner Bros..At the beginning of 2024, Ulster University, in partnership with Belfast Harbour and supported by Northern Ireland Screen, announced an £72m investment to add to the complex a new virtual production, research and development, facility, Studio Ulster.", "Additional studio space is available at Loop Studios (formerly Britvic) on the Castlereagh Road in East Belfast.=== Tourism and hospitality ===Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012.Northern Ireland's peace dividend since the 1990s, which includes a marked increase in inward investment, has contributed to a large-scale redevelopment of the city centre.", "Significant projects included Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall, the new Titanic Quarter with its Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, and the development of the original Short's harbour airfield as George Best Belfast City Airport.", "There has been a boom in tourism (32 million visitors between 2011 and 2018), and related hotel construction.", "This has included an entirely new phenomenon for Belfast: in 1999, the port received its first cruise ship.", "In 2023, Belfast welcomed 153 calls, 8% up from the pre-pandemic record set in 2019.Ship from 32 different countries landed 320,000 passengers.", "It has also seen growth of \"conflict tourism\".", "To the dismay of some, \"tourists take photos of the division lines that are not consigned to history, but are a part of living Belfast: children play football against the walls that tourists flock to.", "The places and the people themselves have become a spectacle, an attraction.\"", "Tourist bosses and guides, however, are satisfied that the greater draw is city's other \"must-see attractions\", and its \"convivial food and nightlife scene\".=== EU/GB Trade ===Invest NI, Northern Ireland's economic development agency is pitching Belfast and its hinterland to foreign investors as \"only region in the world able to trade goods freely with both GB and EU markets\".", "This follows the 2020 Northern Ireland Protocol and the 2023 Windsor Framework, agreements between the British government and European Union, whereby, post-Brexit, Northern Ireland would effectively remain within the European Single Market for goods while, in principle, retaining unfettered access to the British domestic market.", "Despite the DUP's derailment of devolved government in protest, local business leaders largely welcomed the new trade regime, hailing the promise of dual EU-GB access as a critical opportunity.In February 2024, the DUP consented to a return of the devolved Assembly an Executive on the understanding that neither the EU nor the British government would defend the integrity of their respective internal markets, by conducting ''routine'' checks on the bulk of goods passing through Belfast, or other Northern Ireland, ports." ], [ "Education", "=== Primary and secondary education ===Children from Catholic and Protestant homes in Belfast are taught, for the most part, separately on a pattern that, by the mid-nineteenth century, had been established throughout Ireland.", "Primary and secondary education is divided between Catholic Maintained Schools and non-Catholic (\"Protestant\") Controlled Schools.", "They are bound by the same curriculum, but their teaching staff are trained separately (in the university colleges of St Mary's and Stranmillis).Since the 1980s, two smaller school sectors have emerged: grant-maintained Integrated schools, which by design bring together children and staff from from both communities, and Irish language medium schoolsThe Royal Belfast Academical Institution|Belfast later ''Royal'' Belfast Academical Institution, opened its doors in 1810 with the intention, in the words of its founder, former United Irishman, William Drennan of being \"perfectly unbiased by religious distinctions\".", "The principle was not embraced by the town's middle-classes: in practice \"Inst\" provided a grammar education to the town's Presbyterian families while Anglicans favoured the older Royal Belfast Academy (1785); Catholics, St Malachy's diocesan college (1833) and Wesleyans, Methodist College Belfast (1865).Denominational lines have since blurred, with Catholics in particular moving into the controlled grammars.", "But the presence of 18 selective grammar schools in Belfast is a further feature of post-primary education in Belfast that distinguishes it from that of comparable cities in Great Britain where academic selection was abandoned in the 1960s and 70s.", "Partly prompted by the COVID disruption of external testing in 2021/22, some the city's grammars have begun to review and amend the practice.", "It is not clear that this will be on terms that reduce the degree of social segregation they have represented within the system.In 2006, the Belfast Education and Library Board became part of the consolidated Education Authority for Northern Ireland.", "In Belfast, the Authority has responsibility for 156 primary, and 48 secondary schools (including the 18 grammars).", "The system is marked by stark inequalities in outcome.", "Around 30% of school leavers in the city do not attain 5 GCSEs, A* - C (including Maths and English).", "For those in receipt of free school meals, the figure rises to over 50%.=== Further education ===Belfast has two universities.", "Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK.", "It is one of the largest universities in the UK with over 25,000 students – among them over 4,000 international students.Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus on the edge of the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast.", "Since 2021, this original \"Arts College\" campus has undergone a £1.4bn expansion to accommodate offerings across all departments.", "The project promises to bring 15,500 staff and students into the city, and to generate 5,000 new jobs.Belfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings.", "Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education.", "The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland." ], [ "Governance", "Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888.Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.Belfast has been represented in the British House of Commons since 1801, and in Northern Ireland Assembly, as presently constituted, since 1998.===Local government===Belfast City HallBelfast City Council is responsible for a range of powers and services, including land-use and community planning, parks and recreation, building control, arts and cultural heritage.", "The city's principal offices are those of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff.", "Like other elected positions within the Council such as Committee chairs, these are filled since 1998 using the D'Hondt system so that in recent years the position has rotated between councillors from the three largest factions, Sinn Féin, the DUP and the Alliance Party.The first Lord Mayor of Belfast in 1892, Daniel Dixon, like every mayor but one until 1997 (Alliance in 1979), was a unionist.", "The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in 1997.The current Lord Mayor is Ryan Murphy of Sinn Féin, since 2011 the council's largest party.", "His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.In 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party holding the balance of power.", "In 2023, unionists retained just 17 of 60 seats on the council, leaving nationalists (Sinn Féin and the SDLP) just 4 seats short of a majority.", "In addition to the 11 Alliance members there are four other councillors, 3 Green and 1 People Before Profit, who refuse a nationalist/unionist designation.===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===Stormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland.", "Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East.", "All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts.", "In United Kingdom elections, each constituency returns one MP, on a \"first past the post\" basis to Westminster.", "In NI Assembly elections each returns, on the basis of proportional representation, five MLAs to Stormont.In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2022, Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 5 Alliance Party, 1 SDLP, 1 UUP and 1 PBPA MLAs.", "In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP won all but the Sinn Féin stronghold of Belfast West.", "In the 2019 UK general election, they retained only Belfast East, losing Belfast North to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the SDLP.For the next elections the constituencies are redrawn, with Belfast South extended as Belfast South and Mid Down to include parts of Lagan Valley and Strangford." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Hospitals===The Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health.", "Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.The Royal Hospitals site in west Belfast (junction of Grosvenor and Falls roads) contains two hospitals.", "The Royal Victoria Hospital (its origins in a number of successive institutions, beginning in 1797 with The Belfast Fever Hospital) provides both local and regional services.", "Specialist services include cardiac surgery, critical care and the Regional Trauma Centre.", "The Children’s Hospital (Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children) provides general hospital care for children in Belfast and provides most of the paediatric regional specialities.The Belfast City Hospital (evolved from a 19th century workhouse and infirmary) on the Lisburn Road is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a najor cancer centre.", "The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.Musgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation.", "It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit.The Mater Hospital (founded in 1883 by the Sisters of Mercy) on the Crumlin Road provides a wide range of services, including acute inpatient, emergency and maternity services, to north Belfast and the surrounding areas.===Transport===Great Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland RailwaysBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route.Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas.", "These are outnumbered by private hire taxis.", "Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink.", "Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,More distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus.", "Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown.", "This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system.", "Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry.", "Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' operated jointly by NIR and the Irish rail company Iarnród Éireann.George Best Belfast City AirportThe city has two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, close to the city centre on the eastern shore of Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport 30–40 minutes to the west to the west on the shore of Lough Neagh.", "Both operate UK domestic and European flights.", "The city is also served by Dublin Airport, two hours to the south, with direct inter-continental connections.In addition to its extensive freight business, the port offers car-ferry sailings, operated by Stena Line, to Cairnryan in Scotland (5 Sailings Daily.", "2 hours 22 minutes) and to Liverpool-Birkenhead (14 sailings weekly.", "8 hours).", "The Isle of Man Steam Packet Company provides a seasonal connection to Douglas, Isle of Man.The Glider bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast.", "Introduced in 2018, it is a bus rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre.", "Using articulated buses, the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week.", "The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport.National Cycle Route 9 to Newry, which will eventually connect with Dublin, starts in Belfast.===Utilities===Silent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflowHalf of Belfast's water is supplied via the Aquarius pipeline from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains.", "The other half is now supplied from Lough Neagh via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim (and which, in recent years, has had to contend with toxic cyanobacteria - or blue-green algae).", "The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill.", "Plans to bring in additional water tariffs were deferred by devolution in May 2007.Power is provided from a number of power stations via NIE Networks Limited transmission lines.", "(Just under a half of electricity consumption in Northern Ireland is generated from renewable sources).", "Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline.", "Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007.The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''." ], [ "Recreation and sports", "=== Leisure centres ===Belfast City Council owns and maintains 17 leisure centres across the city, run on its behalf by the non-profit social enterprise GLL under the ‘Better’ brand.", "These include eight large multipurposed centres complete with swimming pools: Ballysillan Leisure Centre and Grove Wellbeing Centre in North Belfast; the Andersonstown, Falls, Shankill and Whiterock leisure centres in West Belfast; Templemore Baths and Lisnasharragh Leisure Centre in East Belfast, and close to the city centre in South Belfast, the Olympia Leisure Centre and Spa,===Parks and gardens===Botanic Gardens|leftBelfast has over forty parks.", "The oldest (1828) and one of the most popular parks Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter.", "Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, its Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse.", "Other attractions in the park include the recently restored Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.The largest municipal park in the city, and closest to the city centre, lies on the right bank of Lagan.", "The 100-acres of Ormeau Park were opened to the public in 1871 on what was the last demesne of the town's former proprietors, the Chichesters, Marquesses of Donegall.In north Belfast, the Waterworks, two reservoirs to which the public have had access since 1897, are features of a park supporting angling and waterfowl.", "In 1906, a further water park, Victoria, opened behind industrial dockland on what had been the eastern shore of the Lough.", "It is now connected through east Belfast by the Connswater Community Greenway which offers 16 km of continuous cycle and walkway through east Belfast.The green conservation area within the city's boundaries is a 2,116 hectares patchwork of \"parks, demesnes, woodland and meadows\" stretching upriver along the banks of the Lagan river and canal; Established in 1967, the Lagan Valley Regional Park envelopes in its course, Belvoir Park Forest, which contains ancient oaks and a 12th-century Norman Motte, and Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, whose International Rose Garden attracts thousands of visitors each July.Colin Glenn Forest Park, the National Trust Divis and the Black Mountain Ridge Trail, and Cave Hill Country Park.", "offer panoramic views over Belfast and beyond from the west.", "Climbing the Castlereagh Hills, the National Trust Lisnabreeny Cregagh Glen does the same from the east.Below Cave Hill, the council maintains one of the few local government-funded zoos in the British Isles.", "The Belfast Zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs.", "It carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.===Sports===leftBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey.", "The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, The 41st Marathon in 2023, with related events (Wheelchair Race, Team Relay and 8 Mile Walk) attracted 15,000 participants.The Northern Ireland national football team plays its home matches at Windsor Park.", "Football clubs with stdia and raining grounds in the city include: Linfield, Glentoran, Crusaders, Cliftonville, Donegal Celtic, Harland & Wolff Welders, Dundela, Knockbreda, PSNI, Newington, Sport & Leisure and Brantwood.Belfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs.", "Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster.", "In May 2020, the foundation of East Belfast GAA returned Gaelic Games to East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area.", "The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast Linda Ervine who comes from a unionist background in the area.", "The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League.The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at Ravenhill Stadium in the south of the city.", "Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.Belfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever One Day International against England in 2006.The 9,500 capacity SSE Arena accommodates the Belfast Giants, one of the biggest ice hockey clubs in the UK.", "Featuring Canadian, ex-NHL players, the club competes the British Elite Ice Hockey League.Belfast was the home town of former Manchester United player George Best, the 1968 European Footballer of the Year, who died in November 2005.On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery.", "Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.", "Other sportspeople celebrated in the city include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough, Rinty Monaghan and Carl Frampton." ], [ "Weather", "At , its northern latitude is characterised by short winter days and long summer evenings.", "During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45.At the summer solstice in June, the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.For this northern latitude, thanks to the maritime influence of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, Belfast has a comparatively mild climate.", "In summer the temperatures rarely range above 25 °C (77 °F) or dip in winter below -5 °C (23 °F).The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1 mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland." ], [ "Notable people", "Georgian Belfast* Edward Bunting (1773-1843), Irish folklorist, organiser of the 1792 Belfast Harp Festival.", "* Henry Cooke (1788–1868), Presbyterian Moderator, evangelist, proponent of \"Protestant unity\".", "Memorial statue stands in College Square East*Waddell Cunningham (1729 – 1797) Trans-Atlantic trader, West-Indian slaveholder, Irish Volunteer, liberal patron.", "* William Drennan (1754 –1820), United Irishman, founder of the Royal Belfast Academical Institution (RBAI).", "* Mary Ann McCracken (1766-1866) United Irishwoman, social activist, abolitionist, sister of Henry Joy McCracken hanged 1798 .", "* James MacDonnell (1763-1845), physician, polymath patron of institutions since developed as the Royal Victoria Hospital, RBAI and the Linen Hall Library* David Manson, (1726-1792), schoolmaster, pioneer of play and peer tutoring.", "Freedom of the Borough 1779.", "* Samuel Neilson (1761-1803) woollen merchant, publisher of the Northern Star, United Irishman* John Templeton (1766–1825), \"Father of Irish Botany\", patron of the town's scientific and literary societies.Victorian Belfast* Thomas Andrews (1873–1912, chief naval architect at Harland & Wolff, went down with RMS Titanic.", "* Joseph Biggar (1828-1890),\"obstructionist\" Irish nationalist MP.", "* Margaret Byers (1832 – 1912), educator, activist, social reformer, missionary, founder of Victoria College* Hugh \"Roaring\" Hanna (1821 – 1892), Protestant evangelist associated with sectarian riot, commemorated, until targeted and destroyed in the Troubles, by his statue and church at Carlisle Circus.", "* Edward Harland (1831-1895) and Gustave Wolff(1834-1913), partners in the world's largest shipyard.", "* Bernard \"Barney\" Hughes (1808-1878), Ireland's largest miller and baker (producer of the Belfast bap), first elected Catholic town councillor.", "* Otto Jaffe (1846-1929), business, and Jewish community, leader, twice Mayor of Belfast.", "* William Johnston (1829-1902), Orangeman celebrated for breaking the Party Processions Act, Belfast MP, women's suffragist.", "* Richard Rutledge Kane (1841 - 1898), Orange Order Grand Master, patron of the first Belfast branch of the Gaelic League.", "* Charles Lanyon (1813-1889), architect of main (\"Lanyon\") building of Queens University, the Palm House, Botanic Gardens, Linenhall Library, Belfast Castle and Crumlin Road Goal and Courthouse* Robert Shipboy MacAdam (1808-1895) Irish folklorist and linguist, honoured with Cardinal Ó Fiaich in Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich* John Mulholland (1819-1895), established the world's largest flax-spinning operation, York Street Mill.", "MP.", "* William Pirrie (1847-1924) Chairman of Harland & Wolff, Mayor of Belfast.", "Freedom of the City, 1898.", "* William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), physicist renowned for his work on mechanical energy and heat.", "Memorial statue stands before the Ulster Museum.", "* Isabella Tod (1836 – 1896) suffragist, with William Johnston secured the municipal vote for women, 1888.Early 20th century* Edward Carson (1854-1935), leader of Ulster Unionism in the Home Rule Crisis.", "Memorial statue stands before Parliament Buildings at Stormont.", "* William Conor OBE (1881–1968), painter renowned for his sympathetic portrayals of working-class life.", "* James Craig (1871-1940), first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland* Joseph Devlin (1871-1934), journalist, Irish nationalist NI MP Belfast West.", "* Harry Ferguson (1884-1960) developer of the modern agricultural tractor, first person in Ireland to build and fly an aeroplane.", "* John Hewitt (1907-1987), poet (\"The Bloody Brae\").", "Freedom of the City 1983.", "* James Larkin (1874-1947), syndicalist leader of the 1907 Belfast Dock strike.", "* C. S. Lewis (1898-1963), writer and Anglican lay theologian.", "Honoured as author of The Chronicles of Narnia in C. S. Lewis Square, East Belfast* Margaret McCoubrey (1880-1955) militant WPSU suffragette, peace campaigner, Labour City Councillor.", "* Harry Midgley (1893 -1957), labour union and party organiser, post-war Unionist Minister for Education.", "* Alexander \"Buck Alec\" Robinson (1901–1995), docklands streetfighter and loyalist gunman.", "Kept lions in his Sailortown home.", "* Betty Sinclair (1910-1981), Communist party activist, 1932 Outdoor Relief protest, Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association chair.", "* Joseph Tomelty (1911-1995), stage and screen (Odd Man Out) actor, writer and broadcaster.", "* William Walker (1871-1918), unionist labour organiser and Vice-Chair of the British Labour Party.", "* Ernest Walton (1903–95), with John Cockcroft Nobel Prize for splitting the atom.Late 20th century* Gerry Adams (1948- ), reputed republican paramilitary (PIRA) leader, president of Sinn Féin.", "MP Belfast West.", "rtd.", "* Derek Bell (1935-2002), harpist, musicologist and composer, The Chieftains.", "* George Best (1946-2005), football international, iconic sports figure, City Airport named in his honour.", "* May Blood (1938-2022), shop steward in one of the city's last linen mills, community worker, co-founder Northern Ireland Women's Coalition.", "* Ciaran Carson (1948-2019), writer, poet (Belfast Confetti)* David Ervine (1953-2007), loyalist paramilitary (UVF) veteran, leader of the pro-Agreement Progressive Unionist Party.", "MLA* Gerry Fitt (1926-2005), Republican Labour/SDLP MP.", "Deputy Chief of the first NI power-sharing executive, 1974.", "* David Hammond (1928-2008) as teacher, singer, broadcaster, and film-maker documented the culture of city's shipyards and streets.", "* Terri Hooley (1948 - ) key figure in the Belfast punk scene, celebrated in the 2013 biopic Good Vibrations.", "* Brian Keenan (1942 – 2008), directed PIRA bombing in the city, interlocutor for arms decommissioning.", "* Helen Lewis (née Katz; 1916 – 2009), Holocaust survivor, teacher and choreographer, pioneer in Northern Ireland of modern dance.", "* Mairéad Corrigan (1944 - ), with Betty Williams awarded the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize, as co-founder of Women for Peace / the Peace People, critic of US and UK foreign policy.", "* Brian Moore (1921-1999), novelist (The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne, The Emperor of Ice Cream)* Ian Paisley (1926-2014), Protestant evangelist (Martyrs Memorial Church, Belfast), founder of the DUP, NI First Minister* Fr Alec Reid (1931-2013), Catholic priest, mediator in the Hume–Adams talks, Northern Ireland peace process.", "* David Trimble (1944-2022), Ulster Unionist leader, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, NI First Minister* Andy Tyrie (1940- ), loyalist paramilitary (UDA) leader (rtd), Ulster Workers' Council strike, NI peace process advocate.", "* Fr.", "Des Wilson (1925–2019), dissident Catholic priest, west Belfast community activist, republican-loyalist mediator." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Belfast City Council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with the following sister cities:* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)* Melbourne, Victoria, Australia" ], [ "Freedom of the City", "Those who have received the Freedom of the City* Sir Kenneth Branagh: 30 January 2018.", "* Andrew Carnegie: 28 September 1910.", "* Sir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955.", "* Bill Clinton, 9 April 2018* Sir Robert Hart, 1 July 1908* John Hewitt: 26 May 1983* Sir John Jordan: 28 September 1910.", "* Michael Longley: 23 March 2015* George J. Mitchell, 9 April 2018* Nurses of Belfast, 1 December 2015*Royal Ulster Constabulary and Reserve: 30 May 1980*William Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie: 1898, the first person to be awarded Freedom Of The City of Belfast." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J.", "1997.", "''Urban Flora of Belfast''.", "Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.", "* Deane, C. Douglas.", "1983.", "''The Ulster Countryside''.", "Century Books.", "* Gillespie, R.", "2007.", "''Early Belfast''.", "Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation.", ".", "* Nesbitt, Noel.", "1982.", "''The Changing Face of Belfast''.", "Ulster Museum, Belfast.", "Publication no.", "183.", "* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T.", "1997.''Belfast''.", "National Museums of Northern Ireland.", "* Scott, Robert.", "2004.", "''Wild Belfast: On Safari in the City''.", "Blackstaff Press.", ".", "* Walker, B.M.", "and Dixon, H.", "1984.", "''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880''.", "The Friar's Bush Press, * Walker, B.M.", "and Dixon, H.", "1983.", "''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914''.", ".", "* Connolly, S.J.", "Ed.", "2012.Belfast 400 People Places and History.", "Liverpool University Press.", "* McCracken, E.", "1971.", "''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''.", "Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.", "* McMahon, Sean.", "2011.", "''A Brief History of Belfast''.", "The Brehon Press.", "Belfast.", "* Fulton, C.", "2011.", "''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s''.", "Thedoc Press.", "* O'Reilly, D.", "2010.", "\"Rivers of Belfast\".", "Colourpoint Books.", "* Weatherall, Norman (text), and Evans, David (paintings), 2002, ''South Belfast Terrace and Villa''.", "Cottage Publications." ], [ "External links", "* Belfast City Council" ] ]

[ [ "Biotite" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Biotite''' is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula .", "It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron-endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more aluminous end-members include siderophyllite and eastonite.", "Biotite was regarded as a mineral ''species'' by the International Mineralogical Association until 1998, when its status was changed to a mineral ''group''.", "The term ''biotite'' is still used to describe unanalysed dark micas in the field.", "Biotite was named by J.F.L.", "Hausmann in 1847 in honor of the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot, who performed early research into the many optical properties of mica.Members of the biotite group are sheet silicates.", "Iron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen form sheets that are weakly bound together by potassium ions.", "The term \"iron mica\" is sometimes used for iron-rich biotite, but the term also refers to a flaky micaceous form of haematite, and the field term Lepidomelane for unanalysed iron-rich Biotite avoids this ambiguity.", "Biotite is also sometimes called \"black mica\" as opposed to \"white mica\" (muscovite) – both form in the same rocks, and in some instances side by side." ], [ "Properties", "Like other mica minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, and consists of flexible sheets, or lamellae, which easily flake off.", "It has a monoclinic crystal system, with tabular to prismatic crystals with an obvious pinacoid termination.", "It has four prism faces and two pinacoid faces to form a pseudohexagonal crystal.", "Although not easily seen because of the cleavage and sheets, fracture is uneven.", "It appears greenish to brown or black, and even yellow when weathered.", "It can be transparent to opaque, has a vitreous to pearly luster, and a grey-white streak.", "When biotite crystals are found in large chunks, they are called \"books\" because they resemble books with pages of many sheets.", "The color of biotite is usually black and the mineral has a hardness of 2.5–3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness.Biotite dissolves in both acid and alkaline aqueous solutions, with the highest dissolution rates at low pH.", "However, biotite dissolution is highly anisotropic with crystal edge surfaces (''h k''0) reacting 45 to 132 times faster than basal surfaces (001).File:Biotite mica 2 (31739438210).jpg|Flaky biotite sheets.File:BiotitaEZ.jpg|Thick biotite sample featuring many sheets.File:Biotite1.jpg|Biotite crystal exhibiting pseudohexagonal shape.===Optical properties===In thin section, biotite exhibits moderate relief and a pale to deep greenish brown or brown color, with moderate to strong pleochroism.", "Biotite has a high birefringence which can be partially masked by its deep intrinsic color.", "Under cross-polarized light, biotite exhibits extinction approximately parallel to cleavage lines, and can have characteristic bird's eye maple extinction, a mottled appearance caused by the distortion of the mineral's flexible lamellae during grinding of the thin section.", "Basal sections of biotite in thin section are typically approximately hexagonal in shape and usually appear isotropic under cross-polarized light.File:Muscovite and Biotite2a.jpg|Biotite (in brown) and muscovite in an orthogneiss thin section under plane-polarized light.File:Thin Section of Biotite (test) (cropped to Biotite).jpg|Biotite in thin section under cross-polarized light.File:Sagenitic biotite.JPG|Basal section of biotite, with needle-like rutile inclusions, in thin section under plane-polarized light.===Structure===Like other micas, biotite has a crystal structure described as ''TOT-c'', meaning that it is composed of parallel ''TOT'' layers weakly bonded to each other by cations (''c'').", "The ''TOT'' layers in turn consist of two tetrahedral sheets (''T'') strongly bonded to the two faces of a single octahedral sheet (''O'').", "It is the relatively weak ionic bonding between ''TOT'' layers that gives biotite its perfect basal cleavage.The tetrahedral sheets consist of silica tetrahedra, which are silicon ions surrounded by four oxygen ions.", "In biotite, one in four silicon ions is replaced by an aluminium ion.", "The tetrahedra each share three of their four oxygen ions with neighboring tetrahedra to produce a hexagonal sheet.", "The remaining oxygen ion (the ''apical'' oxygen ion) is available to bond with the octahedral sheet.The octahedral sheet in biotite is a trioctahedral sheet having the structure of a sheet of the mineral brucite, with magnesium or ferrous iron being the usual cations.", "Apical oxygens take the place of some of the hydroxyl ions that would be present in a brucite sheet, bonding the tetrahedral sheets tightly to the octahedral sheet.Tetrahedral sheets have a strong negative charge, since their bulk composition is AlSi3O105-.", "The trioctahedral sheet has a positive charge, since its bulk composition is M3(OH)24+ (M represents a divalent ion such as ferrous iron or magnesium) The combined TOT layer has a residual negative charge, since its bulk composition is M3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2−.", "The remaining negative charge of the TOT layer is neutralized by the interlayer potassium ions.Because the hexagons in the T and O sheets are slightly different in size, the sheets are slightly distorted when they bond into a TOT layer.", "This breaks the hexagonal symmetry and reduces it to monoclinic symmetry.", "However, the original hexahedral symmetry is discernible in the pseudohexagonal character of biotite crystals.File:Mica T.png|View of tetrahedral sheet structure of biotite.", "The apical oxygen ions are tinted pink.File:Mica tO.png|View of trioctahedral sheet structure of biotite.", "The binding sites for apical oxygen are shown as white spheres.", "Red spheres are hydroxide ions.File:Mica tOs.png|View of trioctahedral sheet structure of mica emphasizing magnesium or iron sitesFile:Mica tri.png|View of biotite structure looking at surface of a single layerFile:Mica tri side.png|View of biotite structure looking along sheets" ], [ "Occurrence", "Members of the biotite group are found in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks.", "For instance, biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius and in the Monzoni intrusive complex of the western Dolomites.", "Biotite in granite tends to be poorer in magnesium than the biotite found in its volcanic equivalent, rhyolite.", "Biotite is an essential phenocryst in some varieties of lamprophyre.", "Biotite is occasionally found in large cleavable crystals, especially in pegmatite veins, as in New England, Virginia and North Carolina USA.", "Other notable occurrences include Bancroft and Sudbury, Ontario Canada.", "It is an essential constituent of many metamorphic schists, and it forms in suitable compositions over a wide range of pressure and temperature.", "It has been estimated that biotite comprises up to 7% of the exposed continental crust.An igneous rock composed almost entirely of dark mica (biotite or phlogopite) is known as a ''glimmerite'' or ''biotitite''.Biotite may be found in association with its common alteration product chlorite.The largest documented single crystals of biotite were approximately sheets found in Iveland, Norway.File:Biotite Granite student sample.jpg|Biotite-bearing granite samples (small black minerals).File:Biotite Gneiss.JPG|Biotite-bearing gneiss sample.File:Biotite and chlorite gneiss mg 7971.jpg|Gneiss sample bearing biotite and chlorite (green), a common alteration product of biotite.File:Sheet mica, Namibia.jpg|Glimmerite from Namibia." ], [ "Uses", "Biotite is used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon–argon dating.", "Because argon escapes readily from the biotite crystal structure at high temperatures, these methods may provide only minimum ages for many rocks.", "Biotite is also useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the partitioning of iron and magnesium between biotite and garnet is sensitive to temperature.==References==" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Brigham Young" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brigham Young''' (; June 1, 1801August 29, 1877) was an American religious leader and politician.", "He was the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), from 1847 until his death in 1877.During his time as church president, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, west from Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Salt Lake Valley.", "He founded Salt Lake City and served as the first governor of the Utah Territory.", "Young also worked to establish the learning institutions that would later become the University of Utah and Brigham Young University.", "A polygamist, Young had at least 56 wives and 57 children.", "He formalized the prohibition of black men attaining priesthood, and led the church in the Utah War against the United States." ], [ "Early life", "Phineas H., Joseph, and John.Young was born on June 1, 1801, in Whitingham, Vermont.", "He was the ninth child of John Young and Abigail \"Nabby\" Howe.", "Young's father was a farmer, and when Young was three years old his family moved to upstate New York, settling in Chenango County.", "Young received little formal education, but his mother taught him how to read and write.", "At age twelve, he moved with his parents to the township of Genoa, close to Cayuga Lake.", "His mother died of tuberculosis in June 1815.Following her death, he moved with his father to Tyrone, New York.", "While there, Young's father remarried to a widow named Hannah Brown and sent Young off to learn a trade.", "Young moved to Auburn, New York, where he was an apprentice to John C. Jeffries.", "He worked as a carpenter, glazier, and painter.", "One of the homes that Young helped paint in Auburn belonged to Elijah Miller and later to William Seward, and is now a local museum.", "With the onset of the Panic of 1819, Jeffries dismissed Young from his apprenticeship, and Young moved to Port Byron, which was then called Bucksville.", "Young reported having a strict Puritan-style Christian upbringing.", "He used tobacco but did not drink alcohol.", "He refused to sign a temperance pledge, however, stating that \"if I sign the temperance pledge I feel that I am bound, and I wish to do just right, without being bound to do it; I want my liberty.", "\"Chair made by Young, who was a carpenter early in his life.Young married Miriam Angeline Works, whom he had met in Port Byron in October 1824.They first resided in a small house adjacent to a pail factory, which was Young's main place of employment at the time.", "Their daughter, Elizabeth, was born on September 26, 1825.According to William Hayden, Young participated in the Bucksville Forensic and Oratorical Society.", "Young converted to the Reformed Methodist Church in 1824 after studying the Bible.", "Upon joining the Methodists, he insisted on being baptized by immersion rather than by their normal practice of sprinkling.", "In 1828, the family moved briefly to Oswego, New York, on the shore of Lake Ontario, and in 1828 to Mendon, New York.", "Young's father, two brothers, and sister had already moved to Mendon.", "In Mendon, Young first became acquainted with Heber C. Kimball, an early member of the LDS Church.", "Young worked as a carpenter and joiner, and built and operated a saw mill.=== Latter Day Saint conversion ===1845 portrait displayed in the Nauvoo Temple celestial room.", "Young titled the painting, ''Delivering the Law of the Lord.''", "On the table are a Book of Mormon and Bible, and a third book titled, \"Law of the Lord,\" By the time Young moved to Mendon in 1828, he had effectively left the Reformed Methodist Church and become a Christian seeker, unconvinced that he had found a church possessing the true authority of Jesus Christ.", "Sometime in 1830, Young was introduced to the Book of Mormon by way of a copy that his brother, Phineas Howe, had obtained from Samuel H. Smith.", "Young did not immediately accept the divine claims of the Book of Mormon.", "In 1831, five missionaries of the Latter Day Saint movement—Eleazer Miller, Elial Strong, Alpheus Gifford, Enos Curtis, and Daniel Bowen—came from the branch of the church in Columbia, Pennsylvania, to preach in Mendon.", "A key element of the teachings of this group in Young's eyes was their practicing of spiritual gifts like speaking in tongues and prophecy.", "This was partly experienced when Young traveled with his wife, Miriam, and Heber C. Kimball to visit the branch of the church in Columbia.", "After meeting Joseph Smith, Young joined the Church of Christ in April 9, 1832.He was baptized by Eleazer Miller.", "Young's siblings and their spouses were baptized that year or the year afterwards.", "In April 1832, a branch of the church was organized in Mendon; eight of the fifteen families were Youngs.", "There, Young saw Alpheus Gifford speak in tongues, and in response, Young also spoke in tongues.", "Young and Kimball spent the summer following their baptism conducting missionary work in western New York, while Vilate Kimball cared for Young's family.", "After Miriam died of consumption, Vilate continued to care for Brigham's children while he, Heber, and Joseph Young traveled to visit Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Ohio.", "During the visit, Brigham spoke in a tongue that Smith identified as the \"Adamic language\".After visiting Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Brigham set out to preach with his brother Joseph in the winter of 1832–1833.Joseph had been a Reformed Methodist preacher and the two made a similar \"preaching circuit\" in eastern Canada.", "They described the Book of Mormon as the \"stick of Joseph\", mentioned in Ezekiel 37.Young continued to preach in eastern Canada in the spring and accompanied two Canadian converts to Kirtland in July 1833.Young and his two daughters moved to Kirtland along with the Kimball family later that summer.", "Here he became acquainted with Mary Ann Angell, a convert to the faith from Rhode Island, and the two were married in February 1834 and obtained a marriage certificate on March 31, 1834.In May 1834, Young became a member of Zion's Camp and traveled to Missouri.", "He returned to Kirtland with members of the camp in August.", "After his return to Kirtland, Young did carpentry, painting, and glazing work to earn money.", "He also worked on the Kirtland Temple and went to a grammar school.", "His third child and first son, Joseph A.", "Young, was born shortly after his return.", "Mary Ann, who was pregnant at the time, had provided for Young's two daughters and the children of her brother Solomon Angell and their friend Lorenzo Booth while Young was away with Zion's Camp." ], [ "Church service", "Young 1857At a conference on February 14, 1835, Brigham Young was named and ordained a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles.", "On May 4, 1835, Young and other apostles went on a mission to the east coast, specifically in Pennsylvania and New York.", "His call was to preach to the \"remnants of Joseph\", a term people in the church used to refer to indigenous people.", "In August 1835, Young and the rest of the Quorum of the Twelve issued a testimony in support of the divine origin of the Doctrine and Covenants.", "He oversaw the finishing of the Kirtland temple and spoke in tongues at its dedication in 1836.Shortly afterwards, Young went on another mission with his brother Joseph to New York and New England.", "On this mission, he visited the family of his aunt, Rhoda Howe Richards.", "They converted to the church, including his cousin Willard Richards.", "In August 1837, Young went on another mission to the eastern states.", "He then returned to Kirtland where he remained until dissenters, unhappy with the failure of the Kirtland Safety Society, forced him to flee the community in December 1837.He then stayed for a short time in Dublin, Indiana, with his brother Lorenzo before moving to Far West, Missouri, in 1838.He was later joined by his family and by other members of the church in Missouri.", "He became the oldest member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles when David Patten died after the Battle of Crooked River.", "When Joseph Smith arrived in Far West, he appointed Young, along with Thomas Marsh and David Patten, as \"presidency pro tem\" in Missouri.Under Young's direction, the quorum organized the exodus of Latter Day Saints from Missouri to Illinois in 1838.Young also served a year-long mission to the United Kingdom.", "There, he showed a talent for organizing the church's work and maintaining good relationships with Joseph Smith and the other apostles.", "Under his leadership, members in the United Kingdom began publishing ''Millennial Star'', a hymnal, and a new edition of the Book of Mormon.", "Young also served in various leadership and community organization roles among church members in Nauvoo.", "He joined the Nauvoo city council in 1841 and oversaw the first baptisms for the dead in the unfinished Nauvoo temple.", "He joined the Masons in Nauvoo on April 7, 1842, and participated in an early endowment ritual led by Joseph Smith that May and became part of the Anointed Quorum.", "Young and the other apostles directed the church's missionary work and the immigration of new converts from this point forward.", "Young served another mission to the Eastern seaboard.", "During his time in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith introduced the doctrine of plural marriage among church leaders.", "Young performed the sealing ordinances for two of Joseph Smith's plural wives in early 1842.Young proposed marriage to Martha Brotherton, who was seventeen years old at the time and had recently immigrated from Manchester, England.", "Brotherton signed an affidavit saying that she had been pressured by Young and then Smith to accept polygamy.", "The affidavit was created at John C. Bennett's request, after his excommunication and in conjunction with his distribution of false information combined with true information about the church's practice of polygamy.", "Brigham Young and William Smith discredited Brotherton's character, and Brotherton herself did not associate with the church afterwards.", "Young campaigned against Bennett's allegations that Joseph Smith practiced \"spiritual wifery\"; Young knew of Smith's hidden practice of polygamy.", "He also helped to convince Hyrum to accept polygamy.", "Young married Lucy Ann Decker in June 1842, making her his first plural wife.", "Young knew her father, Isaac Decker, in New York.", "Lucy was still married to William Seeley when Young married her.", "Young supported her and her two children while they lived in their own home in Nauvoo.", "Lucy and Young had seven children together.", "Young was one of the first men in Nauvoo to practice polygamy, and he married more women than any other polygamist while in Nauvoo.", "While in Nauvoo, he married Clarissa Decker, Clarissa Ross, Emily Dow Partidge, Louisa Beaman, Margaret Maria Alley, Emmeline Free, Margaret Piece, and Zina Diantha Huntington.", "These wives bore him children after they moved to Utah.", "He also married in Nauvoo, but did not have children with Augusta Adams Cobb, Susannah Snively, Eliza Bowker, Ellen A. Rockwood, and Namah K. J. Carter.", "Eight of Young's plural marriages in Nauvoo were to Joseph Smith's widows.", "Young traveled east with Wilford Woodruff and George A. Smith from July to October 1843 on a mission to raise funds for the Nauvoo temple and its guesthouse.", "Young's six-year-old daughter Mary Ann died while he was on this mission.", "On November 22, 1843, Young and his wife Mary Ann received the second anointing, a ritual that assured them that their salvation and exaltation would occur.", "In March 1844, Brigham Young was an inaugural member of the Council of Fifty, which later organized the Mormon exodus from Nauvoo.In 1844, Young traveled east again to solicit votes for Joseph Smith in his presidential campaign.", "In June 1844, while Young was away, Joseph Smith was killed by an armed mob who stormed the jail where he was awaiting trial for the charge of treason.", "Young did not learn of the assassination until early July.", "Several claimants to the role of church president emerged during the succession crisis that ensued.", "Sidney Rigdon, the senior surviving member of the church's First Presidency, argued there could be no successor to the deceased prophet and that he should stay Joseph's \"spokesman\" and become guardian of the church.", "Young argued that the church needed more than a spokesman and that the Twelve Apostles, not Rigdon, had the keys, powers, and \"the fulness of the Priesthood\", referring to the second anointing.", "Young claimed access to revelation to know God's choice of successor because of his position as an apostle.", "The majority in attendance voted that the Quorum of the Twelve was to lead the church.", "Many of Young's followers stated in reminiscent accounts (the earliest in 1850 and the latest in 1920) that when Young spoke to the congregation, he looked or sounded exactly like Smith, which they attributed to the power of God.", "Young began acting as the church's president afterwards, though he did not yet have a full presidency.", "He also led the Anointed Quorum.", "Not all church members followed Young.", "Rigdon became the president of a separate church organization based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and several other potential successors emerged to lead what became other denominations of the movement.", "Young led the church as president of the Quorum of the Twelve until December 5, 1847, when the quorum unanimously agreed to organize a new First Presidency with Young as president of the church.", "A church conference held in Iowa sustained Young and his First Presidency on December 27, 1847.Before departing Nauvoo, Young focused on completing the Nauvoo temple.", "After the exterior was completed on December 10, 1845, members received their temple endowments day and night, and Young officiated many of these sessions.", "An estimated 5,000 members were endowed between December 10, 1845, and February 1846.With the repealing of Nauvoo's charter in January 1845, church members in Nauvoo lost their courts, police, and militia, leaving them vulnerable to attacks by mobs.", "Young instructed victims of anti-Mormon violence on the outskirts of Nauvoo to move to Nauvoo.", "Young negotiated with Stephen A. Douglas and agreed to lead church members out of Nauvoo in the spring in exchange for peace.", "Some Mormons counterfeited American and Mexican money, and a grand jury indicted Young and other church leaders in 1845.When officers arrived at the Nauvoo temple to arrest Young, he sent William Miller out in Young's hat and cloak.", "Miller was arrested but released when it was discovered he was not Brigham Young.", "Young himself condemned the counterfeiting.", "John Turner's biography states: \"it remains unclear whether Young ... had sanctioned the bogus-making operation\".", "The indictment of Young and other leaders, combined with rumors that troops would prevent the Mormons from leaving, led Young to start their exodus in February 1846." ], [ "Migration west", "Repeated conflict in Nauvoo led Young to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to the Salt Lake Valley, which was then part of Mexico.", "Young organized the journey that would take the Mormon pioneers to Winter Quarters, Nebraska, in 1846, before continuing on to the Salt Lake Valley.", "By the time Young arrived at the final destination, it had come under American control as a result of war with Mexico, although U.S. sovereignty would not be confirmed until 1848.Young arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, a date now recognized as Pioneer Day in Utah.", "Two days after their arrival, Young and the Twelve Apostles climbed the peak just north of the city and raised the American flag, calling it the \"Ensign of Liberty\".Upon being asked why he chose for them to settle in the Salt Lake Valley, Young stated: \"We have been kicked out of the frying-pan into the fire, out of the fire into the middle of the floor, and here we are and here we will stay.", "God has shown me that this is the spot to locate his people, and here is where they will prosper.", "\"Young's home property, surveyed in 1862Among Young's first acts upon arriving in the valley were the naming of the city as \"The City of the Great Salt Lake\" and its organization into blocks of ten acres, each divided into eight equal-sized lots.", "On August 7, Young suggested that the members of the camp be re-baptized to signify a re-dedication to their beliefs and covenants.", "Young spent just over a month in the Valley recovering from mountain fever before returning to Winter Quarters on August 31.Young's expedition was one of the largest and one of the best organized westward treks, and he made various trips back and forth between the Salt Lake Valley and Winter Quarters to assist other companies in their journeys.After three years of leading the church as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was sustained as the second president of the church on December 27, 1847, at Winter Quarters.", "Young named Heber C. Kimball as his first counselor and Willard Richards as his second.", "Young and his counselors were again sustained unanimously by church members at a church conference in Salt Lake City in September 1850." ], [ "Governor of Utah Territory", "An 1853 daguerreotype of YoungThe Utah Territory was created by Congress as part of the Compromise of 1850, and as colonizer and founder of Salt Lake City, Young was appointed the territory's first governor and superintendent of American Indian affairs by President Millard Fillmore on February 3, 1851.He was sworn in by Justice Daniel H. Wells for a salary of $1,500 a year and named as superintendent of Indian Affairs for an additional $1,000.During his time as governor, Young directed the establishment of settlements throughout present-day Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, California, and parts of southern Colorado and northern Mexico.", "Under his direction, the Mormons built roads, bridges, forts, and irrigation projects; established public welfare; organized a militia; issued a \"selective extermination\" order against male Timpanogos; and after a series of wars, eventually made peace with the Native Americans.", "Young was also one of the first to subscribe to Union Pacific stock, for the construction of the First transcontinental railroad.", "He also authorized the construction of the Utah Central railroad line, which connected Salt Lake City to the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad.", "Young organized the first Utah Territorial Legislature and established Fillmore as the territory's first capital.Young established a gold mint in 1849 and called for the minting of coins using gold dust that had been accumulated from travelers during the Gold Rush.", "The mint was closed in 1861 by Alfred Cumming, gubernatorial successor to Young.", "Young also organized a board of regents to establish a university in the Salt Lake Valley.", "It was established on February 28, 1850, as the University of Deseret; its name was eventually changed to the University of Utah.", "In 1849, Young arranged for a printing press to be brought to the Salt Lake Valley, which was later used to print the ''Deseret News'' periodical.In 1851, Young and several federal officials—including territorial Secretary Broughton Harris—became unable to work cooperatively.", "Within months, Harris and the others departed their Utah appointments without replacements being named, and their posts remained unfilled for the next two years.", "These individuals later became known as the Runaway Officials of 1851.Young supported slavery and its expansion into Utah and led the efforts to legalize and regulate slavery in the 1852 Act in Relation to Service, based on his beliefs on slavery.", "Young said in an 1852 speech, \"In as much as we believe in the Bible... we must believe in slavery.", "This colored race have been subjected to severe curses... which they have brought upon themselves.\"", "Seven years later in 1859, Young stated in an interview with the ''New York Tribune'' that he considered slavery a \"divine institution... not to be abolished\".In 1856, Young organized an efficient mail service known as the Brigham Young Express and Carrying Company, which transported mail and passengers between Missouri and California.", "In 1858, following the events of the Utah War, he stepped down to his gubernatorial successor, Alfred Cumming." ], [ "LDS Church president", "Young is the longest-serving president of the LDS Church to date, having served for 29 years.===Educational endeavors===Young photographed by Charles Roscoe Savage, 1855During time as prophet and governor, Young encouraged bishops to establish grade schools for their congregations, which would be supported by volunteer work and tithing payments.", "Young viewed education as a process of learning how to make the Kingdom of God a reality on earth, and at the core of his \"philosophy of education\" was the belief that the church had within itself all that was necessary to save mankind materially, spiritually, and intellectually.On October 16, 1875, Young deeded buildings and land in Provo, Utah, to a board of trustees for establishing an institution of learning, ostensibly as part of the University of Deseret.", "Young said, \"I hope to see an Academy established in Provo ... at which the children of the Latter-day Saints can receive a good education unmixed with the pernicious atheistic influences that are found in so many of the higher schools of the country.\"", "The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy in 1876 under the leadership of Karl G. Maeser, and was the precursor to Brigham Young University.Within the church, Young reorganized the Relief Society for women in 1867 and created organizations for young women in 1869 and young men in 1875.The Young Women organization was first called the Retrenchment Association and was intended to promote the turning of young girls away from the costly and extravagant ways of the world.", "It later became known as the Young Ladies Mutual Improvement Association and was a charter member of the National Council of Women and International Council of Women.Young also organized a committee to refine the Deseret alphabet—a phonetic alphabet that had been developed sometime between 1847 and 1854.At its prime, the alphabet was used in two ''Deseret News'' articles, two elementary readers, and in a translation of the Book of Mormon.", "By 1870, it had all but disappeared from use.===Temple building===Young was involved in temple building throughout his membership in the LDS Church, making it a priority during his time as church president.", "Under Smith's leadership, Young participated in the building of the Kirtland and Nauvoo temples.", "Just four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Young designated the location for the Salt Lake Temple; he presided over its groundbreaking years later on April 6, 1853.During his tenure, Young oversaw construction of the Salt Lake Tabernacle and announced plans to build the St. George (1871), Manti (1875), and Logan (1877) temples.", "He also provisioned the building of the Endowment House, a \"temporary temple\", which began to be used in 1855 to provide temple ordinances to church members while the Salt Lake Temple was under construction.===Teachings===The majority of Young's teachings are contained in the 19 volumes of transcribed and edited sermons in the ''Journal of Discourses''.", "The LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants contains one section from Young that has been canonized as scripture, added in 1876.==== Polygamy ====Though polygamy was practiced by Young's predecessor, Joseph Smith, the practice is often associated with Young.", "Some Latter Day Saint denominations, such as the Community of Christ, consider Young the \"Father of Mormon Polygamy\".", "In 1853, Young made the church's first official statement on the subject since the church had arrived in Utah.", "Young acknowledged that the doctrine was challenging for many women, but stated its necessity for creating large families, proclaiming: \"But the first wife will say, 'It is hard, for I have lived with my husband twenty years, or thirty, and have raised a family of children for him, and it is a great trial to me for him to have more women;' then I say it is time that you gave him up to other women who will bear children.\"", "Young believed that sexual desire was given by God to ensure the perpetuation of humankind and believed sex should be confined to marriage.==== Adam-God doctrine and blood atonement ====One of the more controversial teachings of Young during the Mormon Reformation was the Adam–God doctrine.", "According to Young, he was taught by Smith that Adam is \"our Father and our God, and the only God with whom we have to do\".", "According to the doctrine, Adam was once a mortal man who became resurrected and exalted.", "From another planet, Adam brought Eve, one of his wives, with him to the earth, where they became mortal by eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil.", "After bearing mortal children and establishing the human race, Adam and Eve returned to their heavenly thrones where Adam acts as the god of this world.", "Later, as Young is generally understood to have taught, Adam returned to the earth to become the biological father of Jesus.", "The LDS Church has since repudiated the Adam–God doctrine.Young also taught the doctrine of blood atonement, in which the atonement of Jesus cannot redeem an eternal sin, which included apostasy, theft, fornication (but not sodomy), or adultery.", "Instead, those who committed such sins could partially atone for their sin by sacrificing their life in a way that sheds blood.", "The LDS Church has formally repudiated the doctrine as early as 1889 and multiple times since the days of Young.==== Priesthood ban for black men ====Young is generally considered to have instituted a church ban against conferring the priesthood on men of black African descent, who had generally been treated equally to white men in this respect under Smith's presidency.", "After settling in Utah in 1848, Young announced the ban, which also forbade blacks from participating in Mormon temple rites such as the endowment or sealings.", "On many occasions, Young taught that blacks were denied the priesthood because they were \"the seed of Cain\".", "In 1863, Young stated: \"Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race?", "If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot.", "This will always be so.\"", "Young was also a vocal opponent of theories of human polygenesis, being a firm voice for stating that all humans were the product of one creation.Throughout his time as prophet, Young went to great lengths to deny the assumption that he was the author of the practice of priesthood denial to black men, asserting instead that the Lord was.", "According to Young, the matter was beyond his personal control and was divinely determined rather than historically or personally as many assumed.", "Young taught that the day would come when black men would again have the priesthood, saying that after \"all the other children of Adam have the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of God, and of being redeemed from the four-quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity.", "\"These racial restrictions remained in place until 1978, when the policy was rescinded by church president Spencer W. Kimball, and the church subsequently \"disavowed theories advanced in the past\" to explain this ban, essentially attributing the origins of the ban solely to Young.=== Mormon Reformation ===During 1856 and 1857, a period of renewed emphasis on spirituality within the church known as the Mormon Reformation took place under Young's direction.", "The Mormon Reformation called for a spiritual reawakening among members of the church and took place largely in the Utah Territory.", "Jedediah M. Grant, one of the key figures of the Reformation and one of Young's counselors, traveled throughout the Territory, preaching to Latter-day Saint communities and settlements with the goal of inspiring them to reject sin and turn towards spiritual things.", "As part of the Reformation, almost all \"active\" or involved LDS Church members were rebaptized as a symbol of their commitment.", "At a church meeting on September 21, 1856, Brigham Young stated: \"We need a reformation in the midst of this people; we need a thorough reform.\"", "Large gatherings and meetings during this period were conducted by Young and Grant, and Young played a key role in the circulation of the Mormon Reformation with his emphasis on plural marriage, rebaptism, and passionate preaching and oration.", "It was during this period that the controversial doctrine of blood atonement was occasionally preached by Young, though it was repudiated in 1889 and never practiced by members of the church.", "The Reformation appeared to have ended completely by early 1858.===Conflicts===Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Latter-day Saint colonies were incorporated into the United States through the Mexican Cession.", "Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the State of Deseret.", "The Compromise of 1850 instead carved out Utah Territory, and Young was appointed governor.", "As governor and church president, Young directed both religious and economic matters.", "He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency.", "Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction.", "Young's leadership style has been viewed as autocratic.==== Utah War ====When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obstruction of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), U.S. President James Buchanan decided in early 1857 to install a non-Mormon governor.", "Buchanan accepted the reports of the Runaway Officials without any further investigation, and the new non-sectarian governor was appointed and sent to the new territory accompanied by 2,500 soldiers.", "When Young received word in July that federal troops were headed to Utah with his replacement, he called out his militia to ambush the federal force using delaying tactics.", "During the defense of Utah, now called the Utah War, Young held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter by taking their cattle and burning supply wagons.", "Young eventually reached a settlement with the aid of a peace commission and agreed to step down as governor.", "Buchanan later pardoned Young.==== Mountain Meadows Massacre ====Young (seated near the middle, wearing a tall beaver hat) and an exploring party camped at the Colorado River in 1870The degree of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows Massacre, which took place in Washington County in 1857, is disputed.", "Leonard J. Arrington reports that Young received a rider at his office on the day of the massacre, and that when he learned of the contemplated attack by members of the church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter directing that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested.", "Young's letter reportedly arrived on September 13, 1857, two days after the massacre.", "As governor, Young had promised the federal government he would protect migrants passing through Utah Territory, but over 120 men, women, and children were killed in this incident.", "There is no debate concerning the involvement of individual Mormons from the surrounding communities by scholars.", "Only children under the age of seven, who were cared for by local Mormon families, survived, and the murdered members of the wagon train were left unburied.", "The remains of about 40 people were later found and buried, and U.S. Army officer James Henry Carleton had a large cross made from local trees, the transverse beam bearing the engraving, \"Vengeance Is Mine, Saith The Lord: I Will Repay\" and erected a cairn of rocks at the site.", "A large slab of granite was put up on which he had the following words engraved: \"Here 120 men, women and children were massacred in cold blood early in September, 1857.They were from Arkansas.\"", "For two years, the monument stood as a memorial to those traveling the Spanish Trail through Mountain Meadow.", "According to Wilford Woodruff, Young brought an entourage to Mountain Meadows in 1861 and suggested that the monument instead read \"Vengeance is mine and I have taken a little\"." ], [ "Death", "Young is buried on the grounds of the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument in Salt Lake City.Before his death in Salt Lake City on August 29, 1877, Young suffered from cholera morbus and inflammation of the bowels.", "It is believed that he died of peritonitis from a ruptured appendix.", "His last words were \"Joseph!", "Joseph!", "Joseph!", "\", invoking the name of the late Joseph Smith Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement.", "On September 2, 1877, Young's funeral was held in the Tabernacle with an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 people in attendance.", "He is buried on the grounds of the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument in the heart of Salt Lake City.", "A bronze marker was placed at the grave site June 10, 1938, by members of the Young Men and Young Women organizations, which he founded." ], [ "Business ventures and wealth", "Young engaged in a vast assortment of commercial ventures by himself and in partnership with others.", "These included a wagon express company, a ferryboat company, a railroad, and the manufacturing of processed lumber, wool, sugar beets, iron, and liquor.", "Young achieved greatest success in real estate.", "He also tried to promote Mormon self-sufficiency by establishing collectivist communities, known as the United Order of Enoch.Young was also involved in the organization of the Salt Lake Gas Works, the Salt Lake Water Works, an insurance company, a bank, and the ZCMI store in downtown Salt Lake City.", "In 1873, he announced that he would step down as president of the Deseret National Bank and of ZCMI, as well as from his role as trustee-in-trust for the church.", "He cited as his reason for this that he was ready to relieve himself from the burden of \"secular affairs\".At the time of his death, Young was the wealthiest man in Utah, with an estimated personal fortune of $600,000 ()." ], [ "Legacy", "===Impact===Young had many nicknames during his lifetime, among the most popular being \"American Moses\" (alternatively, \"Modern Moses\" or \"Mormon Moses\"), because, like the biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land.", "Young was dubbed by his followers the \"Lion of the Lord\" for his bold personality and commonly was called \"Brother Brigham\" by Latter-day Saints.A century after Young's death, historian Rodman W. Paul wrote,He credited Young's leadership with helping to settle much of the American West:Memorials to Young include a bronze statue in front of the Abraham O. Smoot Administration Building, Brigham Young University; a marble statue in the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United States Capitol, donated by the State of Utah in 1950; and a statue atop the ''This is the Place Monument'' in Salt Lake City.=== Views of race and slavery ===Young had a somewhat mixed view of slavery which historian John G. Turner called a \"bundle of contradictions\".", "In the 1840s, Young strove to keep aloof from nationwide political debates over slavery, avoiding committing to either antislavery or proslavery positions.", "In the early 1850s, he expressed some support for the antislavery \"free soil\" position in American politics, and in January 1852, he declared in a speech that \"no property can or should be recognized as existing in slaves\", suggesting opposition to the existence of slavery.", "However, two weeks later Young declared himself a \"firm believer in slavery\".", "Young believed in the racial superiority of white men.", "His manuscript history from January 5, 1852, which was published in the ''Deseret News'', reads:The negro … should serve the seed of Abraham; he should not be a ruler, nor vote for men to rule over me nor my brethren.", "The Constitution of Deseret is silent upon this, we meant it should be so.", "The seed of Canaan cannot hold any office, civil or ecclesiastical.", "… The decree of God that Canaan should be a servant of servants unto his brethren (i.e., Shem and Japhet sic) is in full force.", "The day will come when the seed of Canaan will be redeemed and have all the blessings their brethren enjoy.", "Any person that mingles his seed with the seed of Canaan forfeits the right to rule and all the blessings of the Priesthood of God; and unless his blood were spilled and that of his offspring he nor they could not be saved until the posterity of Canaan are redeemed.", "''''On this topic, Young wrote: \"They have not wisdom to act like white men.\"", "Young adopted the idea of the Curse of Ham—a racist interpretation of Genesis 9 which white proponents of slavery in antebellum America used to justify enslaving black people of African descent—and applied it liberally and literally.", "Young also predicted a future in which Chinese and Japanese people would immigrate to America.", "He averred that Chinese and Japanese immigrants would need to be governed by white men as they would have no understanding of government.===Family and descendants===Young was a polygamist, having at least fifty-six wives.", "The policy and practice of polygamy was difficult for many in the church to accept.", "Young stated that upon being taught about plural marriage by Joseph Smith: \"It was the first time in my life that I desired the grave.\"", "By the time of his death, Young had fifty-seven children by sixteen of his wives; forty-six of his children reached adulthood.Sources have varied on the number of Young's wives, as well as their ages.", "This is due to differences in what scholars have considered to be a \"wife\".", "There were fifty-six women who Young was sealed to during his lifetime.", "While the majority of the sealings were \"for eternity\", some were \"for time only\", meaning that Young was sealed to these women as a proxy for their previous husbands who had passed away.", "Researchers note that not all of the fifty-six marriages were conjugal.", "Young did not live with a number of his wives or publicly hold them out as wives, which has led to confusion on the number and their identities.", "Thirty-one of his wives were not connubial and had exchanged eternity-only vows with him.Caricature of Young's wives, published after his deathOf Young's fifty-six wives, twenty-one had never been married before; seventeen were widows; six were divorced; six had living husbands; and the marital status of six others is unknown.", "Young built the Lion House, the Beehive House, the Gardo House, and the White House in downtown Salt Lake City to accommodate his sizable family.", "The Beehive House and the Lion House remain as prominent Salt Lake City landmarks.", "At the north end of the Beehive House was a family store, at which Young's wives and children had running accounts and could buy what they needed.", "In 1865, Karl Maeser began to privately tutor Young's fifty-six children and stopped when he was called on a mission to Germany in 1867.At the time of Young's death, nineteen of his wives had predeceased him; he was divorced from ten, and twenty-three survived him.", "The status of four was unknown.", "A few of his wives served in administrative positions in the church, such as Zina Huntington and Eliza R. Snow.", "In his will, Young shared his estate with the sixteen surviving wives who had lived with him; the six surviving non-conjugal wives were not mentioned in the will.====Notable descendants====In 1902, 25 years after his death, ''The New York Times'' established that Young's direct descendants numbered more than 1,000.Some of Young's descendants have become leaders in the LDS Church, as well as prominent political and cultural figures." ], [ "Cultural references", "===In comics===Brigham Young appears at the end of the bande dessinée ''Le Fil qui chante'', the last in the ''Lucky Luke'' series by René Goscinny.===In literature===The Scottish poet John Lyon, who was an intimate friend of Young, wrote ''Brigham the Bold'' in tribute to him after his death.Florence Claxton's graphic novel, ''The Adventures of a Woman in Search of Her Rights'' (1872), satirizes a would-be emancipated woman whose failure to establish an independent career results in her marriage to Young before she wakes to discover she's been dreaming.Arthur Conan Doyle based his first Sherlock Holmes novel, ''A Study in Scarlet'', on Mormon history, mentioning Young by name.", "When asked to comment on the story, which had, \"provoked the animosity of the Mormon faithful\", Doyle noted, \"all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history.\"", "Doyle's daughter stated: \"You know father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons.", "\"Mark Twain devoted a chapter and much of two appendices to Young in ''Roughing It''.", "In the appendix, Twain describes Young as a theocratic \"absolute monarch\" defying the will of the U.S. government, and alleges using a dubious source that Young had ordered the Mountain Meadows massacre.Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., talking about his fondness of trees, joked in his ''The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table'': \"I call all trees mine that I have put my wedding-ring on, and I have as many tree-wives as Brigham Young has human ones.", "\"===In movies===Young was played by Dean Jagger in the 1940 film ''Brigham Young''.", "In the 1995 film ''The Avenging Angel'', the role of Young was played by Charlton Heston.", "Brigham Young was also played by Terence Stamp in the 2007 film ''September Dawn''.===In theater===In the 2011 musical ''The Book of Mormon'', Young is portrayed as a tyrannical American regional warlord, cursed by God to have a clitoris for a nose—a parable cautioning against female genital mutilation.", "He encounters Joseph Smith and attempts to ambush his party of Mormons, but, rather than engaging with \"the Clitoris Man\", Smith shows mercy, rubbing one of the frogs that God has given him to have sex with to cure his AIDS on Young's face, curing his AIDS, and so moving him that he decides to convert to the faith.", "Later, after taking up the mantle of Mormon leader following Smith's death from dysentery, Young is among those visited by Jesus and told to have as much sex as they possibly can, to ensure the propagation of the Mormon faith." ], [ "Literary works", "Since Young's death, a number of works have published collections of his discourses and sayings.", "********* LDS Church publication number 35554*" ], [ "In literature", "* A Study in Scarlet" ], [ "See also", "* ''Brigham Young'' (1940 film)* Brigham Young Winter Home and Office* This Is The Place Heritage Park* Ann Eliza Young*List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Sources", "* * * Bergera, Gary James, ''Conflict in the Quorum: Orson Pratt, Brigham Young, Joseph Smith''* * * * * * * * * , republished online at .", "* * * * * * * .", "See also: ''The Mormon Prophet and His Harem''.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Arrington, Leonard J.", "(1985).", "''Brigham Young: American Moses''.", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf.", "Via Internet Archive.", "* Brigham Young biography at ''Joseph Smith Papers Project''* Brigham Young Letters, MSS SC 890 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University* Tanner Trust Books at University of Utah Digital Library, Marriott Library Special Collections" ] ]

[ [ "Burns supper" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''Burns supper''' is a celebration of the life and poetry of the poet Robert Burns (25 January 175921 July 1796), the author of many Scots poems.", "The suppers are normally held on or near the poet's birthday, 25 January, known as '''Burns Night''' (; ) also called '''Robert Burns Day''' or '''Rabbie Burns Day''' (or '''Robbie Burns Day''' in Canada).", "However, in principle, celebrations may be held at any other time of the year.", "Burns suppers are held all around the world.", "''Slàinte'' ''Mhath''!", "Burns Supper (25 Jan 2024) with haggis, neeps and tatties and a glass of whisky.", "Pic by Evelyn Hollow (Uncanny)" ], [ "History", "Newcastle upon Tyne, England (transcription)The first supper was held ''in memoriam'' at Burns Cottage in Ayrshire by Burns's friends, on 21 July 1801, the fifth anniversary of his death; it has been a regular occurrence ever since.", "The first still extant Burns Club was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants who were born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns.", "They held the first Burns supper on what they thought was his birthday, 29 January 1802, but in 1803, they discovered the Ayr parish records that noted his date of birth was actually 25 January 1759.Since then, suppers have been held on or about 25 January.The Scottish Parliament considers the celebration of Burns Night each year to be a key cultural heritage event.The Parliament welcomes the annual celebration of Scotland’s national poet, Robert Burns, which is held on 25 January each year to mark the Bard’s birthday; considers that Burns was one of the greatest poets and that his work has influenced thinkers across the world; notes that Burns' first published collection, Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, also known as the \"Kilmarnock Edition\", published in 1786, did much to popularise and champion the Scots language, and considers that this is one of his most important legacies; believes that the celebration of Burns Night is an opportunity to raise awareness of the cultural significance of Scots and its status as one of the indigenous languages of Scotland, and further believes in the importance of the writing down of the Scots language to ensure its continuation through written documentation, as well as oral tradition.Poetry to accompany haggis eatingBurns suppers may be formal or informal.", "Both typically include haggis (a traditional Scottish dish celebrated by Burns in ''Address to a Haggis''), Scotch whisky and the recitation of Burns's poetry.", "Formal dinners are hosted by organisations such as universities, sporting clubs, Burns Clubs, the Freemasons or St. Andrew's Societies; they occasionally end with dancing or a cèilidh.", "During the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, Burns Night celebrations moved online and were popular amongst families eating at home.", "Formal suppers follow a standard order." ], [ "Standard order", "===Piping in guests===A bagpiper generally greets the guests, who gather and mix as at any informal party.", "At less formal gatherings, traditional Scottish music is played.=== Host's welcoming speech ===The host says a few words, welcoming everyone to the supper and perhaps stating the reason for it.In some regions, particularly the west coast of Scotland and Outer Hebrides, \"O Flower of Scotland\" is sung immediately preceding the Selkirk Grace.", "All the guests are then seated and grace is said, usually using the \"\", a well-known thanksgiving said before meals that uses the Scots language.", "Although attributed to Burns, the ''Selkirk Grace'' was already known in the 17th century as the \"Galloway Grace\" or the \"Covenanters' Grace\".", "It came to be called the ''Selkirk Grace'' because Burns was said to have delivered it at a dinner given by Dunbar Douglas, 4th Earl of Selkirk.==== Selkirk Grace ====::::===Soup course===Cullen skink soupThe supper starts with the soup course.", "Normally a Scottish soup, such as Scotch broth, potato soup, cullen skink, or cock-a-leekie, is served.===Haggis======= Piping in the haggis ====Piping in the haggisBringing in the haggis\"To a Haggis\" (Edinburgh Edition 1787)Everyone stands as the haggis is brought in.", "Haggis is a meat dish but in recent decades, a vegetarian alternative is often available.", "It is usually brought in by the cook on a large dish, generally while a bagpiper leads the way to the host's table, where the haggis is laid down.", "\"A Man's A Man for A' That\", \"Robbie Burns Medley\" or \"The Star O' Robbie Burns\" might be played.", "The host, or perhaps a guest, then recites the Address to a Haggis''.", "''==== \"Address to a Haggis\" ====Addressing the haggisOriginal textIdiomatic translationNice seeing your honest, chubby face,Great chieftain of the sausage race!Above them all you take your place,Belly, tripe, or links:Well are you worthy of a graceAs long as my arm.The groaning platter there you fill,Your buttocks like a distant hill,Your pin would help to mend a millIn time of need,While through your pores the dews distillLike amber bead.His knife see rustic Labour sharpen,And cut you up with practiced skill,Trenching your gushing entrails bright,Like any ditch;And then, Oh what a glorious sight,Warm-steaming, rich!Then, spoon for spoon, they stretch and strive:Devil take the hindmost, on they drive,'Til all their well-swollen bellies soonAre tight as drums;Then old Master, most likely to burst,\"Thanks be\" hums.Is there one, that over his French ragout,Or olio that would give pause to a sow,Or fricassee that would make her spewWith perfect loathing,Looks down with sneering, scornful viewOn such a dinner?Poor devil!", "See him over his trash,As feeble as a withered rush,His spindly leg a good whip-lash,His fist a nit:Through bloody flood or field to dash,Oh how unfit!But mark the Rustic, haggis-fed,The trembling earth resounds his tread,Clap in his sturdy fist a blade,He'll make it whistle;And legs and arms, and heads will cut,Like tops of thistle.You Pow'rs, that make mankind your care,And dish them out their bill of fare,Old Scotland wants no watery wareThat slops in bowls:But, if You wish her grateful prayer,Give her a Haggis!At the line '''', the speaker normally draws and sharpens a knife.", "At the line '''', he plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end.", "When done properly, the \"ceremony\" is a highlight of the evening.=== Main course ===A cooked haggisHaggis, neeps and tatties on a plate.At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis, and the company will sit down to the meal.", "The haggis is traditionally served with mashed potatoes (tatties) and mashed swede turnip (neeps).===Other courses===A dessert course, cheese courses, coffee, etc., may also be part of the meal.", "The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes.", "For instance, dessert may be cranachan or tipsy laird (whisky trifle), followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with the \"water of life\" (), Scotch whisky.===Toasts===When the meal reaches the coffee stage, various speeches and toasts are given.==== Immortal memory ====The main speaker gives a speech remembering some aspect of Burns's life or poetry.", "It may be either light-hearted or serious, and may include the recitation of a poem or a song by Burns.", "A toast to the Immortal Memory of Robert Burns then follows.====Address to the Lassies ====This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to the women who had prepared the meal.", "However, it is now much more wide-ranging and generally covers the male speaker's view on women.", "It is normally amusing and not offensive, particularly since it will be followed by a reply from the \"lassies\" concerned.", "The men drink a toast to the women's health.==== Reply to the Laddies ====This is occasionally (and humorously) called the \"Toast to the Laddies\".", "Like the previous toast, it is generally now quite wide-ranging.", "A female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker.", "Like the previous speech, it should be amusing but not offensive.", "Quite often, the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other.=== Works by Burns ===After the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns (such as \"Ae Fond Kiss\", \"Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation\", and \"A Man's A Man for A' That\") and more poetry (such as \"To a Mouse\", \"To a Louse\", \"Tam o' Shanter\", \"The Twa Dogs\", and \"Holy Willie's Prayer\").That may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts, and it goes on for as long as the guests wish.", "It may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots.", "Foreign guests may also be invited to sing or say works from their land.=== Closing ===Finally, the host will call on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks.", "Then, everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing \"\" to bring the evening to an end." ], [ "See also", "* Burns' Day storm* List of dining events*Scottish cuisine" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A 2007 Supper for Mauchline Burns Club, presented with explanations of each stage* A recital of Address to a Haggis* Address to the Unco Guid or the rigidly righteous * A film recording of the 145th Burns Supper from 1971 at the Irvine Burns Club.", "* Largest Burns supper* BBC - Robert Burns - Readers" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Bryson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William McGuire Bryson''' (; born 8 December 1951) is an American–British journalist and author.", "Bryson has written a number of nonfiction books on topics including travel, the English language, and science.", "Born in the United States, he has been a resident of Britain for most of his adult life, returning to the U.S. between 1995 and 2003, and holds dual American and British citizenship.", "He served as the chancellor of Durham University from 2005 to 2011.In 1995, while in the United Kingdom, Bryson authored ''Notes from a Small Island'', an exploration of Britain.", "In 2003, he authored ''A Short History of Nearly Everything''.", "In October 2020, he announced that he had retired from writing books.", "In 2022, he recorded an audiobook for Audible, ''The Secret History of Christmas''.", "He has sold over 16 million books worldwide." ], [ "Early life and education", "Bryson was born and raised in Des Moines, Iowa, the son of Bill Bryson Sr., a sports journalist who worked for 50 years at the ''Des Moines Register'', and Agnes Mary (née McGuire), the home furnishings editor at the same newspaper.", "His mother was of Irish descent.", "He had an older brother, Michael (1942–2012), and a sister, Mary Jane Elizabeth.", "In 2006, Bryson published ''The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid'', a humorous account of his childhood years in Des Moines.", "In 2006 Frank Cownie, the mayor of Des Moines, awarded Bryson the key to the city and announced that 21 October 2006 would be \"Bill Bryson, The Thunderbolt Kid, Day.", "\"Bryson attended Drake University for two years before dropping out in 1972, deciding instead to backpack around Europe for four months.", "He returned to Europe the following year with a high school friend, Matt Angerer (the pseudonymous Stephen Katz).", "Bryson wrote about some of his experiences from the trip in his book ''Neither Here nor There: Travels in Europe''." ], [ "Career", "Bryson in the regalia of Chancellor of Durham University in 2005Bryson in 2013Bryson in 2013Bryson first visited Great Britain in 1973 during his tour of Europe and decided to stay after securing a job working in a psychiatric hospital, the now-defunct Holloway Sanatorium in Virginia Water, Surrey.", "He met a nurse there, Cynthia Billen, whom he married in 1975.They moved to Bryson's hometown of Des Moines, Iowa, in 1975 so Bryson could complete his degree at Drake University.", "In 1977 they settled in Britain.He worked as a journalist, first for the ''Bournemouth Evening Echo'', eventually becoming chief copy editor of the business section of ''The Times'' and deputy national news editor of the business section of ''The Independent''.The Brysons moved around the United Kingdom, living in Virginia Water (Surrey), Purewell (Dorset), Burton (Dorset), Kirkby Malham, and the Old Rectory in Wramplingham, Norfolk (2003–2013).", "They currently live in rural Hampshire and maintain a small flat in South Kensington, London.", "From 1995 to 2003 they lived in Hanover, New Hampshire.Although able to apply for British citizenship, Bryson said in 2010 that he had declined a citizenship test, declaring himself \"too cowardly\" to take it.", "However, in 2014, he said that he was preparing to take it and in the prologue to his 2015 book ''The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes From a Small Island'' he describes doing so, in Eastleigh.", "His citizenship ceremony took place in Winchester and he now holds dual citizenship.===Writings===While living in the U.S. in the 1990s, Bryson wrote a column for a British newspaper for several years, reflecting on humorous aspects of his repatriation in the United States.", "These columns were selected and adapted to become his book ''I'm a Stranger Here Myself'', alternatively titled ''Notes from a Big Country'' in Britain, Canada, and Australia.", "During his time in the US, Bryson decided to walk the Appalachian Trail with his friend Stephen Katz (a pseudonym), about which he wrote the book ''A Walk in the Woods''.", "In the 2015 film adaptation of ''A Walk in the Woods'', Bryson is portrayed by Academy Award winner Robert Redford, and Katz by Nick Nolte.In 2003, in conjunction with World Book Day, British voters chose Bryson's book ''Notes from a Small Island'' as that which best summed up British identity and the state of the nation.", "Also in 2003, he was appointed a Commissioner for English Heritage.His popular science book, the 500-page ''A Short History of Nearly Everything'', explores not only the histories and current statuses of the sciences, but also their humble and often humorous beginnings.", "Although one \"top scientist\" is alleged to have jokingly described the book as \"annoyingly free of mistakes\", Bryson himself makes no such claim, and a list of some of its reported errors is available online.In November 2006, Bryson interviewed then British prime minister Tony Blair on the state of science and education.Bryson also wrote two popular works on the history of the English language, ''The Mother Tongue'' and ''Made in America''—and, more recently, an update of his guide to usage, ''Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words'' (first published as ''The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words'' in 1983).He also released a podcast, ''Bill Bryson's Appliance of Science'', in 2017.===Litigation===In 2012, Bryson sued his agent, Jed Mattes Inc., in New York County Supreme Court, claiming it had \"failed to perform some of the most fundamental duties of an agent.\"", "The case was settled out of court, with part of the settlement being that Bryson may not discuss it.In 2013, Bryson claimed copyright on an interview he had given nearly 20 years previously, after the interviewer republished it as an 8000-word e-book.", "Amazon removed the e-book from publication.===Awards, positions and honours===In 2004, he won the Aventis Prize for best general science book that year, with ''A Short History of Nearly Everything''.", "In 2005, the book won the European Union's Descartes Prize for science communication.", "In 2005, he received the President's Award from the Royal Society of Chemistry for advancing the cause of the chemical sciences.", "In 2007, he won the Bradford Washburn Award, from the Museum of Science in Boston, for contributions to the popularization of science.", "In 2005, Bryson was appointed chancellor of Durham University, succeeding the late Sir Peter Ustinov.", "He had praised Durham as \"a perfect little city\" in ''Notes from a Small Island''.", "With the Royal Society of Chemistry, the Bill Bryson Prize for Science Communication was established in 2005.The competition engages students from around the world in explaining science to non-experts.", "As part of its 350th anniversary celebrations in 2010 the Royal Society commissioned Bryson to edit a collection of essays by scientists and science writers about the history of science and the Royal Society over the previous three and a half centuries entitled ''Seeing Further''.He was made an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his contribution to literature on 13 December 2006.In 2007, he was awarded the James Joyce Award by the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin.", "After he received British citizenship, his OBE was made substantive.In May 2007, he became the president of the Campaign to Protect Rural England.", "His first focus in this role was the establishment of an anti-littering campaign across England.", "He discussed the future of the countryside with Richard Mabey, Sue Clifford, Nicholas Crane, and Richard Girling at CPRE's Volunteer Conference in November 2007.In 2011, Bryson won the Golden Eagle Award from the Outdoor Writers and Photographers Guild.In October 2010, it was announced that Bryson would step down as chancellor of Durham University at the end of 2011.In 2012, he received the Kenneth B. Myer Award, from the Florey Institute of Neuroscience, in Melbourne, Australia.On 22 November 2012, Durham University officially renamed the Main Library the Bill Bryson Library for his contributions as the university's 11th chancellor (2005–2011).", "The library also has a cafe named after Bryson's book ''Notes from a Small Island''.Bryson was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2013, becoming the first non-Briton to receive this honour.", "His biography at the Society reads:Bill Bryson is a popular author who is driven by a deep curiosity for the world we live in.", "Bill's books and lectures demonstrate an abiding love for science and an appreciation for its social importance.", "His international bestseller, ''A Short History of Nearly Everything'' (2003), is widely acclaimed for its accessible communication of science and has since been adapted for children.He is a Vice President of the National Churches Trust.=== Education ===In January 2007, Bryson was the Schwartz Visiting Fellow at the Pomfret School in Connecticut.===Honorary doctorates===*Honorary Doctorate, The Open University, 2002*Honorary Doctor of Civil Law, Durham University, 2004*Honorary Doctorate, Bournemouth University, 2005*Honorary Doctorate, University of St Andrews, 2005*DLitt, University of Leeds, 2005*Honorary Doctorate, University of Leicester, 2009*Doctor of Humane Letters, Drake University, 2009*Honorary Doctorate, King's College London, 13 November 2012*Honorary Doctorate, University of Westminster, 2015*Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters, University of Iowa, May 2016*Honorary Doctorate for services to literature, University of Winchester, October 2016" ], [ "Bibliography", "Bryson has written the following books: Title Publication Date Genre Notes''The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words'' Language Republished, in 2002, as \"Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words\"''The Palace under the Alps and Over 200 Other Unusual, Unspoiled and Infrequently Visited Spots in 16 European Countries'' Travel ''The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America'' Travel ''The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way'' (US) / ''Mother Tongue: The English Language'' (UK) Language Adapted for ''Journeys in English'' in 2004 for BBC Radio 4.", "''The Penguin Dictionary for Writers and Editors'' Language Republished, in 2009, as \"Bryson's Dictionary: for Writers and Editors\"''Neither Here nor There: Travels in Europe'' Travel Featuring Stephen Katz''Made in America'' (UK) / ''Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States'' (U.S.) Language ''Notes from a Small Island'' Travel Adapted for television by Carlton Television in 1998.", "''A Walk in the Woods: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail'' Travel Featuring Stephen Katz.", "Adapted into a feature film in 2015.", "''Notes from a Big Country'' (UK) / ''I'm a Stranger Here Myself'' (U.S.) Travel ''Down Under'' (UK) / ''In a Sunburned Country'' (U.S.) Travel Republished, in 2002, as an omnibus with A Walk in the Woods titled \"Walkabout\"''Bill Bryson's African Diary'' Travel Travels in Africa for CARE International.", "''A Short History of Nearly Everything'' Science Adapted, in 2009, as an illustrated children's edition titled \"A Really Short History of Nearly Everything\"''The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid: Travels through my Childhood'' Memoir ''Shakespeare: The World as Stage'' Biography ''At Home: A Short History of Private Life'' History ''One Summer: America, 1927'' History ''The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes from a Small Island'' Travel ''The Body: A Guide for Occupants'' Science Illustrated edition published in 2022; children's edition \"A Really Short Journey Through the Body\" published in 2023''The Secret History of Christmas'' History Released as an audiobook" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Works at Open Library*" ] ]

[ [ "Big Audio Dynamite" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Big Audio Dynamite''' (later known as '''Big Audio Dynamite II''' and '''Big Audio''', and often abbreviated '''BAD''') were an English band, formed in London in 1984 by Mick Jones, former lead guitarist and co-lead vocalist of the Clash.", "The band mixed various musical styles, incorporating elements of punk rock, dance music, hip hop, reggae, and funk.", "After releasing a number of well-received studio albums and touring extensively throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Big Audio Dynamite broke up in 1997.In 2011, the band embarked on a reunion tour." ], [ "History", "===T.R.A.C.", "(1984)===After being fired from the Clash in 1983 and following a brief stint with new wave band General Public, Mick Jones formed a new band called Top Risk Action Company (T.R.A.C.).", "He recruited bassist Leo \"E-Zee Kill\" Williams, saxophonist John \"Boy\" Lennard (from post-punk band Theatre of Hate), and former Clash drummer Topper Headon.", "Headon was quickly fired for his heroin addiction and Lennard either left or was fired and the band folded.", "Although the band released no material (only demos were recorded, which have yet to be officially released), T.R.A.C.", "can be seen as a forerunner to Big Audio Dynamite in much the same way that London SS can be seen as an early incarnation of the Clash.===Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990)===Jones then formed Big Audio Dynamite with film director Don Letts (maker of 1978 film ''The Punk Rock Movie'', various Clash music videos, and later the Clash documentary ''Westway to the World'' in 2000), bassist Leo Williams (from T.R.A.C.", "), drummer Greg Roberts, and keyboardist Dan Donovan.", "In November 1985 the band's debut studio album, ''This Is Big Audio Dynamite'', was released.", "The album's cover shows the band as a four-piece, minus Donovan who took and designed the photograph.1986's ''No.", "10, Upping St.'' reunited Jones for one last album with former Clash lyricist and lead vocalist Joe Strummer, who was credited with co-producing the album and co-writing five of its nine tracks.", "BAD supported Irish rock band U2 on their Joshua Tree Tour on certain dates, then released 1988's ''Tighten Up Vol.", "88'' and 1989's ''Megatop Phoenix''.", "''Tighten Up, Vol.", "88'' contained \"Just Play Music!", "\", which was the second No.", "1 single on ''Billboard'''s Modern Rock Tracks chart.In 1990, the original line-up wrote and recorded the song \"Free\" for the soundtrack to the adventure comedy film ''Flashback'', starring Dennis Hopper and Kiefer Sutherland.", "This would be the final song written with the original line-up, as the band would break-up shortly after.", "\"The Bottom Line\" from the band's first album was remixed and used as the title track for ''Flashback'' (1990).", "However, this track was not included on the film's official soundtrack.", "It can be found on the 12\" or by download.", "Later in 1990, Jones debuted Big Audio Dynamite II and released the UK only studio album ''Kool-Aid''.", "Keyboardist Dan Donovan remained in BAD II for one song, a re-working of the final BAD track \"Free\" renamed \"Kickin' In\".===Big Audio Dynamite II (1991–1993)===For 1991's ''The Globe'', only Jones remained from the original incarnation of Big Audio Dynamite, and the band was now called \"Big Audio Dynamite II\".", "This new line-up featured two guitarists.", "The album sleeve was designed by Shawn Stussy.", "''The Globe'' (1991) featured the band's most commercially successful single, \"Rush\", which hit No.", "1 on both the US Modern Rock Tracks chart and the Australian National ARIA Chart.", "\"Rush\" was also released in the United Kingdom with the 1991 re-release of the Clash's \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\".", "The sleeve art for the 7-inch and CD singles displayed the Clash on the front, and BAD II on the rear with the record label displaying \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" as side \"A\" and \"Rush\" as side \"AA\".", "Even though it was effectively a double A-side release, the Chart Information Network/Gallup decided that only the Clash would be credited with a number one hit.", "\"Innocent Child\" and \"The Globe\" were also released as singles.BAD supported U2 on their Zoo TV Tour, headlined the MTV 120 Minutes tour which also featured Public Image Ltd, Live, and Blind Melon, and released the live EP \"On the Road Live '92\".In 1991, while Jones formed Big Audio Dynamite II, the rest of the original line-up briefly formed a band called Screaming Target.", "They released one studio album ''Hometown Hi-Fi'' and two singles \"Who Killed King Tubby?\"", "and \"Knowledge N Numbers\" before disbanding.", "The title and album cover art were purposely meant as a tribute to Jamaican reggae deejay Big Youth's debut studio album ''Screaming Target'' (1972).In 1993, Greg Roberts formed the electronic band Dreadzone with Tim Bran, with the name suggested to them by Don Letts.", "Bassist Leo Williams and keyboardist Dan Donovan joined the band before their second studio album ''Second Light'' and the single \"Little Britain\" in 1995.Dreadzone is still active, with Roberts and Williams remaining members.===Big Audio (1994)===A promotional photo of Big Audio Dynamite in 1995The band later recruited keyboardist Andre Shapps (co-producer of ''The Globe'', brother of MP Grant Shapps and Mick Jones's cousin) and DJ Michael \" Lord Zonka\" Custance as DJ and vocalist.", "Both appeared on the band's seventh studio album ''Higher Power'' (1994), which was released under the shortened name \"Big Audio\".===Final years and subsequent activities (1995–2010)===After signing a recording contract with Gary Kurfirst's Radioactive Records in 1995, the band reverted to the original \"Big Audio Dynamite\" moniker and released their least successful studio album to date, ''F-Punk'' (1995).Radioactive Records refused to release the next proposed BAD studio album, ''Entering a New Ride''.", "The line-up contained MC vocals by Joe Attard of Punks Jump Up, Ranking Roger of the Beat and General Public and drummer Bob Wond of Under Two Flags.", "In 1998, the band launched a new website, primarily intended as a means to distribute songs from the ''Entering a New Ride'' album.", "In 2001, after having only released 6 songs from the album, the website went down and Big Audio Dynamite disbanded.", "Their final studio album was never properly released in its entirety, but it has been heavily leaked online for fans who wished to hear it.Since 2005, Jones has been working on a project with Tony James (formerly of Generation X and Sigue Sigue Sputnik) called Carbon/Silicon.In early 2007, a BAD II live 8 song DVD was released, titled ''Big Audio Dynamite Live: E=MC²''.===2011 reunion===In 2010, Don Letts revealed to Billboard.com that he and Mick Jones broached the idea of a Big Audio Dynamite reunion in 2011.He explained, \"I could lie to you and say 'Not in a million years,' but... if Mick wasn't tied up with Gorillaz it might happen this year.", "(Jones) has looked at me and said, 'Maybe next year,' but who knows.", "I've got to admit that in the past I'm not a great one for reformations; I always think if you're lucky in life, you get a window of opportunity, use it to the best of your ability and then fuck off and let someone else have their turn.", "But here I am 25 years down the line considering the thing.\"", "Besides a Big Audio Dynamite reunion, Letts said he was also hopeful for more Legacy Editions of the band's studio albums after finding more unreleased material—including live recordings—in the vaults.", "\"There's definitely more stuff; whether Sony thinks it's worthwhile, that's another matter.", "But there seems to be a lot of respect for Big Audio Dynamite.", "Time has shown that a lot of the things we were dabbling in back then have come to manifest themselves today...so hopefully we'll get to do some more.", "\"The reformation of the original line-up of BAD was confirmed on 25 January 2011 with the announcement of a UK tour.", "The 9-date tour was a commercial and critical success.", "The first of their two sold out Shepherd's Bush Empire shows received a 4-star review in ''The Times'' ('Not just a reformation - this is ''their'' time'), ''The Observer'' welcomed BAD's return with a glowing review declaring, 'they remain a joy'.", "Their headline slot at Beautiful Days festival was favourably reviewed on the Louder Than War music website.Big Audio Dynamite played sets at the 2011 Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Glastonbury Festival 2011, Rock en Seine and Lollapalooza." ], [ "Members", "===Timeline==='''Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990, 2011)'''*Mick Jones – vocals, guitar*Don Letts – vocals, samples*Dan Donovan – keyboards, backing vocals*Leo Williams – bass, backing vocals*Greg Roberts – drums, backing vocals'''Big Audio Dynamite II (1990–1993)'''*Mick Jones – vocals, guitar*Nick Hawkins – guitar, backing vocals*Gary Stonadge – bass, backing vocals*Chris Kavanagh – drums, backing vocals'''Big Audio (1994–1995)'''*Mick Jones – vocals, guitar*Nick Hawkins – guitar, backing vocals*Gary Stonadge – bass, backing vocals*Chris Kavanagh – drums, backing vocals*Andre Shapps – keyboards, programming, samples, percussion*Michael 'Zonka' Custance – DJ, keyboards, samples, percussion, backing vocals'''Big Audio Dynamite (1996–1998)'''*Mick Jones – vocals, guitar*Nick Hawkins – guitar*Andre Shapps – keyboards, programming, samples, percussion*Michael 'Zonka' Custance – DJ, keyboards, samples, percussion, gang vocals*Daryl Fulstow – bass*Bob Wond – drums*Joe Attard – MC*Ranking Roger – vocals+Big Audio Dynamite (1984-1990)'''Big Audio Dynamite II (1990–1993)''''''Big Audio (1994–1995)''''''Big Audio Dynamite (1996–1998)''''''Big Audio Dynamite (2011)'''Mick Jonesvocals, guitarvocals, guitarvocals, guitarvocals, guitarvocals, guitarDon Lettsvocals, samplesvocals, samplesDan Donovankeyboards, backing vocalskeyboardsLeo Williamsbass, backing vocalsbassGreg Robertsdrums, backing vocalsdrums, backing vocalsNick Hawkinsguitar, backing vocalsguitar, backing vocalsguitarGary Stonadgebass, backing vocalsbass, backing vocalsChris Kavanaghdrums, backing vocalsdrums, backing vocalsAndre Shappskeyboards, sampleskeyboards, programmingMichael 'Zonka' CustanceDJ, percussion, backing vocalsDJ, keyboards, samplesDaryl FulstowbassBob WonddrumsJoe AttardMCRanking Rogervocals" ], [ "Discography", "* ''This Is Big Audio Dynamite'' (1985)* ''No.", "10, Upping St.'' (1986)* ''Tighten Up Vol.", "88'' (1988)* ''Megatop Phoenix'' (1989)* ''Kool-Aid'' (1990)* ''The Globe'' (1991)* ''Higher Power'' (1994)* ''F-Punk'' (1995)* ''Entering a New Ride'' (1997)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "**** Unofficial site" ] ]

[ [ "Bentley" ], [ "Introduction", "Bentley winged \"B\" badge bonnet (hood) ornament'''Bentley Motors Limited''' is a British designer, manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs.", "Headquartered in Crewe, England, the company was founded by W. O. Bentley (1888–1971) in 1919 in Cricklewood, North London, and became widely known for winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1924, 1927, 1928, 1929 and 1930.Bentley has been a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group since 1998 and consolidated under VW's premium brand arm Audi since 2022.Prominent models extend from the historic sports-racing Bentley 4½ Litre and Bentley Speed Six; the more recent Bentley R Type Continental, Bentley Turbo R, and Bentley Arnage; to its current model line, including the Flying Spur, Continental GT, Bentayga and the Mulsanne—which are marketed worldwide, with China as its largest market as of November 2012.Today most Bentley models are assembled at the company's Crewe factory, with a small number assembled at Volkswagen's Dresden factory, Germany, and with bodies for the Continental manufactured in Zwickau and for the Bentayga manufactured at the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant.The joining and eventual separation of Bentley and Rolls-Royce followed a series of mergers and acquisitions, beginning with the 1931 purchase by Rolls-Royce of Bentley, then in receivership.", "In 1971, Rolls-Royce itself was forced into receivership and the UK government nationalised the company—splitting it into an aerospace company (Rolls-Royce Plc) and an automotive company (Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, including Bentley).", "Rolls-Royce Motors was subsequently sold to engineering conglomerate Vickers, and in 1998 Vickers sold Rolls-Royce to Volkswagen AG, including Bentley with its name and logos (but not the name \"Rolls Royce\")." ], [ "History", "===Cricklewood (1919–1931)===Before World War I, Walter Owen Bentley and his brother, Horace Millner Bentley, sold French DFP cars in Cricklewood, North London, but W.O, as Walter was known, always wanted to design and build his own cars.", "At the DFP factory, in 1913, he noticed an aluminium paperweight and thought that aluminium might be a suitable replacement for cast iron to fabricate lighter pistons.", "The first Bentley aluminium pistons were fitted to Sopwith Camel aero engines during the First World War.The same day that the Paris Peace Conference to end World War I started, Walter Owen (\"W.O.\")", "Bentley founded Bentley Motors Limited, on January 18, 1919 and registered Bentley Motors Ltd. in August 1919.In October he exhibited a car chassis (with a dummy engine) at the London Motor Show.", "Ex–Royal Flying Corps officer Clive Gallop designed an innovative four-valves-per-cylinder engine for the chassis.", "By December the engine was built and running.", "Delivery of the first cars was scheduled for June 1920, but development took longer than estimated so the date was extended to September 1921.The durability of the first Bentley cars earned widespread acclaim, and they competed in hill climbs and raced at Brooklands.Bentley's first major event was the 1922 Indianapolis 500, a race dominated by specialized cars with Duesenberg racing chassis.", "They entered a modified road car driven by works driver Douglas Hawkes, accompanied by riding mechanic H. S. \"Bertie\" Browning.", "Hawkes completed the full and finished 13th with an average speed of after starting in 19th position.", "The team was then rushed back to England to compete in the 1922 RAC Tourist Trophy.====Captain Woolf Barnato====In an ironic reference to his heavyweight boxer's stature, Captain Woolf Barnato was nicknamed \"Babe\".", "In 1925, he acquired his first Bentley, a 3-litre.", "With this car, he won numerous Brooklands races.", "Just a year later, he acquired the Bentley business itself.The Bentley enterprise was always underfunded, but inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato agreed to finance Bentley's business.", "Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which existed as his finance and investment vehicle.", "Via Baromans, Barnato initially invested in excess of £100,000, saving the business and its workforce.", "A financial reorganisation of the original Bentley company was carried out and all existing creditors paid off for £75,000.Existing shares were devalued from £1 each to just 1 shilling, or 5% of their original value.", "Barnato held 149,500 of the new shares giving him control of the company and he became chairman.", "Barnato injected further cash into the business: £35,000 secured by debenture in July 1927; £40,000 in 1928; £25,000 in 1929.With renewed financial input, W. O. Bentley was able to design another generation of cars.====The Bentley Boys====1929 Blower BentleyThe Bentley Boys were a group of British motoring enthusiasts that included Barnato, Sir Henry \"Tim\" Birkin, steeple chaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, automotive journalist S.C.H.", "\"Sammy\" Davis, and Dudley Benjafield.", "The Bentley Boys favoured Bentley cars.", "Many were independently wealthy and many had a military background.", "They kept the marque's reputation for high performance alive; Bentley was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, from 1927 to 1930.Birkin developed the 4½-litre, lightweight Blower Bentley at Welwyn Garden City in 1929 and produced five racing specials, starting with Bentley Blower No.1 which was optimised for the Brooklands racing circuit.", "Birkin overruled Bentley and put the model on the market before it was fully developed.", "As a result, it was unreliable.During the March 1930 Blue Train Races, Barnato raised the stakes on Rover and its Rover Light Six, having raced and beaten ''Le Train Bleu'' for the first time, to better that record with his 6½-litre Bentley Speed Six on a bet of £100.He drove against the train from Cannes to Calais, then by ferry to Dover, and finally London, travelling on public highways, and won.Barnato drove his H.J.", "Mulliner–bodied formal saloon in the race against the Blue Train.", "Two months later, on 21 May 1930, he took delivery of a Speed Six with streamlined fastback \"sportsman coupé\" by Gurney Nutting.", "Both cars became known as the \"Blue Train Bentleys\"; the latter is regularly mistaken for, or erroneously referred to as being, the car that raced the Blue Train, while in fact Barnato named it in memory of his race.", "A painting by Terence Cuneo depicts the Gurney Nutting coupé racing along a road parallel to the Blue Train, which scenario never occurred as the road and railway did not follow the same route.====Cricklewood Bentleys====Bentley 8 Litre 4-door sports saloon* 1921–1929 3-litre* 1926–1930 4½-litre & \"Blower Bentley\"* 1926–1930 6½-litre* 1928–1930 6½-litre Speed Six* 1930–1931 8-litre* 1931 4-litreThe original model was the three-litre, but as customers put heavier bodies on the chassis, a larger 4½-litre model followed.", "Perhaps the most iconic model of the period is the 4½-litre \"Blower Bentley\", with its distinctive supercharger projecting forward from the bottom of the grille.", "Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley it was not the racing workhorse the 6½-litre was, though in 1930 Birkin remarkably finished second in the French Grand Prix at Pau in a stripped-down racing version of the Blower Bentley, behind Philippe Etancelin in a Bugatti Type 35.The 4½-litre model later became famous in popular media as the vehicle of choice of James Bond in the original novels, but this has been seen only briefly in the films.", "John Steed in the television series ''The Avengers'' also drove a Bentley.The new eight-litre was such a success that when Barnato's money seemed to run out in 1931 and Napier was planning to buy Bentley's business, Rolls-Royce purchased Bentley Motors to prevent it from competing with their most expensive model, the Phantom II.====Performance at Le Mans====Bentley Speed Six====24 hours of Le Mans Grand Prix d'Endurance====* ''1923 4th (private entry)'' (3-Litre)* 1924 1st (3-Litre)* ''1925 did not finish''* ''1926 did not finish''* 1927 1st 15th 17th (3-Litre)* 1928 1st 5th (4½-litre)* 1929 1st (Speed Six); 2nd 3rd 4th: (4½-litre)* 1930 1st 2nd (Speed Six)Bentley withdrew from motor racing just after winning at Le Mans in 1930, claiming that they had learned enough about speed and reliability.====Liquidation====The Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the resulting Great Depression throttled the demand for Bentley's expensive motor cars.", "In July 1931 two mortgage payments were due which neither the company nor Barnato, the guarantor, were able to meet.", "On 10 July 1931 a receiver was appointed.Napier offered to buy Bentley with the purchase to be final in November 1931.Instead, British Central Equitable Trust made a winning sealed bid of £125,000.British Central Equitable Trust later proved to be a front for Rolls-Royce Limited.", "Not even Bentley himself knew the identity of the purchaser until the deal was completed.Barnato received £42,000 for his shares in Bentley Motors.", "In 1934 he was appointed to the board of the new Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd.", "In the same year Bentley confirmed that it would continue racing.===Rolls-Royce (1931–1970)=======Derby====\"The silent sports car\"1935 3½-litre cabriolet by unknown coachbuilderRolls-Royce took over the assets of Bentley Motors (1919) Ltd and formed a subsidiary, Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd. Rolls-Royce had acquired the Bentley showrooms in Cork Street, the service station at Kingsbury, the complex at Cricklewood and the services of Bentley himself.", "This last was disputed by Napier in court without success.", "Bentley had neglected to register their trademark so Rolls-Royce immediately did so.", "They also sold the Cricklewood factory in 1932.Production stopped for two years, before resuming at the Rolls-Royce works in Derby.", "Unhappy with his role at Rolls-Royce, when his contract expired at the end of April 1935 W. O. Bentley left to join Lagonda.When the new Bentley 3½ litre appeared in 1933, it was a sporting variant of the Rolls-Royce 20/25, which disappointed some traditional customers yet was well received by many others.", "W. O. Bentley was reported as saying, \"Taking all things into consideration, I would rather own this Bentley than any other car produced under that name\".", "Rolls-Royce's advertisements for the  Litre called it \"the silent sports car\", a slogan Rolls-Royce continued to use for Bentley cars until the 1950s.All Bentleys produced from 1931 to 2004 used inherited or shared Rolls-Royce chassis, and adapted Rolls-Royce engines, and are described by critics as badge-engineered Rolls-Royces.=====Derby Bentleys=====* 1933–1937 3½-litre** 1936–1939 4¼-litre* 1939–1941 Mark V** 1939 Mark V====Crewe====In preparation for war, Rolls-Royce and the British Government searched for a location for a shadow factory to ensure production of aero-engines.", "Crewe, with its excellent road and rail links, as well as being located in the northwest away from the aerial bombing starting in mainland Europe, was a logical choice.", "Crewe also had extensive open farming land.", "Construction of the factory started on a 60-acre area on the potato fields of Merrill's Farm in July 1938, with the first Rolls-Royce Merlin aero-engine rolling off the production line five months later.", "25,000 Merlin engines were produced and at its peak, in 1943 during World War II, the factory employed 10,000 people.", "With the war in Europe over and the general move towards the then new jet engines, Rolls-Royce concentrated its aero-engine operations at Derby and moved motor car operations to Crewe.=====Standard Steel saloons=====Bentley Mark VI standard steel saloon, the first Bentley supplied by Rolls-Royce with a standard all-steel bodyUntil some time after World War II, most high-end motorcar manufacturers like Bentley and Rolls-Royce did not supply complete cars.", "They sold rolling chassis, near-complete from the instrument panel forward.", "Each chassis was delivered to the coachbuilder of the buyer's choice.", "The biggest specialist car dealerships had coachbuilders build standard designs for them which were held in stock awaiting potential buyers.The assembled pressings from Pressed SteelTo meet post-war demand, particularly UK Government pressure to export and earn overseas currency, Rolls-Royce developed an all-steel body using pressings made by Pressed Steel to create a \"standard\" ready-to-drive complete saloon car.", "The first steel-bodied model produced was the Bentley Mark VI: these started to emerge from the newly reconfigured Crewe factory early in 1946.Some years later, initially only for export, the Rolls-Royce Silver Dawn was introduced, a standard steel Bentley but with a Rolls-Royce radiator grille for a small extra charge, and this convention continued.Chassis remained available to coachbuilders until the end of production of the Bentley S3, which was replaced for October 1965 by the chassis-less monocoque construction T series.=====Bentley Continental=====Bentley Continental, fastback coupé body by H J MullinerThe Continental fastback coupé was aimed at the UK market, most cars, 164 plus a prototype, being right-hand drive.", "The chassis was produced at the Crewe factory and shared many components with the standard R type.", "Other than the R-Type standard steel saloon, R-Type Continentals were delivered as rolling chassis to the coachbuilder of choice.", "Coachwork for most of these cars was completed by H. J. Mulliner & Co. who mainly built them in fastback coupe form.", "Other coachwork came from Park Ward (London) who built six, later including a drophead coupe version.", "Franay (Paris) built five, Graber (Wichtrach, Switzerland) built three, one of them later altered by Köng (Basel, Switzerland), and Pininfarina made one.", "James Young (London) built in 1954 a Sports Saloon for the owner of James Young's, James Barclay.The early R Type Continental has essentially the same engine as the standard R Type, but with modified carburation, induction and exhaust manifolds along with higher gear ratios.", "After July 1954 the car was fitted with an engine, having now a larger bore of with a total displacement of .", "The compression ratio was raised to 7.25:1.=====Crewe Rolls-Royce Bentleys=====File:1951 Bentley MK VI HJM 2-door saloon 8160965887.jpg |\"The silent sports car\"1952 4¼-litre 2-door by H J MullinerFile:Bentley S2.JPG |Bentley S-series Standard SaloonFile:Bentley T2 reg 1977 6750 cc.JPG|Bentley T-series Standard Saloon (l.w.b.", ")* Standard-steel saloon** 1946–1952 Mark VI** 1952–1955 R Type* Continental** 1952–1955 R Type Continental* S-series** 1955–1959 S1 and Continental** 1959–1962 S2 and Continental** 1962–1965 S3 and Continental* T-series** 1965–1977 T1** 1977–1980 T2* 1971–1984 Corniche* 1975–1986 Camargue===Vickers (1970–1998)===The problems of Bentley's owner with Rolls-Royce aero engine development, the RB211, brought about the financial collapse of its business in 1970.The motorcar division was made a separate business, Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, which remained independent until bought by Vickers plc in August 1980.By the 1970s and early 1980s Bentley sales had fallen badly; at one point less than 5% of combined production carried the Bentley badge.", "Under Vickers, Bentley set about regaining its high-performance heritage, typified by the 1980 Mulsanne.", "Bentley's restored sporting image created a renewed interest in the name and Bentley sales as a proportion of output began to rise.", "By 1986 the Bentley:Rolls-Royce ratio had reached 40:60; by 1991 it achieved parity.====Crewe Vickers Bentleys====Bentley Mulsanne Turbo1997 Bentley Brooklands* 1984–1995 Continental: convertible** 1992–1995 Continental Turbo* 1980–1992 Bentley Mulsanne** 1984–1988 Mulsanne L: limousine** 1982–1985 Mulsanne Turbo** 1987–1992 Mulsanne S* 1984–1992 Eight: basic model* 1985–1995 Turbo R: turbocharged performance version* 1991–2002 Continental R: turbocharged 2-door model** 1994–1995 Continental S: intercooled** 1996–2002 Continental T** 1999–2003 Continental R Mulliner: performance model* 1992–1998 Brooklands: improved Eight** 1996–1998 Brooklands R: performance Brooklands* 1994–1995 Turbo S: limited-edition sports model* 1994–1995 Continental S: to order only version of Continental R with features of Turbo S incorporated* 1995–1997 New Turbo R: updated 96MY Turbo R with revised bumpers, single front door glazing, new door mirrors, spare in trunk, engine cover, new seat design, auto lights, auto wipers etc.", "* 1995–2003 Azure: convertible Continental R* 1996–2002 Continental T: short-wheelbase performance model* 1997–1998 Turbo RL: \"new\" Turbo R LWB (Long Wheel Base)* 1997–1998 Bentley Turbo RT: replacement for the Turbo RL** 1997–1998 RT Mulliner: Ultra exclusive performance model===Volkswagen (1998–present)===1998 Bentley Arnage TQueen Elizabeth II's Bentley State LimousineIn October 1997, Vickers announced that it had decided to sell Rolls-Royce Motors.", "BMW AG seemed to be a logical purchaser because BMW already supplied engines and other components for Bentley and Rolls-Royce branded cars and because of BMW and Vickers joint efforts in building aircraft engines.", "BMW made a final offer of £340m, but was outbid by Volkswagen AG, which offered £430m.", "Volkswagen AG acquired the vehicle designs, model nameplates, production and administrative facilities, the Spirit of Ecstasy and Rolls-Royce grille shape trademarks, but not the rights to the use of the Rolls-Royce name or logo, which are owned by Rolls-Royce Holdings plc.", "In 1998, BMW started supplying components for the new range of Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars—notably V8 engines for the Bentley Arnage and V12 engines for the Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph, however, the supply contract allowed BMW to terminate its supply deal with Rolls-Royce with 12 months' notice, which would not be enough time for Volkswagen to re-engineer the cars.Bentley Azure Mulliner 2003 Final SeriesBMW paid Rolls-Royce plc £40m to license the Rolls-Royce name and logo.", "After negotiations, BMW and Volkswagen AG agreed that, from 1998 to 2002, BMW would continue to supply engines and components and would allow Volkswagen temporary use of the Rolls-Royce name and logo.", "All BMW engine supply ended in 2003 with the end of Silver Seraph production.From 1 January 2003 forward, Volkswagen AG would be the sole provider of cars with the \"Bentley\" marque.", "BMW established a new legal entity, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited, and built a new administrative headquarters and production facility for Rolls-Royce branded vehicles in Goodwood, West Sussex, England.====Investment and company development====After acquiring the business, Volkswagen spent £500 million (about US$845 million) to modernise the Crewe factory and increase production capacity.As of early 2010, there are about 3,500 working at Crewe, compared with about 1,500 in 1998 before being taken over by Volkswagen.", "It was reported that Volkswagen invested a total of nearly US$2 billion in Bentley and its revival.", "As a result of upgrading facilities at Crewe the bodywork now arrives fully painted at the Crewe facility for final assembly, with the parts coming from Germany—similarly Rolls-Royce body shells are painted and shipped to the UK for assembly only.Demand had been so great that the factory at Crewe was unable to meet orders despite an installed capacity of approximately 9,500 vehicles per year; there was a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered.", "Consequently, part of the production of the new Flying Spur, a four-door version of the Continental GT, was assigned to the Transparent Factory (Germany), where the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury car was also assembled.", "This arrangement ceased at the end of 2006 after around 1,000 cars, with all car production reverting to the Crewe plant.Bentley presented Queen Elizabeth II with an official State Limousine in 2002 to celebrate her Golden Jubilee.", "Production of the two-door convertible Bentley Azure finished in 2003.It was replaced by a large luxury coupé powered by a W12 engine built in Crewe and named Bentley Continental GT.It was confirmed in April 2005 a four-seat convertible Azure derived from the Arnage Drophead Coupé prototype would begin at Crewe in 2006.By the autumn of 2005, a convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the Continental GTC, was also presented in the autumn of 2005.These two models were launched in late 2006.2005 Bentley Continental Flying Spur2011 Bentley Continental GT2017 Bentley Bentayga dieselCEO Adrian Hallmark presents the Bentayga Hybrid at Geneva International Motor Show 2018.2019 Bentley Continental GTC2019 Flying Spur W12A limited run of a Zagato modified GT was also announced in March 2008, dubbed \"GTZ\".A new version of the Bentley Continental was introduced at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show: The Continental Supersports.", "This new Bentley is a supercar combining extreme power with environmentally friendly FlexFuel technology, capable of using petrol (gasoline) and biofuel (E85 ethanol).Bentley sales continued to increase, and in 2005 8,627 were sold worldwide, 3,654 in the United States.", "In 2007, the 10,000 cars-per-year threshold was broken for the first time with sales of 10,014.For 2007, a record profit of €155 million was also announced.", "Bentley reported a sale of about 7,600 units in 2008.However, its global sales plunged 50 percent to 4,616 vehicles in 2009 (with the U.S. deliveries dropped 49% to 1,433 vehicles) and it suffered an operating loss of €194 million, compared with an operating profit of €10 million in 2008.As a result of the slump in sales, production at Crewe was shut down during March and April 2009.Though vehicle sales increased by 11% to 5,117 in 2010, operating loss grew by 26% to €245 million.", "In Autumn 2010, workers at Crewe staged a series of protests over proposal of compulsory work on Fridays and mandatory overtime during the week.Vehicle sales in 2011 rose 37% to 7,003 vehicles, with the new Continental GT accounting for over one-third of total sales.", "The current workforce is about 4,000 people.The business earned a profit in 2011 after two years of losses as a result of the following sales results:On 23 March 2020, Bentley announced to halt production due to COVID-19 pandemic.", "In June 2020, Bentley announced that it will cut around 1,000 (one quarter of 4,200) job places in the UK as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.On 3 November 2020, Bentley announced that all new cars sold will be electric by 2030.This announcement also follows after the United Kingdom Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced in February 2020 that he approved legislation that will ban and phase out non-electric vehicles (including Hybrid and Plug-in Hybrid vehicles) from the UK by 2030 with hybrids being banned by 2035.=====Deliveries, profits and staff=====YearProfit or loss€ millionStaffTotaldeliveriesAmericasChinaEuropeexc UKUKMiddleEastAsiaPacificJapanOther 1998 1500 414 1999 1001 2000 1469 2001 1429 2002 1157 36 2003 1017 2004 7411 2005 8627 3654 500 4473 2006 +137 9387 4035 175 2024 3153 2007 +155 10014 4196 338 2166 2079 1235 2008 +10 7605 2009 −194 3500 4616 1433 489 897 1797 2010 −245 5117 1525 910 776 982 924 2011 8 4000 7003 2021 1839 1187 1031 566 249 110 2012 100 8510 2457 2253 1333 1104 815 358 190 2013 176 10120 3140 2191 1480 1381 1185 452 291Sources Volkswagen AG Annual Reports and press releasesBentley recorded a 31% rise in global sales in FY21 despite shutdowns caused by the global coronavirus pandemic.=====Production=====YearBentaygaCGT CoupéCGT CabrioFlying SpurMulsanneArnageBrooklandsAzureContinentalOther BentleyRolls-RoyceTotal 2000 1243 131 93 2 469 1938 2001 1049 205 114 61 352 1781 2002 883 69 50 61 147 1210 2003 107 607 62 16 792 2004 6896 790 7686 2005 4733 4271 556 9560 2006 3611 1742 4042 464 177 10036 2007 2140 4847 2270 357 8 350 9972 2008 2699 2408 1813 277 312 165 7674 2009 1211 722 1358 147 106 93 3637 2010 1735 843 1914 354 6 2 4854 2011 3416 677 2354 1146 7593 2012 3536 2638 1764 1169 9107 2013 3602 2197 3960 1117 10876 2014 3442 2151 4556 884 11033 2015 96 3997 2216 3660 919 10888 2016 5586 2272 1600 1731 628 11817 2017 4849 1345 1468 2295 595 10552 2018 4072 2841 28 1627 547 9115 2019 5232 3903 2760 102 443 12440 2020 3946 1905 1244 3381 127 10603Sources Volkswagen AG Annual Reports" ], [ "List of Bentley vehicles", "Model NameIntroducedDiscontinuedClass3 Litre19211929Sports car3.5 Litre19331939Luxury car4 Litre19311931Luxury car4 1/2 Litre19271931Sports carSpeed Six19261930\"Rolling chassis\"8 Litre19301932Luxury carArnage19982009Luxury carAzure19952009Grand tourerBentayga2015Luxury SUVBrooklands19922011Luxury carGrand tourerContinental1952Continental GT2003Grand tourerEight19841992Luxury carFlying Spur2005Luxury carUltra-luxury carMark V19391941Luxury carMark VI19461952Luxury carMulsanne19801992Luxury carMulsanne2010Luxury carR Type19521955Luxury carS119551959Luxury carS219591962S319621965Luxury carState Limousine20022002Luxury carLimousineOfficial state carT-Series19651980Luxury carTurbo R19851999=== Crewe Volkswagen Bentleys ======= Car models in current production ====* 2016–present: Bentayga* 2018–present: Continental GT (Gen 3)* 2019–present: Flying Spur (Gen 3)==== Car models formerly in production ====* 1998–2009: Arnage* 2003–2011: Continental GT* 2005–2013: Continental Flying Spur (Gen 1)* 2006–2009: Azure (Gen 2)* 2008–2011: Bentley Brooklands (Gen 2)* 2010–2020: Mulsanne* 2011–2018: Continental GT (Gen 2)* 2013–2019: Flying Spur (Gen 2)==== Special edition car models ====* 1999: Hunaudières Concept* 2002: State Limousine=== Motorsport ===A Bentley Continental GT3 entered by the M-Sport factory team won the Silverstone round of the 2014 Blancpain Endurance Series.", "This was Bentley's first official entry in a British race since the 1930 RAC Tourist Trophy." ], [ "See also", "* List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * - Total pages: 406" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Inside the Bentley factory\"—Jorn Madslien, BBC News" ] ]

[ [ "Chordate" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''chordate''' ( ) is a deuterostomic animal belonging to the phylum '''Chordata''' ( ).", "All chordates possess, at some point during their larval or adult stages, five distinctive physical characteristics (synapomorphies) that distinguish them from other taxa.", "These five synapomorphies are a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, an endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.", "The name \"chordate\" comes from the first of these synapomorphies, the notochord, which plays a significant role in chordate body plan structuring and movements.", "Chordates are also bilaterally symmetric, have a coelom, possess a closed circulatory system, and exhibit metameric segmentation.In addition to the morphological characteristics used to define chordates, analysis of genome sequences has identified two conserved signature indels (CSIs) in their proteins: cyclophilin-like protein and inner mitochondrial membrane protease ATP23, which are exclusively shared by all vertebrates, tunicates and cephalochordates.", "These CSIs provide molecular means to reliably distinguish chordates from all other animals.Chordates are divided into three subphyla: Craniata or Vertebrata (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals); Tunicata or Urochordata (sea squirts, salps, and larvaceans); and Cephalochordata (lancelets).", "The Vertebrates and Tunicates compose the clade Olfactores, which is sister to Cephalochordata (see diagram under Phylogeny).", "Extinct taxa such as the Conodonts are Chordata, but their internal placement is less certain.", "Hemichordata (which includes the acorn worms) was previously considered a fourth chordate subphylum, but now is treated as a separate phylum.", "Hemichordates are now thought to be closer to the Echinoderms, and together they form the clade Ambulacraria, the sister phylum of the Chordates.", "Chordata, Ambulacraria, and possibly Xenacoelomorpha are believed to form the superphylum Deuterostomia, although this has recently been called into doubt.Chordate fossils have been found from as early as the Cambrian explosion, 539 million years ago.", "Cladistically (phylogenetically), vertebrates – chordates with the notochord replaced by a vertebral column during development – are a subgroup of the clade Craniata, which consists of chordates with a skull.", "Of the more than 81,000 living species of chordates, about half are ray-finned fishes that are members of the class Actinopterygii and the vast majority of the rest are tetrapods (mostly birds and mammals)." ], [ "History of name", "Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson (1885), it was already in prevalent use by 1880.Ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866.Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization." ], [ "Anatomy", "The glass catfish (''Kryptopterus vitreolus'') is one of the few chordates with a visible backbone.", "The spinal cord is housed within its backbone.Chordates form a phylum of animals that are defined by having at some stage in their lives all of the following anatomical features:*A notochord, a stiff but elastic rod of glycoprotein wrapped in two collagen helices, which extends along the central axis of the body.", "Among members of the subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates), the notochord gets replaced by hyaline cartilage or osseous tissue of the spine, and notochord remnants develop into the intervertebral discs, which allow adjacent spinal vertebrae to bend and twist relative to each other.", "In wholly aquatic species, this helps the animal swim efficiently by flexing its tail side-to-side.", "*A hollow dorsal nerve cord, also known as the neural tube, which develops into the spinal cord, the main communications trunk of the nervous system.", "In vertebrates, the rostral end of the neural tube enlarges into several vesicles, which give rise to the brain during embryonic development.", "*Pharyngeal slits.", "The pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth.", "In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, but in some other chordates they are part of a filter-feeding system that extracts food particles from ingested water.", "In tetrapods, they are only present during embryonic stages of the development.", "*A post-anal tail.", "A muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus.", "In some chordates such as humans, this is only present in the embryonic stage.", "*An endostyle.", "This is a groove in the ventral wall of the pharynx.", "In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus.", "It also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland.There are soft constraints that separate chordates from other biological lineages, but are not part of the formal definition:* All chordates are deuterostomes.", "This means that, during the embryo development stage, the anus forms before the mouth.", "* All chordates are based on a bilateral body plan.", "* All chordates are coelomates, and have a fluid-filled body cavity called a coelom with a complete lining called peritoneum derived from mesoderm (see Brusca and Brusca)." ], [ "Classification", "The following schema is from the 2015 edition of ''Vertebrate Palaeontology''.", "The invertebrate chordate classes are from ''Fishes of the World''.", "While it is structured so as to reflect evolutionary relationships (similar to a cladogram), it also retains the traditional ranks used in Linnaean taxonomy.", "* '''Phylum Chordata'''** Subphylum '''Cephalochordata''' (Acraniata) – (lancelets; 30 species)*** Class '''Leptocardii''' (lancelets)** Clade '''Olfactores'''*** Subphylum '''Tunicata''' (Urochordata) – (tunicates; 3,000 species)**** Class '''Ascidiacea''' (sea squirts)**** Class '''Thaliacea''' (salps, doliolids and pyrosomes)**** Class '''Appendicularia''' (larvaceans)**** Class '''Sorberacea'''*** Subphylum '''Vertebrata''' (Craniata) (vertebrates – animals with backbones; 66,100+ species)**** Superclass ''''Agnatha'''' paraphyletic (jawless vertebrates; 100+ species)***** Class '''Cyclostomata'''****** Infraclass Myxinoidea or Myxini (hagfish; 65 species)****** Infraclass Petromyzontida or Hyperoartia (lampreys)***** Class †Conodonta***** Class †Myllokunmingiida***** Class †Pteraspidomorphi***** Class †Thelodonti***** Class †Anaspida***** Class †Cephalaspidomorphi**** Infraphylum '''Gnathostomata''' (jawed vertebrates)***** Class †'''Placodermi''' (Paleozoic armoured forms; paraphyletic in relation to all other gnathostomes)***** Class '''Chondrichthyes''' (cartilaginous fish; 900+ species)***** Class †'''Acanthodii''' (Paleozoic \"spiny sharks\"; paraphyletic in relation to Chondrichthyes)***** Class '''Osteichthyes''' (bony fish; 30,000+ species)****** Subclass '''Actinopterygii''' (ray-finned fish; about 30,000 species)****** Subclass '''Sarcopterygii''' (lobe-finned fish: 8 species)***** Superclass '''Tetrapoda''' (four-limbed vertebrates; 35,100+ species) (The classification below follows Benton 2004, and uses a synthesis of rank-based Linnaean taxonomy and also reflects evolutionary relationships.", "Benton included the Superclass Tetrapoda in the Subclass Sarcopterygii in order to reflect the direct descent of tetrapods from lobe-finned fish, despite the former being assigned a higher taxonomic rank.", ")****** Class '''Amphibia''' (amphibians; 8,100+ species)****** Class '''Sauropsida''' (reptiles (including birds); 21,300+ species – 10,000+ species of birds and 11,300+ species of reptiles)****** Class '''Synapsida''' (mammals; 5,700+ species)" ], [ "Subphyla", " Cephalochordate: lancelet.", "Pictured species: ''Branchiostoma lanceolatum''===Cephalochordata: Lancelets===Cephalochordates, one of the three subdivisions of chordates, are small, \"vaguely fish-shaped\" animals that lack brains, clearly defined heads and specialized sense organs.", "These burrowing filter-feeders compose the earliest-branching chordate subphylum.===Tunicata (Urochordata)===Tunicates: sea squirtsMost tunicates appear as adults in two major forms, known as \"sea squirts\" and salps, both of which are soft-bodied filter-feeders that lack the standard features of chordates.", "Sea squirts are sessile and consist mainly of water pumps and filter-feeding apparatus; salps float in mid-water, feeding on plankton, and have a two-generation cycle in which one generation is solitary and the next forms chain-like colonies.", "However, all tunicate larvae have the standard chordate features, including long, tadpole-like tails; they also have rudimentary brains, light sensors and tilt sensors.", "The third main group of tunicates, Appendicularia (also known as Larvacea), retain tadpole-like shapes and active swimming all their lives, and were for a long time regarded as larvae of sea squirts or salps.", "The etymology of the term Urochordata (Balfour 1881) is from the ancient Greek οὐρά (oura, \"tail\") + Latin chorda (\"cord\"), because the notochord is only found in the tail.", "The term '''Tunicata''' (Lamarck 1816) is recognised as having precedence and is now more commonly used.===Craniata (Vertebrata)===Craniate: Hagfish Craniates all have distinct skulls.", "They include the hagfish, which have no vertebrae.", "Michael J. Benton commented that \"craniates are characterized by their heads, just as chordates, or possibly all deuterostomes, are by their tails\".Most craniates are vertebrates, in which the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column.", "These consist of a series of bony or cartilaginous cylindrical vertebrae, generally with neural arches that protect the spinal cord, and with projections that link the vertebrae.", "However hagfish have incomplete braincases and no vertebrae, and are therefore not regarded as vertebrates,but as members of the craniates, the group from which vertebrates are thought to have evolved.", "However the cladistic exclusion of hagfish from the vertebrates is controversial, as they may be degenerate vertebrates who have lost their vertebral columns.The position of lampreys is ambiguous.", "They have complete braincases and rudimentary vertebrae, and therefore may be regarded as vertebrates and true fish.", "However, molecular phylogenetics, which uses biochemical features to classify organisms, has produced both results that group them with vertebrates and others that group them with hagfish.", "If lampreys are more closely related to the hagfish than the other vertebrates, this would suggest that they form a clade, which has been named the Cyclostomata." ], [ "Phylogeny{{anchor|Taxonomy}}", "===Overview===''Haikouichthys'', from about in China, may be the earliest known fish.There is still much ongoing differential (DNA sequence based) comparison research that is trying to separate out the simplest forms of chordates.", "As some lineages of the 90% of species that lack a backbone or notochord might have lost these structures over time, this complicates the classification of chordates.", "Some chordate lineages may only be found by DNA analysis, when there is no physical trace of any chordate-like structures.Attempts to work out the evolutionary relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses.", "The current consensus is that chordates are monophyletic, meaning that the Chordata include all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor, which is itself a chordate, and that craniates' nearest relatives are tunicates.", "Recent identification of two conserved signature indels (CSIs) in the proteins cyclophilin-like protein and mitochondrial inner membrane protease ATP23, which are exclusively shared by all vertebrates, tunicates and cephalochordates also provide strong evidence of the monophyly of Chordata.All of the earliest chordate fossils have been found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna, and include two species that are regarded as fish, which implies that they are vertebrates.", "Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a reasonable prospect of dating their emergence.", "However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial.It has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates.", "Attempts to produce evolutionary \"family trees\" shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic.Diagram of the evolutionary relationships of chordatesWhile this has been well known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux.The majority of animals more complex than jellyfish and other Cnidarians are split into two groups, the protostomes and deuterostomes, the latter of which contains chordates.", "It seems very likely the ''Kimberella'' was a member of the protostomes.", "If so, this means the protostome and deuterostome lineages must have split some time before ''Kimberella'' appeared—at least , and hence well before the start of the Cambrian .", "The Ediacaran fossil ''Ernietta'', from about , may represent a deuterostome animal.A skeleton of the blue whale, the largest animal, extant or extinct, ever discovered.", "Mounted outside the Long Marine Laboratory at the University of California, Santa Cruz.", "The largest blue whale ever reliably recorded measured 98ft (30m) long.A peregrine falcon, the world's fastest animal.", "Peregrines use gravity and aerodynamics to achieve their top speed of around 242mph (390km/h), as opposed to locomotion.", "Fossils of one major deuterostome group, the echinoderms (whose modern members include starfish, sea urchins and crinoids), are quite common from the start of the Cambrian, .", "The Mid Cambrian fossil ''Rhabdotubus johanssoni'' has been interpreted as a pterobranch hemichordate.", "Opinions differ about whether the Chengjiang fauna fossil ''Yunnanozoon'', from the earlier Cambrian, was a hemichordate or chordate.", "Another fossil, ''Haikouella lanceolata'', also from the Chengjiang fauna, is interpreted as a chordate and possibly a craniate, as it shows signs of a heart, arteries, gill filaments, a tail, a neural chord with a brain at the front end, and possibly eyes—although it also had short tentacles round its mouth.", "''Haikouichthys'' and ''Myllokunmingia'', also from the Chengjiang fauna, are regarded as fish.", "''Pikaia'', discovered much earlier (1911) but from the Mid Cambrian Burgess Shale (505 Ma), is also regarded as a primitive chordate.", "On the other hand, fossils of early chordates are very rare, since invertebrate chordates have no bones or teeth, and only one has been reported for the rest of the Cambrian.The evolutionary relationships between the chordate groups and between chordates as a whole and their closest deuterostome relatives have been debated since 1890.Studies based on anatomical, embryological, and paleontological data have produced different \"family trees\".", "Some closely linked chordates and hemichordates, but that idea is now rejected.", "Combining such analyses with data from a small set of ribosome RNA genes eliminated some older ideas, but opened up the possibility that tunicates (urochordates) are \"basal deuterostomes\", surviving members of the group from which echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates evolved.", "Some researchers believe that, within the chordates, craniates are most closely related to cephalochordates, but there are also reasons for regarding tunicates (urochordates) as craniates' closest relatives.Since early chordates have left a poor fossil record, attempts have been made to calculate the key dates in their evolution by molecular phylogenetics techniques—by analyzing biochemical differences, mainly in RNA.", "One such study suggested that deuterostomes arose before and the earliest chordates around .", "However, molecular estimates of dates often disagree with each other and with the fossil record, and their assumption that the molecular clock runs at a known constant rate has been challenged.Traditionally, Cephalochordata and Craniata were grouped into the proposed clade \"Euchordata\", which would have been the sister group to Tunicata/Urochordata.", "More recently, Cephalochordata has been thought of as a sister group to the \"Olfactores\", which includes the craniates and tunicates.", "The matter is not yet settled.A specific relationship between Vertebrates and Tunicates is also strongly supported by two CSIs found in the proteins predicted exosome complex RRP44 and serine palmitoyltransferase, that are exclusively shared by species from these two subphyla but not Cephalochordates, indicating Vertebrates are more closely related to Tunicates than Cephalochordates.=== Cladogram ===Phylogenetic tree of the chordate phylum.", "Lines of the cladogram show probable evolutionary relationships between both extinct taxa, which are denoted with a dagger (†), and extant taxa.", "Relatives of vertebrates are invertebrates.", "The positions (relationships) of the lancelets, tunicates, and craniates/vertebrates are based on the following studies:" ], [ "Closest nonchordate relatives", "Acorn worms or Enteropneusts are example of hemichordates.The closest relatives of the Chordates are believed to be the Hemichordates and Echinodermata, which together form the Ambulacraria.The Chordata and Ambulacraria together form the superphylum Deuterostomia.", "===Hemichordates===Hemichordates (\"half chordates\") have some features similar to those of chordates: branchial openings that open into the pharynx and look rather like gill slits; stomochords, similar in composition to notochords, but running in a circle round the \"collar\", which is ahead of the mouth; and a dorsal nerve cord—but also a smaller ventral nerve cord.There are two living groups of hemichordates.", "The solitary enteropneusts, commonly known as \"acorn worms\", have long proboscises and worm-like bodies with up to 200 branchial slits, are up to long, and burrow though seafloor sediments.", "Pterobranchs are colonial animals, often less than long individually, whose dwellings are interconnected.", "Each filter feeds by means of a pair of branched tentacles, and has a short, shield-shaped proboscis.", "The extinct graptolites, colonial animals whose fossils look like tiny hacksaw blades, lived in tubes similar to those of pterobranchs.===Echinoderms===A red knob sea star, ''Protoreaster linckii'' is an example of Asterozoan Echinoderm.|rightEchinoderms differ from chordates and their other relatives in three conspicuous ways: they possess bilateral symmetry only as larvae – in adulthood they have radial symmetry, meaning that their body pattern is shaped like a wheel; they have tube feet; and their bodies are supported by skeletons made of calcite, a material not used by chordates.", "Their hard, calcified shells keep their bodies well protected from the environment, and these skeletons enclose their bodies, but are also covered by thin skins.", "The feet are powered by another unique feature of echinoderms, a water vascular system of canals that also functions as a \"lung\" and surrounded by muscles that act as pumps.", "Crinoids look rather like flowers, and use their feather-like arms to filter food particles out of the water; most live anchored to rocks, but a few can move very slowly.", "Other echinoderms are mobile and take a variety of body shapes, for example starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers." ], [ "See also", "**" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Chordate on GlobalTwitcher.com* Chordate node at Tree Of Life* Chordate node at NCBI Taxonomy" ] ]

[ [ "Charlize Theron" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and producer.", "One of the world's highest-paid actresses, she is the recipient of various accolades, including an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award.", "In 2016, ''Time'' named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world.Theron came to international prominence in the 1990s by playing the leading lady in the Hollywood films ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999).", "She received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Silver Bear and Academy Award for Best Actress, becoming the first South African to win an acting Oscar.", "She received another Academy Award nomination for playing a sexually abused woman seeking justice in the drama ''North Country'' (2005).Theron has starred in several commercially successful action films, including ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017), ''The Old Guard'' (2020), ''F9'' (2021) and ''Fast X'' (2023).", "She received praise for playing troubled women in Jason Reitman's comedy-dramas ''Young Adult'' (2011) and ''Tully'' (2018), and for portraying Megyn Kelly in the biographical drama ''Bombshell'' (2019), for which she received her third Academy Award nomination.Since the early 2000s, Theron has ventured into film production with her company Denver and Delilah Productions.", "She has produced numerous films, in many of which she had a starring role, including ''The Burning Plain'' (2008), ''Dark Places'' (2015), and ''Long Shot'' (2019).", "Theron became an American citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship.", "She has been honoured with a motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame." ], [ "Early life", "Theron was born in Benoni, in Transvaal Province (Gauteng Province since 1994) of South Africa on 7 August 1975.She is the only child of road constructionists Gerda (née Maritz) and Charles Theron (27 November 1947 – 21 June 1991).", "The Second Boer War military leader Danie Theron was her great-grand-uncle.", "She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch as well as French and German.", "Her French forebears were early Huguenots in South Africa.She grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg.", "On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother and firing a gun at both of them.", "Theron's mother retrieved her own handgun, shot back and killed him.", "The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defense, and her mother faced no charges.Theron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \"fitting in\".", "She was frequently unwell with jaundice throughout childhood and the antibiotics she was administered made her upper incisor milk teeth rot; they had to be surgically removed.", "Theron's permanent teeth did not grow until she was roughly ten years old.", "At 13, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg.", "About her early life in her home country, Theron has said: “I grew up as an only child in South Africa, and there was turmoil in my family, but the surroundings were so great.", "I was usually barefoot in the dirt: no Game Boys, no computers, and we had sanctions, so there were no concerts.", "This meant you had to entertain yourself.”Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans." ], [ "Career", "===Early work (1991–1996)===Although she saw herself as a dancer, Theron won a one-year modelling contract at age 16 at a local competition in Salerno, Italy and moved with her mother to Milan, Italy.", "After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the United States; they resided in New York City and Miami.", "In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path.", "As Theron recalled in 2008:In 1994, Theron flew to Los Angeles on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her; she intended to work in the film industry.", "During her initial months there, she lived in a motel with the $300 budget that her mother had given her; she continued receiving cheques from New York and lived \"from paycheck to paycheck\".", "Theron stole bread from a basket in a restaurant to survive.", "One day, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a few cheques, including one her mother had sent to help with the rent; however; the check from her mother was rejected because it was out-of-state and she was not an American citizen.", "Theron argued and pleaded with the bank teller until talent agent John Crosby, who was the next customer behind her, cashed it for her and gave her his business card.Crosby introduced Theron to an acting school.", "In 1995, she played her first non-speaking film role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest''.", "In Theron's first speaking role, she portrayed hitwoman Helga Svelgen in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996).", "Despite the film's mixed reviews, Theron drew attention due to her beauty and to a scene in which she fought Teri Hatcher's character.", "Theron feared being typecast as characters similar to Helga and recalled being asked to repeat her performance in the film during auditions: \"A lot of people were saying, 'You should just hit while the iron's hot' ...", "But playing the same part over and over doesn't leave you with any longevity.", "And I knew it was going to be harder for me, because of what I look like, to branch out to different kinds of roles\".When auditioning for ''Showgirls'', Theron was introduced to talent agent J. J. Harris by co-casting director Johanna Ray.", "She recalled being surprised at how much faith Harris had in her potential.", "Theron has referred to Harris as her mentor.", "Harris found scripts and films for Theron in a variety of genres and encouraged her to become a producer.", "She served as Theron's agent for over 15 years.===Breakthrough (1997–2002)===Theron's career expanded by the end of the 1990s.", "In the horror drama ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), which is credited as her break-out film, Theron starred alongside Keanu Reeves and Al Pacino as the haunted wife of an unusually successful lawyer.", "She subsequently starred in the adventure film ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998) as the friend and protector of a giant mountain gorilla, and in the drama ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), as a woman who seeks an abortion in World War II-era Maine.", "While ''Mighty Joe Young'' flopped at the box office, ''The Devil's Advocate'' and ''The Cider House Rules'' were commercially successful.", "She appeared on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \"White Hot Venus\".", "The May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine also featured Theron on its cover; the photos of Theron used by ''Playboy'' had been taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model, and Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.By the early 2000s, Theron continued to steadily take on roles in films such as ''Reindeer Games'' (2000), ''The Yards'' (2000), ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' (2000), ''Men of Honor'' (2000), ''Sweet November'' (2001), ''The Curse of the Jade Scorpion'' (2001), and ''Trapped'' (2002), all of which, despite achieving only limited commercial success, helped to establish her as an actress.", "On this period in her career, Theron remarked: \"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't.", "I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired.", "I found myself making really bad movies, too.", "''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved director John Frankenheimer\".===Worldwide recognition and critical success (2003–2008)===Ms.''", "magazine in 2005Theron starred as a safe and vault technician in the 2003 heist film ''The Italian Job'', an American homage/remake of the 1969 British film of the same name, directed by F. Gary Gray and opposite Mark Wahlberg, Edward Norton, Jason Statham, Seth Green, and Donald Sutherland.", "The film was a box office success, grossing US$176 million worldwide.In ''Monster'' (2003), Theron portrayed serial killer Aileen Wuornos, a former prostitute who was executed in Florida in 2002 for killing six men (she was not tried for a seventh murder) in the late 1980s and early 1990s; film critic Roger Ebert felt that Theron gave \"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\".", "For her portrayal, she was awarded the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award.", "She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress.", "The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter''s 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning up to US$10 million for a film; she ranked seventh.", "''AskMen'' named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.For her role as Swedish actress and singer Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers'', Theron garnered Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations.", "In 2005, she portrayed Rita, the mentally challenged love interest of Michael Bluth (Jason Bateman), on the third season of Fox's television series ''Arrested Development'', and starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Æon Flux''; for her voice-over work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game, she received a Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female.North Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film FestivalIn the critically acclaimed drama ''North Country'' (2005), Theron played a single mother and an iron mine worker experiencing sexual harassment.", "David Rooney of ''Variety'' wrote: \"The film represents a confident next step for lead Charlize Theron.", "Though the challenges of following a career-redefining Oscar role have stymied actresses, Theron segues from ''Monster'' to a performance in many ways more accomplished ...", "The strength of both the performance and character anchor the film firmly in the tradition of other dramas about working-class women leading the fight over industrial workplace issues, such as ''Norma Rae'' or ''Silkwood''.\"", "Roger Ebert echoed the same sentiment, calling her \"an actress who has the beauty of a fashion model but has found resources within herself for these powerful roles about unglamorous women in the world of men.\"", "For her performance, she received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress.", "''Ms.''", "magazine honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue.", "On 30 September 2005, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.In 2007, Theron played a police detective in the critically acclaimed crime film ''In the Valley of Elah'', and produced and starred as a reckless, slatternly mother in the drama film ''Sleepwalking'', alongside Nick Stahl and AnnaSophia Robb.", "''The Christian Science Monitor'' praised the latter film, commenting that \"Despite its deficiencies, and the inadequate screen time allotted to Theron (who's quite good), ''Sleepwalking'' has a core of feeling\".", "In 2008, Theron starred as a woman who faced a traumatic childhood in the drama ''The Burning Plain'', directed by Guillermo Arriaga and opposite Jennifer Lawrence and Kim Basinger, and played the ex-wife of an alcoholic superhero alongside Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock''.", "''The Burning Plain'' found a limited release in US theatres, but grossed $5,267,917 outside the US.", "''Hancock'' made US$624.3 million worldwide.", "Also in 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year, and was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.===Career hiatus and fluctuations (2009–2016)===Her film releases in 2009 were the post-apocalyptic drama ''The Road'', in which she briefly appears in flashbacks, and the animated film ''Astro Boy'', providing her voice for a character.", "On 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry.", "During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland.", "The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.Following a two-year hiatus from films, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with the black comedy ''Young Adult''.", "Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, particularly for her performance as a depressed divorced, alcoholic 37-year-old ghostwriter.", "Richard Roeper awarded the film an A grade, stating \"Charlize Theron delivers one of the most impressive performances of the year\".", "She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards.", "Roger Ebert called her one of the best actors working today.Prometheus'' at the 2012 WonderConIn 2012, Theron took on the role of villain in two big-budgeted films.", "She played Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', opposite Kristen Stewart and Chris Hemsworth, and appeared as a crew member with a hidden agenda in Ridley Scott's ''Prometheus''.", "Mick LaSalle of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' found ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' to be \"a slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron's truly evil queen\", while ''The Hollywood Reporter'' writer Todd McCarthy, describing her role in ''Prometheus'', asserted: \"Theron is in ice goddess mode here, with the emphasis on ice ... but perfect for the role all the same\".", "Both films were major box office hits, grossing around US$400 million internationally each.", "The following year, ''Vulture''/''NYMag'' named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \"We're just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn't come out with anything ... any actress who's got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood\".", "On 10 May 2014, Theron hosted ''Saturday Night Live'' on NBC.", "In 2014, Theron took on the role of the wife of an infamous outlaw in the western comedy film ''A Million Ways to Die in the West'', directed by Seth MacFarlane, which was met with mediocre reviews and moderate box office returns.In 2015, Theron played the sole survivor of the massacre of her family in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner, in which she had a producer credit, and starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.", "''Mad Max'' received widespread critical acclaim, with praise going towards Theron for the dominant nature taken by her character.", "The film made US$378.4 million worldwide.", "She next reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the 2016 film ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which was a critical and commercial failure.", "In 2016, Theron starred as a physician and activist working in West Africa in the little-seen romantic drama ''The Last Face'', with Sean Penn, provided her voice for the 3D stop-motion fantasy film ''Kubo and the Two Strings'', and produced the independent drama ''Brain on Fire''.", "That year, ''Time'' named her in the Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.===Resurgence (2017–present)===Theron at the 2017 San Diego Comic-ConIn 2017, Theron starred in ''The Fate of the Furious'' as the cyberterrorist Cipher, the main antagonist of the entire franchise, and played a spy on the eve of the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch.", "''The Fate of The Furious'' had a worldwide gross of US$1.2 billion.", "and ''Atomic Blonde'' was described by Richard Roeper of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' as \"a slick vehicle for the magnetic, badass charms of Charlize Theron, who is now officially an A-list action star on the strength of this film and ''Mad Max: Fury Road''\".", "In the black comedy ''Tully'' (2018), directed by Jason Reitman and written by Diablo Cody, Theron played an overwhelmed mother of three.", "The film was acclaimed by critics, who concluded it \"delves into the modern parenthood experience with an admirably deft blend of humor and raw honesty, brought to life by an outstanding performance by Charlize Theron\".", "She played the president of a pharmaceutical in the crime film ''Gringo'' and produced the biographical war drama film ''A Private War'', both released in 2018.In 2019, Theron produced and starred in the romantic comedy film ''Long Shot'', opposite Seth Rogen and directed by Jonathan Levine, portraying a U.S. Secretary of State who reconnects with a journalist she used to babysit.", "The film had its world premiere at South by Southwest in March 2019, and was released on 3 May 2019, to positive reviews from film critics.", "Theron next starred as Megyn Kelly in the drama ''Bombshell'', which she co-produced.", "Directed by Jay Roach, the film revolves around the sexual harassment allegations made against Fox News CEO Roger Ailes by former female employees.", "For her work in the film, Theron was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress, Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress, Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, and BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.", "That same year, ''Forbes'' ranked her as the ninth highest-paid actress in the world, with an annual income of $23 million.", "In 2020, she produced and starred opposite KiKi Layne in ''The Old Guard'', directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood.", "The following year, she reprised her role as Cipher in ''F9'', originally set for release on 22 May 2020, before its delay to June 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.In 2022, Theron appeared in some projects.", "Upon the film's release in May, it was revealed that Theron would be portraying the character Clea in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), beginning with her debut in the mid-credits scene of the superhero film ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness''.", "She played Lady Lesso in the fantasy Netflix film ''The School for Good and Evil'' and filmed a cameo in Season 3 opener of ''The Boys'' as an actress playing Stormfront.In 2023, Theron reprised her role as Cipher in ''Fast X'' and executive produced ''Last Call: When a Serial Killer Stalked Queer New York'', a documentary series revolving around a serial killer preying upon gay men for HBO." ], [ "Other ventures", "===Activism===Theron speaking at a meeting of the World Economic Forum in 2013The Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, who the following year was named a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS.", "The project supports community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease.", "Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa.", "By November 2017, CTAOP had raised more than $6.3 million to support African organizations working on the ground.In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace.", "In his citation, Ban Ki-moon said of Theron \"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls\".", "She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.In December 2009, CTAOP and Toms Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe.", "The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas.", "Ten thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.In 2020, CTAOP partnered with Parfums Christian Dior to create Dior Stands With Women, an initiative that includes Cara Delevingne, Yalitza Aparicio, Leona Bloom, Paloma Elsesser, and others, to encourage women to be assertive by documenting their journey, challenges and accomplishments.Theron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies.Theron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009.She publicly stated that she refused to get married until same sex marriage became legal in the United States, saying: \"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights.", "I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself\".", "Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''.", "She stated: \"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal.", "I think everybody has that right\".In March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards.", "Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.In 2015, Theron signed an open letter which One Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.", "In August 2017, she visited South Africa with Trevor Noah and made a donation to the South African charity Life Choices.", "In 2018, she gave a speech about AIDS prevention at the 22nd International AIDS Conference in Amsterdam, organized by the International AIDS Society.In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace.On 22 June 2022, it was announced that Theron and Sheryl Lee Ralph would receive the Elizabeth Taylor Commitment to End AIDS Award for their commitment to raising awareness of HIV at the Elizabeth Taylor Ball to End AIDS fundraising gala.===Endorsements===Having signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the J'Adore advertisements by Christian Dior.", "In 2018, she appeared in a new advertisement for Dior J'adore.", "From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches.", "In February 2006, she and her production company were sued by Weil for breach of contract.", "The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.In 2018, Theron joined Brad Pitt, Daniel Wu and Adam Driver as brand ambassadors for Breitling, dubbed the Breitling Cinema Squad." ], [ "Personal life", "In 2007, Theron became a naturalised citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.Theron has adopted two children: a daughter in March 2012 and another daughter in July 2015.She has been interested in adoption since childhood, when she became aware of orphanages and the overflowing numbers of children in them.", "In April 2019, Theron revealed that Jackson, then seven years old, is a transgender girl.", "She said of her daughters, \"They were born who they are and exactly where in the world both of them get to find themselves as they grow up, and who they want to be, is not for me to decide\".She is inspired by actresses Susan Sarandon and Sigourney Weaver.", "She has described her admiration for Tom Hanks as a \"love affair\" and watched many of his films throughout her youth.", "Hollywood actors were not featured in magazines in South Africa so she did not know how famous he was until she moved to the United States, which has been inferred as a factor of her \"down-to-earth\" attitude to fame.", "After filming for ''That Thing You Do!''", "finished, Theron got Hanks' autograph on her script.", "She later presented him his Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2020, in which Hanks revealed that he had a mutual admiration for Theron's career since the day he met her.Theron said in 2018 that she went to therapy in her thirties because of anger, discovering that it was due to her frustration growing up during South Africa's apartheid, which ended when she was 15.Theron is a longtime fan of the English band Depeche Mode, and was the presenter for their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction in 2020.In 2019, Theron spoke about her method of working on roles.", "Creating a physical identity together with the emotional part of the character, she said, is \"a great tool set that adds on to everything else you were already doing as an actor.", "It's a case-by-case thing, but there is, to me, this beautiful thing that happens when you can get both sides: the exterior and interior.", "It's a really powerful dynamic\".", "When preparing for a role, \"I almost treat it like studying.", "I will find space where I am alone, where I can be focused, where there's nobody in my house, and I can really just sit down and study and play and look at my face and hear my voice and walk around and be a fucking idiot and my dogs are the only ones who are seeing that\".===Relationships===Theron's first public relationship was with actor Craig Bierko, whom she dated from 1995 to 1997.Theron was in a three-year relationship with singer Stephan Jenkins until October 2001.Some of Third Eye Blind's third album, ''Out of the Vein'', explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup.Theron began a relationship with Irish actor Stuart Townsend in 2001 after meeting him on the set of ''Trapped''.", "The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland.", "The couple split up in late 2009.In December 2013, Theron began dating American actor Sean Penn.", "The relationship ended in June 2015.===Health concerns===Theron often quips that she has more injuries on sets that are not action films; however, while filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings.", "It required her to wear a neck brace for a month.", "Her thumb ligament tore during filming of ''The Old Guard'' when her thumb caught in another actor's jacket during a fight scene, which required three operations and six months in a thumb brace.", "During the filming of ''Atomic Blonde'' she broke teeth from clenching her jaw, and had dental surgery to remove them: \"I had the removal and I had to put a donor bone in there to heal until I came back, and then I had another surgery to put a metal screw in there.", "\"Outside of action films, she had a herniated disk in her lower back as she filmed ''Tully'' and suffered from a depression-like state, which she theorized was the result of the processed food she had to eat for her character's post-natal body.", "In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas.", "While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords while screaming during the labour scenes.", "When promoting ''Long Shot'', she revealed that she laughed so hard at ''Borat'' that her neck locked for five days.", "She added that on the set of ''Long Shot'' she \"ended up in the ER\" after knocking her head against a bench behind her when she was putting on knee pads." ], [ "Filmography and accolades", "As of early 2020, Theron's film work has earned her 100 award nominations and 39 wins." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * (Verified Twitter account)* * * * * from * at Emmys.com" ] ]

[ [ "Chess" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chess''' is a board game for two players, called White and Black, each controlling an army of chess pieces, with the objective to checkmate the opponent's king.", "It is sometimes called '''international chess''' or '''Western chess''' to distinguish it from related games such as (Chinese chess) and (Japanese chess).", "The recorded history of chess goes back at least to the emergence of a similar game, chaturanga, in seventh century India.", "The rules of chess as they are known today emerged in Europe at the end of the 15th century, with standardization and universal acceptance by the end of the 19th century.", "Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, and is played by millions of people worldwide.Chess is an abstract strategy game that involves no hidden information and no elements of chance.", "It is played on a chessboard with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid.", "At the start, each player controls sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns.", "White moves first, followed by Black.", "The game is won by checkmating the opponent's king, i.e.", "threatening it with inescapable capture.", "There are also several ways a game can end in a draw.Organized chess arose in the 19th century.", "Chess competition today is governed internationally by FIDE (''Fédération Internationale des Échecs''; the International Chess Federation).", "The first universally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; Ding Liren is the current World Champion.", "A huge body of chess theory has developed since the game's inception.", "Aspects of art are found in chess composition, and chess in its turn influenced Western culture and the arts, and has connections with other fields such as mathematics, computer science, and psychology.One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine.", "In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat the reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov.", "Today's chess engines are significantly stronger than the best human players and have deeply influenced the development of chess theory; however, chess is not a solved game." ], [ "Rules", "The rules of chess are published by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; \"International Chess Federation\"), chess's world governing body, in its ''Handbook''.", "Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ in some details.", "FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2023.===Setup===Setup at the start of a chess gameChess sets come in a wide variety of styles.", "The Staunton pattern is the most common, and is usually required for competition.", "Chess pieces are divided into two sets, usually light and dark colored, referred to as ''white'' and ''black'', regardless of the actual color or design.", "The players of the sets are referred to as ''White'' and ''Black'', respectively.", "Each set consists of sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns.The game is played on a square board of eight rows (called ) and eight columns (called ).", "By convention, the 64 squares alternate in color and are referred to as and squares; common colors for chessboards are white and brown, or white and green.The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo.", "Thus, on White's first rank, from left to right, the pieces are placed as follows: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, rook.", "Eight pawns are placed on the second rank.", "Black's position mirrors White's, with an equivalent piece on the same file.", "The board is placed with a light square at the right-hand corner nearest to each player.", "The correct position of the light square may be remembered by the phrase \"light on right\", while the correct positions of the king and queen may be remembered by the phrase \"queen on her own color\" (i.e.", "the white queen begins on a light square, and the black queen on a dark square).In competitive games, the piece colors are allocated to players by the organizers; in informal games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by a coin toss, or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other, and having the opponent choose.===Movement===White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn (except for castling, when two pieces are moved).", "A piece is moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play.", "With the sole exception of ''en passant'', all pieces capture by moving to the square that the opponent's piece occupies.", "Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a turn, even when having to move is detrimental.Each piece has its own way of moving.", "In the diagrams, crosses mark the squares to which the piece can move if there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except the knight, which leaps over any intervening pieces).", "All pieces except the pawn can capture an enemy piece if it is on a square to which they could move if the square were unoccupied.", "Pieces are generally not permitted to move through squares occupied by pieces of either color, except for the knight and during castling.", "* The king moves one square in any direction.", "There is also a special move called that involves moving the king and a rook.", "The king is the most valuable piece—attacks on the king must be immediately countered, and if this is impossible, the game is immediately lost (see Check and checkmate below).", "* A rook can move any number of squares along a rank or file, but cannot leap over other pieces.", "Along with the king, a rook is involved during the king's castling move.", "* A bishop can move any number of squares diagonally, but cannot leap over other pieces.", "* A queen combines the power of a rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along a rank, file, or diagonal, but cannot leap over other pieces.", "* A knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal.", "(Thus the move forms an \"L\"-shape: two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or two squares horizontally and one square vertically.)", "The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces.", "* A pawn can move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file, or on its first move it can advance two squares along the same file, provided both squares are unoccupied (black dots in the diagram).", "A pawn can capture an opponent's piece on a square diagonally in front of it by moving to that square (black crosses).", "It can capture a piece while advancing along the same file.", "A pawn has two special moves: the ''en passant'' capture and promotion.====Check and checkmate====When a king is under immediate attack, it is said to be ''in check''.", "A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check.", "There are three ways to counter a check:* Capture the checking piece.", "* Interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king (which is possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and there is a square between it and the king).", "* Move the king to a square where it is not under attack.Castling is not a permissible response to a check.The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check.", "It is never legal for a player to make a move that puts or leaves the player's own king in check.", "In casual games, it is common to announce \"check\" when putting the opponent's king in check, but this is not required by the rules of chess and is usually not done in tournaments.====Castling====Examples of castling ( view animation)Once per game, each king can make a move known as .", "Castling consists of moving the king two squares toward a rook of the same color on the same rank, and then placing the rook on the square that the king crossed.Castling is permissible if the following conditions are met:* Neither the king nor the rook has previously moved during the game.", "* There are no pieces between the king and the rook.", "* The king is not in check and does not pass through or finish on a square attacked by an enemy piece.Castling is still permitted if the rook is under attack, or if the rook crosses an attacked square.", "====''En passant''====promotion; () ''en passant''When a pawn makes a two-step advance from its starting position and there is an opponent's pawn on a square next to the destination square on an adjacent file, then the opponent's pawn can capture it ''en passant'' (\"in passing\"), moving to the square the pawn passed over.", "This can be done only on the turn immediately following the enemy pawn's two-square advance; otherwise, the right to do so is forfeited.", "For example, in the animated diagram, the black pawn advances two squares from g7 to g5, and the white pawn on f5 can take it ''en passant'' on g6 (but only immediately after the black pawn's advance).====Promotion====When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, as part of the move, it is and must be exchanged for the player's choice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color.", "Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases, another piece is chosen; this is called underpromotion.", "In the animated diagram, the pawn on c7 can be advanced to the eighth rank and be promoted.", "There is no restriction on the piece promoted to, so it is possible to have more pieces of the same type than at the start of the game (e.g., two or more queens).", "If the required piece is not available (e.g.", "a second queen) an inverted rook is sometimes used as a substitute, but this is not recognized in FIDE-sanctioned games.===End of the game=======Win====A game can be won in the following ways:* ''Checkmate:'' The opposing king is in check and the opponent has no legal move.", "(See check and checkmate above.", ")* ''Resignation:'' A player may resign, conceding the game to the opponent.", "If, however, the opponent has no way of checkmating the resigned player, this is a draw under FIDE Laws.", "Most tournament players consider it good etiquette to resign in a hopeless position.", "* ''Win on time:'' In games with a time control, a player wins if the opponent runs out of time, even if the opponent has a superior position, as long as the player has a theoretical possibility to checkmate the opponent were the game to continue.", "* ''Forfeit:'' A player who cheats, violates the rules, or violates the rules of conduct specified for the particular tournament can be forfeited.", "Occasionally, both players are forfeited.====Draw====There are several ways a game can end in a draw:* ''Stalemate:'' If the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check, the position is a stalemate, and the game is drawn.", "* ''Dead position:'' If neither player is able to checkmate the other by any legal sequence of moves, the game is drawn.", "For example, if only the kings are on the board, all other pieces having been captured, checkmate is impossible, and the game is drawn by this rule.", "On the other hand, if both players still have a knight, there is a highly unlikely yet theoretical possibility of checkmate, so this rule does not apply.", "The dead position rule supersedes the previous rule which referred to \"insufficient material\", extending it to include other positions where checkmate is impossible, such as blocked pawn endings where the pawns cannot be attacked.", "* ''Draw by agreement:'' In tournament chess, draws are most commonly reached by mutual agreement between the players.", "The correct procedure is to verbally offer the draw, make a move, then start the opponent's clock.", "Traditionally, players have been allowed to agree to a draw at any point in the game, occasionally even without playing a move.", "More recently efforts have been made to discourage short draws, for example by forbidding draw offers before move thirty.", "* ''Threefold repetition:'' This most commonly occurs when neither side is able to avoid repeating moves without incurring a disadvantage.", "In this situation, either player can claim a draw; this requires the players to keep a valid written record of the game so that the claim can be verified by the arbiter if challenged.", "The three occurrences of the position need not occur on consecutive moves for a claim to be valid.", "The addition of the fivefold repetition rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene immediately and declare the game a draw after five occurrences of the same position, consecutive or otherwise, without requiring a claim by either player.", "FIDE rules make no mention of perpetual check; this is merely a specific type of draw by threefold repetition.", "* ''Fifty-move rule:'' If during the previous 50 moves no pawn has been moved and no capture has been made, either player can claim a draw.", "The addition of the seventy-five-move rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene and immediately declare the game drawn after 75 moves without a pawn move or capture, without requiring a claim by either player.", "There are several known endgames where it is possible to force a mate but it requires more than 50 moves before a pawn move or capture is made; examples include some endgames with two knights against a pawn and some pawnless endgames such as queen against two bishops.", "Historically, FIDE has sometimes revised the fifty-move rule to make exceptions for these endgames, but these have since been repealed.", "Some correspondence chess organizations do not enforce the fifty-move rule.", "* ''Draw on time:'' In games with a time control, the game is drawn if a player is out of time and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate the player.", "* ''Draw by resignation:'' Under FIDE Laws, a game is drawn if a player resigns and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate that player.===Time control===A digital chess clockIn competition, chess games are played with a time control.", "If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has to deliver checkmate).", "The duration of a game ranges from long (or \"classical\") games, which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournments are permitted), to bullet chess (under 3 minutes per player for the entire game).", "Intermediate between these are rapid chess games, lasting between one and two hours per game, a popular time control in amateur weekend tournaments.Time is controlled using a chess clock that has two displays, one for each player's remaining time.", "Analog chess clocks have been largely replaced by digital clocks, which allow for time controls with increments.Time controls are also enforced in correspondence chess competitions.", "A typical time control is 50 days for every 10 moves." ], [ "Notation", "Historically, many different notation systems have been used to record chess moves; the standard system today is short-form algebraic notation.", "In this system, each square is uniquely identified by a set of coordinates, – for the files followed by – for the ranks.", "The usual format is: – – The pieces are identified by their initials.", "In English, these are (king), (queen), (rook), (bishop), and (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king).", "For example, '''Qg5''' means \"queen moves to the g-file, 5th rank\" (that is, to the square g5).", "Different initials may be used for other languages.", "In chess literature, figurine algebraic notation (FAN) is frequently used to aid understanding independent of language.algebraic chess notationTo resolve ambiguities, an additional letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved (e.g.", "'''Ngf3''' means \"knight from the g-file moves to the square f3\"; '''R1e2''' means \"rook on the first rank moves to e2\").", "For pawns, no letter initial is used; so '''e4''' means \"pawn moves to the square e4\".If the piece makes a capture, \"x\" is usually inserted before the destination square.", "Thus '''Bxf3''' means \"bishop captures on f3\".", "When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used to identify the pawn making the capture, for example, '''exd5''' (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5).", "Ranks may be omitted if unambiguous, for example, '''exd''' (pawn on the e-file captures a piece somewhere on the d-file).", "A minority of publications use \"''':'''\" to indicate a capture, and some omit the capture symbol altogether.", "In its most abbreviated form, '''exd5''' may be rendered simply as '''ed'''.", "An ''en passant'' capture may optionally be marked with the notation \"'''e.p.", "'''\"If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move (for example, '''e1=Q''' or '''e1Q''').", "Castling is indicated by the special notations '''0-0''' (or '''O-O''') for castling and '''0-0-0''' (or '''O-O-O''') for castling.", "A move that places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation \"'''+'''\" added.", "There are no specific notations for discovered check or double check.", "Checkmate can be indicated by \"'''#'''\".", "At the end of the game, \"'''1–0'''\" means White won, \"'''0–1'''\" means Black won, and \"'''½–½'''\" indicates a draw.Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols.", "For example: \"'''!'''\"", "indicates a good move; \"''''''\" an excellent move; \"'''?'''\"", "a mistake; \"'''??'''\"", "a blunder; \"'''!?'''\"", "an interesting move that may not be best; or \"'''?!'''\"", "a dubious move not easily refuted.", "\"Scholar's mate\"For example, one variation of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can be recorded::'''1.e4 e5 2.Qh5 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Qxf7'''Variants of algebraic notation include ''long algebraic'', in which both the departure and destination square are indicated; ''abbreviated algebraic'', in which capture signs, check signs, and ranks of pawn captures may be omitted; and Figurine Algebraic Notation, used in chess publications for universal readability regardless of language.Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a text-based file format for recording chess games, based on short form English algebraic notation with a small amount of markup.", "PGN files (suffix .pgn) can be processed by most chess software, as well as being easily readable by humans.Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first rank at the beginning of the game.", "In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is rendered as \"1.P-K4\" (\"pawn to king four\").", "Another system is ICCF numeric notation, recognized by the International Correspondence Chess Federation though its use is in decline.In tournament games, players are normally required to keep a '''' (record of the game).", "For this purpose, only algebraic notation is recognized in FIDE-sanctioned events; game scores recorded in a different notation system may not be used as evidence in the event of a dispute." ], [ "Chess in public spaces", "Chess is often played casually in public spaces such as parks and town squares." ], [ "Organized competition", "===Tournaments and matches===Tata Steel Chess Tournament 2019, Wijk aan Zee (the Netherlands)Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses.", "Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and festivals are held around the world every year catering to players of all levels.Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every player plays one game against every other player.", "For a large number of players, the Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as possible) score in each round.", "In either case, a player's score is usually calculated as 1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn.", "Variations such as \"football scoring\" (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament organizers, but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard scoring.", "A player's score may be reported as total score out of games played (e.g.", "5½/8), points for versus points against (e.g.", "5½–2½), or by number of wins, losses and draws (e.g.", "+4−1=3).The term \"match\" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a player of the other team.===Governance===Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced FEE-day) (French: Fédération internationale des échecs), or International Chess Federation.", "FIDE's membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there are also several associate members, including various supra-national organizations, the International Braille Chess Association (IBCA), International Committee of Chess for the Deaf (ICCD), and the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA).", "FIDE is recognized as a sports governing body by the International Olympic Committee, but chess has never been part of the Olympic Games.Garry Kasparov, former World Chess ChampionFIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship, a role it assumed in 1948.The current World Champion is Ding Liren of China.", "The reigning Women's World Champion is Ju Wenjun from China.Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship, the tournaments for the World Championship qualification cycle, and the various national championships.", "Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players.", "Examples include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament.Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship.The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships include both team and individual events; these are held independently of FIDE.===Titles and rankings===In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo.", "An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest FIDE rating of all time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list.Players may be awarded lifetime titles by FIDE:* Grandmaster (GM; sometimes or IGM is used) is awarded to world-class chess masters.", "Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain.", "Before FIDE will confer the title on a player, the player must have an Elo rating of at least 2500 at one time and three results of a prescribed standard (called norms) in tournaments involving other grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's.", "There are other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship.", "* International Master (IM).", "The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding.", "The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400.", "* FIDE Master (FM).", "The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of 2300 or more.", "* Candidate Master (CM).", "Similar to FM, but with a FIDE rating of at least 2200.The above titles are open to both men and women.", "There are also separate women-only titles; Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE Master (WFM) and Woman Candidate Master (WCM).", "These require a performance level approximately 200 Elo rating points below the similarly named open titles, and their continued existence has sometimes been controversial.", "Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the open GM title: 40 .FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers.", "International titles are also awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation).", "National chess organizations may also award titles." ], [ "Theory", "Chess has an extensive literature.", "In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R.", "Murray estimated the total number of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000.B.H.", "Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000.David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, \"Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications.", "No one knows how many have been printed.\"", "Significant public chess libraries include the John G. White Chess and Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library, with over 32,000 chess books and over 6,000 bound volumes of chess periodicals; and the Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the Netherlands, with about 30,000 books.Chess theory usually divides the game of chess into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, typically the first 10 to 20 moves, when players move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive.", "is concerned with finding the best moves in the initial phase of the game.", "There are dozens of different openings, and hundreds of variants.", "''The Oxford Companion to Chess'' lists 1,327 named openings and variants.", "is usually divided into chess tactics and chess strategy.", "Chess strategy concentrates on setting and achieving long-term positional advantages during the game – for example, where to place different pieces – while tactics concerns immediate maneuver.", "These two aspects of the gameplay cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play.", "is concerned with positions where there are only a few pieces left.", "These positions are categorized according to the pieces, for example \"King and pawn\" endings or \"Rook versus minor piece\" endings.===Opening===A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the \"opening moves\").", "Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defense.", "They are catalogued in reference works such as the ''Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings''.", "There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet (for example, the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (the Latvian Gambit).", "In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves.", "Professional players spend years studying openings and continue doing so throughout their careers, as opening theory continues to evolve.The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar:* ''Development:'' This is the technique of placing the pieces (particularly bishops and knights) on useful squares where they will have an optimal impact on the game.", "* ''Control of the :'' Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent.", "* ''King safety:'' It is critical to keep the king safe from dangerous possibilities.", "A correctly timed castling can often enhance this.", "* ''Pawn structure:'' Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled, or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position.Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a small advantage.", "This initially gives White the initiative.", "Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve , or to develop in an unbalanced position.===Middlegame===The middlegame is the part of the game that starts after the opening.", "There is no clear line between the opening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed.", "(Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of the endgame.)", "Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position.", "The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur.", "Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain.", "Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king.", "Some typical patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer combination.Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings that result in a specific type of pawn structure.", "An example is the , which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside.", "The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames.Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame (i.e.", ").", "Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending.", "Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn advantage.====Tactics====In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or a computer.", "The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability.", "In positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves.Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example: pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences.", "Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of , and double attacks – can be combined into more complicated sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players.", "A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a .", "Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers.", "A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' skills, is a position where a decisive combination is available and the challenge is to find it.====Strategy====+ Example of underlying pawn structure\tChess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for future play.", "During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares).The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides.", "The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens about nine points.", "The king is more valuable than all of the other pieces combined, since its checkmate loses the game.", "But in practical terms, in the endgame, the king as a fighting piece is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook.", "These basic values are then modified by other factors like position of the piece (e.g.", "advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (e.g.", "a pair of bishops usually coordinate better than a bishop and a knight), or the type of position (e.g.", "knights are generally better in with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in ).Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is (sometimes known as the ): the configuration of pawns on the chessboard.", "Since pawns are the least mobile of the pieces, pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position.", "Weaknesses in pawn structure include isolated, doubled, or backward pawns and ; once created, they are often permanent.", "Care must therefore be taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility of developing an attack).===Endgame===The endgame (also or ) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board.", "There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and the endgame:* Pawns become more important.", "Endgames often revolve around endeavors to promote a pawn by advancing it to the furthest .", "* The king, which requires safeguarding from attack during the middlegame, emerges as a strong piece in the endgame.", "It is often brought to the where it can protect its own pawns, attack enemy pawns, and hinder moves of the opponent's king.", "* Zugzwang, a situation in which the player who is to move is forced to incur a disadvantage, is often a factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the game.", "In the example diagram, either side having the move is in zugzwang: Black to move must play 1...Kb7 allowing White to promote the pawn after 2.Kd7; White to move must permit a draw, either by 1.Kc6 stalemate or by losing the pawn after any other legal move.Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board.", "Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king.", "For example, king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides, and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns.", "Other more complicated endings are classified according to pieces on the board other than kings, such as \"rook and pawn versus rook\" endgames." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Sasanian Empire King Khosrow I sits on his throne before the chessboard, while his vizir and the Indian envoy, probably sent by the Maukhari King Śarvavarman of Kannauj, are playing chess.", "''Shahnama'', 10th century AD.Texts referring to the origins of chess date from the beginning of the seventh century.", "Three are written in ''Pahlavi'' (Middle Persian) and one, the ''Harshacharita'', is in Sanskrit.", "One of these texts, the ''Chatrang-namak'', represents one of the earliest written accounts of chess.", "The narrator Bozorgmehr explains that ''Chatrang'', \"Chess\" in Pahlavi, was introduced to Persia by 'Dewasarm, a great ruler of India' during the reign of Khosrow I:The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to about 840, written by al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled ''Kitab ash-shatranj'' (The Book of Chess).", "This is a lost manuscript, but is referenced in later works.", "Here also, al-Adli attributes the origins of Persian chess to India, along with the eighth-century collection of fables Kalīla wa-Dimna.", "By the 20th century, a substantial consensus developed regarding chess's origins in northwest India in the early seventh century.", "More recently, this consensus has been the subject of further scrutiny.The early forms of chess in India were known as (), literally \"four divisions\" of the military – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by pieces that would later evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.", "Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called .", "Thence it spread eastward and westward along the Silk Road.", "The earliest evidence of chess is found in nearby Sasanian Persia around 600 A.D., where the game came to be known by the name ().", "Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–51), where it was then named (; ), with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names.", "In Spanish, \"shatranj\" was rendered as ''ajedrez'' (\"al-shatranj\"), in Portuguese as ''xadrez'', and in Greek as ζατρίκιον (''zatrikion'', which comes directly from the Persian ''chatrang''), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian ''shāh'' (\"king\"), from which the English words \"check\" and \"chess\" descend.", "The word \"checkmate\" is derived from the Persian ''shāh māt'' (\"the king is dead\").Knights Templar playing chess, , 1283Xiangqi is the form of chess best known in China.", "The eastern migration of chess, into China and Southeast Asia, has even less documentation than its migration west, making it largely conjectured.", "The word () was used in China to refer to a game from 569 A.D. at the latest, but it has not been proven if this game was or was not directly related to chess.The first reference to Chinese chess appears in a book entitled ''Xuánguaì Lù'' (; \"Record of the Mysterious and Strange\"), dating to about 800.A minority view holds that Western chess arose from xiàngqí or one of its predecessors.", "Chess historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton contend that xiangqi's intrinsic characteristics make it easier to construct an evolutionary path from China to India/Persia than the opposite direction.The oldest archaeological chess artifacts – ivory pieces – were excavated in ancient Afrasiab, today's Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, and date to about 760, with some of them possibly being older.", "Remarkably, almost all findings of the oldest pieces come from along the Silk Road, from the former regions of the Tarim Basin (today's Xinjiang in China), Transoxiana, Sogdiana, Bactria, Gandhara, to Iran on one end and to India through Kashmir on the other.The game reached Western Europe and Russia via at least three routes, the earliest being in the ninth century.", "By the year 1000, it had spread throughout both the Muslim Iberia and Latin Europe.", "A Latin poem called ''Versus de scachis'' (\"Verses on Chess\") dated to the late 10th century, has been preserved at Einsiedeln Abbey in Switzerland.===1200–1700: Origins of the modern game===The game of chess was then played and known in all European countries.", "A famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice is known as the , which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European tables games.", "The rules were fundamentally similar to those of the Arabic shatranj.", "The differences were mostly in the use of a checkered board instead of a plain monochrome board used by Arabs and the habit of allowing some or all pawns to make an initial double step.", "In some regions, the queen, which had replaced the wazir, or the king could also make an initial two-square leap under some conditions.", "Lucena's 1497 bookAround 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in Europe, culminating, several major changes later, in the emergence of modern chess practically as it is known today.", "A major change was the modern piece movement rules, which began to appear in intellectual circles in Valencia, Spain, around 1475, which established the foundations and brought it very close to current chess.", "These new rules then were quickly adopted in Italy and Southern France before diffusing into the rest of Europe.", "Pawns gained the ability to advance two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern movement powers.", "The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece toward the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the most powerful piece; in light of that, modern chess was often referred to at the time as \"Queen's Chess\" or \"Mad Queen Chess\".", "Castling, derived from the \"king's leap\", usually in combination with a pawn or rook move to bring the king to safety, was introduced.", "These new rules quickly spread throughout Western Europe.Writings about chess theory began to appear in the late 15th century.", "An anonymous treatise on chess of 1490 with the first part containing some openings and the second 30 endgames is deposited in the library of the University of Göttingen.", "The book ''El Libro dels jochs partitis dels schachs en nombre de 100'' was written by Francesc Vicent in Segorbe in 1495, but no copy of this work has survived.", "The ''Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez'' (''Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess'') by Spanish churchman Luis Ramírez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497.Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco, and Spanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of opening theory and started to analyze simple endgames.===1700–1873: Romantic era===The \"Immortal Game\", Anderssen vs. Kieseritzky, 1851In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved from Southern Europe to mainland France.", "The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a famous series of matches against Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834.Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in major European cities like ''Café de la Régence'' in Paris and ''Simpson's Divan'' in London.At the same time, the intellectual movement of romanticism had had a far-reaching impact on chess, with aesthetics and tactical beauty being held in higher regard than objective soundness and strategic planning.", "As a result, virtually all games began with the Open Game, and it was considered unsportsmanlike to decline gambits that invited tactical play such as the King's Gambit and the Evans Gambit.", "This chess philosophy is known as Romantic chess, and a sharp, tactical style consistent with the principles of chess romanticism was predominant until the late 19th century.The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century.", "Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first).", "Finally, the rules around castling and en passant captures were standardized – variations in these rules persisted in Italy until the late 19th century.", "The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as or , particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are prevalent.", "Since the 19th century, the only rule changes, such as the establishment of the correct procedure for claiming a draw by repetition, have been technical in nature.Chess in the Netherlands (1864)As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly.", "Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared.", "There were correspondence matches between cities; for example, the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824.Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems.", "In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's ''Handbuch des Schachspiels'' (''Handbook of Chess''), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory.The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton, a leading English chess player, and was held in London in 1851.It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, who was hailed as the leading chess master.", "His brilliant, energetic attacking style was typical for the time.", "Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal Game and Evergreen Game or Morphy's \"Opera Game\" were regarded as the highest possible summit of the art of chess.Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy.", "Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to play), including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863.Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.===1873–1945: Birth of a sport===Wilhelm Steinitz, the first official World Chess Champion, from 1886 to 1894Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz laid the foundations for a scientific approach to the game, the art of breaking a position down into components and preparing correct plans.", "In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship.", "This win marked a stylistic transition at the highest levels of chess from an attacking, tactical style predominant in the Romantic era to a more positional, strategic style introduced to the chess world by Steinitz.", "Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player, the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of any world champion.After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournaments and matches held annually quickly grew.", "The first Olympiad was held in Paris in 1924, and FIDE was founded initially for the purpose of organizing that event.", "In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold the title was Czech-English master Vera Menchik.A prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca, known for his skill in endgames, won the World Championship from Lasker in 1921.Capablanca was undefeated in tournament play for eight years, from 1916 to 1924.His successor (1927) was the Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player who died as the world champion in 1946.Alekhine briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regained it two years later.In the interwar period, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti.", "They advocated controlling the of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns, which become objects of attack.===1945–1990: Post-World War II era===Mikhail Botvinnik, the first post-war World ChampionBobby Fischer, World Champion from 1972 to 1975After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought.", "FIDE, which has controlled the title since then, ran a tournament of elite players.", "The winner of the 1948 tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik.", "In 1950, FIDE established a system of titles, conferring the titles of Grandmaster and International Master on 27 players.", "(Some sources state that, in 1914, the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim.", ")Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world, which mainly through the Soviet government's politically inspired efforts to demonstrate intellectual superiority over the West stood almost uninterrupted for more than a half-century.", "Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975).", "Botvinnik also revolutionized opening theory.", "Previously, Black strove for equality, attempting to neutralize White's first-move advantage.", "As Black, Botvinnik strove for the initiative from the beginning.", "In the previous informal system of World Championships, the current champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match.", "FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches.", "The world's strongest players were seeded into Interzonal tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualified from Zonal tournaments.", "The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go through the \"Candidates\" stage, which was initially a tournament, and later a series of knockout matches.", "The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title.", "A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later.", "This system operated on a three-year cycle.", "Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years.", "He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954.In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958.In 1960, he lost the title to the 23-year-old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player who is widely regarded as one of the most creative players ever, hence his nickname \"the magician from Riga\".", "Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a player renowned for his defensive and positional skills, held the title for two cycles, 1963–1969.His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (champion 1969–1972), won games in both positional and sharp tactical style.", "The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer.", "Fischer defeated his opponents in the Candidates matches by unheard-of margins, and convincingly defeated Spassky for the world championship.", "The match was followed closely by news media of the day, leading to a surge in popularity for chess; it also held significant political importance at the height of the Cold War, with the match being seen by both sides as a microcosm of the conflict between East and West.", "In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when he was unable to reach agreement on conditions with FIDE, and Karpov obtained the title by default.", "Fischer modernized many aspects of chess, especially by extensively preparing openings.Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes.", "In the 1984 World Chess Championship, Karpov faced his toughest challenge to date, the young Garry Kasparov from Baku, Soviet Azerbaijan.", "The match was aborted in controversial circumstances after 5 months and 48 games with Karpov leading by 5 wins to 3, but evidently exhausted; many commentators believed Kasparov, who had won the last two games, would have won the match had it continued.", "Kasparov won the 1985 rematch.", "Kasparov and Karpov contested three further closely fought matches in 1986, 1987 and 1990, Kasparov winning them all.", "Kasparov became the dominant figure of world chess from the mid-1980s until his retirement from competition in 2005.====Beginnings of chess technology====Chess-playing computer programs (later known as chess engines) began to appear in the 1960s.", "In 1970, the first major computer chess tournament, the North American Computer Chess Championship, was held, followed in 1974 by the first World Computer Chess Championship.", "In the late 1970s, dedicated home chess computers such as Fidelity Electronics' ''Chess Challenger'' became commercially available, as well as software to run on home computers.", "The overall standard of computer chess was low, however, until the 1990s.The first endgame tablebases, which provided perfect play for relatively simple endgames such as king and rook versus king and bishop, appeared in the late 1970s.", "This set a precedent to the complete six- and seven-piece tablebases that became available in the 2000s and 2010s respectively.The first commercial chess database, a collection of chess games searchable by move and position, was introduced by the German company ChessBase in 1987.Databases containing millions of chess games have since had a profound effect on opening theory and other areas of chess research.Digital chess clocks were invented in 1973, though they did not become commonplace until the 1990s.", "Digital clocks allow for time controls involving increments and delays.===1990–present: Rise of computers and online chess=======Technology====The Internet enabled online chess as a new medium of playing, with chess servers allowing users to play other people from different parts of the world in real time.", "The first such server, known as Internet Chess Server or ICS, was developed at the University of Utah in 1992.ICS formed the basis for the first commercial chess server, the Internet Chess Club, which was launched in 1995, and for other early chess servers such as FICS (Free Internet Chess Server).", "Since then, many other platforms have appeared, and online chess began to rival over-the-board chess in popularity.", "During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the isolation ensuing from quarantines imposed in many places around the world, combined with the success of the popular Netflix show ''The Queen's Gambit'' and other factors such as the popularity of online tournaments (notably PogChamps) and chess Twitch streamers, resulted in a surge of popularity not only for online chess, but for the game of chess in general; this phenomenon has been referred to in the media as the 2020 online chess boom.Computer chess has also seen major advances.", "By the 1990s, chess engines could consistently defeat most amateurs, and in 1997 Deep Blue defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match, starting an era of computer dominance at the highest level of chess.", "In the 2010s, engines significantly stronger than even the best human players became accessible for free on a number of PC and mobile platforms, and free engine analysis became a commonplace feature on internet chess servers.", "An adverse effect of the easy availability of engine analysis on hand-held devices and personal computers has been the rise of computer cheating, which has grown to be a major concern in both over-the-board and online chess.", "In 2017, AlphaZero – a neural network also capable of playing shogi and Go – was introduced.", "Since then, many chess engines based on neural network evaluation have been written, the best of which have surpassed the traditional \"brute-force\" engines.", "AlphaZero also introduced many novel ideas and ways of playing the game, which affected the style of play at the top level.As endgame tablebases developed, they began to provide perfect play in endgame positions in which the game-theoretical outcome was previously unknown, such as positions with king, queen and pawn against king and queen.", "In 1991, Lewis Stiller published a tablebase for select six-piece endgames, and by 2005, following the publication of Nalimov tablebases, all six-piece endgame positions were solved.", "In 2012, Lomonosov tablebases were published which solved all seven-piece endgame positions.", "Use of tablebases enhances the performance of chess engines by providing definitive results in some branches of analysis.Technological progress made in the 1990s and the 21st century has influenced the way that chess is studied at all levels, as well as the state of chess as a spectator sport.Previously, preparation at the professional level required an extensive chess library and several subscriptions to publications such as ''Chess Informant'' to keep up with opening developments and study opponents' games.", "Today, preparation at the professional level involves the use of databases containing millions of games, and engines to analyze different opening variations and prepare novelties.", "A number of online learning resources are also available for players of all levels, such as online courses, tactics trainers, and video lessons.Since the late 1990s, it has been possible to follow major international chess events online, the players' moves being relayed in real time.", "Sensory boards have been developed to enable automatic transmission of moves.", "Chess players will frequently run engines while watching these games, allowing them to quickly identify mistakes by the players and spot tactical opportunities.", "While in the past the moves have been relayed live, today chess organizers will often impose a half-hour delay as an anti-cheating measure.", "In the mid-to-late 2010s – and especially following the 2020 online boom – it became commonplace for supergrandmasters, such as Hikaru Nakamura and Magnus Carlsen, to livestream chess content on platforms such as Twitch.", "Also following the boom, online chess started being viewed as an esport, with esport teams signing chess players for the first time in 2020.====Growth====Organized chess even for young children has become common.", "FIDE holds world championships for age levels down to 8 years old.", "The largest tournaments, in number of players, are those held for children.The number of grandmasters and other chess professionals has also grown in the modern era.", "Kenneth Regan and Guy Haworth conducted research involving comparison of move choices by players of different levels and from different periods with the analysis of strong chess engines; they concluded that the increase in the number of grandmasters and higher Elo ratings of the top players reflect an actual increase in the average standard of play, rather than \"rating inflation\" or \"title inflation\".====Professional chess====In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the World Championship and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA).", "From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Championships and respective World Champions: the PCA or \"classical\" champions extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of games, and the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a large knockout tournament to determine the champion.", "Kasparov lost his PCA title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.", "Due to the complicated state of world chess politics and difficulties obtaining commercial sponsorships, Kasparov was never able to challenge for the title again.", "Despite this, he continued to dominate in top level tournaments and remained the world's highest rated player until his retirement from competitive chess in 2005.The World Chess Championship 2006, in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov, reunified the titles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion.", "In September 2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India, who won the championship tournament in Mexico City.", "Anand defended his title in the revenge match of 2008, 2010 and 2012.Magnus Carlsen defeated Anand in the 2013 World Chess Championship, and defended his title in 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2021.After the 2021 match, he announced that he would not defend his title a fifth time, so the 2023 World Chess Championship was played between the winner and runner-up of the Candidates Tournament 2022: respectively, Ian Nepomniachtchi of Russia and Ding Liren of China.", "Ding beat Nepomniachtchi, making him the current World Chess Champion." ], [ "Connections", "===Arts and humanities===In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the \"King's Game\".", "Gentlemen are \"to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes\", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's ''The Book of the Courtier'' (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion.", "Castiglione explains it further:Noble chess players, Germany, And what say you to the game at chestes?", "It is an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth Syr Friderick.", "But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any other matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure, he knoweth no more but a game.", "Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency.Some of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy at least partially survive, such as the Lewis chessmen.Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality.", "An example is ''Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum'' ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican friar Jacobus de Cessolis .", "This book was one of the most popular of the Middle Ages.", "The work was translated into many other languages (the first printed edition was published at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William Caxton's ''The Game and Playe of the Chesse'' (1474), one of the first books printed in English.", "Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces:The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispenses and dignyte.Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of the Middle Ages.", "An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with the names of chess pieces, ''Roch, pedites, regina...'' The game of chess, at times, has been discouraged by various religious authorities in Middle Ages: Jewish, Catholic and Orthodox.", "Some Muslim authorities prohibited it even recently, for example Ruhollah Khomeini in 1979 and Abdul-Aziz ash-Sheikh even later.During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement.", "Benjamin Franklin, in his article \"The Morals of Chess\" (1750), wrote:The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it.", "By playing at Chess then, we may learn:'''I.", "Foresight''', which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action ...'''II.", "Circumspection''', which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: – the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations ...'''III.", "Caution''', not to make our moves too hastily ...''Through the Looking-Glass'': the Red King is snoring.", "Illustration by Sir John Tenniel.Chess was occasionally criticized in the 19th century as a waste of time.Chess is taught to children in schools around the world today.", "Many schools host chess clubs, and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children.", "Tournaments are held regularly in many countries, hosted by organizations such as the United States Chess Federation and the National Scholastic Chess Foundation.Chess is many times depicted in the arts; significant works where chess plays a key role range from Thomas Middleton's ''A Game at Chess'' to ''Through the Looking-Glass'' by Lewis Carroll, to Vladimir Nabokov's ''The Defense'', to ''The Royal Game'' by Stefan Zweig.", "Chess has also featured in film classics such as Ingmar Bergman's ''The Seventh Seal'', Satyajit Ray's ''The Chess Players'', and Powell and Pressburger's ''A Matter of Life and Death''.Chess is also present in contemporary popular culture.", "For example, the characters in ''Star Trek'' play a futuristic version of the game called \"Federation Tri-Dimensional Chess\" and \"Wizard's Chess\" is played in J.K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter''.===Mathematics===The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics.", "Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess, such as the knight's tour and the eight queens puzzle, have been known for hundreds of years.Mathematicians Euler, Legendre, de Moivre, and Vandermonde studied the knight's tour.The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be with a 95% confidence level, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10123.The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a number known as the Shannon number.", "An average position typically has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or (in a constructed position) as many as 218.In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered one of the predecessors of game theory.", "Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, i.e.", "to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game (either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both sides can force at least a draw).", "With 1043 legal positions in chess, however, it will take an impossibly long time to compute a perfect strategy with any feasible technology.===Psychology===There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.", "Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise.", "In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position.", "According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves.", "De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly.", "The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case).", "Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices.", "When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall.More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise.", "The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to much empirical investigation.", "Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess.", "Recent research, however, fails to replicate their results and indicates that factors other than practice are also important.", "Gobet, F. & Campitelli, G. (2007).", "''Developmental Psychology'', 43, 159–72.Both retrieved 2007-07-15.For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring.", "Compared to the general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill.A relationship between chess skill and intelligence has long been discussed in scientific literature as well as in popular culture.", "Academic studies that investigate the relationship date back at least to 1927.Although one meta-analysis and most children studies find a positive correlation between general cognitive ability and chess skill, adult studies show mixed results." ], [ "Composition", "Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (also called chess compositions).", "The creator is known as a chess composer.", "There are many types of chess problems; the two most important are:* White to move first and checkmate Black within a specified number of moves, against any defense.", "These are often referred to as \"mate in \" – for example \"mate in three\" (a ); two- and three-move problems are the most common.", "These usually involve positions that would be highly unlikely to occur in an actual game, and are intended to illustrate a particular , usually requiring a surprising or counterintuitive move.", "Themes associated with chess problems occasionally appear in actual games, when they are referred to as \"problem-like\" moves.", "* orthodox problems where the stipulation is that White to play must win or draw.", "The majority of studies are endgame positions.Fairy chess is a branch of chess problem composition involving altered rules, such as the use of unconventional pieces or boards, or unusual stipulations such as reflexmates.Tournaments for composition and solving of chess problems are organized by the World Federation for Chess Composition, which works cooperatively with but independent of FIDE.", "The WFCC awards titles for composing and solving chess problems." ], [ "Online chess", "Online chess is chess that is played over the internet, allowing players to play against each other in real time.", "This is done through the use of Internet chess servers, which pair up individual players based on their rating using an Elo or similar rating system.", "Online chess saw a spike in growth during the quarantines of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "This can be attributed to both isolation and the popularity of Netflix miniseries ''The Queen's Gambit'', which was released in October 2020.Chess app downloads on the App Store and Google Play Store rose by 63% after the show debuted.", "Chess.com saw more than twice as many account registrations in November as it had in previous months, and the number of games played monthly on Lichess doubled as well.", "There was also a demographic shift in players, with female registration on Chess.com shifting from 22% to 27% of new players.", "GM Maurice Ashley said \"A boom is taking place in chess like we have never seen maybe since the Bobby Fischer days\", attributing the growth to an increased desire to do something constructive during the pandemic.", "USCF Women's Program Director Jennifer Shahade stated that chess works well on the internet, since pieces do not need to be reset and matchmaking is virtually instant." ], [ "Computer chess", "The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax.", "Serious trials based on automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful.", "Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers, and computer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs.", "The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, \"Programming a Computer for Playing Chess\", was published in 1950 by Claude Shannon.", "He wrote:The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require \"thinking\" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of \"thinking\"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature ofmodern computers.1990s chess-playing computerThe Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for computers, the North American Computer Chess Championship, in September 1970.CHESS 3.0, a chess program from Northwestern University, won the championship.", "The first World Computer Chess Championship, held in 1974, was won by the Soviet program Kaissa.", "At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs have become extremely strong.", "In 1997, a computer won a chess match using classical time controls against a reigning World Champion for the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½ (it scored two wins, one loss, and three draws).", "There was some controversy over the match, and human–computer matches were relatively close over the next few years, until convincing computer victories in 2005 and in 2006.In 2009, a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating of 2898: chess engine Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur tournament with nine wins and one draw.", "The best chess programs are now able to consistently beat the strongest human players, to the extent that human–computer matches no longer attract interest from chess players or the media.", "While the World Computer Chess Championship still exists, the Top Chess Engine Championship (TCEC) is widely regarded as the unofficial world championship for chess engines.", "The current champion is Stockfish.With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to learn chess and prepare for matches.", "Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents worldwide.", "The presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regarding cheating during games." ], [ "Variants", "Sittuyin, after setup phase.", "Players elect their own starting setups behind the pawns.There are more than two thousand published chess variants, games with similar but different rules.", "Most of them are of relatively recent origin.", "They include:* direct predecessors of chess, such as chaturanga and shatranj;* traditional national or regional games that share common ancestors with Western chess such as xiangqi (Chinese chess), shogi (Japanese chess), janggi (Korean chess), ouk chatrang (Cambodian chess), makruk (Thai chess), sittuyin (Burmese chess), and shatar (Mongolian chess);* modern variations employing different rules (e.g.", "Losing chess or Chess960), different forces (e.g.", "Dunsany's Chess), non-standard pieces (e.g.", "Grand Chess), and different board geometries (e.g.", "hexagonal chess or Infinite chess);In the context of chess variants, chess is commonly referred to as , , , , and ." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of chess* Glossary of chess problems* List of World Chess Championships* Women in chess" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * (see the included supplement, \"How Do You Play Chess\")* * *" ], [ "External links", "* ;International organizations* FIDE – World Chess Federation* ICCF – International Correspondence Chess Federation;News* Chessbase news* The Week in Chess;History* Chesshistory.com" ] ]

[ [ "Charlie Chaplin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin''' (16 April 188925 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film.", "He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, the Tramp, and is considered one of the film industry's most important figures.", "His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship.", "His father was absent and his mother struggled financiallyhe was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine.", "When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum.", "Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian.", "At 19, he was signed to the Fred Karno company, which took him to the United States.", "He was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios.", "He soon developed the Tramp persona and attracted a large fan base.", "He directed his own films and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations.", "By 1918, he was one of the world's best-known figures.In 1919, Chaplin co-founded distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films.", "His first feature-length film was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928).", "He initially refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue.", "His first sound film was ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), which satirised Adolf Hitler.", "The 1940s were marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly.", "He was accused of communist sympathies, and some members of the press and public were scandalised by his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women.", "An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the U.S. and settle in Switzerland.", "He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films.", "He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture.", "His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity.", "Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements.", "He received an Honorary Academy Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work.", "He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on lists of the greatest films." ], [ "Biography", "===1889–1913: early years=======Background and childhood hardship====Seven-year-old Chaplin (centre, head slightly cocked) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897Charles Spencer Chaplin Jr. was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (née Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. His paternal grandmother came from the Smith family, who belonged to Romani people.", "There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London.", "His parents had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal guardian of Hannah's first son, Sydney John Hill.", "At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers.", "Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer.", "Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891.The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son, George Wheeler Dryden, fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden.", "The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for thirty years.Chaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson.", "Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington.", "Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support.", "As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old.", "The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \"a forlorn existence\".", "He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, but Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898.The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.In September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum; she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition.", "For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew.", "Charles Sr. was by then severely alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.", "Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.Hannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again.", "Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill.", "He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydneywho had joined the Navy two years earlierreturned.", "Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently.", "\"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.====Young performer====Sherlock Holmes''Between his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage.", "He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot.", "This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing.", "He later wrote: \"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\".", "Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900.Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by the age of 13, he had abandoned education.", "He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor.", "At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End.", "The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''.", "It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks.", "Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours.", "His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes.", "\"It was like tidings from heaven\", Chaplin recalled.", "At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905.He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.====Stage comedy and vaudeville====Chaplin soon found work with a new company and went on tour with his brother, who was also pursuing an acting career, in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''.", "In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act Casey's Circus, where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show.", "By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer.", "He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.Advertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913Meanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers.", "In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother.", "Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\" who \"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre\".", "However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract.", "Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909.In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''.", "It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company that toured North America's vaudeville circuit, a section which also included Stan Laurel.", "The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\".", "His most successful role was a drunk called the \"Inebriate Swell\", which drew him significant recognition.", "The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912.Chaplin recalled that he \"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.===1914–1917: entering films=======Keystone====Six months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company.", "A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave.", "Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \"Besides, it would mean a new life.\"", "He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week contract in September 1913.Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles in early December, and began working for the Keystone studio on 5January 1914.Chaplin's boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young.", "He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking.", "The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2February 1914.Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \"a comedian of the first water\".", "For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified.", "He described the process in his autobiography:The film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \"the Tramp\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice''shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier on 7February 1914.Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in.", "These ideas were dismissed by his directors.", "During the filming of his 11th picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract.", "Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films.", "Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.", "''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful.", "Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career.", "Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base.", "In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity.", "When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week, an amount Sennett refused as he thought it was too large.====Essanay====Chaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)The Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000.He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, actors he worked with again and again, including Ben Turpin, Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire, Fred Goodwins, and Billy Armstrong.", "He soon recruited a leading lady, Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a café and hired on account of her beauty.", "She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted until 1917.Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film.", "There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''.", "The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace.", "Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \"mean, crude, and brutish\" nature.", "The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development.", "The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending.", "Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work.", "At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world\".During 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon.", "Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him.", "In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \"Chaplinitis\" had spread across America.", "As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star.", "When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin, fully aware of his popularity, requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio.", "He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.====Mutual====By 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon.", "Here he shows off some of his merchandise, .A contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplinat 26 years oldone of the highest-paid people in the world.", "The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press.", "John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.", "\"Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916.He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''.", "For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years.", "''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916.The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve.", "With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time.", "He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''.", "With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work.", "Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career.", "However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract, and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that.Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War.", "He defended himself, claiming that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country.", "Despite this criticism, Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide.", "''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \"a part of the common language of almost every country\", and that the Tramp image was \"universally familiar\".", "In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties, did so dressed as the Tramp.", "The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \"an American obsession\".", "The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\".===1918–1922: First National===''A Dog's Life'' (1918).", "It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as a sad clown.In January 1918, Chaplin was visited by leading British singer and comedian Harry Lauder, and the two acted in a short film together.Mutual was patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably.", "With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants...", "It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\"", "In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1million.", "He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order.", "Charlie Chaplin Studios was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.", "''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract.", "In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\".", "The film was described by Louis Delluc as \"cinema's first total work of art\".", "Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War.", "He also produced a short propaganda film at his own expense, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''.", "Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''.", "Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\"", "He spent four months filming the picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====After the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused.", "Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players–Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company, United Artists, in January 1919.The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partnersall creative artiststo personally fund their pictures and have complete control.", "Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National.", "They refused and insisted that he complete the final six films owed.The Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.Before the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time.", "The 16-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy.", "Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be false.", "Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''.", "Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7July 1919, gave birth to a son.", "Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later.", "The marriage ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \"irreconcilably mismated\".Losing the child, plus his own childhood experiences, are thought to have influenced Chaplin's next film, which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy.", "For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \"make his mark on a changed world\".", "Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star.", "''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date.", "Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama.", "It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.Chaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''.", "Work on the picture was for a time delayed by more turmoil in his personal life.", "First National had on 12 April announced Chaplin's engagement to the actress May Collins, whom he had hired to be his secretary at the studio.", "By early June, however, Chaplin \"suddenly decided he could scarcely stand to be in the same room\" as Collins, but instead of breaking off the engagement directly, he \"stopped coming in to work, sending word that he was suffering from a bad case of influenza, which May knew to be a lie.", "\"Ultimately work on the film resumed, and following its September 1921 release, Chaplin chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade.", "He wrote a book about his journey, titled ''My Wonderful Visit''.", "He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922.", "''The Pilgrim'', his final short film, was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio and released a year later.===1923–1938: silent features=======''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====Having fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer.", "In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers.", "Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo.", "He wished the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances.", "In real life, he explained, \"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\".", "''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its innovative, subtle approach.", "The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without Chaplin, and it was a box office disappointment.", "The filmmaker was hurt by this failurehe had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the resultand soon withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation.The Tramp resorts to eating his boot in ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project.", "Setting his standards high, he told himself \"This next film must be an epic!", "The Greatest!\"", "Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–1847, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter\".", "In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love.", "With Georgia Hale as his leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924.Its elaborate production, costing almost $1million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains in Nevada with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects.", "The last scene was shot in May 1925 after 15 months of filming.Chaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made.", "It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a U.S. box-office of $5million.", "The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \"Dance of the Rolls\".", "Macnab has called it \"the quintessential Chaplin film\".", "Chaplin stated at its release, \"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\".====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====Lita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandalWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time.", "Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage.", "She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law.", "He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924.They originally met during her childhood and she had previously appeared in his works ''The Kid'' and ''The Idle Class''.", "Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin III, was born on 5May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.On 6 July 1925, Chaplin became the first movie star to be featured on a ''Time'' magazine cover.It was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife.", "In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home.", "A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's applicationaccusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \"perverted sexual desires\"was leaked to the press.", "Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned.", "Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time.", "His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.", "Less than five months after the divorce, Grey's former butler Don Solovich was murdered in Utah, and articles speculated about connections between Chaplin and the murder.Before the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''.", "He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus.", "Filming was suspended for ten months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production.", "Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception.", "At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\".", "Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.====''City Lights''====By the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films.", "Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \"talkies\" lacked the artistry of silent films.", "He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal.", "He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film.", "Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.", "''City Lights'' (1931) is regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works.When filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year.", "''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation.", "It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\".", "One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.Chaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism.", "A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews.", "One journalist wrote, \"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it.", "He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\"", "Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success, eventually grossing over $3million.", "The British Film Institute called it Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\".", "''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.==== Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times'' ====''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue.", "He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned\".", "In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months.", "He spent months travelling Western Europe, including extended stays in France and Switzerland, and spontaneously decided to visit Japan.", "The day after he arrived in Japan, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated by ultra-nationalists in the May 15 Incident.", "The group's original plan had been to provoke a war with the United States by assassinating Chaplin at a welcome reception organised by the prime minister, but the plan had been foiled due to delayed public announcement of the event's date.Modern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\"In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\".", "He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.", "Chaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a relationship.", "He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion'').", "The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs.", "The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels.", "It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.", "''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life\".", "Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film.", "Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals.", "Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking.", "Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film.", "After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936.It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue.", "The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising.", "Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \"great features\", while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy\".Following the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East.", "Chaplin, Goddard, and a Japanese servant named Yonnemori arrived in Saigon at 8:30 am on 13 April 1936, where they stayed at the Continental hotel before going on a trip to visit multiple locations in French Indochina.", "After Saigon they visited Phnom Penh to view Angkor Wat, returning to Saigon to go to Da Lat, followed by Huế, arriving in Đà Nẵng at 23 April where he visited the Marble Mountains and the Henri Parmentier Museum.", "On 29 April they arrived in Hanoi (the capital city of French Indochina) where they stayed at the Métropole hotel.", "In the afternoon of 5 May they visited the popular tourist destination Hạ Long Bay, after visiting Hạ Long Bay the couple left from Hải Phòng to Hong Kong on board of a ship named the ''Canton''.", "The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not.", "Sometime later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip.", "By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''.", "She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.===1939–1952: controversies and fading popularity=======''The Great Dictator''====Chaplin satirised Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).The 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States.", "The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs.", "Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work.", "Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same moustache style as Chaplin.", "It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.Chaplin spent two years developing the script and began filming in September 1939, six days after Britain declared war on Germany.", "He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message.", "Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk.", "\"I was determined to go ahead\", he later wrote, \"for Hitler must be laughed at.\"", "Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \"A Jewish Barber\", a reference to the Nazi Party's belief that he was Jewish.", "In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \"Adenoid Hynkel\", a parody of Hitler.", "''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940.The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era.", "The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy.", "Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism.", "Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\".", "Nevertheless, both Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt liked the film, which they saw at private screenings before its release.", "Roosevelt subsequently invited Chaplin to read the film's final speech over the radio during his January 1941 inauguration, with the speech becoming a \"hit\" of the celebration.", "Chaplin was often invited to other patriotic functions to read the speech to audiences during the years of the war.", "''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====In the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image.", "The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspiring actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942.Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child.", "As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him.", "As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case.", "Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes.", "Historian Otto Friedrich called this an \"absurd prosecution\" of an \"ancient statute\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail.", "Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began on 21 March 1944.Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later, on4 April.", "The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921\".OonaBarry's child, Carol Ann, was born in October 1943, and the paternity suit went to court in December 1944.After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \"moral turpitude\", Chaplin was declared to be the father.", "Evidence from blood tests that indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carol Ann turned 21.Media coverage of the suit was influenced by the FBI, which fed information to gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased whentwo weeks after the paternity suit was filedit was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill, the daughter of American playwright Eugene O'Neill.", "Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier.", "In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \"the happiest event of my life\", and claimed to have found \"perfect love\".", "Chaplin's son, Charles III, reported that Oona \"worshipped\" his father.", "The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b.", "March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b.", "March 1949), Victoria Agnes (b.", "May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b.", "May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin.Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \"crippled his creativeness\", and it was some time before he began working again.", "In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942.", "''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family.", "Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru.", "Chaplin decided that the concept would \"make a wonderful comedy\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.Chaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction.", "Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott.", "''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States.", "It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards.", "He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.", "\"The negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image.", "Along with the damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist.", "His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups.", "He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles.", "In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \"dangerously progressive and amoral\".", "The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.Chaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \"peacemonger\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties.", "Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee.", "Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify.", "As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship.", "Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America.", "If he is deported... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth.", "He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.", "\"In 2003, declassified British archives belonging to the British Foreign Office revealed that George Orwell secretly accused Chaplin of being a secret communist and a friend of the USSR in the Orwell's list document.", "Chaplin's name was one of 35 that Orwell gave to the Information Research Department (IRD), a secret British Cold War propaganda department which worked closely with the CIA.", "Chaplin was not the only actor in America whom Orwell accused of being a secret communist.====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====Limelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin.", "His character, Calvero, is an ex-music hall star (described in this image as a \"Tramp Comedian\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.Although Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten music hall comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes.", "''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States.", "The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.Filming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story.", "He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \"melancholy\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom.", "''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene.", "This marked the only time the comedians worked together in a feature film.Chaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film.", "As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning.", "At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952.The next day, United States Attorney General James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour to re-enter the US.", "Although McGranery told the press that he had \"a pretty good case against Chaplin\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry.", "It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it.", "However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:Because all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press.", "The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe.", "In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott.", "Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \"unprecedented\" level of popularity, \"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\".===1953–1977: European years=======Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====Chaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs.", "The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey.", "Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April.", "The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen.", "Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.Chaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev.", "He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954.Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay.", "His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism.", "The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s cultureincluding consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema.", "In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \"most bitter\" and \"most openly personal\" film.", "In a 1957 interview, when asked to clarify his political views, Chaplin stated \"As for politics, I am an anarchist.", "I hate government and rulesand fetters... People must be free.", "\"Chaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting.", "Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time.", "According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film.", "''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews.", "Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States.", "This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe.", "''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.====Final works and renewed appreciation====Chaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961In the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights.", "In an interview he gave in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\".", "The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.In America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views.", "In July 1962, the ''New York Times'' published an editorial stating, \"We do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\".", "The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham.", "In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics.", "September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoir, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957.The 500-page book became a worldwide best-seller.", "It focused on his early years and personal life, and was criticised for lacking information on his film career.Shortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s.", "Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin.", "The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects.", "It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward.", "He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer.", "Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts.", "''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure.", "Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.Chaplin had a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health.", "Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria.", "His fragile health prevented the project from being realised.", "In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''.", "In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival.", "The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.Chaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972.It was the first time he had been to the United States in twenty years.In 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \"wanted to make amends\".", "Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years.", "The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a 12-minute standing ovation, the longest in the academy's history.", "Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail.", "He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair.", "His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976.He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson.", "In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.====Death====Chaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, SwitzerlandBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care.", "In the early morning of Christmas Day 1977, Chaplin died at home after having a stroke in his sleep.", "He was 88 years old.", "The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes.", "Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery.", "Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\"", "Actor Bob Hope declared, \"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\"", "Chaplin left more than $100 million to his widow.On 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by Roman Wardas and Gantcho Ganev.", "The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from his widow, Oona Chaplin.", "The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville.", "It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery in a reinforced concrete vault." ], [ "Filmmaking", "===Influences===Chaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\"", "Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno.", "Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker.", "Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \"training ground\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy.", "The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags.", "From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired.", "In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.===Method===A 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were producedChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion.", "Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historiansparticularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983)has since revealed his unique working method.Until he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), Chaplin never shot from a completed script.", "Many of his early films began with only a vague premise, for example \"Charlie enters a health spa\" or \"Charlie works in a pawn shop\".", "He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \"business\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film.", "As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story.", "From ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' (1936) \"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form\".Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time.", "If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned.", "Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism.", "According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \"nothing but perfection would be right\" for the filmmaker.", "Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished.", "The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid'' (1921).", "For ''The Immigrant'' (1917), a 20-minute short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of filmenough for a feature-length.Describing his working method as \"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture.", "Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \"to take precedence over everything and everyone else\".", "The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionismwhich resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expenseoften proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly.", "He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted.", "As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers.", "Chaplin did receive help from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.===Style and themes===The Kid'' (1921) that demonstrate Chaplin's use of slapstick, pathos, and social commentaryWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\".", "Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters.", "Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology.", "Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \"quirky mannerisms\" and \"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.", "His signature style consisted of gestural idiosyncrasies like askew derby hat, drooping shoulders, deflated chest and dangling arms and tilted back pelvis to enrich the comic persona of his 'tramp' character.", "His shabby but neat clothing and incessant grooming behaviour along with his geometrical walk and movement gave his onscreen characters a puppet-like quality.Chaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world.", "The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman.", "As Chaplin said in 1925, \"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\"", "The Tramp defies authority figures and \"gives as good as he gets\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivilegedan \"everyman turned heroic saviour\".", "Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically... into the sunset... to continue his journey.", "\"The infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \"inducing laughter and tears\".", "Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements\".", "Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party.", "Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid'').", "Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917).", "He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor.", "Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films.", "''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.Several of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\".", "''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States.", "Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up.", "Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.Regarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline.", "Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage.", "His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting.", "He believed that action is the main thing.", "The camera is there to photograph the actors\".", "In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \"Simplicity is best... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant...", "The camera should not intrude.\"", "This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \"old fashioned\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium.", "Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\".===Composing===Chaplin playing the cello in 1915Chaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello.", "He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area.", "With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrackcomposed by himselffor ''City Lights'' (1931).", "He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.As Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores.", "Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''.", "Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksinwho worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times''stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process.", "This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano.", "These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin.", "According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.", "\"Chaplin's compositions produced three popular songs.", "\"Smile\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954.For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \"Terry's Theme\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \"Eternally\" (1952).", "Finally, \"This Is My Song\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts.", "Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release." ], [ "Filmography", "'''Directed features:'''* ''The Kid'' (1921)* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)* ''The Circus'' (1928)* ''City Lights'' (1931)* ''Modern Times'' (1936)* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)* ''Limelight'' (1952)* ''A King in New York'' (1957)* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6755 Hollywood BoulevardChaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life.", "In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE).", "He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962.In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.", "From the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year.", "The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award.", "Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.Chaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell).", "He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''.", "In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).", "Six of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).", "Year Association Category Nominated work Result1928 Academy Award Best Director (Comedy Picture) ''The Circus'' Best Actor Best Story (Original) Honorary Academy Award 1940 Outstanding Production ''The Great Dictator'' Best Actor Best Original Screenplay 1947 ''Monsieur Verdoux'' 1971 Academy Honorary Award 1972 Best Original Score ''Limelight'' 1940 National Board of Review Best Actor ''The Great Dictator'' 1940 New York Film Critics Circle Award Best Actor 1952 Best Director ''Limelight'' Best Actor 1976 BAFTA Awards BAFTA Fellowship 1974 Directors Guild of America Award Life Achievement Award 1972 Film Society of Lincoln Center Gala Tribute 1972 Venice International Film Festival Career Golden Lion 1972 Walk of Fame Motion Picture - Star" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Recognition ===Chaplin as the Tramp, cinema's \"most universal icon\", in 1915In 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\".", "He is described by the British Film Institute as \"a towering figure in world culture\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" for the \"laughter he brought to millions\" and because he \"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\".", "In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Chaplin as the 10th greatest male star of Classic Hollywood Cinema.The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown.", "The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \"unique\" and \"indelible\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \"worldwide impact\".", "Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\" in movie history.", "Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.As a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century.", "He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists.", "Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama.", "He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it.", "Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \"sophisticated comedy\".", "According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft\".", "Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\"), Jacques Tati (\"Without him I would never have made a film\"), René Clair (\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\"), François Truffaut (\"My religion is cinema.", "I believe in Charlie Chaplin…\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough.", "Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt.", "The films he left behind can never grow old.\"", "Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray said about Chaplin \"If there is any name which can be said to symbolize cinemait is Charlie Chaplin… I am sure Chaplin's name will survive even if the cinema ceases to exist as a medium of artistic expression.", "Chaplin is truly immortal.\"", "French auteur Jean Renoir's favourite filmmaker was Chaplin.A Chaplin impersonator and his audience in San Sebastián, Spain, in 1919Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians.", "Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp.", "Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò.", "In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement.", "As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry.", "Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \"years ahead of its time\".In 1992, the ''Sight & Sound'' Critics' Top Ten Poll ranked Chaplin at No.", "5 in its list of \"Top 10 Directors\" of all time.", "In the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made.", "The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \"top ten\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,saw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250.The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91.Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote.", "Chaplin was ranked at No.", "35 on ''Empire'' magazine's \"Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time\" list in 2005.In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100.Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists.", "Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-ray release.Chaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris.", "The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \"to protect the name, image and moral rights\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name.", "Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna.", "The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland.", "The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.Elements for many of Chaplin's films are held by the Academy Film Archive as part of the Roy Export Chaplin Collection.===Commemoration and tributes===Chaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \"Chaplin's World\".", "It opened on 17 April 2016 after fifteen years of development, and is described by Reuters as \"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\".", "On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum.", "Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988.The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie ChaplinThe Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.Chaplin memorial plaque in St Paul's, Covent Garden, LondonIn London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square.", "The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \"Charlie Chaplin Walk\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX.", "There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire.", "In Canning Town, East London, the Gandhi Chaplin Memorial Garden, opened by Chaplin's granddaughter Oona Chaplin in 2015, commemorates the meeting between Chaplin and Mahatma Gandhi at a local house in 1931.The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982.In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey.", "Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s.", "A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.In other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin (discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981) is named after him.", "Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers.", "Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages.===Characterisations===Chaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role, with Geraldine Chaplin playing Hannah Chaplin.", "He is also a character in the historical drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill.", "A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.", "The French film ''The Price of Fame'' (2014) is a fictionalised account of the robbery of Chaplin's grave.", "''Tommy Steele in Search of Charlie Chaplin'' investigated Chaplin's roots in south-east London.Chaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions.", "Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s.", "In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010.It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''ChaplinA Musical''.", "Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions.", "In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction.", "He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \"Charlie in the House of Rue\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period.", "A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter titled \"Modern Times\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.===Legal precedent===A lawsuit brought by Chaplin, ''Chaplin v. Amador'', 93 Cal.", "App.", "358 (1928), set an important legal precedent -- that a performer's persona and style, in this case Chaplin's \"particular kind or type of mustache, old and threadbare hat, clothes and shoes, a decrepit derby, ill-fitting vest, tight-fitting coat, and trousers and shoes much too large for him, and with this attire, a flexible cane usually carried, swung and bent as he performs his part,\" is entitled to legal protection from those unfairly mimicking those traits in order to deceive the public.", "The case was an important milestone in U.S. courts' ultimate recognition of a common-law right of publicity." ], [ "Written works", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Menand, Louis, \"The War on Chaplin\" (review of Scott Eyman, ''Charlie Chaplin vs. America'', Simon & Schuster, 1923), ''The New Yorker'', 20 November 2023, pp.", "60–64." ], [ "External links", "* by Association Chaplin* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland;Works* * * ;Papers* The Charlie Chaplin professional and personal Archive at Cineteca di Bologna, Italy* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website* ;Data* * * * * Charlie Chaplin at Virtual History: Film history of the 20th century" ] ]

[ [ "The World Factbook" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The World Factbook''''', also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''', is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world.", "The official print version is available from the Government Publishing Office.", "The ''Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week.", "It is also available for download for use off-line.", "It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of 266 international entities, including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.", "''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements.", "It is also frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles.", "As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States." ], [ "Sources", "Cover of the U.S. government print edition of ''The World Factbook'' (2022 edition)In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below.", "Other public and private sources are also consulted.", "* Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)* Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)* Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)* Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)* Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs* Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)* Department of Energy* Department of State* Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)* Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)* National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)* Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)* Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)* Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)* ''Oil & Gas Journal''* United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)* United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)" ], [ "Copyright", "''The World Factbook'' website as it appeared in December 2014The ''Factbook'' is in the public domain and may be redistributed in part or in whole without need for permission, although the CIA requests that the ''Factbook'' be cited if used.", "Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by the US federal Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ()." ], [ "Frequency of updates and availability", "Before November 2001, ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly.", "Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.=== Government edition ===The first classified edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971.", "''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975.Until 2008 the CIA printed the ''Factbook''; from then it has been printed by the Government Printing Office following a CIA decision to \"focus Factbook resources\" on the online edition.", "The ''Factbook'' has been available via the World Wide Web since October 1994, receiving about six million visits per month in 2006; it can also be downloaded.", "The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service.", "In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.=== Reprints and older editions online ===Many Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''.", "Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.", "Older editions since 2000 may be downloaded (but not browsed) from the ''Factbook'' Web site." ], [ "Entities listed", "Map of the world published by the ''CIA World Factbook'' in 2016, ''The World Factbook'' comprises 266 entities, which can be divided into the following categories:; Independent countries: The CIA defines these as people \"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory.\"", "In this category, there are 195 entities.", "; Others: Places set apart from the list of independent countries.", "Currently there are two: Taiwan and the European Union.", "; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: Places affiliated with another country.", "They may be subcategorized by affiliated country::*Australia: 6 entities:*China: 2 entities:*Denmark: 2 entities:*France: 8 entities:*Netherlands: 3 entities:*New Zealand: 3 entities:*Norway: 3 entities:*United Kingdom: 17 entities:*United States: 14 entities; Miscellaneous: Antarctica and places in dispute.", "There are six such entities.", "; Other entities: The World and the oceans.", "There are five oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries)." ], [ "Territorial issues and controversies", "=== Political ======= Areas not covered ====Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries.", "Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''.", "Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \"a comprehensive encyclopedia\" for their reference needs.", "This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion.", "They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.", "Since the Trump administration's recognition of Morocco's sovereignty over Western Sahara in late 2020, most of its data has been merged into Morocco's page.==== Chagos Archipelago ====Some entries on the World Factbook are known to be in line with the political views and agenda of the United States.", "The United States is behind both the excision of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritian territory and the forcible expulsion of the Chagossians from their lands to establish a military base on one of the island of the archipelago, namely Diego Garcia.", "The US does not recognise the sovereignty of Mauritius over the Chagos Archipelago and the archipelago is listed as the British Indian Ocean Territory on the CIA Website.", "The website further erroneously mentioned that the Chagos Archipelago is also claimed by the Seychelles, while officially 116 countries including the Seychelles against only 6 countries including the United States voted in favor of a United Nations General Assembly resolution dated 24 May 2019 which called upon the UK to withdraw its colonial administration from the Chagos Archipelago unconditionally to enable Mauritius to complete the decolonization of its territory as rapidly as possible.==== Kashmir ====Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.==== Northern Cyprus ====Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.", "\"==== Taiwan/Republic of China ====The name \"Republic of China\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \"Government\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it.", "The name \"Republic of China\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \"none\".", "Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan as part of the country while the other does not.", "(See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)==== Disputed South China Sea Islands ====The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation.", "The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.==== Burma/Myanmar ====The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.==== North Macedonia ====The country was first entered as ''Macedonia'' in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992.In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute).", "For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under.", "In the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.", "On February 19, 2019, the entry was renamed to ''North Macedonia'' following the country's name change to the Republic of North Macedonia.==== European Union ====On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.", "The \"What's New\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.", "\"==== United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses ====In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry.", "The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website.", "On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry.", "As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website.", "On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.==== Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia ====The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991.The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics.", "In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics.", "This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.Serbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''.", "Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner.", "One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\"", "Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map.", "In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election.", "This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition.", "The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''.", "On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003.The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.==== Kosovo ====On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year.", "Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''.", "Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory.", "Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.==== East Timor/Timor-Leste ====On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).=== Factual ===In June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from ''The World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000.However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000.NPR then issued a correction.", "Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.", "\"The factbook currently states that only four percent of Botswana are practitioners of the indigenous Badimo religion, in reality a great majority of Botswana follow at least some of the traditions deemed ''Badimo.", "''Scholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.", "'''The inclusion of the metric countries.'''", "The government's own National Institute of Standards and Technology contradicts the CIA factbook website, stating that three countries have \"not adopted\" the metric system is incorrect.", "At the time a better term would be have been \"not committed\", however this is not the case anymore as of 2023 all countries listed are committed to adopting the metric system including the US." ], [ "See also", "* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA* National Security Agency academic publications; Alternative publications* ''Europa World Year Book''* ''The New York Times Almanac''* ''The TIME Almanac''* ''Whitaker's Almanack''* ''The World Almanac''" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===*" ], [ "External links", "* * ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007.All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \"cia\".", "Requires graphical browser with javascript.", "* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===* Mobile menu of 36 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated February 2019* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===*https://web.archive.org/web/20070612212614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html* Countries of the World – 36 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2019)* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St.", "Louis archive:: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''" ] ]

[ [ "Country" ], [ "Introduction", "The marked territories on this global map are mostly of countries which are sovereign states with full international recognition (brackets denote the country of a marked territory that is not a sovereign state).", "Some territories are countries in their own right but are not recognized as such (e.g.", "Taiwan), and some few marked territories are disputed about which country they belong to (e.g.", "Kashmir) or if they are countries in their own right (e.g.", "Western Sahara (territory) or the state known by the same name).A '''country''' is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity.", "It may be a sovereign state or make up one part of a larger state.", "For example, the country of Japan is an independent, sovereign state, while the countries of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are components of a multi-part sovereign state, the United Kingdom.", "A country may be a historically sovereign area (such as Korea), a currently sovereign territory with a unified government (such as Senegal), or a non-sovereign geographic region associated with certain distinct political, ethnic, or cultural characteristics (such as the Basque Country).The definition and usage of the word \"country\" are flexible and has changed over time.", "''The Economist'' wrote in 2010 that \"any attempt to find a clear definition of a country soon runs into a thicket of exceptions and anomalies.\"", "Most sovereign states, but not all countries, are members of the United Nations.", "Countries are often associated with symbols such as flags or anthems; they may also evoke strong feelings of devotion and patriotism in their populations." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''country'' comes from Old French , which derives from Vulgar Latin () (\"(land) lying opposite\"; \"(land) spread before\"), derived from (\"against, opposite\").", "It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century." ], [ "Definition of a country", "In English the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article – \"a country\" – is now frequently applied as a synonym for a state or a former sovereign state.", "It may also be used as a synonym for \"nation\".", "Taking as examples Canada, Sri Lanka, and Yugoslavia, cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote in 1997 that \"it is clear that the relationships between 'country' and 'nation' are so different from one place to the next as to be impossible to fold into a dichotomous opposition as they are into a promiscuous fusion.", "\"Areas much smaller than a political state may be referred to as countries, such as the West Country in England, \"big sky country\" (used in various contexts of the American West), \"coal country\" (used to describe coal-mining regions in several sovereign states) and many other terms.", "The word \"country\" is also used for the sense of native sovereign territory, such as the widespread use of Indian country in the United States.", "The term \"country\" in English may also be wielded to describe rural areas, or used in the form \"countryside.\"", "Raymond Williams, a Welsh scholar, wrote in 1975:The unclear definition of \"country\" in modern English was further commented upon by philosopher Simon Keller:Melissa Lucashenko, an Aboriginal Australian writer, expressed the difficulty of defining \"country\" in a 2005 essay, \"Unsettlement\":" ], [ "Statehood", "When referring to a specific polity, the term \"country\" may refer to a sovereign state, a constituent country, or a dependent territory.", "A sovereign state is a political entity that has supreme legitimate authority over a part of the world.", "There is no universal agreement on the number of \"countries\" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly called countries.", "No definition is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood.", "State practice relating to the recognition of a country typically falls somewhere between the ''declaratory'' and ''constitutive'' approaches.", "International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, a government not under another, and the capacity to interact with other states.The declarative theory outlined in the 1933 Montevideo Convention describes a state in ''Article 1'' as:#Having a permanent population#Having a defined territory#Having a government#Having the ability to enter into relations with other statesThe Montevideo Convention in ''Article 3'' implies that a sovereign state can still be a sovereign state even if no other countries recognise that it exists.", "As a restatement of customary international law, the Montevideo Convention merely codified existing legal norms and its principles, and therefore does not apply merely to the signatories of international organizations (such as the United Nations), but to all subjects of international law as a whole.", "A similar opinion has been expressed by the European Economic Community, reiterated by the European Union, in the principal statement of its Badinter Committee, and by Judge ''Challis Professor'', James Crawford.According to the constitutive theory a state is a legal entity of international law if, and only if, it is recognised as sovereign by at least one other country.", "Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognised nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them.", "In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim said the following, regarding constitutive theory:In 1976 the Organisation of African Unity define state recognition as:Some countries, such as Taiwan, Sahrawi Republic and Kosovo have disputed sovereignty status among some countries.", "Some sovereign states are unions of separate polities, each of which may also be considered a country in its own right, called constituent countries.", "The Danish Realm consists of Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland.", "The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Netherlands proper, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten.", "The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.Dependent territories are the territories of a sovereign state that are outside of its proper territory.", "These include the overseas territories of New Zealand, the dependencies of Norway, the British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies, the territories of the United States, the external territories of Australia, the special administrative regions of China, the autonomous regions of the Danish Realm, Åland, Overseas France, and the Caribbean Netherlands.", "Some dependent territories are treated as a separate \"country of origin\" in international trade, such as Hong Kong, Greenland, and Macau.=== Identification ===Symbols of a country may incorporate cultural, religious or political symbols of any nation that the country includes.", "Many categories of symbols can be seen in flags, coats of arms, or seals.=== Name ===A number of non-sovereign entities nevertheless have country codes, such as PF (French Polynesia) and TK (Tokelau)Most countries have a long name and a short name.", "The long name is typically used in formal contexts and often describes the country's form of government.", "The short name is the country's common name by which it is typically identified.", "The International Organization for Standardization maintains a list of country codes as part of ISO 3166 to designate each country with a two-letter country code.", "The name of a country can hold cultural and diplomatic significance.", "Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso to reflect the end of French colonization, and the name of North Macedonia was disputed for years due to a conflict with the similarly named Macedonia region in Greece.", "The ISO 3166-1 standard currently comprises 249 countries, 193 of which are sovereign states that are members of the United Nations.=== Flags ===A map showing the flags of the world, The countries shown are the members of the United Nations.", "Originally, flags representing a country would generally be the personal flag of its rulers; however, over time, the practice of using personal banners as flags of places was abandoned in favor of flags that had some significance to the nation, often its patron saint.", "Early examples of these were the maritime republics such as Genoa which could be said to have a national flag as early as the 12th century.", "However, these were still mostly used in the context of marine identification.Although some flags date back earlier, widespread use of flags outside of military or naval context begins only with the rise of the idea of the nation state at the end of the 18th century and particularly are a product of the Age of Revolution.", "Revolutions such as those in France and America called for people to begin thinking of themselves as citizens as opposed to subjects under a king, and thus necessitated flags that represented the collective citizenry, not just the power and right of a ruling family.", "With nationalism becoming common across Europe in the 19th century, national flags came to represent most of the states of Europe.", "Flags also began fostering a sense of unity between different peoples, such as the Union Jack representing a union between England and Scotland, or began to represent unity between nations in a perceived shared struggle, for example, the Pan-Slavic colors or later Pan-Arab colors.As Europeans colonized significant portions of the world, they exported ideas of nationhood and national symbols, including flags, with the adoption of a flag becoming seen as integral to the nation-building process.", "Political change, social reform, and revolutions combined with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the birth of new nations and flags around the globe.", "With so many flags being created, interest in these designs began to develop and the study of flags, vexillology, at both professional and amateur levels, emerged.", "After World War II, Western vexillology went through a phase of rapid development, with many research facilities and publications being established.=== National anthems ===Royal Library, MS 15662, fol.", "37v-38r)A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation.", "Though the custom of an officially adopted national anthem became popular only in the 19th century, some national anthems predate this period, often existing as patriotic songs long before designation as national anthem.", "Several countries remain without an official national anthem.", "In these cases, there are established ''de facto'' anthems played at sporting events or diplomatic receptions.", "These include the United Kingdom (\"God Save the King\") and Sweden ().", "Some sovereign states that are made up of multiple countries or constituencies have associated musical compositions for each of them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russia, and the Soviet Union).", "These are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states (for example, \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" is used for Wales, part of the United Kingdom).=== Other symbols ===* Coats of arms or national emblems* Seals or stamps* National mottos* National colors" ], [ "Patriotism", "A positive emotional connection to a country a person belongs to is called patriotism.", "Patriotism is a sense of love for, devotion to, and sense of attachment to one's country.", "This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, and language relating to one's homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political, or historical aspects.", "It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism, mostly civic nationalism and sometimes cultural nationalism." ], [ "Economy", "Gross domestic product per capita of 213 \"countries\" (2020) (Purchasing power parity – international dollars)Several organizations seek to identify trends to produce economy country classifications.", "Countries are often distinguished as developing countries or developed countries.The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs annually produces the ''World Economic Situation and Prospects Report'' classifies states as developed countries, economies in transition, or developing countries.", "The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI).", "The UN identifies subgroups within broad categories based on geographical location or ad hoc criteria.", "The UN outlines the geographical regions for developing economies like Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.", "The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific.", "The majority of economies in transition and developing countries are found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.The World Bank also classifies countries based on GNI per capita.", "The ''World Bank Atlas method'' classifies countries as low-income economies, lower-middle-income economies, upper-middle-income economies, or high-income economies.", "For the 2020 fiscal year, the World Bank defines low-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $1,025 or less in 2018; lower-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $3,995; upper-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $3,996 and $12,375; high-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $12,376 or more..It also identifies regional trends.", "The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Lastly, the World Bank distinguishes countries based on its operational policies.", "The three categories include International Development Association (IDA) countries, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) countries, and Blend countries." ], [ "See also", "* Country (identity)* List of former sovereign states* List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent* List of transcontinental countries* Micronation* Quasi-state" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Defining what makes a country ''The Economist''" ], [ "External links", "* The CIA World Factbook* Country Studies from the United States Library of Congress* Foreign Information by Country and Country & Territory Guides from GovPubs at UCB Libraries* United Nations statistics division" ] ]

[ [ "Copenhagen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Copenhagen''' ( or ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of around 660,000 in the municipality and 1.4 million in the urban area.", "The city is on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the Øresund strait.", "The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.Originally a Viking fishing village established in the 10th century in the vicinity of what is now Gammel Strand, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century.", "From the 17th century, it became a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences, and armed forces.", "During the Renaissance the city was the de facto capital of the Kalmar Union and the seat of monarchy, governing most of the present day Nordic region in a union with Sweden and Norway ruled by the Danish monarch serving as the head of state.", "The city flourished as the cultural and economic centre of Scandinavia under the union for over 120 years, from the 15th century until the early 16th century when Sweden left the union through a rebellion.", "After a plague outbreak and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent redevelopment.", "This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding cultural institutions including the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.", "After disasters in the early 19th century when the British Royal Navy attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture.", "After the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes emanating from the city centre.Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure.", "The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange.", "Copenhagen's economy has developed rapidly in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology.", "Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region.", "With several bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterised by parks, promenades, and waterfronts.", "Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle, Frederik's Church, Børsen and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen Business School, and the IT University of Copenhagen.", "The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark.", "Copenhagen is home to the football clubs F.C.", "Copenhagen and Brøndby IF.", "The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980.Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world.Movia is the public mass transit company serving all of eastern Denmark, except Bornholm.", "The Copenhagen Metro, launched in 2002, serves central Copenhagen.", "Additionally, the Copenhagen S-train, the Lokaltog (private railway), and the Coast Line network serve and connect central Copenhagen to outlying boroughs.", "Serving roughly 2.5 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries." ], [ "Etymology", "Copenhagen's name ( in Danish), reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce.", "The original designation in Old Norse, from which Danish descends, was '''''' (cf.", "modern Icelandic: , ), meaning 'merchants' harbour'.", "By the time Old Danish was spoken, the capital was called '''''', with the current name deriving from centuries of subsequent regular sound change.The English cognates of the original name would be \"chapman's haven\".", "The English ''chapman'', German , Dutch , Swedish , Danish , and Icelandic share a derivation from Latin , meaning 'tradesman'.", "However, the English term for the city was adapted from its Low German name, .", "Copenhagen's Swedish name is , a direct translation of the mutually intelligible Danish name.The city's Latin name, , is the namesake of the element hafnium." ], [ "History", "Reconstruction of Copenhagen ===Early history===Although the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from .", "Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century.", "The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century.", "Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age.", "Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard.", "The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century.", "The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally 'old shore') in the 11th century or even earlier.The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as , meaning 'Merchants' Harbour' or, in the Danish of the time, .", "Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today.", "The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century.", "Defensive ramparts and moats were completed, and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built.", "Attacks by the Wends continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.===Middle Ages===In 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde (1158–1191) and Archbishop of Lund (1177–1201), by King Valdemar I.", "Upon Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde.", "Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.As the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League.", "In 1368, it was successfully invaded during the Second Danish-Hanseatic War.", "As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen.", "In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges.", "In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle.", "The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV.", "This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe.", "Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.===16th and 17th centuries===In disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism.", "Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall.", "After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III.", "During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping.", "Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development.", "The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.During the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city.", "On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange.", "To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616.To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts.", "It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen.", "Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn.", "In 1658–1659, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.By 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway.", "All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army.", "The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.===18th century===A mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden, part of the Amalienborg PalaceCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711.The city was also struck by two major fires that destroyed much of its infrastructure.", "The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen.", "It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless.", "No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost.", "Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.A substantial amount of rebuilding followed.", "In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace, which was completed in 1745.In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated.", "Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace.", "Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefited from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea.", "After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.===19th century===On 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker attacked and defeated the neutral Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen.", "Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack.", "He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed.", "Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar.", "It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \"put the telescope to the blind eye\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.Gottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen MuseumDanish soldiers returning to Copenhagen in 1849, after the First Schleswig War – painting by Otto Bache (1894)The Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population to yet again seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet.", "But from a Danish point of view, the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital.", "Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city.", "Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment.", "The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery.", "Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.Slotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building ().", "In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church, and Holmen Church.The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city.", "The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.Despite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age.", "Painting prospered under C.W.", "Eckersberg and his students while C.F.", "Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture.", "In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west.", "By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization.", "This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome.", "From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94.Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897.The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population.", "In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people.", "By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.===20th century===Central Copenhagen in 1939By the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city.", "With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west.", "New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen.", "The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing.", "Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas.", "However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolition of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade to build five large blocks of flats.====World War II====The RAF's bombing of the Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement.People celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945.Germany surrendered three days later.In Denmark during World War II, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945.German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \"a model protectorate\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government.", "The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded.", "But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans.", "Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.In 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen.", "Accordingly, air vice-marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company.", "Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.The attack, known as \"Operation Carthage\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves.", "In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School.", "Because of this crash, four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target and aimed their bombs at the school, leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren).", "However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.On 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.====Post-war decades====Shortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \"fingers\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes.", "With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city.", "As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.Motor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses.", "From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre.", "Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen Naval Base.", "Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries.", "In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realised in the harbour area and in the west of Amager.", "The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.=== Gallery ===File:The Black Diamond, Copenhagen 2017-08-16.jpg|The Black DiamondFile:Christiania in.jpg|Freetown Christiania – entranceFile:Øresund Bridge from the air in September 2015.jpg|Øresund Bridge===21st century===Copenhagen Opera HouseSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic.", "As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations.", "The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager.", "The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established.", "Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students.", "Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the railway system which opened in 2002 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.On the cultural front, the Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P.", "Møller foundation, was completed in 2004.In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.On 3 July 2022, three people were killed in a shooting at Field's mall in Copenhagen.", "Police chief inspector Søren Thomassen announced the arrest of a 22-year-old man and said that the police cannot rule out an act of terrorism." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite image of CopenhagenThe red line shows the approximate extent of the urban area of Copenhagen.Copenhagen metropolitan areaCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden.", "It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two.", "Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea.", "The Swedish city of Malmö and the town of Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen.", "By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it.", "Then come the late-19th- and early-20th-century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro.", "The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960.They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.===Topography===The central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level.", "The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest.", "Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago.", "Some greensand from the Selandian is also present.", "There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city.", "During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.Geologically, Copenhagen lies in the northern part of Denmark where the land is rising because of post-glacial rebound.===Beaches===Amager StrandparkKalvebod Bølge – public beach within the cityAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches.", "It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre.", "In Klampenborg, about from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach.", "It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront.", "The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge, literally meaning Iceland's Quay, and has won international acclaim for its design." ], [ "Climate", "Frederiksberg Palace in winterCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb'').", "Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year.", "Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate.", "While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day.", "July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C.", "By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February.", "In the spring, it gets warmer again with four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May.", "February is the driest month of the year.", "Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter.", "On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight.", "On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight.", "There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices." ], [ "Administration", "Copenhagen City Hall (right) on City Hall Square in the city centreAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand.", "They are located in the Capital Region ().", "Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security.", "Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core.", "The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square.", "The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest.", "Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Sydhavn, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.===Law and order===Most of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen.", "A modern-style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771.Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby.", "With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen.", "Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court () also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark.", "Denmark's Supreme Court (), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal.", "Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–1924 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen.", "The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices.The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention.", "The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right.", "The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.=== Environmental planning ===The European Environment Agency on Kongens NytorvCopenhagen is recognised as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world.", "As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''.", "In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden.", "It produces about 4% of the city's energy.", "Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.Middelgrunden offshore wind farmCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025.Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 per cent and 10 per cent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 per cent by 2025.Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen.", "District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass.", "New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings.", "By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit.", "The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025.The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.The city's urban planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities.", "Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards.", "Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions.", "In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.", "Further, the city administration is working with smart city initiatives to improve how data and technology can be used to implement new solutions that support the transition toward a carbon-neutral economy.", "These solutions support operations covered by the city administration to improve e.g.", "public health, district heating, urban mobility and waste management systems.", "Smart city operations in Copenhagen are maintained by Copenhagen Solutions Lab, the city's official smart-city development unit under the Technical and Environmental Administration." ], [ "Demographics and society", "Population pyramid of Copenhagen Municipality in 2022 Nationals by sub-national origin (Q1 2006) '''Nationality''' '''Population''' Greenland 5,333 Immigrants by country of origin (Top 15) (Q1 2022) '''Nationality''' '''Population''' 8,581 7,457 6,894 6,720 6,510 5,459 5,440 5,312 5,263 5,058 4,787 4,752 4,295 4,243 4,232 3,975 3,635 3,373 3,362 3,063 2,668 2,543 2,372 2,315 2,283 2,198 2,044 1,946 1,912 1,850 1,838 1,767 1,713 1,627 1,516 1,416 1,405 1,393 1,305 1,208 1,192 1,042 1,026Copenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries.", "For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen () to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities: Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby.", "Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().The Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 644,431 inhabitants (as of 2022).", "There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decades of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark.", "According to figures from the first quarter of 2022, 73.7% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship.", "Much of the remaining 26.3% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (20.3%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%).", "There are no official statistics on ethnic groups.", "The adjacent table shows the most common countries of origin of Copenhagen residents.", "Largest foreign groups are Pakistanis (1.3%), Turks (1.2%), Iraqis (1.1%), Germans (1.0%) and Poles (1.0%).According to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 ().", "The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially.", "Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants ().", "The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan.", "Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area.", "Known as the Øresund Region, it has 4.1 million inhabitants—of whom 2.7 million (August 2021) live in the Danish part of the region.===Religion===Church of Our Lady, situated on Frue PladsA majority (56.9%) of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 0.6% lower than one year earlier according to 2019 figures.", "The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen.", "There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.Foreign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014.Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population.", "While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen.", "There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.", "It has a membership of 1,800 members.", "There is a long history of Jews in the city, and the first synagogue in Copenhagen was built in 1684.Today, the history of the Jews of Denmark can be explored at the Danish Jewish Museum in Copenhagen.===Quality of living===For a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life.", "Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike.", "Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies.", "In elevating Copenhagen to \"most liveable city\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine.", "Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning.", "However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012.Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability." ], [ "Economy", "Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark.", "The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce.", "Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries.", "The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare.", "From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark.", "In 2017, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €120 billion, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.As of Copenhagen Green Economy Leader Report made by London School of Economics and Political Science - Copenhagen is widely recognised as a leader in the global green economy.", "The Copenhagen region accounts for almost 40% of Denmark’s output and has enjoyed long-term stable growth.", "At a national level, Danish GDP per capita is ranked among the top 10 countries in the world.", "At the same time, the city’s growth has been delivered while improving environmental performance and transitioning to a low-carbon economy.The Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bankSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm.", "Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark.", "The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P.", "Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes.", "City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring PharmaceuticalsLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities.", "Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region.", "Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia.", "Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.Shipping is another important sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen.", "The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port.", "Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour.", "Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP).", "The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries.", "CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.Copenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world.", "High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction.", "A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour.", "It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.Denmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen.", "In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate.", "The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.In this dynamic business environment, commercial properties play a pivotal role.", "Companies often rely on specialized real estate platforms like Lokalebasen A/S to find suitable commercial spaces tailored to their needs.", "Copenhagen, as a thriving business hub, boasts a diverse range of business centers and offices.", "From modern co-working spaces to prestigious corporate offices, the city offers a plethora of options for businesses looking to establish their presence.", "These business centers are equipped with state-of-the-art facilities, high-speed internet, meeting rooms, and other amenities essential for smooth business operations.===Tourism===Tourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants.", "Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe.", "Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly.", "From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors.", "The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.In 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover.", "However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year.", "680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.In 2019 Copenhagen was ranked first among Lonely Planet's top ten cities to visit.", "In October 2021, Copenhagen was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Dublin, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia." ], [ "Cityscape", "The city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries.", "Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period.", "Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.===Architecture===The oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as (the medieval city).", "However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions.", "The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals.", "Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen.", "Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century.", "They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.Sometimes referred to as \"the City of Spires\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles.", "Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top.", "Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue.", "Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \"dragon spire\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.Copenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning.", "Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity.", "These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.Recent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects.", "For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects.", "British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.Copenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation.", "After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication.", "Copenhagen's spatial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.The boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline.", "A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development.", "Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development.", "Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.===Parks, gardens and zoo===Rosenborg Castle and park in central CopenhagenCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small.", "King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all.", "It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606.Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers.", "It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months.", "Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen.", "Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.It is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars.", "A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park.", "Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park.", "It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl.", "The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo.", "Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.In Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation.", "Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution.", "The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.It is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes.", "In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.===Landmarks by district=======Indre By====The historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions.", "The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre.", "Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the 21st-century Copenhagen Opera House stands on the island of Holmen.", "To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars.", "The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670.Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755.Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory.", "There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.", "Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, one of the world's oldest and longest pedestrian streets, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv.", "With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain.", "Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style.", "It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.====Christianshavn====Christianshavn CanalChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour.", "The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century.", "Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today.", "The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions.", "Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971.Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy.", "The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \"Pusher Street\" as well as their arts and crafts.", "Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church.", "Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.====Vesterbro====Halmtorvet in VesterbroVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants.", "The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse.", "The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt.", "Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes.", "Halmtorvet, the old hay market behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants.", "The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography.", "Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969.Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.====Nørrebro====Dronning Louises Bro leading into NørrebrogadeNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, non-Danish food stores and restaurants.", "Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv and around Rantzausgade.", "Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.====Østerbro====The Gefion FountainJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies.", "The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie.", "Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913.Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen.", "Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications.", "There is also a windmill in the area.", "The large Gefion Fountain () designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet.", "Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.====Frederiksberg====Frederiksberg PalaceFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro.", "Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Frederick IV who was inspired by Italian architecture.", "Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings.", "The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment.", "While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.====Amagerbro====Amagerbro (also known as Sønderbro) is the district located immediately south-east of Christianshavn at northernmost Amager.", "The old city moats and their surrounding parks constitute a clear border between these districts.", "The main street is Amagerbrogade which after the harbour bridge Langebro, is an extension of H. C. Andersens Boulevard and has a number of various stores and shops as well as restaurants and pubs.", "Amagerbro was built up during the two first decades of the twentieth century and is the city's southernmost block built area with typically 4–7 floors.", "Further south follows the Sundbyøster and Sundbyvester districts.====Other districts====Not far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium.", "With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia.", "Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V.", "Jensen Klint and completed in 1940.A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ." ], [ "Culture", "The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attractionApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and one of the major hubs in wider Scandinavia.", "Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal, in the same league as cities such as Barcelona and Amsterdam.", "This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs.", "Copenhagen Fashion Week takes place every year in February and August.===Museums===Copenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing.", "The National Museum, , is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike.", "Denmark's National Gallery () is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present.", "In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen & Dragset, Superflex, and Jens Haaning.Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museumAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections.", "Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France.", "Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.Louisiana is a Museum of Modern Art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen.", "It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund.", "Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet.", "The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.Other museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum, an exhibition space for contemporary art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.===Entertainment and performing arts===The Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)The new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009.Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people.", "It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built.", "Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens.", "Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House () opened in 2005.It is among the most modern opera houses in the world.", "The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions.", "It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet.", "Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet.", "The Royal Danish Theatre main buildingCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years.", "It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s.", "Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival.", "One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.The largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district.", "It was chosen as \"best concert venue in Europe\" by international music magazine ''Live''.", "The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250.Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen.", "This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.For free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.===Literature===Copenhagen's main public libraryMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen.", "These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books).", "Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen.", "Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell.", "Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city.", "On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.The Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482.Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront.", "Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library () on Krystalgade in the inner city.===Art===Interior of the National Gallery (), combining new and old architectureCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions.", "They include , i.e.", "the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century.", "Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art.", "Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities.", "The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj.", "Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).A number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city.", "In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris.", "Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.Copenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.===Cuisine===Michelin stars., Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city.", "The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination.", "These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC with two Stars, and Noma (short for ''mad'', English: Nordic food) as well as Geranium with three.", "Noma was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.Apart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants.", "It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes.", "Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city.", "The Copenhagen Bakers' Association (Danish: ) dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.Copenhagen has long been associated with beer.", "Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production.", "However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen.", "Some like Nørrebro Bryghus also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.===Nightlife and festivals===Copenhagen Pride Parade, 2008Copenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world.", "The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer.", "Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously.", "Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife.", "Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.Copenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer.", "Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators.", "Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival.", "Copenhagen Pride is a LGBT pride festival taking place every year in August.", "The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place.", "During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square.", "Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100,000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.===Amusement parks===Pantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens.Copenhagen has the oldest and third-oldest amusement parks in the world.Dyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven.", "Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world.", "Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions.", "In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as .", "There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.The Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station.", "It opened in 1843, making it the third-oldest amusement park in the world, the second being Wurstelprater in Vienna.", "Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943.Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen." ], [ "Education", "The main building of the University of CopenhagenCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (20,000 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and the Copenhagen campus of Aalborg University (2,300 students).The University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479.It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year.", "The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.The Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen.", "In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe.", "The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.The Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years.", "It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation.", "Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.There are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen." ], [ "Sport", "The city has a variety of sporting teams.", "The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby.", "FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro.", "Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg).", "Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester.", "BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby).", "Other teams of more significant stature are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.Copenhagen Marathon, 2008Copenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark.", "Of clubs playing in the \"highest\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup).", "The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established.", "Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs.", "Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.Rugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed.", "Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion.", "The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.Copenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.Round Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August.", "This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship.", "In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning.", "Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure.", "It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen." ], [ "Transport", "Aerial view of Copenhagen seen from an airplane departing from Copenhagen Airport===Airport===The greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe.", "Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager.", "It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services.", "October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.===Road, rail and ferry===Copenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge.", "The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled.", "This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.", "The Øresund train links Copenhagen with Malmö 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.", "Copenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway.", "In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.Map of the city's rail networks.", "Metro, S-train, Regional trains and Local trains.The Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services.", "Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus.", "Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day.", "Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.The Copenhagen Metro expanded radically with the opening of the City Circle Line (M3) on 29 September 2019.The new line connects all inner boroughs of the city by metro, including the Central Station, and opens up 17 new stations for Copenhageners.", "On 28 March 2020, the Nordhavn extension of the Harbour Line (M4) opened.", "Running from Copenhagen Central Station, the new extension is a branch line of M3 Cityring to Østerport.", "The M4 Sydhavn branch is expected to open in 2024.The new metro lines are part of the city's strategy to transform mobility towards sustainable modes of transport such as public transport and cycling as opposed to automobility.Copenhagen is cited by urban planners for its exemplary integration of public transport and urban development.", "In implementing its Finger Plan, Copenhagen is considered the world's first example of a transit metropolis, and areas around S-Train stations like Ballerup and Brøndby Strand are among the earliest examples of transit-oriented development.===Cycling===Christianshavn Metro stationCopenhagen has been rated as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world since 2015, with bicycles outnumbering its inhabitants.", "In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university.", "With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year.", "The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate." ], [ "Healthcare", "Rigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.Promoting health is an important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities.", "Central to its sustainability mission is its \"Long Live Copenhagen\" () scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities.", "The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.Copenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals.", "Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903.With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually.", "It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy.", "In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions.", "It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants.", "The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''.", "Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees.", "Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927)." ], [ "Media", "The Aller Media conglomerate building in HavneholmMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen.", "DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation consolidated its activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007.Similarly TV2, which is based in Odense, has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen.", "The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske'' and the two tabloids and ''BT'' are based in Copenhagen.", "''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week.", "Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.Copenhagen has a large film and television industry.", "Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world.", "In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen.", "Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios.", "Zentropa is a film company, co-owned by Danish director Lars von Trier.", "He is behind several international movie productions as well and founded the Dogme Movement.", "CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old NatFilm Festival and the four-year-old CIFF.", "The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April.", "CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November.", "In addition to a documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Copenhagen is twinned with:* Beijing, China* Marseille, France* Reykjavik, Iceland* Kyiv, Ukraine" ], [ "Honorary citizens", "People awarded the honorary citizenship of Copenhagen are:DateNameNotes21 November 1838Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844) Danish sculptorWhile honorary citizenship is no longer granted in Copenhagen, three people have been awarded the title of honorary Copenhageners (''æreskøbenhavnere'').DateNameNotes16 June 1967Poul Reumert (1883–1968) Danish actor16 June 1967Victor Borge (1909–2000) Danish comedian16 June 1967Steen Eiler Rasmussen (1898–1990) Danish architect" ], [ "See also", "*:Category: People from Copenhagen*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen*Architecture in Copenhagen*Carlsberg Fault zone, a concealed tectonic formation that runs across the city*Copenhagen Climate Council*List of urban areas in Denmark by population*Outline of Denmark*Ports of the Baltic Sea" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Citations", " Copenhagen City - Driving in Denmark" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading" ], [ "External links", "* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website" ] ]

[ [ "Combinatorics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Combinatorics''' is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and an end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures.", "It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science.Combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles.", "Combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics, notably in algebra, probability theory, topology, and geometry, as well as in its many application areas.", "Many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation, giving an ''ad hoc'' solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context.", "In the later twentieth century, however, powerful and general theoretical methods were developed, making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right.", "One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas.", "Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms.A mathematician who studies combinatorics is called a ''''." ], [ "Definition", "The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon.", "According to H.J.", "Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions.", "Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with:* the ''enumeration'' (counting) of specified structures, sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense, associated with finite systems,* the ''existence'' of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria,* the ''construction'' of these structures, perhaps in many ways, and* ''optimization'': finding the \"best\" structure or solution among several possibilities, be it the \"largest\", \"smallest\" or satisfying some other ''optimality criterion''.Leon Mirsky has said: \"combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives, their methods, and the degree of coherence they have attained.\"", "One way to define combinatorics is, perhaps, to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques.", "This is the approach that is used below.", "However, there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella.", "Although primarily concerned with finite systems, some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite (specifically, countable) but discrete setting." ], [ "History", "An example of change ringing (with six bells), one of the earliest nontrivial results in graph theory.Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world.", "Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities.", "Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers.", "Earlier, in the ''Ostomachion'', Archimedes (3rd century BCE) may have considered the number of configurations of a tiling puzzle, while combinatorial interests possibly were present in lost works by Apollonius.In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization.", "The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra () provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations, and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE.", "The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra () established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321.The arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle.", "Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations.During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth.", "Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field.", "In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics.", "Graph theory also enjoyed an increase of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem.In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject.", "In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc.", "These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field." ], [ "Approaches and subfields of combinatorics", "===Enumerative combinatorics===Five binary trees on three vertices, an example of Catalan numbers.Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects.", "Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description.", "Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics.", "The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions.===Analytic combinatorics===Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory.", "In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae.=== Partition theory ===A plane partition.Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials.", "Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field.", "It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics.", "Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams.", "They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general.===Graph theory===Petersen graph.Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics.", "Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on ''n'' vertices with ''k'' edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph ''G'' and two numbers ''x'' and ''y'', does the Tutte polynomial ''T''''G''(''x'',''y'') have a combinatorial interpretation?).", "Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects.", "While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems.===Design theory===Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties.", "Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type.", "This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850.The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups.", "The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics.Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments.", "Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments.", "Modern applications are also found in a wide gamut of areas including finite geometry, tournament scheduling, lotteries, mathematical chemistry, mathematical biology, algorithm design and analysis, networking, group testing and cryptography.===Finite geometry===Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points.", "Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.)", "but defined combinatorially are the main items studied.", "This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory.", "It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry).=== Order theory ===Hasse diagram of the powerset of {x,y,z} ordered by inclusion.Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite.", "It provides a formal framework for describing statements such as \"this is less than that\" or \"this precedes that\".", "Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory.", "Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras.===Matroid theory===Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry.", "It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation.", "Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory.", "Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory.", "It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics.===Extremal combinatorics===Extremal combinatorics studies how large or how small a collection of finite objects (numbers, graphs, vectors, sets, etc.)", "can be, if it has to satisfy certain restrictions.", "Much of extremal combinatorics concerns classes of set systems; this is called extremal set theory.", "For instance, in an ''n''-element set, what is the largest number of ''k''-element subsets that can pairwise intersect one another?", "What is the largest number of subsets of which none contains any other?", "The latter question is answered by Sperner's theorem, which gave rise to much of extremal set theory.The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties.", "For example, the largest triangle-free graph on ''2n'' vertices is a complete bipartite graph ''Kn,n''.", "Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer ''f''(''n'') exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate.Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics.", "It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order.", "It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle.===Probabilistic combinatorics===Self-avoiding walk in a square grid graph.In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph?", "For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph?", "Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find) by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0.This approach (often referred to as ''the'' probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory.", "A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects.", "Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time.Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics.", "The area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics.===Algebraic combinatorics===Young diagram of a partition (5,4,1).Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra.", "Algebraic combinatorics has come to be seen more expansively as an area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant.", "Thus the combinatorial topics may be enumerative in nature or involve matroids, polytopes, partially ordered sets, or finite geometries.", "On the algebraic side, besides group and representation theory, lattice theory and commutative algebra are common.===Combinatorics on words===Thue–Morse infinite word.Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages.", "It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability.", "It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics.", "While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field.===Geometric combinatorics===An icosahedron.Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry.", "It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have.", "Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g.", "the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes.", "Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes.", "Combinatorial geometry is a historical name for discrete geometry.It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry.", "The study of regular polytopes, Archimedean solids, and kissing numbers is also a part of geometric combinatorics.", "Special polytopes are also considered, such as the permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope.===Topological combinatorics===Splitting a necklace with two cuts.Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory.", "It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology.===Arithmetic combinatorics===Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis.", "It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division).", "Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved.", "One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems.===Infinitary combinatorics===Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets.", "It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics.", "Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensions of Ramsey's theorem, and Martin's axiom.", "Recent developments concern combinatorics of the continuum and combinatorics on successors of singular cardinals.Gian-Carlo Rota used the name ''continuous combinatorics'' to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between ''counting'' and ''measure''." ], [ "Related fields", "Kissing spheres are connected to both coding theory and discrete geometry.=== Combinatorial optimization ===Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects.", "It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory.=== Coding theory ===Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes.", "The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission.", "It is now a large field of study, part of information theory.=== Discrete and computational geometry ===Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers.", "With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study.", "There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry.===Combinatorics and dynamical systems===Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field.", "Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects.", "See for examplegraph dynamical system.===Combinatorics and physics===There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics.", "Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand." ], [ "See also", "* Combinatorial biology* Combinatorial chemistry* Combinatorial data analysis* Combinatorial game theory* Combinatorial group theory* Discrete mathematics* List of combinatorics topics* Phylogenetics* Polynomial method in combinatorics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Björner, Anders; and Stanley, Richard P.; (2010); ''A Combinatorial Miscellany''* Bóna, Miklós; (2011); ''A Walk Through Combinatorics (3rd ed.)''.", "* Graham, Ronald L.; Groetschel, Martin; and Lovász, László; eds.", "(1996); ''Handbook of Combinatorics'', Volumes 1 and 2.Amsterdam, NL, and Cambridge, MA: Elsevier (North-Holland) and MIT Press.", "* Lindner, Charles C.; and Rodger, Christopher A.; eds.", "(1997); ''Design Theory'', CRC-Press.", ".", "* * * Stanley, Richard P. (1997, 1999); ''Enumerative Combinatorics'', Volumes 1 and 2, Cambridge University Press.", "* * van Lint, Jacobus H.; and Wilson, Richard M.; (2001); ''A Course in Combinatorics'', 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press." ], [ "External links", "* * Combinatorial Analysis – an article in Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition* Combinatorics, a MathWorld article with many references.", "* Combinatorics, from a ''MathPages.com'' portal.", "* The Hyperbook of Combinatorics, a collection of math articles links.", "* The Two Cultures of Mathematics by W.T.", "Gowers, article on problem solving vs theory building.", "* \"Glossary of Terms in Combinatorics\" * List of Combinatorics Software and Databases" ] ]

[ [ "Calculus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Calculus''' is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations.Originally called '''infinitesimal calculus''' or \"the calculus of infinitesimals\", it has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus.", "The former concerns instantaneous rates of change, and the slopes of curves, while the latter concerns accumulation of quantities, and areas under or between curves.", "These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus, and they make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.Infinitesimal calculus was developed independently in the late 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.", "Later work, including codifying the idea of limits, put these developments on a more solid conceptual footing.", "Today, calculus has widespread uses in science, engineering, and social science." ], [ "Etymology", "In mathematics education, ''calculus'' denotes courses of elementary mathematical analysis, which are mainly devoted to the study of functions and limits.", "The word ''calculus'' is Latin for \"small pebble\" (the diminutive of ''calx,'' meaning \"stone\"), a meaning which still persists in medicine.", "Because such pebbles were used for counting out distances, tallying votes, and doing abacus arithmetic, the word came to mean a method of computation.", "In this sense, it was used in English at least as early as 1672, several years before the publications of Leibniz and Newton.In addition to differential calculus and integral calculus, the term is also used for naming specific methods of calculation and related theories that seek to model a particular concept in terms of mathematics.", "Examples of this convention include propositional calculus, Ricci calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, sequent calculus, and process calculus.", "Furthermore, the term \"calculus\" has variously been applied in ethics and philosophy, for such systems as Bentham's felicific calculus, and the ethical calculus." ], [ "History", "Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it first appeared in ancient Egypt and later Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval Europe and India.=== Ancient precursors ======= Egypt ====Calculations of volume and area, one goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow papyrus ( BC), but the formulae are simple instructions, with no indication as to how they were obtained.==== Greece ====Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under a parabola in his work ''Quadrature of the Parabola''.Laying the foundations for integral calculus and foreshadowing the concept of the limit, ancient Greek mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus ( – 337 BC) developed the method of exhaustion to prove the formulas for cone and pyramid volumes.During the Hellenistic period, this method was further developed by Archimedes ( – ), who combined it with a concept of the indivisibles—a precursor to infinitesimals—allowing him to solve several problems now treated by integral calculus.", "In ''The Method of Mechanical Theorems'' he describes, for example, calculating the center of gravity of a solid hemisphere, the center of gravity of a frustum of a circular paraboloid, and the area of a region bounded by a parabola and one of its secant lines.==== China ====The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD to find the area of a circle.", "In the 5th century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi, established a method that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere.=== Medieval =======Middle East====Ibn al-Haytham, 11th-century Arab mathematician and physicistIn the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (  AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers.", "He used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.====India====Bhāskara II was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus and suggested that the \"differential coefficient\" vanishes at an extremum value of the function.", "In his astronomical work, he gave a procedure that looked like a precursor to infinitesimal methods.", "Namely, if then This can be interpreted as the discovery that cosine is the derivative of sine.In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method, resembling differentiation, applicable to some trigonometric functions.", "Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics thereby stated components of calculus, which is now a complete theory encompassing these components.", "According to Victor J. Katz they were not able to \"combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today\".=== Modern ===Johannes Kepler's work ''Stereometrica Doliorum'' formed the basis of integral calculus.", "Kepler developed a method to calculate the area of an ellipse by adding up the lengths of many radii drawn from a focus of the ellipse.Significant work was a treatise, the origin being Kepler's methods, written by Bonaventura Cavalieri, who argued that volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimally thin cross-sections.", "The ideas were similar to Archimedes' in ''The Method'', but this treatise is believed to have been lost in the 13th century and was only rediscovered in the early 20th century, and so would have been unknown to Cavalieri.", "Cavalieri's work was not well respected since his methods could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at first.The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite differences developed in Europe at around the same time.", "Pierre de Fermat, claiming that he borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to an infinitesimal error term.", "The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, the latter two proving predecessors to the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1670.The product rule and chain rule, the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series, and of analytic functions were used by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he applied to solve problems of mathematical physics.", "In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach.", "He used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his ''Principia Mathematica'' (1687).", "In other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series.", "He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were still considered disreputable.These ideas were arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was originally accused of plagiarism by Newton.", "He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus.", "His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms.", "Unlike Newton, Leibniz put painstaking effort into his choices of notation.Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing calculus.", "Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics.", "Leibniz developed much of the notation used in calculus today.", "The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided were the laws of differentiation and integration, emphasizing that differentiation and integration are inverse processes, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an approximating polynomial series.When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was great controversy over which mathematician (and therefore which country) deserved credit.", "Newton derived his results first (later to be published in his ''Method of Fluxions''), but Leibniz published his \"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis\" first.", "Newton claimed Leibniz stole ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had shared with a few members of the Royal Society.", "This controversy divided English-speaking mathematicians from continental European mathematicians for many years, to the detriment of English mathematics.", "A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton with differentiation.", "It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name.", "Newton called his calculus \"the science of fluxions\", a term that endured in English schools into the 19th century.", "The first complete treatise on calculus to be written in English and use the Leibniz notation was not published until 1815.Maria Gaetana AgnesiSince the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing development of calculus.", "One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and integral calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi.=== Foundations ===In calculus, ''foundations'' refers to the rigorous development of the subject from axioms and definitions.", "In early calculus, the use of infinitesimal quantities was thought unrigorous and was fiercely criticized by several authors, most notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley.", "Berkeley famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book ''The Analyst'' in 1734.Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some extent an active area of research today.Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals, but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a way was finally found to avoid mere \"notions\" of infinitely small quantities.", "The foundations of differential and integral calculus had been laid.", "In Cauchy's ''Cours d'Analyse'', we find a broad range of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a (somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation.", "In his work Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his definition can validate nilsquare infinitesimals).", "Following the work of Weierstrass, it eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the subject is still occasionally called \"infinitesimal calculus\".", "Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to give a precise definition of the integral.", "It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were generalized to the complex plane with the development of complex analysis.In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus.", "The reach of calculus has also been greatly extended.", "Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory, based on earlier developments by Émile Borel, and used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions.", "Laurent Schwartz introduced distributions, which can be used to take the derivative of any function whatsoever.Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus.", "Another way is to use Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis.", "Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s, uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception.", "The resulting numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of the usual rules of calculus.", "There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher-power infinitesimals during derivations.", "Based on the ideas of F. W. Lawvere and employing the methods of category theory, smooth infinitesimal analysis views all functions as being continuous and incapable of being expressed in terms of discrete entities.", "One aspect of this formulation is that the law of excluded middle does not hold.", "The law of excluded middle is also rejected in constructive mathematics, a branch of mathematics that insists that proofs of the existence of a number, function, or other mathematical object should give a construction of the object.", "Reformulations of calculus in a constructive framework are generally part of the subject of constructive analysis.=== Significance ===While many of the ideas of calculus had been developed earlier in Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia, and Japan, the use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Newton and Leibniz built on the work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its basic principles.", "The Hungarian polymath John von Neumann wrote of this work,Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of a curve, and optimization.", "Applications of integral calculus include computations involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure.", "More advanced applications include power series and Fourier series.Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion.", "For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by zero or sums of infinitely many numbers.", "These questions arise in the study of motion and area.", "The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea gave several famous examples of such paradoxes.", "Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, that resolve the paradoxes." ], [ "Principles", "=== Limits and infinitesimals ===Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities.", "Historically, the first method of doing so was by infinitesimals.", "These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which are, in some sense, \"infinitely small\".", "For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0, but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number.", "From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals.", "The symbols and were taken to be infinitesimal, and the derivative was their ratio.The infinitesimal approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the notion of an infinitesimal precise.", "In the late 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced within academia by the epsilon, delta approach to limits.", "Limits describe the behavior of a function at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby inputs.", "They capture small-scale behavior using the intrinsic structure of the real number system (as a metric space with the least-upper-bound property).", "In this treatment, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits.", "Infinitesimals get replaced by sequences of smaller and smaller numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of a function is found by taking the limiting behavior for these sequences.", "Limits were thought to provide a more rigorous foundation for calculus, and for this reason, they became the standard approach during the 20th century.", "However, the infinitesimal concept was revived in the 20th century with the introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which provided solid foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals.=== Differential calculus ===Tangent line at .", "The derivative of a curve at a point is the slope (rise over run) of the line tangent to that curve at that point.Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a function.", "The process of finding the derivative is called ''differentiation''.", "Given a function and a point in the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the function near that point.", "By finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is possible to produce a new function, called the ''derivative function'' or just the ''derivative'' of the original function.", "In formal terms, the derivative is a linear operator which takes a function as its input and produces a second function as its output.", "This is more abstract than many of the processes studied in elementary algebra, where functions usually input a number and output another number.", "For example, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring function is given the input three, then it outputs nine.", "The derivative, however, can take the squaring function as an input.", "This means that the derivative takes all the information of the squaring function—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to produce another function.", "The function produced by differentiating the squaring function turns out to be the doubling function.In more explicit terms the \"doubling function\" may be denoted by and the \"squaring function\" by .", "The \"derivative\" now takes the function , defined by the expression \"\", as an input, that is all the information—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to output another function, the function , as will turn out.In Lagrange's notation, the symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called a prime.", "Thus, the derivative of a function called is denoted by , pronounced \"f prime\" or \"f dash\".", "For instance, if is the squaring function, then is its derivative (the doubling function from above).If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change concerning time.", "For example, if is a function that takes time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output, then the derivative of is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball.If a function is linear (that is if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be written as , where is the independent variable, is the dependent variable, is the ''y''-intercept, and::This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line.", "If the graph of the function is not a straight line, however, then the change in divided by the change in varies.", "Derivatives give an exact meaning to the notion of change in output concerning change in input.", "To be concrete, let be a function, and fix a point in the domain of .", "is a point on the graph of the function.", "If is a number close to zero, then is a number close to .", "Therefore, is close to .", "The slope between these two points is:This expression is called a ''difference quotient''.", "A line through two points on a curve is called a ''secant line'', so is the slope of the secant line between and .", "The second line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the point because it does not account for what happens between and .", "It is not possible to discover the behavior at by setting to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is undefined.", "The derivative is defined by taking the limit as tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of for all small values of and extracts a consistent value for the case when equals zero::Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of at .", "The tangent line is a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients.", "For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function .Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3.Let be the squaring function.The derivative of a curve at a point is the slope of the line tangent to that curve at that point.", "This slope is determined by considering the limiting value of the slopes of the second lines.", "Here the function involved (drawn in red) is .", "The tangent line (in green) which passes through the point has a slope of 23/4.The vertical and horizontal scales in this image are different.", ":The slope of the tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3, 9) is 6, that is to say, it is going up six times as fast as it is going to the right.", "The limit process just described can be performed for any point in the domain of the squaring function.", "This defines the ''derivative function'' of the squaring function or just the ''derivative'' of the squaring function for short.", "A computation similar to the one above shows that the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function.=== Leibniz notation ===A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the derivative in the example above is:In an approach based on limits, the symbol is to be interpreted not as the quotient of two numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed above.", "Leibniz, however, did intend it to represent the quotient of two infinitesimally small numbers, being the infinitesimally small change in caused by an infinitesimally small change applied to .", "We can also think of as a differentiation operator, which takes a function as an input and gives another function, the derivative, as the output.", "For example::In this usage, the in the denominator is read as \"with respect to \".", "Another example of correct notation could be::Even when calculus is developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate symbols like and as if they were real numbers; although it is possible to avoid such manipulations, they are sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such as the total derivative.=== Integral calculus ===''Integral calculus'' is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related concepts, the ''indefinite integral'' and the ''definite integral''.", "The process of finding the value of an integral is called ''integration''.", "The indefinite integral, also known as the ''antiderivative'', is the inverse operation to the derivative.", "is an indefinite integral of when is a derivative of .", "(This use of lower- and upper-case letters for a function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.)", "The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the algebraic sum of areas between the graph of the input and the x-axis.", "The technical definition of the definite integral involves the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a Riemann sum.A motivating example is the distance traveled in a given time.", "If the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed::But if the speed changes, a more powerful method of finding the distance is necessary.", "One such method is to approximate the distance traveled by breaking up the time into many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and then taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of the approximate distance traveled in each interval.", "The basic idea is that if only a short time elapses, then the speed will stay more or less the same.", "However, a Riemann sum only gives an approximation of the distance traveled.", "We must take the limit of all such Riemann sums to find the exact distance traveled.When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over the given time interval can be computed by multiplying velocity and time.", "For example, traveling a steady 50  mph for 3 hours results in a total distance of 150 miles.", "Plotting the velocity as a function of time yields a rectangle with a height equal to the velocity and a width equal to the time elapsed.", "Therefore, the product of velocity and time also calculates the rectangular area under the (constant) velocity curve.", "This connection between the area under a curve and the distance traveled can be extended to ''any'' irregularly shaped region exhibiting a fluctuating velocity over a given period.", "If represents speed as it varies over time, the distance traveled between the times represented by and is the area of the region between and the -axis, between and .To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the distance between and into several equal segments, the length of each segment represented by the symbol .", "For each small segment, we can choose one value of the function .", "Call that value .", "Then the area of the rectangle with base and height gives the distance (time multiplied by speed ) traveled in that segment.", "Associated with each segment is the average value of the function above it, .", "The sum of all such rectangles gives an approximation of the area between the axis and the curve, which is an approximation of the total distance traveled.", "A smaller value for will give more rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but for an exact answer, we need to take a limit as approaches zero.The symbol of integration is , an elongated ''S'' chosen to suggest summation.", "The definite integral is written as::and is read \"the integral from ''a'' to ''b'' of ''f''-of-''x'' with respect to ''x''.\"", "The Leibniz notation is intended to suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles so that their width becomes the infinitesimally small .The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written::Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and it can be shown that the antiderivative of a given function is a family of functions differing only by a constant.", "Since the derivative of the function , where is any constant, is , the antiderivative of the latter is given by::The unspecified constant present in the indefinite integral or antiderivative is known as the constant of integration.=== Fundamental theorem ===The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations.", "More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals.", "Because it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals.", "It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration.The fundamental theorem of calculus states: If a function is continuous on the interval and if is a function whose derivative is on the interval , then:Furthermore, for every in the interval ,:This realization, made by both Newton and Leibniz, was key to the proliferation of analytic results after their work became known.", "(The extent to which Newton and Leibniz were influenced by immediate predecessors, and particularly what Leibniz may have learned from the work of Isaac Barrow, is difficult to determine because of the priority dispute between them.)", "The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing limit processes—by finding formulae for antiderivatives.", "It is also a prototype solution of a differential equation.", "Differential equations relate an unknown function to its derivatives and are ubiquitous in the sciences." ], [ "Applications", "The logarithmic spiral of the Nautilus shell is a classical image used to depict the growth and change related to calculus.Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired.", "It allows one to go from (non-constant) rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a problem we know one and are trying to find the other.", "Calculus can be used in conjunction with other mathematical disciplines.", "For example, it can be used with linear algebra to find the \"best fit\" linear approximation for a set of points in a domain.", "Or, it can be used in probability theory to determine the expectation value of a continuous random variable given a probability density function.", "In analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low points (maxima and minima), slope, concavity and inflection points.", "Calculus is also used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice, it is the standard way to solve differential equations and do root finding in most applications.", "Examples are methods such as Newton's method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation.", "For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler method to approximate curved courses within zero gravity environments.Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are related through calculus.", "The mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, and the potential energies due to gravitational and electromagnetic forces can all be found by the use of calculus.", "An example of the use of calculus in mechanics is Newton's second law of motion, which states that the derivative of an object's momentum concerning time equals the net force upon it.", "Alternatively, Newton's second law can be expressed by saying that the net force equals the object's mass times it's acceleration, which is the time derivative of velocity and thus the second time derivative of spatial position.", "Starting from knowing how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path.Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed in the language of differential calculus.", "Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and in studying radioactive decay.", "In biology, population dynamics starts with reproduction and death rates to model population changes.Green's theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter, which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing.", "For example, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when designing the layout of a piece of property.In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel to maximize flow.", "Calculus can be applied to understand how quickly a drug is eliminated from a body or how quickly a cancerous tumor grows.In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of calculus* List of calculus topics* List of derivatives and integrals in alternative calculi* List of differentiation identities* Publications in calculus* Table of integrals" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * Uses synthetic differential geometry and nilpotent infinitesimals.", "* * * * * * Keisler, H.J.", "(2000).", "''Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals''.", "Retrieved 29 August 2010 from * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson Full text in PDF* * Calculus.org: The Calculus page at University of California, Davis – contains resources and links to other sites* Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis* The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics from ERICDigests.org* OpenCourseWare Calculus from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology* Infinitesimal Calculus – an article on its historical development, in ''Encyclopedia of Mathematics'', ed.", "Michiel Hazewinkel.", "* * Calculus training materials at imomath.com* The Excursion of Calculus, 1772" ] ]

[ [ "Communication" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Communication''' is commonly defined as the transmission of information.", "Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not only transmits meaning but also creates it.", "Models of communication are simplified overviews of its main components and their interactions.", "Many models include the idea that a source uses a coding system to express information in the form of a message.", "The message is sent through a channel to a receiver who has to decode it to understand it.", "The main field of inquiry investigating communication is called communication studies.A common way to classify communication is by whether information is exchanged between humans, members of other species, or non-living entities such as computers.", "For human communication, a central contrast is between verbal and non-verbal communication.", "Verbal communication involves the exchange of messages in linguistic form, including spoken and written messages as well as sign language.", "Non-verbal communication happens without the use of a linguistic system, for example, using body language, touch, and facial expressions.", "Another distinction is between interpersonal communication, which happens between distinct persons, and intrapersonal communication, which is communication with oneself.", "Communicative competence is the ability to communicate well and applies to the skills of formulating messages and understanding them.Non-human forms of communication include animal and plant communication.", "Researchers in this field often refine their definition of communicative behavior by including the criteria that observable responses are present and that the participants benefit from the exchange.", "Animal communication is used in areas like courtship and mating, parent–offspring relations, navigation, and self-defense.", "Communication through chemicals is particularly important for the relatively immobile plants.", "For example, maple trees release so-called volatile organic compounds into the air to warn other plants of a herbivore attack.", "Most communication takes place between members of the same species.", "The reason is that its purpose is usually some form of cooperation, which is not as common between different species.", "Interspecies communication happens mainly in cases of symbiotic relationships.", "For instance, many flowers use symmetrical shapes and distinctive colors to signal to insects where nectar is located.", "Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals.Human communication has a long history and how people exchange information has changed over time.", "These changes were usually triggered by the development of new communication technologies.", "Examples are the invention of writing systems, the development of mass printing, the use of radio and television, and the invention of the internet.", "The technological advances also led to new forms of communication, such as the exchange of data between computers." ], [ "Definitions", "The word '''' has its root in the Latin verb , which means or .", "Communication is usually understood as the transmission of information: a message is conveyed from a sender to a receiver using some medium, such as sound, written signs, bodily movements, or electricity.", "Sender and receiver are often distinct individuals but it is also possible for an individual to communicate with themselves.", "In some cases, sender and receiver are not individuals but groups like organizations, social classes, or nations.", "In a different sense, the term ''communication'' refers to the message that is being communicated or to the field of inquiry studying communicational phenomena.The precise characterization of communication is disputed.", "Many scholars have raised doubts that any single definition can capture the term accurately.", "These difficulties come from the fact that the term is applied to diverse phenomena in different contexts, often with slightly different meanings.", "The issue of the right definition affects the research process on many levels.", "This includes issues like which empirical phenomena are observed, how they are categorized, which hypotheses and laws are formulated as well as how systematic theories based on these steps are articulated.Some definitions are broad and encompass unconscious and non-human behavior.", "Under a broad definition, many animals communicate within their own species and flowers communicate by signaling the location of nectar to bees through their colors and shapes.", "Other definitions restrict communication to conscious interactions among human beings.", "Some approaches focus on the use of symbols and signs while others stress the role of understanding, interaction, power, or transmission of ideas.", "Various characterizations see the communicator's intent to send a message as a central component.", "In this view, the transmission of information is not sufficient for communication if it happens unintentionally.", "A version of this view is given by philosopher Paul Grice, who identifies communication with actions that aim to make the recipient aware of the communicator's intention.", "One question in this regard is whether only successful transmissions of information should be regarded as communication.", "For example, distortion may interfere with and change the actual message from what was originally intended.", "A closely related problem is whether acts of deliberate deception constitute communication.According to a broad definition by literary critic I. A.", "Richards, communication happens when one mind acts upon its environment to transmit its own experience to another mind.", "Another interpretation is given by communication theorists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, who characterize communication as a transmission of information brought about by the interaction of several components, such as a source, a message, an encoder, a channel, a decoder, and a receiver.", "The transmission view is rejected by transactional and constitutive views, which hold that communication is not just about the transmission of information but also about the creation of meaning.", "Transactional and constitutive perspectives hold that communication shapes the participant's experience by conceptualizing the world and making sense of their environment and themselves.", "Researchers studying animal and plant communication focus less on meaning-making.", "Instead, they often define communicative behavior as having other features, such as playing a beneficial role in survival and reproduction, or having an observable response." ], [ "Models of communication", "Models of communication are conceptual representations of the process of communication.", "Their goal is to provide a simplified overview of its main components.", "This makes it easier for researchers to formulate hypotheses, apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test predictions.", "Due to their simplified presentation, they may lack the conceptual complexity needed for a comprehensive understanding of all the essential aspects of communication.", "They are usually presented visually in the form of diagrams showing the basic components and their interaction.Models of communication are often categorized based on their intended applications and how they conceptualize communication.", "Some models are general in the sense that they are intended for all forms of communication.", "Specialized models aim to describe specific forms, such as models of mass communication.One influential way to classify communication is to distinguish between linear transmission, interaction, and transaction models.", "Linear transmission models focus on how a sender transmits information to a receiver.", "They are ''linear'' because this flow of information only goes in a single direction.", "This view is rejected by interaction models, which include a feedback loop.", "Feedback is needed to describe many forms of communication, such as a conversation, where the listener may respond to a speaker by expressing their opinion or by asking for clarification.", "Interaction models represent the process as a form of two-way communication in which the communicators take turns sending and receiving messages.", "Transaction models further refine this picture by allowing representations of sending and responding at the same time.", "This modification is needed to describe how the listener can give feedback in a face-to-face conversation while the other person is talking.", "Examples are non-verbal feedback through body posture and facial expression.", "Transaction models also hold that meaning is produced during communication and does not exist independently of it.Lasswell's model of communication, which is based on five questions corresponding to five basic componentsAll the early models, developed in the middle of the 20th century, are linear transmission models.", "Lasswell's model, for example, is based on five fundamental questions: \"Who?", "\", \"Says what?", "\", \"In which channel?", "\", \"To whom?", "\", and \"With what effect?\".", "The goal of these questions is to identify the basic components involved in the communicative process: the sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, and the effect.", "Lasswell's model was initially only conceived as a model of mass communication, but it has been applied to other fields as well.", "Some communication theorists, like Richard Braddock, have expanded it by including additional questions, like \"Under what circumstances?\"", "and \"For what purpose?", "\".Shannon–Weaver model of communication, which focuses on how a message is first translated into a signal and then back into a messageThe Shannon–Weaver model is another influential linear transmission model.", "It is based on the idea that a source creates a message, which is then translated into a signal by a transmitter.", "Noise may interfere with and distort the signal.", "Once the signal reaches the receiver, it is translated back into a message and made available to the destination.", "For a landline telephone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter.", "The transmitter translates the message into an electrical signal that travels through the wire, which acts as the channel.", "The person taking the call is the destination and their telephone is the receiver.", "The Shannon–Weaver model includes an in-depth discussion of how noise can distort the signal and how successful communication can be achieved despite noise.", "This can happen by making the message partially redundant so that decoding is possible nonetheless.", "Other influential linear transmission models include Gerbner's model and Berlo's model.Schramm's model of communication, which focuses on the processes of encoding and decoding as well as feedbackThe earliest interaction model was developed by communication theorist Wilbur Schramm.", "He states that communication starts when a source has an idea and expresses it in the form of a message.", "This process is called ''encoding'' and happens using a code, i.e.", "a sign system that is able to express the idea, for instance, through visual or auditory signs.", "The message is sent to a destination, who has to decode and interpret it to understand it.", "In response, they formulate their own idea, encode it into a message, and send it back as a form of feedback.", "Another innovation of Schramm's model is that previous experience is necessary to be able to encode and decode messages.", "For communication to be successful, the fields of experience of source and destination have to overlap.The first transactional model was proposed by communication theorist Dean Barnlund in 1970.He understands communication as \"the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages\".", "Its goal is to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding.", "This happens in response to external and internal cues.", "Decoding is the process of ascribing meaning to them and encoding consists in producing new behavioral cues as a response." ], [ "Human", "There are many forms of human communication.", "A central distinction is whether language is used, as in the contrast between verbal and non-verbal communication.", "A further distinction concerns whether one communicates with others or with oneself, as in the contrast between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.", "Forms of human communication are also categorized by their channel or the medium used to transmit messages.", "The field studying human communication is known as anthroposemiotics.=== Verbal ===Verbal communication is the exchange of messages in linguistic form, i.e., by means of language.", "In colloquial usage, verbal communication is sometimes restricted to oral communication and may exclude writing and sign language.", "However, in academic discourse, the term is usually used in a wider sense, encompassing any form of linguistic communication, whether through speech, writing, or gestures.", "Some of the challenges in distinguishing verbal from non-verbal communication come from the difficulties in defining what exactly ''language'' means.", "Language is usually understood as a conventional system of symbols and rules used for communication.", "Such systems are based on a set of simple units of meaning that can be combined to express more complex ideas.", "The rules for combining the units into compound expressions are called grammar.", "Words are combined to form sentences.One hallmark of human language, in contrast to animal communication, lies in its complexity and expressive power.", "Human language can be used to refer not just to concrete objects in the here-and-now but also to spatially and temporally distant objects and to abstract ideas.", "Humans have a natural tendency to acquire their native language in childhood.", "They are also able to learn other languages later in life as second languages.", "However, this process is less intuitive and often does not result in the same level of linguistic competence.", "The academic discipline studying language is called ''linguistics''.", "Its subfields include semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of word formation), syntax (the study of sentence structure), pragmatics (the study of language use), and phonetics (the study of basic sounds).A central contrast among languages is between natural and artificial or constructed languages.", "Natural languages, like English, Spanish, and Japanese, developed naturally and for the most part unplanned in the course of history.", "Artificial languages, like Esperanto, Quenya, C++, and the language of first-order logic, are purposefully designed from the ground up.", "Most everyday verbal communication happens using natural languages.", "Central forms of verbal communication are speech and writing together with their counterparts of listening and reading.", "Spoken languages use sounds to produce signs and transmit meaning while for writing, the signs are physically inscribed on a surface.", "Sign languages, like American Sign Language and Nicaraguan Sign Language, are another form of verbal communication.", "They rely on visual means, mostly by using gestures with hands and arms, to form sentences and convey meaning.Verbal communication serves various functions.", "One key function is to exchange information, i.e.", "an attempt by the speaker to make the audience aware of something, usually of an external event.", "But language can also be used to express the speaker's feelings and attitudes.", "A closely related role is to establish and maintain social relations with other people.", "Verbal communication is also utilized to coordinate one's behavior with others and influence them.", "In some cases, language is not employed for an external purpose but only for entertainment or personal enjoyment.", "Verbal communication further helps individuals conceptualize the world around them and themselves.", "This affects how perceptions of external events are interpreted, how things are categorized, and how ideas are organized and related to each other.=== Non-verbal ===Shaking hands is one form of non-verbal communication.Non-verbal communication is the exchange of information through non-linguistic modes, like facial expressions, gestures, and postures.", "However, not every form of non-verbal behavior constitutes non-verbal communication.", "Some theorists, like Judee Burgoon, hold that it depends on the existence of a socially shared coding system that is used to interpret the meaning of non-verbal behavior.", "Non-verbal communication has many functions.", "It frequently contains information about emotions, attitudes, personality, interpersonal relations, and private thoughts.Non-verbal communication often happens unintentionally and unconsciously, like sweating or blushing, but there are also conscious intentional forms, like shaking hands or raising a thumb.", "It often happens simultaneously with verbal communication and helps optimize the exchange through emphasis and illustration or by adding additional information.", "Non-verbal cues can clarify the intent behind a verbal message.", "Using multiple modalities of communication in this way usually makes communication more effective if the messages of each modality are consistent.", "However, in some cases different modalities can contain conflicting messages.", "For example, a person may verbally agree with a statement but press their lips together, thereby indicating disagreement non-verbally.There are many forms of non-verbal communication.", "They include kinesics, proxemics, haptics, paralanguage, chronemics, and physical appearance.", "Kinesics studies the role of bodily behavior in conveying information.", "It is commonly referred to as body language, even though it is, strictly speaking, not a language but rather non-verbal communication.", "It includes many forms, like gestures, postures, walking styles, and dance.", "Facial expressions, like laughing, smiling, and frowning, all belong to kinesics and are expressive and flexible forms of communication.", "Oculesics is another subcategory of kinesics in regard to the eyes.", "It covers questions like how eye contact, gaze, blink rate, and pupil dilation form part of communication.", "Some kinesic patterns are inborn and involuntary, like blinking, while others are learned and voluntary, like giving a military salute.Proxemics studies how personal space is used in communication.", "The distance between the speakers reflects their degree of familiarity and intimacy with each other as well as their social status.", "Haptics examines how information is conveyed using touching behavior, like handshakes, holding hands, kissing, or slapping.", "Meanings linked to haptics include care, concern, anger, and violence.", "For instance, handshaking is often seen as a symbol of equality and fairness, while refusing to shake hands can indicate aggressiveness.", "Kissing is another form often used to show affection and erotic closeness.Paralanguage, also known as vocalics, encompasses non-verbal elements in speech that convey information.", "Paralanguage is often used to express the feelings and emotions that the speaker has but does not explicitly stated in the verbal part of the message.", "It is not concerned with the words used but with how they are expressed.", "This includes elements like articulation, lip control, rhythm, intensity, pitch, fluency, and loudness.", "For example, saying something loudly and in a high pitch conveys a different meaning on the non-verbal level than whispering the same words.", "Paralanguage is mainly concerned with spoken language but also includes aspects of written language, like the use of colors and fonts as well as spatial arrangement in paragraphs and tables.", "Non-linguistic sounds may also convey information; crying indicates that an infant is distressed, and babbling conveys information about infant health and well-being.Chronemics concerns the use of time, such as what messages are sent by being on time versus late for a meeting.", "The physical appearance of the communicator, such as height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, clothing, tattooing, and piercing, also carries information.", "Appearance is an important factor for first impressions but is more limited as a mode of communication since it is less changeable.", "Some forms of non-verbal communication happen using such artifacts as drums, smoke, batons, traffic lights, and flags.Non-verbal communication can also happen through visual media like paintings and drawings.", "They can express what a person or an object looks like and can also convey other ideas and emotions.", "In some cases, this type of non-verbal communication is used in combination with verbal communication, for example, when diagrams or maps employ labels to include additional linguistic information.Traditionally, most research focused on verbal communication.", "However, this paradigm began to shift in the 1950s when research interest in non-verbal communication increased and emphasized its influence.", "For example, many judgments about the nature and behavior of other people are based on non-verbal cues.", "It is further present in almost every communicative act to some extent and certain parts of it are universally understood.", "These considerations have prompted some communication theorists, like Ray Birdwhistell, to claim that the majority of ideas and information is conveyed this way.", "It has also been suggested that human communication is at its core non-verbal and that words can only acquire meaning because of non-verbal communication.", "The earliest forms of human communication, such as crying and babbling, are non-verbal.", "Some basic forms of communication happen even before birth between mother and embryo and include information about nutrition and emotions.", "Non-verbal communication is studied in various fields besides communication studies, like linguistics, semiotics, anthropology, and social psychology.=== Interpersonal ===Kathy Matayoshi and Mazie Hirono conversing in the White House, an example of interpersonal communicationInterpersonal communication is communication between distinct people.", "Its typical form is dyadic communication, i.e.", "between two people, but it can also refer to communication within groups.", "It can be planned or unplanned and occurs in many forms, like when greeting someone, during salary negotiations, or when making a phone call.", "Some communication theorists, like Virginia M. McDermott, understand interpersonal communication as a fuzzy concept that manifests in degrees.", "In this view, an exchange varies in how interpersonal it is based on several factors.", "It depends on how many people are present, and whether it happens face-to-face rather than through telephone or email.", "A further factor concerns the relation between the communicators: group communication and mass communication are less typical forms of interpersonal communication and some theorists treat them as distinct types.Interpersonal communication can be synchronous or asynchronous.", "For asynchronous communication, the parties take turns in sending and receiving messages.", "This occurs when exchanging letters or emails.", "For synchronous communication, both parties send messages at the same time.", "This happens when one person is talking while the other person sends non-verbal messages in response signaling whether they agree with what is being said.", "Some communication theorists, like Sarah Trenholm and Arthur Jensen, distinguish between content messages and relational messages.", "Content messages express the speaker's feelings toward the topic of discussion.", "Relational messages, on the other hand, demonstrate the speaker's feelings toward their relation with the other participants.Various theories of the function of interpersonal communication have been proposed.", "Some focus on how it helps people make sense of their world and create society.", "Others hold that its primary purpose is to understand why other people act the way they do and to adjust one's behavior accordingly.", "A closely related approach is to focus on information and see interpersonal communication as an attempt to reduce uncertainty about others and external events.", "Other explanations understand it in terms of the needs it satisfies.", "This includes the needs of belonging somewhere, being included, being liked, maintaining relationships, and influencing the behavior of others.", "On a practical level, interpersonal communication is used to coordinate one's actions with the actions of others to get things done.", "Research on interpersonal communication includes topics like how people build, maintain, and dissolve relationships through communication.", "Other questions are why people choose one message rather than another and what effects these messages have on the communicators and their relation.", "A further topic is how to predict whether two people would like each other.=== Intrapersonal ===Paul César Helleu's 1901 painting, ''Rêverie'' (Daydream) featuring Alice Guérin.", "Daydreaming is a form of intrapersonal communication.Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself.", "In some cases this manifests externally, like when engaged in a monologue, taking notes, highlighting a passage, and writing a diary or a shopping list.", "But many forms of intrapersonal communication happen internally in the form of an inner exchange with oneself, like when thinking about something or daydreaming.", "Closely related to intrapersonal communication is communication that takes place within an organism below the personal level, such as exchange of information between organs or cells.Intrapersonal communication can be triggered by internal and external stimuli.", "It may happen in the form of articulating a phrase before expressing it externally.", "Other forms are to make plans for the future and to attempt to process emotions to calm oneself down in stressful situations.", "It can help regulate one's own mental activity and outward behavior as well as internalize cultural norms and ways of thinking.", "External forms of intrapersonal communication can aid one's memory.", "This happens, for example, when making a shopping list.", "Another use is to unravel difficult problems, as when solving a complex mathematical equation line by line.", "New knowledge can also be internalized this way, like when repeating new vocabulary to oneself.", "Because of these functions, intrapersonal communication can be understood as \"an exceptionally powerful and pervasive tool for thinking.", "\"Based on its role in self-regulation, some theorists have suggested that intrapersonal communication is more basic than interpersonal communication.", "Young children sometimes use egocentric speech while playing in an attempt to direct their own behavior.", "In this view, interpersonal communication only develops later when the child moves from their early egocentric perspective to a more social perspective.", "A different explanation holds that interpersonal communication is more basic since it is first used by parents to regulate what their child does.", "Once the child has learned this, they can apply the same technique to themselves to get more control over their own behavior.=== Channels ===For communication to be successful, the message has to travel from the sender to the receiver.", "The ''channel'' is the way this is accomplished.", "It is not concerned with the meaning of the message but only with the technical means of how the meaning is conveyed.", "Channels are often understood in terms of the senses used to perceive the message, i.e.", "hearing, seeing, smelling, touching, and tasting.", "But in the widest sense, channels encompass any form of transmission, including technological means like books, cables, radio waves, telephones, or television.", "Naturally transmitted messages usually fade rapidly whereas some messages using artificial channels have a much longer lifespan, as in the case of books or sculptures.The physical characteristics of a channel have an impact on the code and cues that can be used to express information.", "For example, typical telephone calls are restricted to the use of verbal language and paralanguage but exclude facial expressions.", "It is often possible to translate messages from one code into another to make them available to a different channel.", "An example is writing down a spoken message or expressing it using sign language.The transmission of information can occur through multiple channels at once.", "For example, face-to-face communication often combines the auditory channel to convey verbal information with the visual channel to transmit non-verbal information using gestures and facial expressions.", "Employing multiple channels can enhance the effectiveness of communication by helping the receiver better understand the subject matter.", "The choice of channels often matters since the receiver's ability to understand may vary depending on the chosen channel.", "For instance, a teacher may decide to present some information orally and other information visually, depending on the content and the student's preferred learning style.=== Communicative competence ===Communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively or to choose the appropriate communicative behavior in a given situation.", "It concerns what to say, when to say it, and how to say it.", "It further includes the ability to receive and understand messages.", "Competence is often contrasted with performance since competence can be present even if it is not exercised, while performance consists in the realization of this competence.", "However, some theorists reject a stark contrast and hold that performance is the observable part and is used to infer competence in relation to future performances.Two central components of communicative competence are effectiveness and appropriateness.", "Effectiveness is the degree to which the speaker achieves their desired outcomes or the degree to which preferred alternatives are realized.", "This means that whether a communicative behavior is effective does not just depend on the actual outcome but also on the speaker's intention, i.e.", "whether this outcome was what they intended to achieve.", "Because of this, some theorists additionally require that the speaker be able to give an explanation of why they engaged in one behavior rather than another.", "Effectiveness is closely related to efficiency, the difference being that effectiveness is about achieving goals while efficiency is about using few resources (such as time, effort, and money) in the process.Appropriateness means that the communicative behavior meets social standards and expectations.", "Communication theorist Brian H. Spitzberg defines it as \"the perceived legitimacy or acceptability of behavior or enactments in a given context\".", "This means that the speaker is aware of the social and cultural context in order to adapt and express the message in a way that is considered acceptable in the given situation.", "For example, to bid farewell to their teacher, a student may use the expression \"Goodbye, sir\" but not the expression \"I gotta split, man\", which they may use when talking to a peer.", "To be both effective and appropriate means to achieve one's preferred outcomes in a way that follows social standards and expectations.", "Some definitions of communicative competence put their main emphasis on either effectiveness or appropriateness while others combine both features.Many additional components of communicative competence have been suggested, such as empathy, control, flexibility, sensitivity, and knowledge.", "It is often discussed in terms of the individual skills employed in the process, i.e.", "the specific behavioral components that make up communicative competence.", "Message production skills include reading and writing.", "They are correlated with the reception skills of listening and reading.", "There are both verbal and non-verbal communication skills.", "For example, verbal communication skills involve the proper understanding of a language, including its phonology, orthography, syntax, lexicon, and semantics.Many aspects of human life depend on successful communication, from ensuring basic necessities of survival to building and maintaining relationships.", "Communicative competence is a key factor regarding whether a person is able to reach their goals in social life, like having a successful career and finding a suitable spouse.", "Because of this, it can have a large impact on the individual's well-being.", "The lack of communicative competence can cause problems both on the individual and the societal level, including professional, academic, and health problems.Barriers to effective communication can distort the message.", "They may result in failed communication and cause undesirable effects.", "This can happen if the message is poorly expressed because it uses terms with which the receiver is not familiar, or because it is not relevant to the receiver's needs, or because it contains too little or too much information.", "Distraction, selective perception, and lack of attention to feedback may also be responsible.", "Noise is another negative factor.", "It concerns influences that interfere with the message on its way to the receiver and distort it.", "Crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise.", "Ambiguous expressions can also inhibit effective communication and make it necessary to disambiguate between possible interpretations to discern the sender's intention.", "These interpretations depend also on the cultural background of the participants.", "Significant cultural differences constitute an additional obstacle and make it more likely that messages are misinterpreted." ], [ "Other species", "Besides human communication, there are many other forms of communication found in the animal kingdom and among plants.", "They are studied in fields like biocommunication and biosemiotics.", "There are additional obstacles in this area for judging whether communication has taken place between two individuals.", "Acoustic signals are often easy to notice and analyze for scientists, but it is more difficult to judge whether tactile or chemical changes should be understood as communicative signals rather than as other biological processes.For this reason, researchers often use slightly altered definitions of communication to facilitate their work.", "A common assumption in this regard comes from evolutionary biology and holds that communication should somehow benefit the communicators in terms of natural selection.", "The biologists Rumsaïs Blatrix and Veronika Mayer define communication as \"the exchange of information between individuals, wherein both the signaller and receiver may expect to benefit from the exchange\".", "According to this view, the sender benefits by influencing the receiver's behavior and the receiver benefits by responding to the signal.", "These benefits should exist on average but not necessarily in every single case.", "This way, deceptive signaling can also be understood as a form of communication.", "One problem with the evolutionary approach is that it is often difficult to assess the impact of such behavior on natural selection.", "Another common pragmatic constraint is to hold that it is necessary to observe a response by the receiver following the signal when judging whether communication has occurred.===Animals===Animal communication is the process of giving and taking information among animals.", "The field studying animal communication is called zoosemiotics.", "There are many parallels to human communication.", "One is that humans and many animals express sympathy by synchronizing their movements and postures.", "Nonetheless, there are also significant differences, like the fact that humans also engage in verbal communication, which uses language, while animal communication is restricted to non-verbal (i.e.", "non-linguistic) communication.", "Some theorists have tried to distinguish human from animal communication based on the claim that animal communication lacks a referential function and is thus not able to refer to external phenomena.", "However, various observations seem to contradict this view, such as the warning signals in response to different types of predators used by vervet monkeys, Gunnison's prairie dogs, and red squirrels.", "A further approach is to draw the distinction based on the complexity of human language, especially its almost limitless ability to combine basic units of meaning into more complex meaning structures.", "One view states that recursion sets human language apart from all non-human communicative systems.", "Another difference is that human communication is frequently linked to the conscious intention to send information, which is often not discernable for animal communication.", "Despite these differences, some theorists use the term \"animal language\" to refer to certain communicative patterns in animal behavior that have similarities with human language.Many species of fireflies, such as the ''Lampyris noctiluca'', communicate with light to attract mates.Animal communication can take a variety of forms, including visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory communication.", "Visual communication happens in the form of movements, gestures, facial expressions, and colors.", "Examples are movements seen during mating rituals, the colors of birds, and the rhythmic light of fireflies.", "Auditory communication takes place through vocalizations by species like birds, primates, and dogs.", "Auditory signals are frequently used to alert and warn.", "Lower-order living systems often have simple response patterns to auditory messages, reacting either by approach or avoidance.", "More complex response patterns are observed for higher animals, which may use different signals for different types of predators and responses.", "For example, some primates use one set of signals for airborne predators and another for land predators.", "Tactile communication occurs through touch, vibration, stroking, rubbing, and pressure.", "It is especially relevant for parent-young relations, courtship, social greetings, and defense.", "Olfactory and gustatory communication happen chemically through smells and tastes, respectively.There are large differences between species concerning what functions communication plays, how much it is realized, and the behavior used to communicate.", "Common functions include the fields of courtship and mating, parent-offspring relations, social relations, navigation, self-defense, and territoriality.", "One part of courtship and mating consists in identifying and attracting potential mates.", "This can happen through various means.", "Grasshoppers and crickets communicate acoustically by using songs, moths rely on chemical means by releasing pheromones, and fireflies send visual messages by flashing light.", "For some species, the offspring depends on the parent for its survival.", "One central function of parent-offspring communication is to recognize each other.", "In some cases, the parents are also able to guide the offspring's behavior.Social animals, like chimpanzees, bonobos, wolves, and dogs, engage in various forms of communication to express their feelings and build relations.", "Communication can aid navigation by helping animals move through their environment in a purposeful way, e.g.", "to locate food, avoid enemies, and follow other animals.", "In bats, this happens through echolocation, i.e.", "by sending auditory signals and processing the information from the echoes.", "Bees are another often-discussed case in this respect since they perform a type of dance to indicate to other bees where flowers are located.", "In regard to self-defense, communication is used to warn others and to assess whether a costly fight can be avoided.", "Another function of communication is to mark and claim territories used for food and mating.", "For example, some male birds claim a hedge or part of a meadow by using songs to keep other males away and attract females.Two competing theories in the study of animal communication are nature theory and nurture theory.", "Their conflict concerns to what extent animal communication is programmed into the genes as a form of adaptation rather than learned from previous experience as a form of conditioning.", "To the degree that it is learned, it usually happens through imprinting, i.e.", "as a form of learning that only occurs in a certain phase and is then mostly irreversible.===Plants, fungi, and bacteria===Plant communication refers to plant processes involving the sending and receiving of information.", "The field studying plant communication is called phytosemiotics.", "This field poses additional difficulties for researchers since plants are different from humans and other animals in that they lack a central nervous system and have rigid cell walls.", "These walls restrict movement and usually prevent plants from sending and receiving signals that depend on rapid movement.", "However, there are some similarities since plants face many of the same challenges as animals.", "For example, they need to find resources, avoid predators and pathogens, find mates, and ensure that their offspring survive.", "Many of the evolutionary responses to these challenges are analogous to those in animals but are implemented using different means.", "One crucial difference is that chemical communication is much more prominent in the plant kingdom in contrast to the importance of visual and auditory communication for animals.Steps of plant communicationIn plants, the term ''behavior'' is usually not defined in terms of physical movement, as is the case for animals, but as a biochemical response to a stimulus.", "This response has to be short relative to the plant's lifespan.", "Communication is a special form of behavior that involves conveying information from a sender to a receiver.", "It is distinguished from other types of behavior, like defensive reactions and mere sensing.", "Like in the field of animal communication, plant communication researchers often require as additional criteria that there is some form of response in the receiver and that the communicative behavior is beneficial to sender and receiver.", "Biologist Richard Karban distinguishes three steps of plant communication: the emission of a cue by a sender, the perception of the cue by a receiver, and the receiver's response.", "For plant communication, it is not relevant to what extent the emission of a cue is intentional.", "However, it should be possible for the receiver to ignore the signal.", "This criterion can be used to distinguish a response to a signal from a defense mechanism against an unwanted change like intense heat.Plant communication happens in various forms.", "It includes communication within plants, i.e.", "within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone.", "A prominent form of communication is airborne and happens through volatile organic compounds (VOCs).", "For example, maple trees release VOCs when they are attacked by a herbivore to warn neighboring plants, which then react accordingly by adjusting their defenses.", "Another form of plant-to-plant communication happens through mycorrhizal fungi.", "These fungi form underground networks, colloquially referred to as the Wood-Wide Web, and connect the roots of different plants.", "The plants use the network to send messages to each other, specifically to warn other plants of a pest attack and to help prepare their defenses.Communication can also be observed for fungi and bacteria.", "Some fungal species communicate by releasing pheromones into the external environment.", "For instance, they are used to promote sexual interaction in several aquatic fungal species.", "One form of communication between bacteria is called quorum sensing.", "It happens by releasing hormone-like molecules, which other bacteria detect and respond to.", "This process is used to monitor the environment for other bacteria and to coordinate population-wide responses, for example, by sensing the density of bacteria and regulating gene expression accordingly.", "Other possible responses include the induction of bioluminescence and the formation of biofilms.=== Interspecies ===Most communication happens between members within a species as intraspecies communication.", "This is because the purpose of communication is usually some form of cooperation.", "Cooperation happens mostly within a species while different species are often in conflict with each other by competing over resources.", "However, there are also some forms of interspecies communication.", "This occurs especially for symbiotic relations and significantly less for parasitic or predator-prey relations.", "''Cosmos bipinnatus''.", "Many flowers use vivid colors to signal to insects that they offer food like nectar.Interspecies communication plays a key role for plants that depend on external agents for reproduction.", "For example, flowers need insects for pollination and provide resources like nectar and other rewards in return.", "They use communication to signal their benefits and attract visitors by using distinctive colors and symmetrical shapes to stand out from their surroundings.", "This form of advertisement is necessary since flowers compete with each other for visitors.", "Many fruit-bearing plants rely on plant-to-animal communication to disperse their seeds and move them to a favorable location.", "This happens by providing nutritious fruits to animals.", "The seeds are eaten together with the fruit and are later excreted at a different location.", "Communication makes animals aware of where the fruits are and whether they are ripe.", "For many fruits, this happens through their color: they have an inconspicuous green color until they ripen and take on a new color that stands in visual contrast to the environment.", "Another example of interspecies communication is found in the ant-plant relation.", "It concerns, for instance, the selection of seeds by ants for their ant gardens and the pruning of exogenous vegetation as well as plant protection by ants.Some animal species also engage in interspecies communication, like apes, whales, dolphins, elephants, and dogs.", "For example, different species of monkeys use common signals to cooperate when threatened by a common predator.", "Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals.", "For instance, acoustic signals play a central role in communication with dogs.", "Dogs can learn to react to various commands, like \"sit\" and \"come\".", "They can even be trained to respond to short syntactic combinations, like \"bring X\" or \"put X in a box\".", "They also react to the pitch and frequency of the human voice to detect emotions, dominance, and uncertainty.", "Dogs use a range of behavioral patterns to convey their emotions to humans, for example, in regard to aggressiveness, fearfulness, and playfulness." ], [ "Computer", "Example of computer communication: modems act as transmitter and receiver while the public telephone network is used as a transmission system.Computer communication concerns the exchange of data between computers and similar devices.", "For this to be possible, the devices have to be connected through a transmission system that forms a network between them.", "A transmitter is needed to send messages and a receiver is needed to receive them.", "A personal computer may use a modem as a transmitter to send information to a server through the public telephone network as the transmission system.", "The server may use a modem as its receiver.", "To transmit the data, it has to be converted into an electric signal.", "Communication channels used for transmission are either analog or digital and are characterized by features like bandwidth and latency.There are many forms of computer networks.", "The most commonly discussed ones are LANs and WANs.", "''LAN'' stands for ''local area network'', which is a computer network within a limited area, usually with a distance of less than one kilometer.", "This is the case when connecting two computers within a home or an office building.", "LANs can be set up using a wired connection, like Ethernet, or a wireless connection, like Wi-Fi.", "''WANs'', on the other hand, are ''wide area networks'' that span large geographical regions, like the internet.", "Their networks are more complex and may use several intermediate connection nodes to transfer information between endpoints.", "Further types of computer networks include PANs (personal area networks), CANs (campus area networks), and MANs (metropolitan area networks).For computer communication to be successful, the involved devices have to follow a common set of conventions governing their exchange.", "These conventions are known as the communication protocol.", "They concern various aspects of the exchange, like the format of messages and how to respond to transmission errors.", "They also cover how the two systems are synchronized, for example, how the receiver identifies the start and end of a signal.", "Based on the flow of informations, systems are categorized as simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.", "For simplex systems, signals flow only in one direction from the sender to the receiver, like in radio, cable television, and screens displaying arrivals and departures at airports.", "Half-duplex systems allow two-way exchanges but signals can only flow in one direction at a time, like walkie-talkies and police radios.", "In the case of full-duplex systems, signals can flow in both directions at the same time, like regular telephone and internet.", "In either case, it is often important for successful communication that the connection is secure to ensure that the transmitted data reaches only the intended destination and is not intercepted by an unauthorized third party.", "This can be achieved by using cryptography, which changes the format of the transmitted information to make it unintelligible to potential interceptors.Human-computer communication is a closely related field that concerns topics like how humans interact with computers and how data in the form of inputs and outputs is exchanged.", "This happens through a user interface, which includes the hardware used to interact with the computer, like a mouse, a keyboard, and a monitor, as well as the software used in the process.", "On the software side, most early user interfaces were command-line interfaces in which the user must type a command to interact with the computer.", "Most modern user interfaces are graphical user interfaces, like Microsoft Windows and macOS, which are usually much easier to use for non-experts.", "They involve graphical elements through which the user can interact with the computer, commonly using a design concept known as skeumorphism to make a new concept feel familiar and speed up understanding by mimicking the real-world equivalent of the interface object.", "Examples include the typical computer folder icon and recycle bin used for discarding files.", "One aim when designing user interfaces is to simplify the interaction with computers.", "This helps make them more user-friendly and accessible to a wider audience while also increasing productivity." ], [ "Communication studies", "Communication studies, also referred to as ''communication science'', is the academic discipline studying communication.", "It is closely related to semiotics, with one difference being that communication studies focuses more on technical questions of how messages are sent, received, and processed.", "Semiotics, on the other hand, tackles more abstract questions in relation to meaning and how signs acquire it.", "Communication studies covers a wide area overlapping with many other disciplines, such as biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, linguistics, media studies, and journalism.Many contributions in the field of communication studies focus on developing models and theories of communication.", "Models of communication aim to give a simplified overview of the main components involved in communication.", "Theories of communication try to provide conceptual frameworks to accurately present communication in all its complexity.", "Some theories focus on communication as a practical art of discourse while others explore the roles of signs, experience, information processing, and the goal of building a social order through coordinated interaction.", "Communication studies is also interested in the functions and effects of communication.", "It covers issues like how communication satisfies physiological and psychological needs, helps build relationships, and assists in gathering information about the environment, other individuals, and oneself.", "A further topic concerns the question of how communication systems change over time and how these changes correlate with other societal changes.", "A related topic focuses on psychological principles underlying those changes and the effects they have on how people exchange ideas.Communication was studied as early as Ancient Greece.", "Early influential theories were created by Plato and Aristotle, who stressed public speaking and the understanding of rhetoric.", "According to Aristotle, for example, the goal of communication is to persuade the audience.", "The field of communication studies only became a separate research discipline in the 20th century, especially starting in the 1940s.", "The development of new communication technologies, such as telephone, radio, newspapers, television, and the internet, has had a big impact on communication and communication studies.Today, communication studies is a wide discipline.", "Some works in it try to provide a general characterization of communication in the widest sense.", "Others attempt to give a precise analysis of one specific form of communication.", "Communication studies includes many subfields.", "Some focus on wide topics like interpersonal communication, intrapersonal communication, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication.", "Others investigate communication within a specific area.", "Organizational communication concerns communication between members of organizations such as corporations, nonprofits, or small businesses.", "Central in this regard is the coordination of the behavior of the different members as well as the interaction with customers and the general public.", "Closely related terms are business communication, corporate communication, and professional communication.", "The main element of marketing communication is advertising but it also encompasses other communication activities aimed at advancing the organization's objective to its audiences, like public relations.", "Political communication covers topics like electoral campaigns to influence voters and legislative communication, like letters to a congress or committee documents.", "Specific emphasis is often given to propaganda and the role of mass media.Intercultural communication is relevant to both organizational and political communication since they often involve attempts to exchange messages between communicators from different cultural backgrounds.", "The cultural background affects how messages are formulated and interpreted and can be the cause of misunderstandings.", "It is also relevant for development communication, which is about the use of communication for assisting in development, like aid given by first-world countries to third-world countries.", "Health communication concerns communication in the field of healthcare and health promotion efforts.", "One of its topics is how healthcare providers, like doctors and nurses, should communicate with their patients." ], [ "History", "Communication history studies how communicative processes evolved and interacted with society, culture, and technology.", "Human communication has a long history and the way people communicate has changed considerably over time.", "Many of these changes were triggered by the development of new communication technologies and had various effects on how people exchanged ideas.", "New communication technologies usually require new skills that people need to learn to use them effectively.In the academic literature, the history of communication is usually divided into ages based on the dominant form of communication in that age.", "The number of ages and the precise periodization are disputed.", "They usually include ages for speaking, writing, and print as well as electronic mass communication and the internet.", "According to communication theorist Marshall Poe, the dominant media for each age can be characterized in relation to several factors.", "They include the amount of information a medium can store, how long it persists, how much time it takes to transmit it, and how costly it is to use the medium.", "Poe argues that subsequent ages usually involve some form of improvement of one or more of the factors.According to some scientific estimates, language developed around 40,000 years ago while others consider it to be much older.", "Before this development, human communication resembled animal communication and happened through a combination of grunts, cries, gestures, and facial expressions.", "Language helped early humans to organize themselves and plan ahead more efficiently.", "In early societies, spoken language was the primary form of communication.", "Most knowledge was passed on through it, often in the form of stories or wise sayings.", "This form does not produce stable knowledge since it depends on imperfect human memory.", "Because of this, many details differ from one telling to the next and are presented differently by distinct storytellers.", "As people started to settle and form agricultural communities, societies grew and there was an increased need for stable records of ownership of land and commercial transactions.", "This triggered the invention of writing, which is able to solve many problems that arose from using exclusively oral communication.", "It is much more efficient at preserving knowledge and passing it on between generations since it does not depend on human memory.", "Before the invention of writing, certain forms of proto-writing had already developed.", "Proto-writing encompasses long-lasting visible marks used to store information, like decorations on pottery items, knots in a cord to track goods, or seals to mark property.Sales contract inscribed on a clay tablet using pre-cuneiform scriptMost early written communication happened through pictograms.", "Pictograms are graphical symbols that convey meaning by visually resembling real-world objects.", "The use of basic pictographic symbols to represent things like farming produce was common in ancient cultures and began around 9000 BCE.", "The first complex writing system including pictograms was developed around 3500 BCE by the Sumerians and is called cuneiform.", "Pictograms are still in use today, like no-smoking signs and the symbols of male and female figures on bathroom doors.", "A significant disadvantage of pictographic writing systems is that they need a large amount of symbols to refer to all the objects one wants to talk about.", "This problem was solved by the development of other writing systems.", "For example, the symbols of alphabetic writing systems do not stand for regular objects.", "Instead, they relate to the sounds used in spoken language.", "Other types of early writing systems include logographic and ideographic writing systems.", "A drawback of many early forms of writing, like the clay tablets used for cuneiform, was that they were not very portable.", "This made it difficult to transport the texts from one location to another to share information.", "This changed with the invention of papyrus by the Egyptians around 2500 BCE and was further improved later by the development of parchment and paper.Until the 1400s, almost all written communication required writing by hand.", "Because of this, the spread of written communication within society was still rather limited since copying books by hand was costly.", "The introduction and popularization of mass printing in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg resulted in rapid changes.", "Mass printing quickly increased the circulation of written media and also led to the dissemination of new forms of written documents, like newspapers and pamphlets.", "One side effect was that the augmented availability of written documents significantly improved the general literacy of the population.", "This development served as the foundation for revolutions in various fields, including science, politics, and religion.Scientific discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries caused many further developments in the history of communication.", "They include the invention of telegraphs and telephones, which made it even easier and faster to transmit information from one location to another without the need to transport written documents.", "These communication forms were initially limited to cable connections, which had to be established first.", "Later developments found ways of wireless transmission using radio signals.", "They made it possible to reach wide audiences and radio soon became one of the central forms of mass communication.", "Various innovations in the field of photography enabled the recording of images on film, which led to the development of cinema and television.", "The reach of wireless communication was further enhanced with the development of satellites, which made it possible to broadcast radio and television signals to stations all over the world.", "This way, information could be shared almost instantly everywhere around the globe.", "The development of the internet constitutes a further milestone in the history of communication.", "It made it easier than ever before for people to exchange ideas, collaborate, and access information from anywhere in the world by using a variety of means, such as websites, e-mail, social media, and video conferences." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 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[ [ "Classics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Classics''' or '''classical studies''' is the study of classical antiquity.", "In the Western world, ''classics'' traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin.", "Classics also includes Greco-Roman philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, art, mythology and society as secondary subjects.In Western civilization, the study of the Greek and Roman classics was traditionally considered to be the foundation of the humanities and has traditionally been the cornerstone of a typical elite European education." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''classics'' is derived from the Latin adjective ''classicus'', meaning \"belonging to the highest class of citizens.\"", "The word was originally used to describe the members of the Patricians, the highest class in ancient Rome.", "By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality.", "For example, Aulus Gellius, in his ''Attic Nights'', contrasts \"classicus\" and \"proletarius\" writers.", "By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a second meaning, referring to pupils at a school.", "Thus, the two modern meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality and the standard texts used as part of a curriculum, were both derived from Roman use." ], [ "History", "===Middle Ages===The Roman poet Catullus was virtually unknown during the medieval period, in contrast to his modern popularity.In the Middle Ages, classics and education were tightly intertwined; according to Jan Ziolkowski, there is no era in history in which the link was tighter.", "Medieval education taught students to imitate earlier classical models, and Latin continued to be the language of scholarship and culture, despite the increasing difference between literary Latin and the vernacular languages of Europe during the period.While Latin was hugely influential, according to thirteenth-century English philosopher Roger Bacon, \"there are not four men in Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic grammars.\"", "Greek was rarely studied in the West, and Greek literature was known almost solely in Latin translation.", "The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, along with most of Plato, were unavailable in Christian Europe.", "Some were rediscovered through Arabic translations; a School of Translators was set up in the border city of Toledo, Spain, to translate from Arabic into Latin.Along with the unavailability of Greek authors, there were other differences between the classical canon known today and the works valued in the Middle Ages.", "Catullus, for instance, was almost entirely unknown in the medieval period.", "The popularity of different authors also waxed and waned throughout the period: Lucretius, popular during the Carolingian period, was barely read in the twelfth century, while for Quintilian the reverse is true.===Renaissance===The Renaissance led to the increasing study of both ancient literature and ancient history, as well as a revival of classical styles of Latin.", "From the 14th century, first in Italy and then increasingly across Europe, Renaissance Humanism, an intellectual movement that \"advocated the study and imitation of classical antiquity\", developed.", "Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe.", "This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch (1304–1374) and Boccaccio (1313–1375) who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems.", "This humanist educational reform spread from Italy, in Catholic countries as it was adopted by the Jesuits, and in countries that became Protestant such as England, Germany, and the Low Countries, in order to ensure that future clerics were able to study the New Testament in the original language.===Neoclassicism===The late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models.", "Classical models were so highly prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines, and these \"improved\" versions were performed throughout the 18th century.", "In the United States, the nation's Founders were strongly influenced by the classics, and they looked in particular to the Roman Republic for their form of government.From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin.In this period Johann Winckelmann's claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G.E.", "Lessing \"returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement\".In the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century.", "The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have been one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School.", "In the United States, philhellenism began to emerge in the 1830s, with a turn \"from a love of Rome and a focus on classical grammar to a new focus on Greece and the totality of its society, art, and culture.", "\".===19th century===The 19th century saw the influence of the classical world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the United States, where the subject was often criticised for its elitism.", "By the 19th century, little new literature was still being written in Latin – a practice which had continued as late as the 18th century – and a command of Latin declined in importance.", "Correspondingly, classical education from the 19th century onwards began to increasingly de-emphasise the importance of the ability to write and speak Latin.", "In the United Kingdom this process took longer than elsewhere.", "Composition continued to be the dominant classical skill in England until the 1870s, when new areas within the discipline began to increase in popularity.In the same decade came the first challenges to the requirement of Greek at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, though it would not be finally abolished for another 50 years.Though the influence of classics as the dominant mode of education in Europe and North America was in decline in the 19th century, the discipline was rapidly evolving in the same period.", "Classical scholarship was becoming more systematic and scientific, especially with the \"new philology\" created at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century.", "Its scope was also broadening: it was during the 19th century that ancient history and classical archaeology began to be seen as part of classics, rather than separate disciplines.===20th century to present===During the 20th century, the study of classics became less common.", "In England, for instance, Oxford and Cambridge universities stopped requiring students to have qualifications in Greek in 1920, and in Latin at the end of the 1950s.", "When the National Curriculum was introduced in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1988, it did not mention the classics.", "By 2003, only about 10% of state schools in Britain offered any classical subjects to their students at all.", "In 2016, AQA, the largest exam board for A-Levels and GCSEs in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, announced that it would be scrapping A-Level subjects in Classical Civilisation, Archaeology, and Art History.", "This left just one out of five exam boards in England which still offered Classical Civilisation as a subject.", "The decision was immediately denounced by archaeologists and historians, with Natalie Haynes of the ''Guardian'' stating that the loss of the A-Level would deprive state school students, 93% of all students, the opportunity to study classics while making it once again the exclusive purview of wealthy private-school students.However, the study of classics has not declined as fast elsewhere in Europe.", "In 2009, a review of ''Meeting the Challenge'', a collection of conference papers about the teaching of Latin in Europe, noted that though there is opposition to the teaching of Latin in Italy, it is nonetheless still compulsory in most secondary schools.", "The same can be said in the case of France or Greece, too.", "Indeed, Ancient Greek is one of the compulsory subjects in Greek secondary education, whereas in France, Latin is one of the optional subjects that can be chosen in a majority of middle schools and high schools.", "Ancient Greek is also still being taught, but not as much as Latin." ], [ "Sub-disciplines", "One of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field.", "Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding the studies to Northern Africa as well as parts of the Middle East.===Philology===The eighteenth-century classicist Friedrich August Wolf was the author of ''Prolegomena to Homer'', one of the first great works of classical philology.Philology is the study of language preserved in written sources; '''classical philology''' is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek.The roots of classical philology lie in the Renaissance, as humanist intellectuals attempted to return to the Latin of the classical period, especially of Cicero, and as scholars attempted to produce more accurate editions of ancient texts.", "Some of the principles of philology still used today were developed during this period, for instance, the observation that if a manuscript could be shown to be a copy of an earlier extant manuscript, then it provides no further evidence of the original text, was made as early as 1489 by Angelo Poliziano.", "Other philological tools took longer to be developed: the first statement, for instance, of the principle that a more difficult reading should be preferred over a simpler one, was in 1697 by Jean Le Clerc.The modern discipline of classical philology began in Germany at the turn of the nineteenth century.", "It was during this period that scientific principles of philology began to be put together into a coherent whole, in order to provide a set of rules by which scholars could determine which manuscripts were most accurate.", "This \"new philology\", as it was known, centered around the construction of a genealogy of manuscripts, with which a hypothetical common ancestor, closer to the original text than any existing manuscript, could be reconstructed.===Archaeology===Schliemann and Dörpfeld's excavation at Mycenae was one of the earliest excavations in the field of classical archaeology.Classical archaeology is the oldest branch of archaeology, with its roots going back to J.J. Winckelmann's work on Herculaneum in the 1760s.", "It was not until the last decades of the 19th century, however, that classical archaeology became part of the tradition of Western classical scholarship.", "It was included as part of Cambridge University's Classical Tripos for the first time after the reforms of the 1880s, though it did not become part of Oxford's Greats until much later.The second half of the 19th century saw Schliemann's excavations of Troy and Mycenae; the first excavations at Olympia and Delos; and Arthur Evans' work in Crete, particularly on Knossos.", "This period also saw the foundation of important archaeological associations (e.g.", "the Archaeological Institute of America in 1879), including many foreign archaeological institutes in Athens and Rome (the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in 1881, British School at Athens in 1886, American Academy in Rome in 1895, and British School at Rome in 1900).More recently, classical archaeology has taken little part in the theoretical changes in the rest of the discipline, largely ignoring the popularity of \"New Archaeology\", which emphasized the development of general laws derived from studying material culture, in the 1960s.", "New Archaeology is still criticized by traditional minded scholars of classical archaeology despite a wide acceptance of its basic techniques.===Art history===Some art historians focus their study on the development of art in the classical world.", "Indeed, the art and architecture of Ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today.", "For example, Ancient Greek architecture gave us the Classical Orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.", "The Parthenon is still the architectural symbol of the classical world.Greek sculpture is well known and we know the names of several Ancient Greek artists: for example, Phidias.===Ancient history===With philology, archaeology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilization, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples.", "The task is difficult due to a dearth of physical evidence: for example, Sparta was a leading Greek city-state, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from Athens, Sparta's principal rival; likewise, the Roman Empire destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the Etruscans.===Philosophy===The English word \"philosophy\" comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία, meaning \"love of wisdom\", probably coined by Pythagoras.", "Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in ancient Greek thought, and according to Martin West \"philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation\".", "Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics.", "However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches.", "For instance, Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' and ''Poetics'' have been traditionally classified in the West as \"ethics\", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category.From the last decade of the eighteenth century, scholars of ancient philosophy began to study the discipline historically.", "Previously, works on ancient philosophy had been unconcerned with chronological sequence and with reconstructing the reasoning of ancient thinkers; with what Wolfgang-Ranier Mann calls \"New Philosophy\", this changed.===Reception studies===Another discipline within the classics is \"reception studies\", which developed in the 1960s at the University of Konstanz.Reception studies is concerned with how students of classical texts have understood and interpreted them.As such, reception studies is interested in a two-way interaction between reader and text, taking place within a historical context.Though the idea of an \"aesthetics of reception\" was first put forward by Hans Robert Jauss in 1967, the principles of reception theory go back much earlier than this.As early as 1920, T. S. Eliot wrote that \"the past is altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past\"; Charles Martindale describes this as a \"cardinal principle\" for many versions of modern reception theory." ], [ "Classical Greece", "Ancient Greece was the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period, beginning in the eighth century BC, to the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC.", "The Classical period, during the fifth and fourth centuries BC, has traditionally been considered the height of Greek civilisation.", "The Classical period of Greek history is generally considered to have begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece at the start of the Greco-Persian wars, and to have ended with the death of Alexander the Great.Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe; thus Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.===Language===Map showing the regional dialects of Greek during the Classical periodAncient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic ( to 6th centuries BC), Classical ( to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic ( century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world.", "It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek.", "Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (\"common\") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek.", "Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek.", "Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects.Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers.", "It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance.", "Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology.===Literature===The earliest surviving works of Greek literature are epic poetry.", "Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' are the earliest to survive to us today, probably composed in the eighth century BC.", "These early epics were oral compositions, created without the use of writing.Around the same time that the Homeric epics were composed, the Greek alphabet was introduced; the earliest surviving inscriptions date from around 750 BC.European drama was invented in ancient Greece.", "Traditionally this was attributed to Thespis, around the middle of the sixth century BC, though the earliest surviving work of Greek drama is Aeschylus' tragedy ''The Persians'', which dates to 472 BC.", "Early Greek tragedy was performed by a chorus and two actors, but by the end of Aeschylus' life, a third actor had been introduced, either by him or by Sophocles.", "The last surviving Greek tragedies are the ''Bacchae'' of Euripides and Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, both from the end of the fifth century BC.Surviving Greek comedy begins later than tragedy; the earliest surviving work, Aristophanes' ''Acharnians'', comes from 425 BC.", "However, comedy dates back as early as 486 BC, when the Dionysia added a competition for comedy to the much earlier competition for tragedy.", "The comedy of the fifth century is known as Old Comedy, and it comes down to us solely in the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, along with a few fragments.", "Sixty years after the end of Aristophanes' career, the next author of comedies to have any substantial body of work survive is Menander, whose style is known as New Comedy.Two historians flourished during Greece's classical age: Herodotus and Thucydides.", "Herodotus is commonly called the father of history, and his \"History\" contains the first truly literary use of prose in Western literature.", "Of the two, Thucydides was the more careful historian.", "His critical use of sources, inclusion of documents, and laborious research made his History of the Peloponnesian War a significant influence on later generations of historians.", "The greatest achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy.", "There were many Greek philosophers, but three names tower above the rest: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.", "These have had a profound influence on Western society.===Mythology and religion===Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices.", "They were a part of religion in ancient Greece.", "Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.Greek religion encompassed the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices.", "These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or \"cults\" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities.", "Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to neighbouring islands.Many Greek people recognized the major gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Ares, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, Hestia and Hera; though philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to posit a transcendent single deity.", "Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.===Philosophy===So influential was Socrates to classical philosophy that earlier philosophers are today known as pre-Socratics.The earliest surviving philosophy from ancient Greece dates back to the 6th century BC, when according to Aristotle Thales of Miletus was considered to have been the first Greek philosopher.", "Other influential pre-Socratic philosophers include Pythagoras and Heraclitus.", "The most famous and significant figures in classical Athenian philosophy, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BC, are Socrates, his student Plato, and Aristotle, who studied at Plato's Academy before founding his own school, known as the Lyceum.", "Later Greek schools of philosophy, including the Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans, continued to be influential after the Roman annexation of Greece, and into the post-Classical world.Greek philosophy dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, and logic, as well as disciplines which are not today thought of as part of philosophy, such as biology and rhetoric." ], [ "Classical Rome", "===Language===The Praeneste fibula is believed to bear the oldest known Latin inscription.", "The inscription means \"Manius made me for Numerius\".The language of ancient Rome was Latin, a member of the Italic family of languages.", "The earliest surviving inscription in Latin comes from the 7th century BC, on a brooch from Palestrina.", "Latin from between this point and the early 1st century BC is known as Old Latin.", "Most surviving Latin literature is Classical Latin, from the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD.", "Latin then evolved into Late Latin, in use during the late antique period.", "Late Latin survived long after the end of classical antiquity, and was finally replaced by written Romance languages around the 9th century AD.", "Along with literary forms of Latin, there existed various vernacular dialects, generally known as Vulgar Latin, in use throughout antiquity.", "These are mainly preserved in sources such as graffiti and the Vindolanda tablets.===Literature===Latin literature seems to have started in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a play adapted from the Greek by Livius Andronicus.", "Andronicus also translated Homer's Odyssey into an Saturnian verse.", "The poets Ennius, Accius, and Patruvius followed.", "Their work survives only in fragments; the earliest Latin authors whose work we have full examples of are the playwrights Plautus and Terence.", "Much of the best known and most highly thought of Latin literature comes from the classical period, with poets such as Virgil, Horace, and Ovid; historians such as Julius Caesar and Tacitus; orators such as Cicero; and philosophers such as Seneca the Younger and Lucretius.", "Late Latin authors include many Christian writers such as Lactantius, Tertullian and Ambrose; non-Christian authors, such as the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, are also preserved.===History===According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC; in reality, there had been a settlement on the site since around 1000 BC, when the Palatine Hill was settled.", "The city was originally ruled by kings, first Roman, and then Etruscanaccording to Roman tradition, the first Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, ruled from 616 BC.", "Over the course of the 6th century BC, the city expanded its influence over the entirety of Latium.", "Around the end of the 6th century – traditionally in 510 BCthe kings of Rome were driven out, and the city became a republic.Around 387 BC, Rome was sacked by the Gauls following the Battle of the Allia.", "It soon recovered from this humiliating defeat, however, and in 381 the inhabitants of Tusculum in Latium were made Roman citizens.", "This was the first time Roman citizenship was extended in this way.", "Rome went on to expand its area of influence, until by 269 the entirety of the Italian peninsula was under Roman rule.", "Soon afterwards, in 264, the First Punic War began; it lasted until 241.The Second Punic War began in 218, and by the end of that year, the Carthaginian general Hannibal had invaded Italy.", "The war saw Rome's worst defeat to that point at Cannae; the largest army Rome had yet put into the field was wiped out, and one of the two consuls leading it was killed.", "However, Rome continued to fight, annexing much of Spain and eventually defeating Carthage, ending her position as a major power and securing Roman preeminence in the Western Mediterranean." ], [ "Legacy of the classical world", "The classical languages of the Ancient Mediterranean world influenced every European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application.", "Thus, Latin grew from a highly developed cultural product of the Golden and Silver eras of Latin literature to become the ''international lingua franca'' in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic and religious, until the 17th century.", "Long before this, Latin had evolved into the Romance languages and Ancient Greek into Modern Greek and its dialects.", "In the specialised science and technology vocabularies, the influence of Latin and Greek is notable.", "Ecclesiastical Latin, the Roman Catholic Church's official language, remains a living legacy of the classical world in the contemporary world.Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world.", "It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman empire.", "The modern Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Galician, Catalan) all derive from Latin.", "Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture.The legacy of the classical world is not confined to the influence of classical languages.", "The Roman empire was taken as a model by later European empires, such as the Spanish and British empires.", "Classical art has been taken as a model in later periods – medieval Romanesque architecture and Enlightenment-era neoclassical literature were both influenced by classical models, to take but two examples, while James Joyce's ''Ulysses'' is one of the most influential works of twentieth-century literature." ], [ "See also", "* Classical tradition* Great Books of the Western World* Neoclassicism* Outline of classical studies* Outline of ancient Greece* Outline of ancient Rome" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===; Works cited* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", ";;General* * * ;;Art and archaeology* ; History, Greek* * * ;;History, Roman* * * * ;;Literature* ;;Philology* ;;Philosophy* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Electronic Resources for Classicists by the University of California, Irvine.", "* Perseus Project website at Tufts University* Alpheios Project website" ] ]

[ [ "Chemistry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chemistry''' is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter.", "It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances.", "Chemistry also addresses the nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds.In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology.", "It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level.", "For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the Moon (cosmochemistry), how medications work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics).Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times.", "It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study.", "The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the chemical industry." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''chemistry'' comes from a modification during the Renaissance of the word ''alchemy,'' which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism, and medicine.", "Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though alchemists were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry.The modern word ''alchemy'' in turn is derived from the Arabic word ().", "This may have Egyptian origins since is derived from the Ancient Greek , which is in turn derived from the word , which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language.", "Alternately, may derive from 'cast together'." ], [ "Modern principles", "Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne in GermanyThe current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model.", "Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter.", "Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma states, in isolation or in combination.", "The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together.", "Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory.The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware.", "However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including ammonium hydroxide and nitric acid, illuminated in different colorsA chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances.", "The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms.", "It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects.", "The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal.", "(When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay.)", "The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies.", "Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as well as their chemical compositions.", "They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g.", "spectroscopy and chromatography.", "Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists.", "Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines.", "Several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:===Matter===In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of particles.", "The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the photon.", "Matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances.====Atom====A diagram of an atom based on the Rutherford modelThe atom is the basic unit of chemistry.", "It consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space occupied by an electron cloud.", "The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus.", "In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons.", "The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).====Element====Standard form of the periodic table of chemical elements.", "The colors represent different blocks of elements.A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol ''Z''.", "The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.", "Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes.", "For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number.", "The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods, or rows.", "The periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.====Compound====Carbon dioxide (CO2), an example of a chemical compoundA ''compound'' is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element.", "The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements.", "The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).", "Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system.", "The names for inorganic compounds are created according to the inorganic nomenclature system.", "When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components.", "In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substances.", "In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its CAS registry number.====Molecule====A ball-and-stick representation of the caffeine molecule (C8H10N4O2)A ''molecule'' is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances.", "However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below).", "Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions.", "When this rule is broken, giving the \"molecule\" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion.", "However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer.", "Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered \"molecules\" in chemistry.", "Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating radicals.", "Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable.A 2-D structural formula of a benzene molecule (C6H6)The \"inert\" or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way.", "Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals.However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules.", "These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules ''per se''.", "Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance.", "Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite.One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure.", "While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.)", "the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.====Substance and mixture====A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties.", "A collection of substances is called a mixture.", "Examples of mixtures are air and alloys.====Mole and amount of substance====The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance (also called chemical amount).", "One mole is defined to contain exactly particles (atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons), where the number of particles per mole is known as the Avogadro constant.", "Molar concentration is the amount of a particular substance per volume of solution, and is commonly reported in mol/dm3.===Phase===Diagram showing relationships among the phases and the terms used to describe phase changesIn addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases.", "For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties.", "A ''phase'' is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature.Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase.", "The phase of matter is defined by the ''phase transition'', which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary' in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state.", "When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases.", "Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases.", "For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure.", "A principal difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms.", "Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the ''aqueous'' phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water).Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials.", "While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology.===Bonding===An animation of the process of ionic bonding between sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) to form sodium chloride, or common table salt.", "Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding).Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another.", "A chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them.", "More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.The chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force.", "Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential.", "These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals.", "In many simple compounds, valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion.", "The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them.", "For example, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na+ cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl−.", "The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.In the methane molecule (CH4), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms.", "Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells).In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule.", "Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom.", "Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule.", "However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the ''duet rule'', and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell.Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures.", "With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used.", "See diagram on electronic orbitals.===Energy===In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure.", "Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved.", "Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse.", "A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy.", "The ''speed'' of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor – that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound.A related concept free energy, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics.", "A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, ; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium.There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules.", "These are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system.", "The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited.", "The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings.", "When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H2O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds.", "Whereas hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the ''size'' of energy quanta emitted from one substance.", "However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer.", "Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy.", "For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines.", "Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g.", "IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc.", "Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra.Emission spectrum of ironThe term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.===Reaction===compound, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon dioxide.When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred.", "A ''chemical reaction'' is therefore a concept related to the \"reaction\" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both.", "It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware.Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules.", "Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.", "Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid–base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some examples of common chemical reactions.A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation.", "While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz.", "protons and neutrons.The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism.", "A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed.", "Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction.", "Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction.", "Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions.", "Several empirical rules, like the Woodward–Hoffmann rules often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.According to the IUPAC gold book, a chemical reaction is \"a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species.\"", "Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction.", "An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable.", "Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e.", "'microscopic chemical events').===Ions and salts===The crystal lattice structure of potassium chloride (KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K+ cations and Cl− anions.", "The overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.An ''ion'' is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons.", "When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation.", "When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion.", "Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na+ and Cl− ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl.", "Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid–base reactions are hydroxide (OH−) and phosphate (PO43−).Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.===Acidity and basicity===Hydrogen bromide exists in the gas phase as a diatomic molecule.A substance can often be classified as an acid or a base.", "There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior.", "The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which states that acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.", "According to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.A third common theory is Lewis acid–base theory, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds.", "Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond.", "There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept.Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods.", "One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale.", "Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic.", "The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant (Ka), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid.", "That is, substances with a higher Ka are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower Ka values.===Redox===Redox (-) reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation).", "Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers.", "An oxidant removes electrons from another substance.", "Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself.", "And because it \"donates\" electrons it is also called an electron donor.", "Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur.", "Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.===Equilibrium===Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase.A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not static; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium.", "Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time.===Chemical laws===Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry.", "Some of them are:* Avogadro's law* Beer–Lambert law* Boyle's law (1662, relating pressure and volume)* Charles's law (1787, relating volume and temperature)* Fick's laws of diffusion* Gay-Lussac's law (1809, relating pressure and temperature)* Le Chatelier's principle* Henry's law* Hess's law* Law of conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics.", "* Law of conservation of mass continues to be conserved in isolated systems, even in modern physics.", "However, special relativity shows that due to mass–energy equivalence, whenever non-material \"energy\" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it.", "High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear chemistry.", "* Law of definite composition, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.", "* Law of multiple proportions* Raoult's law" ], [ "History", "The history of chemistry spans a period from very old times to the present.", "Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry.", "Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze.Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, alchemy, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions.", "Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results.", "Robert Boyle, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the \"sacred art\" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work ''The Sceptical Chymist'' (1661).While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the scientific method that chemists employed in their work.", "Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed a law of conservation of mass that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena.", "The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs.===Definition===The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science.", "The term \"chymistry\", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies.", "In 1663, the chemist Christopher Glaser described \"chymistry\" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.The 1730 definition of the word \"chemistry\", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles.", "In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word \"chemistry\" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces.", "This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances – a characterization accepted by Linus Pauling.", "More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of \"chemistry\" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.===Background===Democritus' atomist philosophy was later adopted by Epicurus (341–270 BCE).Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians and Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory.A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination.", "Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus.", "In 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his poem ''De rerum natura'' (On The Nature of Things).", "Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.An early form of the idea of conservation of mass is the notion that \"Nothing comes from nothing\" in Ancient Greek philosophy, which can be found in Empedocles (approx.", "4th century BC): \"For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed.\"", "and Epicurus (3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that \"the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be\".15th-century artistic impression of Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), a Perso-Arab alchemist and pioneer in organic chemistryIn the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold and discovering the elixir of eternal life.", "Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis.", "Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the Arab world after the Muslim conquests, and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and Renaissance Europe through Latin translations.The Arabic works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means.", "Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the \"Book of Mercy\", and the \"Book of Seventy\") were later translated into Latin under the Latinized name \"Geber\", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as pseudo-Geber, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name.", "Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Avicenna disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals.Under the influence of the new empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and others, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and John Mayow began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline.", "Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more \"philosophical\" and less commercially focused in ''The Sceptical Chemyst''.", "He formulated Boyle's law, rejected the classical \"four elements\" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the \"Father of Modern Chemistry\".In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases.", "The Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Flemish Jan Baptist van Helmont discovered carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its properties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen.", "The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics.", "Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of conservation of mass and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular, Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta.", "Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current.In his periodic table, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of 7 new elements, and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.British William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen.", "J.A.R.", "Newlands devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elements in the 1860s by Dmitri Mendeleev and independently by several other scientists including Julius Lothar Meyer.", "The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.", "''Top:'' Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom undisturbed.", "''Bottom:'' Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating a small, concentrated charge.At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms.", "In 1897, J.J. Thomson of the University of Cambridge discovered the electron and soon after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of radioactivity.", "In a series of pioneering scattering experiments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles.His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, the Englishman Henry Moseley and the German Otto Hahn, who went on to father the emerging nuclear chemistry and discovered nuclear fission.", "The electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals was developed by the American scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis.The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry.", "It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea.", "Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante Arrhenius in the 1870s)." ], [ "Practice", "===Subdisciplines===Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines.", "There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.", "* Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure.", "Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry.", "These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.", "* Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and interactions that take place in living organisms.", "Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry.", "Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics.", "* Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds.", "The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.", "* Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function.", "The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials.", "Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases.", "* Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.", "* Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei.", "Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.", "* Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds.", "An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.", "* Physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes.", "In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists.", "Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry.", "Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics.", "Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations.", "It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry.", "Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap.", "* Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics).", "In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry.", "Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems.", "Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics.Others subdivisions include electrochemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, immunohistochemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, mathematical chemistry, molecular mechanics, natural product chemistry, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, synthetic chemistry, and many others.=== Interdisciplinary ===Interdisciplinary fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, environmental chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, nanotechnology, oenology, pharmacology, phytochemistry, solid-state chemistry, surface science, thermochemistry, and many others.===Industry===The chemical industry represents an important economic activity worldwide.", "The global top 50 chemical producers in 2013 had sales of US$980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%.===Professional societies===* American Chemical Society* American Society for Neurochemistry* Chemical Institute of Canada* Chemical Society of Peru* International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry* Royal Australian Chemical Institute* Royal Netherlands Chemical Society* Royal Society of Chemistry* Society of Chemical Industry* World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists* List of chemistry societies" ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling* Glossary of chemistry terms* International Year of Chemistry* List of chemists* List of compounds* List of important publications in chemistry* List of unsolved problems in chemistry* Outline of chemistry* Periodic systems of small molecules* Philosophy of chemistry* Science tourism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "'''Popular reading'''* Atkins, P.W.", "''Galileo's Finger'' (Oxford University Press) * Atkins, P.W.", "''Atkins' Molecules'' (Cambridge University Press) * Kean, Sam.", "''The Disappearing Spoon – and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table'' (Black Swan) London, 2010 * Levi, Primo ''The Periodic Table'' (Penguin Books) 1975 translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984) * Stwertka, A.", "''A Guide to the Elements'' (Oxford University Press) * * '''Introductory undergraduate textbooks'''* Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. ''Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry'' (4th ed.)", "2006 (Oxford University Press) * Chang, Raymond.", "''Chemistry'' 6th ed.", "Boston: James M. Smith, 1998..* * Voet and Voet.", "''Biochemistry'' (Wiley) '''Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate textbooks'''* Atkins, P. W. ''Physical Chemistry'' (Oxford University Press) * Atkins, P. W. et al.", "''Molecular Quantum Mechanics'' (Oxford University Press)* McWeeny, R. ''Coulson's Valence'' (Oxford Science Publications) * Pauling, L. ''The Nature of the chemical bond'' (Cornell University Press) * Pauling, L., and Wilson, E.B.", "''Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry'' (Dover Publications) * Smart and Moore.", "''Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction'' (Chapman and Hall) * Stephenson, G. ''Mathematical Methods for Science Students'' (Longman)" ], [ "External links", "* General Chemistry principles, patterns and applications." ] ]

[ [ "Cytoplasm" ], [ "Introduction", "In cell biology, the '''cytoplasm''' describes all material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus.", "The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm.", "The main components of the cytoplasm are the cytosol (a gel-like substance), the organelles (the cell's internal sub-structures), and various cytoplasmic inclusions.", "The cytoplasm is about 80% water and is usually colorless.The submicroscopic ground cell substance, or cytoplasmic matrix, that remains after the exclusion of the cell organelles and particles is groundplasm.", "It is the hyaloplasm of light microscopy, a highly complex, polyphasic system in which all resolvable cytoplasmic elements are suspended, including the larger organelles such as the ribosomes, mitochondria, plant plastids, lipid droplets, and vacuoles.Many cellular activities take place within the cytoplasm, such as many metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, photosynthesis, and processes such as cell division.", "The concentrated inner area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell cortex, or ectoplasm.Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is a signaling activity for metabolic processes.In plants, movement of the cytoplasm around vacuoles is known as cytoplasmic streaming." ], [ "History", "The term was introduced by Rudolf von Kölliker in 1863, originally as a synonym for protoplasm, but later it has come to mean the cell substance and organelles outside the nucleus.There has been certain disagreement on the definition of cytoplasm, as some authors prefer to exclude from it some organelles, especially the vacuoles and sometimes the plastids." ], [ "Physical nature", "It remains uncertain how the various components of the cytoplasm interact to allow movement of organelles while maintaining the cell's structure.", "The flow of cytoplasmic components plays an important role in many cellular functions which are dependent on the permeability of the cytoplasm.", "An example of such function is cell signalling, a process which is dependent on the manner in which signaling molecules are allowed to diffuse across the cell.", "While small signaling molecules like calcium ions are able to diffuse with ease, larger molecules and subcellular structures often require aid in moving through the cytoplasm.", "The irregular dynamics of such particles have given rise to various theories on the nature of the cytoplasm.===As a sol-gel===There has long been evidence that the cytoplasm behaves like a sol-gel.", "It is thought that the component molecules and structures of the cytoplasm behave at times like a disordered colloidal solution (sol) and at other times like an integrated network, forming a solid mass (gel).", "This theory thus proposes that the cytoplasm exists in distinct fluid and solid phases depending on the level of interaction between cytoplasmic components, which may explain the differential dynamics of different particles observed moving through the cytoplasm.", "A papers suggested that at length scale smaller than 100 nm, the cytoplasm acts like a liquid, while in a larger length scale, it acts like a gel.===As a glass===It has been proposed that the cytoplasm behaves like a glass-forming liquid approaching the glass transition.", "In this theory, the greater the concentration of cytoplasmic components, the less the cytoplasm behaves like a liquid and the more it behaves as a solid glass, freezing more significant cytoplasmic components in place (it is thought that the cell's metabolic activity can fluidize the cytoplasm to allow the movement of such more significant cytoplasmic components).", "A cell's ability to vitrify in the absence of metabolic activity, as in dormant periods, may be beneficial as a defense strategy.", "A solid glass cytoplasm would freeze subcellular structures in place, preventing damage, while allowing the transmission of tiny proteins and metabolites, helping to kickstart growth upon the cell's revival from dormancy.===Other perspectives===Research has examined the motion of cytoplasmic particles independent of the nature of the cytoplasm.", "In such an alternative approach, the aggregate random forces within the cell caused by motor proteins explain the non-Brownian motion of cytoplasmic constituents." ], [ "Constituents", "The three major elements of the cytoplasm are the cytosol, organelles and inclusions.===Cytosol===The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound organelles.", "Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water.", "The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes.", "The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.Proteins in different cellular compartments and structures tagged with green fluorescent proteinDue to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution.", "This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other.===Organelles===Organelles (literally \"little organs\") are usually membrane-bound structures inside the cell that have specific functions.", "Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts.===Cytoplasmic inclusions===The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol.", "A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate.", "A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols.", "Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types.===Controversy and research===The cytoplasm, mitochondria, and most organelles are contributions to the cell from the maternal gamete.", "Contrary to the older information that disregards any notion of the cytoplasm being active, new research has shown it to be in control of movement and flow of nutrients in and out of the cell by viscoplastic behavior and a measure of the reciprocal rate of bond breakage within the cytoplasmic network.The material properties of the cytoplasm remain an ongoing investigation.", "A method of determining the mechanical behaviour of living cell mammalian cytoplasm with the aid of optical tweezers has been described." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Christ (title)" ], [ "Introduction", "The oldest known icon of ''Christ Pantocrator'' – Saint Catherine's Monastery.", "The halo is a representation of the divine Logos of Christ, and the two different facial expressions on either side emphasize Christ's dual nature as both divine and human.", "'''Christ''', used by Christians as both a name and a title, unambiguously refers to Jesus.", "It is also used as a title, in the reciprocal use \"Christ Jesus\", meaning \"the '''Messiah''' Jesus\" or \"Jesus the '''Anointed'''\", and independently as \"the Christ\".", "The Pauline epistles, the earliest texts of the New Testament, often refer to Jesus as \"Christ Jesus\" or just \"Christ\".The concept of the Christ in Christianity originated from the concept of the messiah in Judaism.", "Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah foretold in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament.", "Although the conceptions of the messiah in each religion are similar, for the most part they are distinct from one another due to the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the 1st century.Although the original followers of Jesus believed Jesus to be the Jewish messiah, e.g.", "in the Confession of Peter, Jesus was usually referred to as \"Jesus of Nazareth\" or \"Jesus, son of Joseph\", Jesus came to be called \"Jesus Christ\" (meaning \"Jesus the ''Khristós''\", i.e.", "\"Jesus the Messiah\" or \"Jesus the Anointed\") by Christians, who believe that His crucifixion and resurrection fulfill the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament, especially the prophecy outlined in Isaiah 53." ], [ "Etymology", "''Christ'' comes from the Greek word (), meaning \"anointed one\".", "The word is derived from the Greek verb (), meaning \"to anoint.\"", "In the Greek Septuagint, ''χριστός'' was a semantic loan used to translate the Hebrew (, messiah), meaning \"one who is anointed\"." ], [ "Usage", "The word ''Christ'' (and similar spellings) appears in English and in most European languages.", "English-speakers now often use \"Christ\" as if it were a name, one part of the name \"Jesus Christ\", though it was originally a title (\"the Messiah\").", "Its usage in \"Christ Jesus\" emphasizes its nature as a title.", "Compare the usage \"the Christ\".The spelling ''Christ'' in English became standardized in the 18th century, when, in the spirit of the Enlightenment, the spelling of certain words changed to fit their Greek or Latin origins.", "Prior to this, scribes writing in Old and Middle English usually used the spelling ''Crist''—the ''i'' being pronounced either as , preserved in the names of churches such as St Katherine Cree, or as a short , preserved in the modern pronunciation of \"Christmas\".", "The spelling \"Christ\" in English is attested from the 14th century.In modern and ancient usage, even in secular terminology, \"Christ\" usually refers to Jesus, based on the centuries-old tradition of such usage.", "Since the Apostolic Age, the... use of the definite article before the word ''Christ'' and its gradual development into a proper name show the Christians identified the bearer with the promised Messias of the Jews." ], [ "Background and New Testament references", "Mark, by Sargis Pitsak (14th century): \"The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God\"=== Pre–New-Testament references ===In the Old Testament, anointing was a ceremonial reserved to the Kings of Israel (1 Kings 19:16; 24:7), Psalms 17 (18):51), to Cyrus the Great (Isaiah 45:1), to the High Priest of Israel, the patriarchs (Psalms 104(105):15 and to the prophets.In the Septuagint text of the deuterocanonical books, the term \"Christ\" (Χριστός, translit.", "Christós) is found in 2 Maccabees 1:10 (referring to the anointed High Priest of Israel) and in the Book of Sirach 46:19, in relation to Samuel, prophet and institutor of the kingdom under Saul.At the time of Jesus, there was no single form of Second Temple Judaism, and there were significant political, social, and religious differences among the various Jewish groups.", "However, for centuries the Jews had used the term ''moshiach'' (\"anointed\") to refer to their expected deliverer.=== Opening lines of Mark and Matthew ===Mark (\"The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God\") identifies Jesus as both Christ and the Son of God.", "uses Christ as a name and Matthew explains it again with: \"Jesus, who is called Christ\".", "The use of the definite article before the word \"Christ\" and its gradual development into a proper name show that the Christians identified Jesus with the promised messiah of the Jews who fulfilled all the messianic predictions in a fuller and a higher sense than had been given them by the rabbis.=== Confession of Peter (Matthew, Mark and Luke) ===The so-called Confession of Peter, recorded in the Synoptic Gospels as Jesus's foremost apostle Peter saying that Jesus was the Messiah, has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the first century.=== Martha's statement (John) ===In Martha told Jesus, \"you are the Christ, the Son of God, who is coming into the world\", signifying that both titles were generally accepted (yet considered distinct) among the followers of Jesus before the raising of Lazarus.=== Sanhedrin trial of Jesus (Matthew, Mark and Luke) ===During the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, it might appear from the narrative of Matthew that Jesus at first refused a direct reply to the high priest Caiaphas's question: \"Are you the Messiah, the Son of God?", "\", where his answer is given merely as Σὺ εἶπας (''Su eipas'', \"You singular have said it\").", "Similarly but differently in Luke, all those present are said to ask Jesus: 'Are you then the Son of God?", "', to which Jesus reportedly answered: Ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι (''Hymeis legete hoti ego eimi'', \"You plural say that I am\".", "In the Gospel of Mark, however, when asked by Caiaphas 'Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?", "', Jesus tells the Sanhedrin: Ἐγώ εἰμι (''ego eimi'', \"I am\").", "There are instances from Jewish literature in which the expression \"you have said it\" is equivalent to \"you are right\".", "The Messianic claim was less significant than the claim to divinity, which caused the high priest's horrified accusation of blasphemy and the subsequent call for the death sentence.", "Before Pilate, on the other hand, it was merely the assertion of his royal dignity which gave grounds for his condemnation.=== Pauline epistles ===The word \"Christ\" is closely associated with Jesus in the Pauline epistles, which suggests that there was no need for the early Christians to claim that Jesus is Christ because it was considered widely accepted among them.", "Hence Paul can use the term ''Khristós'' with no confusion as to whom it refers, and he can use expressions such as \"in Christ\" to refer to the followers of Jesus, as in and .", "Paul proclaimed him as the Last Adam, who restored through obedience what Adam lost through disobedience.", "The Pauline epistles are a source of some key Christological connections; e.g., relates the love of Christ to the knowledge of Christ, and considers the love of Christ as a necessity for knowing him.There are also implicit claims to him being the Christ in the words and actions of Jesus.=== Use of ''Messias'' in John ===The Hellenization Μεσσίας (Messías) is used twice to mean \"Messiah\" in the New Testament: by the disciple Andrew at John 1:41, and by the Samaritan woman at the well at John 4:25.In both cases, the Greek text specifies immediately after that this means \"the Christ.\"" ], [ "Christology", "Christology, literally \"the understanding of Christ,\" is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus in Christianity.", "It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and the relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation.From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils.", "The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, \"united with neither confusion nor division\".", "Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism.According to the ''Summa Theologica'' of Thomas Aquinas, in the singular case of Jesus, the word ''Christ'' has a twofold meaning, which stands for \"both the Godhead anointing and the manhood anointed\".", "It derives from the twofold human-divine nature of Christ (dyophysitism): the Son of man is anointed in consequence of His incarnated flesh, as well as the Son of God is anointing in consequence of the \"Godhead which He has with the Father\" (ST ''III'', q.", "16, a.", "5)." ], [ "Symbols", "The use of \"Χ\" as an abbreviation for \"Christ\" derives from the Greek letter Chi (χ), in the word ().", "An early Christogram is the ''Chi Rho'' symbol, formed by superimposing the first two Greek letters in Christ, chi (Χ) and rho (Ρ), to produce ☧.The centuries-old English word ''Χmas'' (or, in earlier form, ''XPmas'') is an English form of χ-mas, itself an abbreviation for Christ-mas.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') and the ''OED Supplement'' have cited usages of \"X-\" or \"Xp-\" for \"Christ-\" as early as 1485.The terms \"Xpian\" and \"Xren\" have been used for \"Christian\", \"Xst\" for \"Christ's\" \"Xρofer\" for Christopher and Xmas, Xstmas, and Xtmas for Christmas.", "The ''OED'' further cites usage of \"Xtianity\" for \"Christianity\" from 1634.According to ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage'', most of the evidence for these words comes from \"educated Englishmen who knew their Greek\".The December 1957 ''News and Views'' published by the Church League of America, a conservative organization founded in 1937, attacked the use of \"Xmas\" in an article titled \"X=The Unknown Quantity\".", "Gerald L. K. Smith picked up the statements later, in December 1966, saying that Xmas was a \"blasphemous omission of the name of Christ\" and that \"'X' is referred to as being symbolical of the unknown quantity.\"", "More recently, American evangelist Franklin Graham and former CNN contributor Roland S. Martin publicly raised concerns.", "Graham stated in an interview that the use of \"Xmas\" is taking \"Christ out of Christmas\" and called it a \"war against the name of Jesus Christ.\"", "Roland Martin relates the use of \"Xmas\" to his growing concerns of increasing commercialization and secularization of what he says is one of Christianity's highest holy days." ], [ "See also", "* Chrism* Ichthys* Dyophysitism* Hypostatic union* Kerigma* Knowledge of Christ* Masih* Names and titles of Jesus in the Quran* Perfection of Christ* You are Christ" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Capital" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Capital''' and its variations may refer to:" ], [ "Common uses", "* Capital city, a municipality of primary status** List of national capitals* Capital letter, an upper-case letter" ], [ "Economics and social sciences", "* Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used for further production* Capital (Marxism), a central concept in Marxian critique of political economy* Economic capital* Financial capital, an economic resource measured in terms of money* Capital good* Human capital* Natural capital* Public capital* Social capital" ], [ "Architecture and buildings", "* Capital (architecture), the topmost member of a column or pilaster* The Capital (building), a commercial building in Mumbai, India* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion" ], [ "Arts, entertainment and media", "=== Literature ======= Books ====* ''Capital'' (novel), by John Lanchester, 2012* ''Das Kapital'' ('Capital: Critique of Political Economy'), a foundational theoretical text by Karl Marx* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' by Thomas Piketty, 2013* ''Capital: The Eruption of Delhi'', a 2014 book by Rana Dasgupta==== Periodicals ====* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine* ''Kapital'' (magazine), in Norway* ''Capital'' (Bulgarian newspaper), in Bulgaria* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), in North Macedonia* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper)* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper)* ''Capital'' (Ethiopia), a newspaper* ''A Capital'', a defunct daily newspaper in Lisbon, Portugal* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.=== Film and television ===* ''Capital'' (film), a 2012 French drama* ''Capital'' (British TV series), a 2015 adaptation of Lanchester's novel* ''Capital'' (Iranian TV series), 2011–2020* Capital TV, a former British rolling-music TV channel * Capital TV (Belarus), a TV channel* CTC (TV station), formerly called Capital Television, Ten Capital and Capital 7* Capital Television (New Zealand), a former television channel in Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, operated by TVNZ=== Music ===* ''Capital'' (album), by Mick Softley, 1976* Capital (band), a British band* \"Capital (It Fails Us Now)\", a song by Gang of Four from the 1982 album ''Another Day/Another Dollar''" ], [ "Education", "* Capital College (disambiguation), the name of several institutions* Capital Community College, in Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.* Capital University, in Bexley, Ohio, U.S.* Capital University, Jharkhand, in India" ], [ "Sports", "* Capital CF, a Brazilian football club* Delhi Capitals, an Indian cricket team* Delhi Capitals (basketball), an Indian basketball team* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team* Edmonton Capitals, a Canadian baseball team* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team* Washington Capitals, an American ice hockey team" ], [ "Transportation", "* ''Capital'' (sidewheeler), a 19th-century American steamboat* Capital Airlines (disambiguation), several uses* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel" ], [ "Other uses", "* Capital (radio network), a group of radio stations operating across the United Kingdom* Capitals (typeface), a serif font composed entirely of capital letters" ], [ "See also", "* * * Capitalism (disambiguation)* Capitalization (disambiguation)* Capital City (disambiguation)* Capital Radio (disambiguation)* Capital region (disambiguation)* Captal, a medieval feudal title in Gascony*" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Central Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Central Europe''' is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe.", "Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in this region also share certain historical and cultural similarities.Whilst the region is variously defined, it often includes Austria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.", "From the early 16th century until the early 18th century, parts of present-day Croatia and Hungary were under Ottoman rule.", "During the 17th century, the empire also occupied southern parts of present-day Slovakia.", "During the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Meanwhile, the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia (Czechia), the Duchy of Carniola (part of present-day Slovenia), the various German Principalities and the Old Swiss Confederacy were within the Holy Roman Empire.", "By the end of the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy, a prominent power within the empire, expanded its dominion and reigned over the territories of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts of Serbia, Germany, Italy, Poland and Switzerland.", "After World War I, the territories of Croatia and Slovenia became part of Yugoslavia, in which they remained until 1991.The countries that make up Central Europe have historically been, and in some cases continue to be, divided into either Eastern or Western Europe.", "After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the communist Eastern Bloc, although Switzerland, Yugoslavia, and Austria declared neutrality.", "The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division.", "Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe.Central Europe began a \"strategic awakening\" in the late 20th and early 21st century, with initiatives such as Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group.", "This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression." ], [ "Historical perspective", "===Middle Ages and early modern period===In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region.", "Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, while Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east.", "However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities.From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the Carpathian Basin was part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of the Pannonian Avars.", "While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively.", "Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of the Merovingian dynasty, and later the Carolingian dynasty.", "Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czechia, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.", "The territory of Lithuania was inhabited by Baltic tribes.", "Amongst them were the Samogitians and Aukštaitians.The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III.", "At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, Czechia, Slovenia and Switzerland.", "Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czechia and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe.", "In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating in the Ural Mountains and Western Siberia, settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by Alcuin of York in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance, limited to the territories that practised Western Christianity at the time.Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically Catholicism and Latin.", "Eastern Europe, with the exclusion of eastern Central Europe, remained largely Eastern Orthodox, and was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence.", "After the East–West Schism in 1054, it developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic and Protestant influence within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language, and the Cyrillic alphabet.Francia 814.svg|Frankish Empire and its tributaries in 814East Francia 843.svg|East Francia in 843Great moravia svatopluk.png|Possible furthest extent of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (870–894)Duchy of Poland 1000.svg|Poland under the Piast Dynasty in 1000Kingdom of Hungary 1190.svg|Kingdom of Hungary in 1190Holy Roman Empire (c. 1600).svg|Holy Roman Empire in 1600Map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1619–1621).png|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefs in 1619According to historian Jenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments.", "Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics.", "The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe.", "These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties.In 1335, the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary and Croatia met in the castle of Visegrád and agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring the post-Cold War Visegrád Group.In 1386, the Grand Duke of Lithuania became King of Poland through marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland.", "This led to the Union of Krewo, a personal union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.", "This commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities, laying the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569.Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the territory of modern Croatia served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean.", "The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time.", "Following the Ottoman and Habsburg wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, under Habsburg rule, began to regain its position as a significant trade route, restoring ports and revitalising commercial activity.===Before World War I===A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First World War (1902): Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world.", "Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind.", "Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century.", "However, the very first concept mixed science, politics and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called ''Mitteleuropa''.", "At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the ''mitteleuropäische Lösung'' (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others.", "An imperialistic idea of ''Mitteleuropa'' also became popular in the German Empire established in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth.", "The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the ''Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit'' (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-day Central European Time.The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans.", "An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch's book of 1903.On 21 January 1904, ''Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein'' (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim.", "Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination.", "The \"bible\" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann's book ''Mitteleuropa'' in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's idea was that the federation would have at its centre in Germany and the Habsburg empire would incorporate all European nations outside the Triple Entente.", "The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I.", "The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.===Interwar period===According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland.", "The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, but he doesn't take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, infrastructural developments in these countries.The interwar period (1918–1938) brought a new geopolitical system, as well as economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took on a different character.", "The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – particularly to the countries that had (re)appeared on the map of Europe.", "Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic and national problems of \"new\" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures.", "However, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (''Międzymorze'') ideas succeeded.", "Hungarian historian Ádám Magda wrote in her study ''Versailles System and Central Europe'' (2006): \"Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down\".", "These matters were not helped by the fact that Czechoslovakia appeared alone as the only multicultural, democratic, and liberal state among its neighbors.", "The events preceding World War II in Europe—including the so-called Western betrayal/ Munich Agreement were very much enabled by the rising nationalism and ethnocentrism that typified that time period.The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe.", "Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, with non-German speaking territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership position was to be the natural result of economic dominance.", "After the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept.", "At that time the scientists took an interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s.", "The ''Sourcebook of Central European avantgards'' (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.===Mitteleuropa===With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire around 1800, there was a consolidation of power among the Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns as the two major states in the area.", "They had much in common and occasionally cooperated in various channels, but more often competed.", "One approach in the various attempts at cooperation, was the conception of a set of supposed common features and interests, and this idea led to the first discussions of a ''Mitteleuropa'' in the mid-nineteenth century, as espoused by Friedrich List and Karl Ludwig Bruck.", "These were mostly based on economic issues.", "''Mitteleuropa'' may refer to a historical concept, or to a contemporary German definition of Central Europe.", "As a historical concept, the German term ''Mitteleuropa'' (or alternatively its literal translation into English, ''Middle Europe'') is an ambiguous German concept.", "It is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under Germanic cultural hegemony until World War I (usually excluding the Baltic countries north of East Prussia).", "According to Fritz Fischer ''Mitteleuropa'' was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.", "Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic \"Drang nach Westen\" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a ''Mitteleuropa'' ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line.The term \"Mitteleuropa\" conjures up negative historical associations among some elderly people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.", "Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.", "Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of \"Mitteleuropa\" sought to destroy this culture.", "The term \"Mitteleuropa\" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism.", "Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term \"Mitteleuropa\".===Central Europe during World War II===During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany.", "Many areas were a battle area and were devastated.", "The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out.", "Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of \"live and let live\" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe.", "There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war.", "While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia.", "There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria.", "There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued this goal.", "The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the USA.", "So Otto von Habsburg also tried to detach Hungary from its grasp by Nazi Germany and the USSR.", "There were various considerations to prevent German power in Europe after the war.", "Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna and Budapest before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff.", "As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control.===Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain===Neutral and Non-Aligned European States during the Cold War: Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc.", "The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain.The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine.", "On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.", "Following the Fall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research.According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (''Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term'') most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet satellites.", "Besides Switzerland and Austria, only the marginal European states of Cyprus, Finland, Malta, Sweden and Yugoslavia preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe.The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated.", "It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961.After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachevto an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary.", "The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all.", "This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism.===Roles===According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Polish, Hungarian and Czechoslovak presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways.", "According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse \"Central European identity\" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.", "He says there is no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, or Bulgaria are parts of Central Europe." ], [ "Definitions", "Geopolitical Challenges – Panel on the Future of EuropeThe issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates.", "Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author.", "The concept of \"Central Europe\" appeared in the 19th century.", "It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas, of Europe.", "Thinkers portrayed \"Central Europe\" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions.In the early nineteenth century, the terms \"Middle\" or \"Central\" Europe (known as \"Mitteleuropa\" in German and \"Europe centrale\" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages.", "At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority.", "However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I.The concept of \"Central\" or \"Middle Europe,\" understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII.", "Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of \"Central/Middle Europe\" into an anachronism.", "On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as \"Eastern European\" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s.For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War.", "A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as \"Central European.", "\", while avoiding the stained wording of \"Middle Europe,\" which they associated with German influence in the region.", "This reinvented concept of \"Central Europe\" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.=== Academic ===The main proposed regional definitions, gathered by Polish historian Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:* West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950, distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: German West-Centre, with imperial tradition of the ''Reich'', and the East-Centre covered by variety of nations ''from Finland to Greece'', placed between great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union.", "* Central Europe as the area of cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of the concept.", "* Central Europe as a region connected to the Western civilisation since the foundation of the local states and churches, including countries such as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Kingdom of Croatia, Holy Roman Empire, later German Empire and the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Crown of Bohemia.", "Central Europe understood in this way borders on Russia and South-Eastern Europe, but the exact frontier of the region is difficult to determine.Habsburg-ruled lands (divided between Cisleithanian/Austrian-administered and Transalthanian/Hungarian-administered)* Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg Empire – a concept which is popular in regions along the river Danube: Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Slovenia, large parts of Bosnia, Croatia and Romania.", "Also, smaller parts of Poland, Serbia and Ukraine.", "* A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by the Russian historiography..* A concept putting the accent on links with the West, especially from the 19th century and the grand period of liberation and formation of Nation-states – this idea is represented by the South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the \"East Centre\" expressing their links with Western culture.Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:* One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between the Catholic West and the Orthodox East.", "The pagans of Central Europe were converted to Catholicism while in Southeastern and Eastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "* Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe.", "Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories.", "The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than present-day Hungary, while Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century.", "Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one.", "For example, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but years ago they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community.", "However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).=== Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries ===The World Factbook defines Central Europe as: Austria, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.", "''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' includes: Austria, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland.", "While it does not have a single article defining Central Europe, Encyclopædia Britannica includes the following countries in Central Europe in one or more of its articles: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.The German Encyclopaedia ''Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon'' (''Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia''), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West.", "The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate.", "Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Austria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.According to ''Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon'', Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France.The German (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries.", "The first follows international borders of current countries.", "The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria.", "In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France.=== Geographical ===Travel time by car or ferry from the geographical center of EuropeThere is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically.At times, the term \"Central Europe\" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and usually also Austria and Germany.=== Governmental and standards organisations ===The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.=== Map gallery ===Central Europe Katzenstein.png|Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997):Visegrad group countries.png|According to ''The Economist'' and Ronald Tiersky, a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group.Central Europe (Lonnie R. Johnson)2.PNG|Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011):Central-Europe-Encarta.png|Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009):Central Europe (Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon).PNG|The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):Central Europe (Brockhaus).PNG|Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998)Central-Europe-SwanseaUniv.png|Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)Central Europe (by E. Schenk).PNG|Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)Central Europe (by A.Mutton).PNG|Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in ''Central Europe.", "A Regional and Human Geography'' (1961)Central Europe (Mayers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon).PNG|Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)" ], [ "States", "European sub-regions according to EuroVocThe choice of states that make up ''Central Europe'' is an ongoing source of controversy.", "Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below:*Austria*Croatia*Czech Republic*Germany*Hungary*Lithuania*Poland*Slovakia*Slovenia*SwitzerlandDepending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries.", "In this case Austria, Germany and Switzerland are often placed in Western Europe, while Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are placed in Eastern Europe.Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe.", "Additionally, Hungary and Slovenia are sometimes included in the region.Lithuania is alternatively placed in Northeastern Europe.Regions used for statistical processing purposes by the United Nations Statistics Division===Other countries and regions===Some sources also add regions of neighbouring countries for historical reasons, or based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:*Bosnia and Herzegovina (as a former part of the Habsburg monarchy, alternatively placed in Southern or Southeast Europe)*Estonia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa', alternatively placed in Eastern, Northeastern or Northern Europe)*Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and Gorizia, Friuli, Lombardy, and Veneto or all of Northern Italy)*Latvia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa')*Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș, Bukovina and Muntenia along with Oltenia)*Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast)*Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe)*Ukraine (Transcarpathia, Galicia and Northern Bukovina)" ], [ "Geography", "The Danube watercourse system throughout Central and Southeastern EuropeGeography defines Central Europe's natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the north across the Baltic Sea, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia), and to the south across the Alps, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy), and the Balkan peninsula across the Soča–Krka–Sava–Danube line.", "The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined, and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily west–east than south–north.", "The river Rhine, which runs south–north through Western Germany, is an exception.Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube – and their respective floodplains.", "The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine (\"peri- Pannonian states\").As the southeastern division of the Eastern Alps, the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south.", "According to the Freie Universität Berlin, this mountain chain is classified as South Central European.", "The city of Trieste in this area, for example, expressly sees itself as a ''città mitteleuropea''.", "This is particularly because it lies at the interface between the Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Greek and Jewish culture on the one hand and the geographical area of the Mediterranean and the Alps on the other.", "A geographical and cultural assignment is made.The Central European flora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia." ], [ "Demography", "Population density in Central European countriesPopulation density (people per km2) by countryCentral Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions.", "It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population.", "Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe (\"the core countries\") number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.", "Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents, Czech Republic at 10.5 million, Hungary at 10 million, Austria with 8.8 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million, Slovakia at 5.4 million, Slovenia with 2.1 million and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000.If the countries which are occasionally included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Croatia (4.3 million), Romania (20 million), Lithuania (2.9 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million) – it would contribute to the rise of between 25 and 35 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.", "If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people figure." ], [ "Economy", "===Currencies===Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, and Slovenia.", "The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (Czech koruna, Hungarian forint, Polish złoty), but are obliged to adopt the Euro.", "Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (Serbian dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu).===Human Development Index===}In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No.", "2 in the world.", "Serbia rounded out the list at No.", "11 (67 world).===Globalisation===Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization IndexThe index of globalization in Central European countries (2016 data):Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world).===Prosperity Index===Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data).", "Switzerland topped the index (#4 world).===Corruption===}Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data), led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.====Rail====Rail network densityCentral Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austro-Hungarian and German territories between 1860-1870s.", "By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, and Buda/Pest were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste).", "By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary reached .Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world.", "Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, is the highest in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary (98.7), Serbia (49.2), Slovakia (73.9) and Croatia (72.5).====River transport and canals====Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade.", "Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which connected Timișoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via Danube.", "The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century.The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity.", "Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early: the Czech lands by 1797,The industrialization of the cities of Romania and Serbia and Serbia started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era.====Agriculture====Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world.", "Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010, third producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, sixth largest milk producer, and fifth largest potato producer.", "Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberries, currants, third largest of rye, the fifth apple and buckwheat producer, and seventh largest producer of potatoes.", "Czech Republic is world's fourth largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale.", "Hungary is world's fifth hops and seventh largest triticale producer.", "Serbia is world's second largest producer of plums and second largest of raspberries.", "Slovenia is world's sixth hops producer.====Business====Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background.====Tourism====Central European countries, especially Austria, Croatia, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations." ], [ "Education", "===Languages======Education performance===Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment.", "In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.===Higher education===Karolinum of the Charles University in Prague====Universities====The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was in Prague in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor.", "The Charles University was modeled upon the University of Paris and initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology.====Central European University====The entrance of the Central European University in BudapestIn 1991, Ernest Gellner proposed the establishment of a truly Central European institution of higher learning in Prague (1991–1995).", "Eventually, the Central European University (CEU) project was taken on and financially supported by the Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who had provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe.", "Over its 30-year history CEU has become one of the most internationally diverse and recognisable universities in the world.", "For example, as of 2019, 1217 students were enrolled in the university, of which 962 were international students, making the student body the fourth most international in the world.", "CEU offers highly selective programs with a student to faculty ratio of 7:1.In 2021, the admission rate into its programs was 13%.", "CEU has thus become a leading global university in Europe promoting a distinctively Central European perspective while emphasizing academic rigor, applied research, and academic honesty and integrity.", "CEU is a founding member of CIVICCA, a group of prestigious European higher education institutions in the social sciences, humanities, business management and public policy, such as Sciences Po (France), The London School of Economics and Political Science (UK), Bocconi University (Italy) and the Stockholm School of Economics (Sweden).", "In 2019, Central European University leadership announced their preparatory work on moving CEU to Vienna due to legal constraints against academic freedom in Hungary." ], [ "Culture and society", "===Research===Research centres of Central European literature include Harvard University (Cambridge, MA), Purdue University, and Central European Studies Programme (CESP), Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.===Architecture======Religion===Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) or historically both Catholic and Protestant (the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Switzerland).", "Large Protestant groups include Lutheran, Calvinist, and the Unity of the Brethren affiliates.", "Significant populations of Eastern Catholicism and Old Catholicism are also prevalent throughout Central Europe.", "Orthodox Christianity is a minority denomination observed to varying extents across Central Europe.Central Europe has been the center of the Protestant movement for centuries, with the majority of Protestants suppressed and annihilated during the Counterreformation.Historically, people in Bohemia in today's Czech Republic were one of the very first Protestants in Europe.", "As a result of the Thirty Years' War following the Bohemian Revolt, many Czechs were either killed, executed (see for Old Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated to Scandinavia and the Low Countries.", "In the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in the Kingdom of Bohemia decreased from three million to only 800,000 due to multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significant Battle of White Mountain and the Battle of Prague (1648).", "However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%).Before the Holocaust (1941–45), there was also a sizeable Ashkenazi Jewish community in the region, numbering approximately 16.7 million people.", "Poland, Lithuania and Hungary had the largest Jewish populations in Europe as a percentage of their total populations, with Jews constituting 9.5% of the Polish population in 1933.Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeable atheist and non-religious populations.", "In 2021, 48% of the Czech population declared that they had no religion.", "In 2022, 43.8% of the German population declared that they had no religion.", "Meanwhile, 33.5% of the Swiss population stated that they were not affiliated with any religion.===Cuisine===Central European cuisine has evolved over centuries due to social and political change and is generally diverse.", "However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe.", "Sausages and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyavia region, Poland).", "However, they are not a prominent feature of Hungarian and Slovak cuisine.", "Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables.", "Schnitzel, goulash and cabbage rolls are popular in the region.", "Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita globally, followed by Austria, with Germany coming 4th.===Human rights===Generally, the countries in the region are progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections.", "However, Central European countries are divided on the subject of same-sex marriage and abortion.", "Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundations.===Literature===Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity.", "Its existence is sometimes challenged.", "Specific courses on Central European literature are taught at Stanford University, Harvard University and Jagiellonian University as well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature.", "Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region.", "Likewise, the Vilenica International Literary Prize is awarded to a Central European author for \"outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing\".===Media======Sport===There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues.", "They include:*Central European Tour Miskolc GP (Hungary)**Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary)*2008 Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)**2023 Central Europe Rally (Germany, Austria and Czech Republic)*Central European Football League (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)*Central European International Cup (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927–1960)*Central Europe Throwdown*Football is one of the most popular sports.", "Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions.", "Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and the UEFA Euro 1988.Yugoslavia hosted the UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition expanded to 8 teams.", "Recently, the 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively.", "The UEFA Euro 2024 will be hosted by Germany." ], [ "Politics", "===Organisations===Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:*Visegrád Group*Central European Defence Cooperation*Three Seas Initiative *Centrope*Central European Initiative*Middleeuropean Initiative*Central European Free Trade AgreementVisegrad group countries.svg|Visegrád GroupCEDC.svg|Central European Defence CooperationThree Seas Initiative.svg|Three Seas Initiative CEI members.svg|Central European InitiativeCEFTA 1992.PNG|CEFTA founding statesCEFTA 2003.PNG|CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EUEurope-cefta-map.png|Current CEFTA members===Democracy Index===The Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy index map for 2022, with greener colours representing more democratic countriesCentral Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies.", "However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarianism, particularly Fascism and Nazism.", "Germany and Italy occupied all Central European countries, except Switzerland.", "In all occupied countries, the Axis powers suspended democracy and installed puppet regimes loyal to the occupation forces.", "Also, they forced conquered countries to apply racial laws and formed military forces for helping German and Italian struggle against Communists.", "After World War II, almost the whole of Central Europe (the Eastern and Middle part) had been transformed into communist states, most of which had been occupied and later allied with the Soviet Union, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g., Polish people's referendum in 1946) or force (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia).", "Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them.", "Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index.===Global Peace Index===Global Peace Index ScoresIn spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions.", "Most Central European countries are in top 20%." ], [ "Central European Time", "Central European Time zone (dark red)The time zone is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time.", "Countries using CET include:* Albania* Andorra* Austria* Belgium* Bosnia and Herzegovina* Croatia* Czech Republic* Denmark* France* Germany* Hungary* Italy* Luxembourg* Monaco* Montenegro* Netherlands* North Macedonia* Norway* Poland* San Marino* Slovakia * Slovenia*Serbia* Sweden* Switzerland * Vatican City" ], [ "In popular culture", "Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode of ''Lovejoy'', entitled \"The Prague Sun\", filmed in 1992.While walking over the well-regarded and renowned Charles Bridge in Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: \"I've never been to Prague before.", "Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe.", "Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'!", "The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as ''turnip heads''.", "\"Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning film ''The Grand Budapest Hotel'' depicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe which is in actuality modeled on the Grandhotel Pupp in Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic.", "The film is a celebration of the 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities." ], [ "See also", "* Central and Eastern Europe* Central European Initiative* Central European Time (CET)* Central European University* East-Central Europe* Eurovoc* Geographical midpoint of Europe* Life zones of central Europe* Międzymorze (Intermarum)* Mitteleuropa" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ===" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries.", "Eds.", "G. Demeter, P. Peykovska.", "2015" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ágh, Attila.", "''Declining Democracy in East-Central Europe: The Divide in the EU and Emerging Hard Populism'' (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019).", "* Baldersheim, Harald, ed.", "''Local democracy and the processes of transformation in East-Central Europe'' (Routledge, 2019).", "* * * Centre of Central European Studies, ''Agrarianism in Central and Eastern Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries'' (2013) online review.", "* * Gardner, Hall, ed.", "''Central and South-central Europe in Transition'' (Praeger, 2000)* * * Lederer, David.", "''Early Modern Central European History'' (2011) online review by Linnéa Rowlatt* * * * * * 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp.", "14–15 (November 2005)" ], [ "External links", "* ''Journal of East Central Europe''* Central European Political Science Association's journal \"Politics in Central Europe\"* CEU Political Science Journal (PSJ)* Central European Journal of International and Security Studies * Central European Political Studies Review* The Centrope region* Maps of Europe and European countries* CENTRAL EUROPE 2020 * Central Europe Economy* UNHCR Office for Central Europe" ] ]

[ [ "Geography of Canada" ], [ "Introduction", " Canada has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing a land border with the contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest.", "Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.", "Greenland is to the northeast with a shared border on Hans Island.", "To the southeast Canada shares a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the last vestige of New France.", "By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.", "By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.", "Of Canada's thirteen provinces and territories, only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans.Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies from the North Pole.", "Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost.", "Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of ; additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching .", "Three of Canada's Arctic islands, Baffin Island, Victoria Island and Ellesmere Island, are among the ten largest in the world.Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago.", "Canada is also divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones, encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life.", "Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield; 42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly of spruce, poplar and pine.", "Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than —which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.", "There are also freshwater glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.", "A recent global remote sensing analysis also suggested that there were 6,477 km2 of tidal flats in Canada, making it the 5th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.", "Protected areas of Canada and National Wildlife Areas have been established to preserve ecosystems.Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably the Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.", "Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range from Arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons." ], [ "Physiography {{anchor|Physical geography}}", "Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago.Canada covers and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions, of which there are seven main regions.", "Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of .", "The physical geography of Canada is widely varied.", "Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northerly Arctic regions and through the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.", "The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.The National Topographic System is used by Natural Resources Canada for providing general purpose topographic maps of the country.", "The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features.", "These maps are used by all levels of government and industry for forest fire and flood control (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.===Appalachian Mountains===The Appalachian mountain range extends from Alabama in southern United States through the Gaspé Peninsula and the Atlantic Provinces, creating rolling hills indented by river valleys.", "It also runs through parts of southern Quebec.The Appalachian Mountains (more specifically the Chic-Choc, Notre Dame, and Long Range Mountains) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age.", "Notable mountains in the Appalachians include Mount Jacques-Cartier (Quebec, ), Mount Carleton (New Brunswick, ), The Cabox (Newfoundland, ).", "Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich endemic flora and fauna and are considered to have been nunataks during the last glaciation era.===Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands===A map of the Great Lakes Basin showing the five sub-basins within.", "Left to right they are: Superior, including Nipigon's basin, (magenta); Michigan (cyan); Huron (pale green); Erie (yellow); Ontario (light coral).===Canadian Shield===The Canadian Shield is a broad region of Precambrian rock (pictured in shades of red)The northeastern part of Alberta, northern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec, all of Labrador and the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, eastern mainland Northwest Territories, most of Nunavut's mainland and, of its Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Island and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands are located on a vast rock base known as the Canadian Shield.", "The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for hydroelectric production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario.", "The Shield also encloses an area of wetlands around the Hudson Bay.", "Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as mountain ranges, including the Torngat and Laurentian Mountains.The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions.", "Boreal forest covers much of the shield, with a mix of conifers that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as the Central Canadian Shield forests ecoregion that covers much of Northern Ontario.The Canadian Shield is known for its vast mineral reserves such as emeralds, diamonds and copper, and is there also called the \"mineral house\".===Canadian Interior Plains===Palliser's Triangle, delineating prairie soil types in the Prairie provinces.===Canadian Arctic===While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly endless permafrost and tundra north of the tree line, it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the Arctic Cordillera (with the British Empire Range and the United States Range on Ellesmere Island) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world.", "The Arctic Lowlands and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geologic area).", "The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most of Nunavut and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories, Yukon, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador.", "The archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than , and cover a total area of .===Western Cordillera===Map of the Hart Ranges in British ColumbiaThe Coast Mountains in British Columbia run from the lower Fraser River and the Fraser Canyon northwestward, separating the Interior Plateau from the Pacific Ocean.", "Its southeastern end is separated from the North Cascades by the Fraser Lowland, where nearly a third of Western Canada's population reside.The coastal flank of the Coast Mountains is characterized by an intense network of fjords and associated islands, very similar to the Norwegian coastline in Northern Europe; while their inland side transitions to the high plateau with dryland valleys notable for a series of large alpine lakes similar to those in southern Switzerland, beginning in deep mountains and ending in flatland.", "They are subdivided in three main groups, the Pacific Ranges between the Fraser River and Bella Coola, the Kitimat Ranges from there northwards to the Nass River, and the Boundary Ranges from there to the mountain terminus in Yukon at Champagne Pass and Chilkat Pass northwest of Haines, Alaska.", "The Saint Elias Mountains lie to their west and northwest, while the Yukon Ranges and Yukon Basin lie to their north.", "On the inland side of the Boundary Ranges are the Tahltan and Tagish Highlands and also the Skeena Mountains, part of the Interior Mountains system, which also extend southwards on the inland side of the Kitimat Ranges.The terrain of the main spine of the Coast Mountains is typified by heavy glaciation, including several very large icefields of varying elevation.", "Of the three subdivisions, the Pacific Ranges are the highest and are crowned by Mount Waddington, while the Boundary Ranges contain the largest icefields, the Juneau Icefield being the largest.", "The Kitimat Ranges are lower and less glacier-covered than either of the other two groupings, but are extremely rugged and dense.The Coast Mountains are made of igneous and metamorphic rock from an episode of arc volcanism related to subduction of the Kula and Farallon Plates during the Laramide orogeny about 100 million years ago.", "The widespread granite forming the Coast Mountains formed when magma intruded and cooled at depth beneath volcanoes of the Coast Range Arc whereas the metamorphic formed when intruding magma heated the surrounding rock to produce schist.The Insular Mountains extend from Vancouver Island in the south to the Haida Gwaii in the north on the British Columbia Coast.", "It contains two main mountain ranges, the Vancouver Island Ranges on Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Mountains on Haida Gwaii.===Hudson Bay Lowlands===The Hudson Bay Lowlands approximately coincide with the Southern Hudson Bay taiga ecoregion of North America.====Extreme points====Topographic mapThe northernmost point of land within the boundaries of Canada is Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut .", "The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Zenith Point on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut .", "The southernmost point is Middle Island, in Lake Erie, Ontario (41°41′N 82°40′W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on the Ontario–Ohio border (41°40′35″N).", "The southernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Point Pelee, Ontario .", "The lowest point is sea level at 0 m, whilst the highest point is Mount Logan, Yukon, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft .", "The westernmost point is Boundary Peak 187 (60°18′22.929″N 141°00′7.128″W) at the southern end of the Yukon–Alaska border, which roughly follows 141°W but leans very slightly east as it goes North .", "The easternmost point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland (47°31′N 52°37′W) .", "The easternmost point of the Canadian mainland is Elijah Point, Cape St. Charles, Labrador (52°13′N 55°37′W) .The Canadian pole of inaccessibility is allegedly near Jackfish River, Alberta (59°2′N 112°49′W).", "The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the southwest tip of Kluane National Park and Reserve (next to Mount Saint Elias) and Cripple Cove, Newfoundland (near Cape Race) at a distance of ." ], [ "Climatology {{Anchor|Climate}}", "Köppen climate classification types of CanadaClimate varies widely from region to region.", "Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near , but can drop below with severe wind chills.", "In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round.", "Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter.", "On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from , with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding .Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.", "Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by , with changes ranging from in various regions, since 1948.The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.", "In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada." ], [ "Biogeography", "ELC Ecozones and ecoprovinces of CanadaCanada is divided into fifteen major terrestrial and five marine ecozones, that are further subdivided into 53 ecoprovinces, 194 ecoregions, and 1,027 ecodistricts.", "These eco-areas encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.", "Due to pollution, loss of biodiversity, over-exploitation of commercial species, invasive species, and habitat loss, there are currently more than 800 wild life species at risk of being lost.Canada's major biomes are the tundra, boreal forest, grassland, and temperate deciduous forest.", "British Columbia contains several smaller biomes, including; mountain forest which extends to Alberta, and a small temperate rainforest along the Pacific coast, the semi arid desert located in the Okanagan and alpine tundra in the higher mountainous regions.Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.", "Approximately half of Canada is covered by forest, totaling around .", "The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on earth, with around undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.", "The Canadian Arctic tundra is the second-largest vegetation region in the country consisting of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses and lichens.Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.", "Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas." ], [ "Palaeogeography" ], [ "Hydrography", "Rivers of CanadaCanada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 7% of the world's renewable water supply, Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than —which is more than any other country and has the third largest amount of glacier water.", "Canada is also home to about twenty five percent (134.6 million ha) of the world's wetlands that support a vast array of local ecosystems.Canada's waterways host forty-seven rivers of at least in length, with the two longest being the Mackenzie River, that begins at Great Slave Lake and ends in the Arctic Ocean, with its drainage basin covering a large part of northwestern Canada, and the Saint Lawrence River, which drains the Great Lakes into the Gulf of St. Lawrence ending in the Atlantic Ocean.", "The Mackenzie, including its tributaries is over in length and lies within the second largest drainage basin of North America, while the St. Lawrence in length, drains the world's largest system of freshwater lakes.The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Ocean continental divide), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario.", "It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably the Saguenay, Manicouagan, and Ottawa rivers.", "The Great Lakes and Lake Nipigon are also drained by the St. Lawrence.", "The Churchill River and Saint John River are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.thumbThe Hudson Bay watershed drains over a third of Canada.", "It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut, and the southern half of Baffin Island.", "This basin is most important in fighting drought in the prairies and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec.", "Major elements of this watershed include Lake Winnipeg, Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan Rivers, Assiniboine River, and Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island.", "Wollaston Lake lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and drains into both.", "It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.The continental divide in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds.", "This watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British Columbia (such as the Okanagan and Kootenay valleys), and is used to produce hydroelectricity.", "Major elements are the Yukon, Columbia and Fraser rivers.The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the Arctic watershed.", "This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the Mackenzie River.", "The Peace, Athabasca and Liard Rivers, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed.", "Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through the Milk River and its tributaries.", "The Milk River originates in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United States, where it is drained by the Missouri River.", "A small area of southwestern Saskatchewan is drained by Battle Creek, which empties into the Milk River." ], [ "Natural resources", "Canada's abundance of natural resources is reflected in their continued importance in the economy of Canada.", "Major resource-based industries are fisheries, forestry, agriculture, petroleum products and mining.The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest.", "Unmatched cod stocks on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th century.", "Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and their conservation has become a preoccupation of the Atlantic Provinces.", "On the West Coast, tuna stocks are now restricted.", "The less depleted (but still greatly diminished) salmon population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry.", "Canada claims of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of , an exclusive economic zone of with and a continental shelf of or to the edge of the continental margin.Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops.", "Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by permanent pastures.", "Canada has of irrigated land (1993 estimate).", "Agricultural regions in Canada include the Canadian Prairies, the Lower Mainland and various regions within the Interior of British Columbia, the St. Lawrence Basin and the Canadian Maritimes.", "Main crops in Canada include flax, oats, wheat, maize, barley, sugar beets and rye in the prairies; flax and maize in Western Ontario; Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes.", "Fruit and vegetables are grown primarily in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, Southwestern Ontario, the Golden Horseshoe region of Ontario, along the south coast of Georgian Bay and in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia.", "Cattle and sheep are raised in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia.", "Cattle, sheep and hogs are raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes.", "There are significant dairy regions in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley, northeastern Ontario, southwestern Ontario, the Red River valley of Manitoba and the valleys in the British Columbia Interior, on Vancouver Island and in the Lower Mainland.The bulk of oil and gas production occurs in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (mostly light green), which stretches from southwestern Manitoba to northeastern British Columbia.Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, with oil and gas being extracted from deposits in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin since the mid-1900s.", "While Canada's crude oil deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta's Oil Sands to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world.", "In other forms, Canadian industry has a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves.Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive.", "Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves.", "Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers.", "Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals.", "The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario.", "Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater.", "The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin.", "Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater.", "The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric power.", "Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy." ], [ "Environmental issues", "Industry is a significant source of air pollution in Canada.Air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affects lakes and damages forests.", "Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impact agricultural and forest productivity.", "Ocean waters are also becoming contaminated by agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.Global climate change and the warming of the polar region will likely cause significant changes to the environment, including loss of the polar bear, the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to the Panama Canal through the Northwest Passage.Canada is currently warming at twice the global average, and this is effectively irreversible." ], [ "Political geography", "link=Provinces and territories of CanadaCanada is divided into ten provinces and three territories.", "According to Statistics Canada, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the 49th parallel, and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between Windsor, Ontario, and Quebec City.", "This leaves the vast majority of Canada's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is , among the lowest in the world.", "Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada's population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing.Canada shares with the U.S. the world's longest binational border at ; are with Alaska.", "The Danish island dependency of Greenland lies to Canada's northeast, separated from the Canadian Arctic islands by Baffin Bay and Davis Strait.", "As of June 14, 2022, Canada shares a land border with Greenland on Hans Island.", "The French islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon lie off the southern coast of Newfoundland in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada's exclusive economic zone.Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well.", "Canada's position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles.", "Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada's Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage." ], [ "See also", "* Atlas of Canada* ''Canadian Geographic''* Canadian Rockies* Extreme points of North America* List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories* National Parks of Canada* List of Ultras of Canada* Mountain peaks of Canada* Temperature in Canada*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***** * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Government of Canada – The Atlas of Canada* Canadian Geographic – The Canadian Atlas Online* Cartography of Canada – The Canadian Map Online* Canada.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency." ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of Canada" ], [ "Introduction", "Historical population of CanadaStatistics Canada conducts a country-wide census that collects demographic data every five years on the first and sixth year of each decade.", "The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure, Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.", "The main driver of population growth is immigration.", "Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.", "Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven mainly by economic policy and, to a lesser extent, family reunification.", "In 2021, a total of 405,330 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from South Asia.", "New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.", "Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements." ], [ "Population", "Population density of Canadian provinces and territoriesThe 2021 Canadian census had a total population count of 36,991,981 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population.", "A population estimate for 2023 put the total number of people in Canada at 40,097,761.Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022:*One birth every 1 minutes*One death every 2 minutes*One net migrant every 2 minutes*Net gain of one person every 1 minuteDeath rate:8.12 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 81Net migration rate:5.46 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 21stUrbanization:urban population: 81.8% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 0.95% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.", ")=== Provinces and territories ===Population Name Population,2021 Census Growth,2016–21 Land area(km2) Populationdensity(per km2)  House ofCommons seatsSenate seats Total Proportion Total ProportionTotalProportion 1 Ontario 38.45% 5.8% 15.2 121 35.8%2422.86% 2 Quebec 22.98% 4.1% 6.5 78 23.1%2422.86% 3 British Columbia 13.52% 7.6% 5.4 42 12.4%65.71% 4 Alberta 11.52% 4.8% 6.7 34 10.1%65.71% 5 Manitoba 3.63% 5.8% 2.3 14 4.1%65.71% 6 Saskatchewan 3.06% 3.4% 2.0 14 4.1%65.71% 7 Nova Scotia 2.62% 5.0% 18.4 11 3.3%109.52% 8 New Brunswick 2.09% 3.8% 10.9 10 3.0%109.52% 9 Newfoundland and Labrador 1.38% −1.8% 1.4 7 2.1%65.71% 10 Prince Edward Island 0.42% 8.0% 27.2 4 1.2%43.81% 11 Northwest Territories 0.11% −1.7% 0.04 1 0.3%10.95% 12 Yukon 0.11% 12.1% 0.08 1 0.3%10.95% 13 Nunavut 0.10% 2.5% 0.02 1 0.3%10.95% ''Total'' Totals ''''''100%''''5.2%'' '''' 4.2 ''338'' ''100%''''105''''100%''==== Population distribution ====The vast majority of Canadians are positioned in a discontinuous band within approximately 300 km of the southern border with the United States; the most populated province is Ontario, followed by Quebec and British Columbia.==== Cities ======== Census metropolitan areas ======= Fertility rate ===Total fertility rate of Canada from 1861 to 2016The total fertility rate is the number of children born in a specific year cohort to the total number of women who can give birth in the country.In 1971, the birth rate for the first time dipped below replacement and since then has not rebounded.Canada's fertility rate hit a record low of 1.4 children born per woman in 2020, below the population replacement level, which stands at 2.1 births per woman.", "In 2020, Canada also experienced the country's lowest number of births in 15 years, also seeing the largest annual drop in childbirths (−3.6%) in a quarter of a century.", "The total birth rate is 10.17 births/1,000 population in 2022.Total fertility rateYears18611862186318641865186618671868186918705.725.635.545.445.355.265.175.074.984.8918711872187318741875187618771878187918804.834.774.754.724.74.684.654.634.64.5318811882188318841885188618871888189918904.564.524.494.454.424.384.354.314.274.2418911892189318941895189618971898189919004.24.194.174.154.134.114.14.084.064.0419011902190319041905190619071908190919104.024.034.034.034.034.044.044.044.044.0519111912191319141915191619171918191919204.0543.953.893.843.793.743.683.633.5819211922192319241925192619271928192919303.533.43.233.223.133.353.323.293.223.2819311932193319341935193619371938193919403.193.082.862.82.752.692.642.72.652.7619411942194319441945194619471948194919502.822.963.0433.013.373.593.443.453.45196119711981199120012006201120162021-3.812.111.651.671.521.61.631.581.46 –==== Mother's mean age at first birth ====Canada is among late-childbearing countries, with the average age of mothers at the first birth being 31.3 years in 2020.Average age of childbirth at first birthYear1945194619471948194919501951195219531954195525.225.124.924.724.624.524.324.224.224.124.1195619571958195919601961196219631964196519662423.923.823.723.723.623.623.623.623.523.51967196819691970197119721973197419751976197723.623.623.723.723.92424.124.324.324.424.51978197919801981198219831984198519861987198824.724.824.92525.125.325.425.525.625.725.81989199019911992199319941995199619971998199925.825.925.926.126.326.226.326.526.726.8272000200120022003200420052006200720082009201027.127.327.527.827.9282828.128.128.228.4201128.5=== Population projection ===Canadian provinces and territories by population growth rate (2016–2021).According to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico.", "According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, for the same period the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people.", "However, over the same period, the population of France grew by 8.0%.", "And from 1991 to 2011, the population of the UK increased by 10.0%.The current population growth rate for Canada in 2022 was 0.75%.=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy in Canada has consistently risen since the country's formation.", "Life expectancy in Canada since 1831Life expectancy in Canada since 1960 by genderLife expectancyYear18311841185118611871188118911901191139.040.341.041.642.644.745.248.652.519211922192319241925192619271928192957.057.056.958.859.257.258.658.457.9193019311932193319341935193619371938193958.960.361.462.362.762.462.761.363.363.7194019411942194319441945194619471948194964.063.764.664.665.366.366.566.767.367.619501950–551955–601960–651965–701970–751975–801980–851985–9068.269.170.371.372.273.074.375.976.81990–951995–20002000–20052005–20102010–20152015–202077.878.679.780.881.883.7'''School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)''':total: 16 years:male: 16 years:female: 17 years (2016)'''Infant mortality rate''':total: 4.5 deaths/1,000 live births.", "Country comparison to the world: 180th:male: 4.8 deaths/1,000 live births:female: 4.2 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.", ")Population pyramid of Canada over time from 1950 to 2020=== Age characteristics ===Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 10.V.2016) (To ensure confidentiality, the values, including totals are randomly rounded either up or down to a multiple of '5' or '10.'", "As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the individual values since totals and sub-totals are independently rounded.", "Similarly, percentages, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 17 264 200 17 887 530 35 151 730 100 0–4 973 030 925 760 1 898 790 5.40 5–9 1 034 685 983 445 2 018 130 5.74 10–14 985 200 937 445 1 922 645 5.47 15–19 1 039 215 986 940 2 026 160 5.76 20–24 1 144 495 1 098 200 2 242 695 6.38 25–29 1 144 475 1 141 515 2 285 990 6.50 30–34 1 148 290 1 181 105 2 329 400 6.63 35–39 1 118 635 1 169 730 2 288 365 6.51 40–44 1 104 445 1 150 690 2 255 135 6.42 45–49 1 157 755 1 202 205 2 359 965 6.71 50–54 1 318 755 1 359 320 2 678 070 7.62 55–59 1 285 190 1 335 050 2 620 240 7.45 60–64 1 114 880 1 175 630 2 290 510 6.52 65–69 953 070 1 019 405 1 972 475 5.61 70–74 677 975 742 900 1 420 875 4.04 75–79 469 550 552 305 1 021 850 2.91 80–84 325 760 423 885 749 645 2.13 85–89 185 535 296 985 482 525 1.37 90–94 68 675 154 835 223 505 0.64 95–99 13 245 43 280 56 525 0.16 100+ 1 340 6 895 8 230 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 992 915 2 846 650 5 839 565 16.61 15–64 11 576 135 11 800 390 23 376 525 66.50 65+ 2 695 150 3 240 490 5 935 640 16.89'''Age structure''':0–14 years: 15.99% (male 3,094,008/female 2,931,953):15–24 years: 11.14% (male 2,167,013/female 2,032,064):25–54 years: 39.81% (male 7,527,554/female 7,478,737):55–64 years: 14.08% (male 2,624,474/female 2,682,858):65 years and over: 18.98% (male 3,274,298/female 3,881,126) (2020 est.", ")'''Median age''':total: 41.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 40th:male: 40.6 years:female: 42.9 years (2020 est.", ")::total: 40.6 years:male: 39.6 years:female: 41.5 years (2011)::'''Median age by province and territory in 2011''':# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0:# Nova Scotia: 43.7:# New Brunswick: 43.7:# Prince Edward Island: 42.8:# Quebec: 41.9:# British Columbia: 41.9:# Ontario: 40.4:# Yukon: 39.1:# Manitoba: 38.4:# Saskatchewan: 38.2:# Alberta: 36.5:# Northwest Territories: 32.3:# Nunavut: 24.1=== Sex ratio ==='''at birth:''' 1.05 male(s)/female'''0–14 years:''' 1.06 male(s)/female'''15–24 years:''' 1.06 male(s)/female'''25–54 years:''' 1.01 male(s)/female'''55–64 years:''' 0.98 male(s)/female'''65 years and over:''' 0.75 male(s)/female'''total population:''' 0.98 male(s)/female (2022 est.Dependency ratios:total dependency ratio: 47.3:youth dependency ratio: 23.5:elderly dependency ratio: 23.8:potential support ratio: 4.2 (2015 est.)" ], [ "Vital statistics", " Average population (on July 1st) Live births Deaths Natural change Birth rate (per 1,000) Death rate (per 1,000) Natural change (per 1,000) Crude Migration change (per 1,000) Total fertility rate 19005,500,000150,00089,00061,00027.216.211.0 19015,600,000175,00079,00096,00031.214.117.10.8 19025,760,000180,00077,000103,00031.313.417.99.94.8 19035,930,000186,00078,000108,00031.313.218.110.6 19046,100,000192,00082,000110,00031.413.517.910.0 19056,280,000195,00082,000113,00031.013.018.010.7 19066,460,000193,00085,000108,00029.913.216.711.2 19076,650,000196,00085,000111,00029.512.816.711.94.74 19086,850,000208,00086,000122,00030.312.617.711.5 19097,040,000213,00090,000123,00030.212.817.49.6 19107,250,000220,00095,000125,00030.413.117.311.7 19117,460,000225,000100,000125,00030.113.416.711.54.7 19127,610,000238,00099,000139,00031.313.019.30.44.62 19137,760,000246,000102,000144,00031.713.119.6−0.3 19147,910,000252,000100,000152,00031.912.619.3−0.3 19158,060,000257,000101,000156,00031.912.519.4−0.8 19168,220,000252,000107,000145,00030.713.017.71.8 19178,380,000244,000106,000138,00029.112.716.42.74.26 19188,450,000243,000134,000109,00028.815.912.9−4.6 19198,710,000241,000119,000122,00027.713.714.015.9 19208,880,000259,000118,000141,00029.213.315.9 3.2 19219,060,000265,000105,000160,00029.311.617.7 2.23.98 19229,230,000261,000107,000154,00028.311.616.7 1.73.86 19239,400,000251,000111,000140,00026.711.814.9 3.2 19249,560,000255,000104,000151,00026.710.915.8 0.9 19259,730,000254,000104,000150,00026.110.715.4 2.1 19269,890,000244,000113,000131,00024.711.413.3 2.9 192710,040,000244,000110,000134,00024.311.013.3 1.63.32 192810,190,000246,000114,000132,00024.111.212.9 1.8 192910,350,000243,000118,000125,00023.511.412.1 3.43.22 193010,498,000251,000113,000138,00023.910.813.1 1.03.28 193110,630,000247,000108,000139,00023.210.213.0−0.63.2 193210,794,000243,000108,000135,00022.510.012.5 2.73.08 193310,919,000229,000106,000123,00021.09.711.3 0.12.86 193411,029,000228,296105,277123,01920.79.511.2−1.22.8 193511,135,000228,396109,724118,67220.59.910.6−1.12.76 193611,242,000227,980111,111116,86920.39.910.4−0.92.70 193711,339,000227,878118,019109,85920.110.49.7−1.12.65 193811,448,000237,091110,647126,44420.79.711.0−1.52.70 193911,565,000237,991112,729125,26220.69.710.9−0.82.65 194011,682,000252,577114,717137,86021.69.811.8−1.82.77 194111,810,000263,993118,797145,19622.410.112.3−1.52.83 194211,962,000281,569117,110164,45923.59.813.7−1.02.96 194312,125,000292,943122,640170,30324.210.114.1−0.73.04 194412,291,000283,967120,393163,57424.09.814.2−0.73.01 194512,441,000300,570117,319183,25124.39.514.8−2.73.02 194612,316,000331,471115,358216,11326.99.417.5−27.63.37 194712,576,000359,943118,157241,78628.69.419.2 1.53.60 194812,852,000348,226119,866228,36027.19.317.8 3.73.44 194913,475,000367,092124,567242,52527.29.218.028.23.46 195013,737,000372,009124,220247,78927.19.018.0 1.13.46 195114,050,000381,092125,823255,26927.19.018.2 4.13.50 195214,496,000403,559126,385277,17427.88.719.1 11.73.64 195314,886,000417,884127,791290,09328.18.619.5 6.73.72 195415,330,000436,198124,855311,34328.58.120.38.73.83 195515,736,000442,937128,476314,46128.18.220.0 5.83.83 195616,123,000450,739131,961318,77828.08.219.84.23.86 195716,677,000469,093136,579332,51428.18.219.9 13.33.93 195817,120,000470,118135,201334,91727.57.919.6 6.33.88 195917,522,000479,275139,913339,36227.48.019.4 3.53.94 196017,909,000478,551139,693338,85826.77.818.9 2.73.895 196118,271,000475,700140,985334,71526.07.718.3 1.53.840 196218,614,000469,693143,699325,99425.27.717.5 0.93.767 196318,964,000465,767147,367318,40024.67.816.8 1.73.694 196419,325,000452,915145,850307,06523.47.515.9 2.83.449 196519,678,000418,595148,939269,65621.37.613.7 4.23.192 196620,048,000387,710149,863237,84719.37.511.9 6.62.749 196720,412,000370,894150,283220,61118.27.410.8 7.02.528 196820,729,000364,310153,196211,11417.67.410.2 5.12.386 196921,028,000369,647154,477215,17017.67.310.24.02.334 197021,324,000371,988155,961216,02717.47.310.13.82.258 197121,962,032362,187157,272204,91516.57.29.319.82.141 197222,218,463347,319162,413184,90615.67.38.33.21.98 197322,491,777343,373164,039179,33415.37.38.04.21.89 197422,807,969350,650166,794183,85615.47.38.15.81.837 197523,143,275359,323167,176192,14715.57.28.36.21.824 197623,449,808359,987167,009192,97815.47.18.24.91.796 197723,725,843361,400167,498193,90215.27.18.23.41.782 197823,963,203358,852168,179190,67315.07.08.01.91.768 197924,201,544366,064168,183197,88115.16.98.21.61.754 198024,515,667370,709171,473199,23615.17.08.14.71.74 198124,819,915371,346171,029200,31715.06.98.14.21.7 198225,116,942373,082174,413198,66914.96.97.93.91.69 198325,366,451373,689174,484199,20514.76.97.91.91.68 198425,607,053377,031175,727201,30414.76.97.91.51.65 198525,842,116375,727181,323194,40414.57.07.51.61.67 198626,100,278372,913184,224188,68914.37.17.22.71.675 198726,446,601369,742184,953184,78914.07.07.06.11.68 198826,791,747376,795190,011186,78414.17.17.05.91.68 198927,276,781392,661190,965201,69614.47.07.410.41.77 199027,691,138405,486191,973213,51314.66.97.77.31.83 199128,037,420403,816195,569208,24714.47.07.45.01.72 199228,371,264399,109196,535202,57414.16.97.14.71.71 199328,684,764389,037204,912184,12513.57.16.44.51.68 199429,000,663386,243207,077179,16613.37.16.14.81.69 199529,302,311378,685210,733167,95212.97.25.74.61.67 199629,610,218366,833212,880153,95312.47.25.25.21.63 199729,905,948349,543215,669133,87411.77.24.45.51.57 199830,155,173342,966218,091124,87511.47.24.14.21.56 199930,401,286337,821219,530118,29111.17.23.94.21.54 200030,685,730328,596218,062110,53410.77.13.65.71.51 200131,020,902334,615219,538115,07710.87.13.77.11.54 200231,360,079329,894223,603106,29110.57.13.47.41.51 200331,644,028336,352226,169110,18310.67.13.45.61.54 200431,940,655339,012226,584112,42810.67.13.55.81.55 200532,243,753345,365230,132115,23310.67.13.55.91.57 200632,571,174357,921228,079129,84210.97.03.96.21.61 200732,889,025370,369235,217135,15211.27.24.05.71.66 200833,247,118381,860238,617143,24311.47.24.26.61.69 200933,628,895384,651238,418146,23311.37.14.27.21.68 201034,004,889379,191240,075139,11611.17.14.07.11.64 201134,339,328379,244243,511135,73311.07.13.95.81.62 201234,714,222383,101246,596136,50511.07.13.96.91.62 201335,082,954381,054252,338128,71610.87.23.66.9 1.60201435,437,435384,577258,821125,75610.87.33.56.51.61201535,702,908382,979264,333118,64610.77.43.34.11.60201636,109,487384,023267,213116,81010.67.43.28.11.59201736,545,236377,627278,29899,32910.37.62.79.21.54201837,065,084374,617285,67588,94210.17.72.411.61.50201937,601,230372,978285,27087,7089.97.62.3 12.01.47202038,007,166360,552307,20553,3479.48.11.39.4 1.41202138,226,498369,721311,94257,7799.58.01.54.21.44202238,929,902351,679326,48325,1969.18.40.717.01.33202340,097,761=== Current vital statistics ===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase January–September 2022 268,468 240,312 +28,156 January–September 2023 273,546 244,447 +29,099 Difference +5,078 (+1.89%) +4,135 (+1.72%) +943" ], [ "Employment", "Unemployment, youth ages 15–24:total: 20.2%:male: 20.9%:female: 19.4% (2020 est.)" ], [ "Ethnicity and visible minorities", "=== Canadians as ethnic group by province ===All citizens of Canada are classified as \"Canadians\" as defined by Canada's nationality laws.", "\"Canadian\" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent.", "\"Canadian\" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and \"Canadien\" as an example on the French questionnaire.", "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled.", "Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins.", "This response is attributed to a multitude of reasons such as generational distance from ancestral lineage.", "Province / Territory Percent Canadians Total Canadians Alberta 22.7%902,310 British Columbia 19.0%866,530 Manitoba 18.2%232,660 New Brunswick 57.8%415,810 Newfoundland and Labrador 43.4%271,345 Nova Scotia 42.6%387,360 Ontario 23.5%3,109,770 Prince Edward Island 45.0%60,000 Quebec 60.1%4,474,115 Saskatchewan 25.0%274,580 Canada total 32.3% 11,136,134===Ethnic origin===Canada visible minority, aboriginal and White (assumed for 1981 to 2016) population as a percentage of the total population over timeVisible minorities over time including projectionsVisible minorities as a population pyramid in total in 2016According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 \"ethnic or cultural origins\" were self-reported by Canadians.", "The major panethnic groups chosen were; European (), North American (), Asian (), North American Indigenous (), African (), Latin, Central and South American (), Caribbean (), Oceanian (), and Other ().", "Statistics Canada reports that 35.5% of the population reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100%.The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021 approximately 25.4 million reported being \"White\", representing 69.8 percent of the population.", "The indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority, the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \"Ethnic origin\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.Data from this section from Statistics Canada, 2021.Ethnic origin % Population Canadian 15.6% 5,677,205\t English 14.7% 5,322,830\t Irish 12.1% 4,413,120 Scottish 12.1% 4,392,200\t French 11.0% 3,985,945 German 8.1% 2,955,695\t Chinese 4.7% 1,713,870 Italian 4.3% 1,546,390\t Indian 3.7% 1,347,715 Ukrainian 3.5% 1,258,635 Dutch 2.7% 988,585 Polish 2.7% 982,820 Québécois 2.7% 981,635 British Isles, n.o.s.", "2.6% 981,635 Filipino 2.5% 925,490 French Canadian 2.5% 906,315 Caucasian (White), n.o.s.", "1.9% 691,260 First Nations, n.o.s.", "1.7% 632,340 Métis 1.5% 560,335 European, n.o.s.", "1.5% 551,910The most common ethnic origins per province are as follows in 2006 (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \"Canadian\"):* Quebec (7,723,525): Canadian (59.1%), ''French'' (29.1%)* New Brunswick (735,835): ''Canadian'' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): ''Canadian'' (49.0%), ''English'' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)* Nova Scotia (906,170): ''Canadian'' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)* Prince Edward Island (137,375): ''Scottish'' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), ''Irish'' (30.4%), French (21.1%)* Ontario (12,651,795): ''Canadian'' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)* Alberta (3,567,980): ''English'' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)* Manitoba (1,174,345): ''English'' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), ''Ukrainian'' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): ''German'' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), ''North American Indian'' (12.1%)* British Columbia (4,324,455): ''English'' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), ''Chinese'' (10.7%)* Yukon (33,320): ''English'' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)* Northwest Territories (40,800): ''North American Indian'' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)* Nunavut (31,700): ''Inuit'' (85.4%)''Italics'' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.=== Visible minority population ===+ Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1981–1996 Group 1981 census 1986 census 1991 census 1996 census Total % Total % Total % Total % Visible minority South Asian Chinese (East Asian) Black Filipino Latin American Arab/West Asian Southeast Asian(except Filipino) Korean (East Asian) Japanese (East Asian) Multiple visible minorities Visible minority, Other Not a visible minority Indigenous(see breakdown below) Non-Indigenous &Non-Visible Minority(European/White) Total population inprivate households Note: Indigenous population decline between 1991 and 1996 censuses attributed to change in criteria in census count; \"the 1996 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples used a more restrictive definition of Aboriginal\".+ Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 2001–2021 Group 2001 census 2006 census 2011 survey 2016 census 2021 census Total % Total % Total % Total % Total % Visible minority South Asian Chinese (East Asian) Black Filipino Arab Latin American Southeast Asian(except Filipino) West Asian Korean (East Asian) Japanese (East Asian) Multiple visible minorities Visible minority, Not a visible minority Indigenous(see breakdown below) Non-Indigenous &Non-Visible Minority(European/White) Total population inprivate households === Indigenous population ===+ Indigenous population in Canada, 1996–2021 censuses Group 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 % Total % Total % Total % Total % Total % Total'''Total Indigenous''''''2.8%''''''799,005''''''3.3%''''''976,305''''''3.8%''''''1,172,785''''''4.3%''''''1,400,685''''''4.9%''''''1,673,780''''''''''''1,807,250'''First Nations1.8%529,0402.1%608,8502.2%698,0252.6%851,5602.8%977,2301,048,405Métis0.7%204,1151.0%292,3051.2%389,7801.4%451,7951.7%587,545624,220 Inuit0.14%40,2200.16%50,4850.2%59,4450.2%65,02570,540 ''Note: Other Indigenous and mixed Indigenous groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Indigenous''===Future projections===Statistics Canada projects that visible minorities will make up between 38.2% and 43.0% of the total Canadian population by 2041, compared with 26.5% in 2021.Among the working-age population (15 to 64 years), meanwhile, visible minorities are projected to represent between 42.1% and 47.3% of Canada's total population, compared to 28.5% in 2021.+ Pan−ethnic Origin Projections (2031−2041)203120362041Population% Population% Population% : European 26,085,000 25,749,000 25,296,000 : South Asian 4,283,000 5,010,000 5,658,000 : East Asian 3,120,000 3,445,000 3,740,000 :: :: :: : African 2,381,000 2,762,000 3,134,000 : Indigenous 2,484,000 2,673,000 2,848,000 :: :: :: :: : Southeast Asian 2,009,000 2,324,000 2,640,000 :: :: : Middle Eastern 1,801,000 2,141,000 2,475,000 :: :: : Latin American 821,000 931,000 1,036,000 : Other 644,000 742,000 841,000 : 20px '''ProjectedCanadianPopulation''' '''43,629,000''' '''''' '''45,776,000''' '''''' '''47,668,000''' ''''''" ], [ "Languages", "=== Knowledge of language ===The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses, and first appeared on the 1991 Canadian census.", "The following figures are from the 1991 Canadian census, 2001 Canadian census, 2011 Canadian census, and the 2021 Canadian census.", "+Knowledge of Languages in CanadaLanguage2021201120011991 English 31,628,570 28,360,235 25,246,220 22,505,415 French 10,563,235 9,960,585 9,178,100 8,508,960 Chinese 1,528,860 1,297,505 1,028,445 557,305 Hindustani 1,176,295 576,165 366,740 163,930 Spanish 1,171,450 873,395 610,580 402,430 Punjabi 942,170 545,730 338,720 167,925 Arabic 838,045 470,965 290,280 164,380 Tagalog 737,565 491,075 244,690 136,975 Italian 547,655 595,600 680,970 701,910 German 419,195 525,480 635,520 684,955 Portuguese 336,865 266,950 264,990 254,465 Persian 330,725 196,110 111,700 49,380 Russian 309,235 230,755 157,455 84,050 Tamil 237,890 179,465 111,580 37,330 Vietnamese 232,800 192,070 165,645 113,115 Gujarati 209,410 118,950 80,835 54,210 Polish 204,460 217,735 249,695 239,575 Korean 203,885 149,035 91,610 40,230 Serbo-Croatian 155,775 154,700 153,085 100,541 Greek 145,060 150,620 158,800 161,320 Haitian Creole 134,895 128,555 76,140 49,970 Ukrainian 131,655 144,260 200,520 249,535 Bengali 120,605 69,490 34,650 N/A <0.1% Romanian 116,520 97,180 60,520 30,520 Dutch 107,985 135,085 157,875 173,290 Cree 105,850 96,690 97,200 93,825 Japanese 98,070 74,690 65,030 45,370 Hebrew 83,205 70,695 63,675 52,450 Turkish 78,500 44,080 32,520 N/A <0.1% Malayalam 77,910 22,125 9,185 N/A <0.1% Hungarian 64,625 73,695 89,230 97,410 Ilocano 61,680 21,880 N/A <0.03% N/A <0.1% Somali 59,005 37,115 N/A <0.03% N/A <0.1% Swahili 57,295 31,690 25,300 N/A <0.1% Telugu 54,685 12,645 N/A <0.03% N/A <0.1%=== Mother tongue ===+Languages of CanadaFirst language201620112006NotesSingle language responsesOfficial languagesEnglishFrenchNon-official languagesCombined Chinese Responses n/an/an/an/aCombined responses of Mandarin, Cantonese, Chinese n.o.s.", "and Min NanMandarin (Standard Chinese)CantonesePunjabiSpanishTagalog (Filipino)ArabicGermanItalianHindustani Combined responses of Hindi and UrduPortuguesePersian (Farsi)UrduDravidian languagesn/an/an/an/aCombined responses of Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada.RussianPolishVietnameseKoreanTamilMost of the Canadian Tamils live in Toronto.HindiGujaratiGreekUkrainianDutchRomanianBengaliCreolesCree, n.o.s.In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.HungarianThe majority of Hungarian speakers in Canada live in Ontario.", "A community of Hungarian speakers is found within a part of Windsor, Ontario.Berber languages (Kabyle)n/an/aSerbianCroatianJapaneseChinese, n.o.s.SomaliInuktitutIn the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, n.i.e.", "'.ArmenianTurkishMin Nan (Chaochow, Teochow, Fukien, Taiwanese)n/an/an/aMalayalamAlbaniann/an/aIlocanoAmharicCzechKhmer (Cambodian)BulgarianHebrewNiger–Congo languages, n.i.e.n/an/aNepalin/an/aOjibwaySlovakPashtoMacedonianTigrignaSinhalaBisayan languagesn/an/aTeluguFinnishYiddishAkan (Twi)SwahiliWu (Shanghainese)n/an/an/an/aOji-CreeLaoDanishMalayBosnianSindhiKurdishHakkan/an/aDeneAfrikaansn/an/aMontagnais (Innu)In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.SlovenianTaiwanesen/an/aSerbo-CroatianAfrican languages, n.i.e.n/an/an/an/aThain/an/aMarathin/an/aBantu languages, n.i.e.n/an/an/an/aLithuanianSwedishMi'kmaqTibetann/an/an/an/aAtikamekwCanadian Gaelicn/an/aFukien (Fuzhou dialect)n/an/an/an/aRundi (Kirundi)n/an/aMalteseEstonianLatvianKinyarwanda (Rwanda)n/an/aIndo-Iranian languages, n.i.e.n/an/aOromon/an/aNorwegianTibetan languagesn/an/an/an/aSino-Tibetan languages, n.i.e.n/an/an/an/aSign languages, n.i.e.n/an/aVlaams (Flemish)Lingalan/an/aBurmesen/an/aStoneyn/an/aShanghainesen/an/an/an/aBlackfoot2,815<0.01%n/an/aSlavic languages, n.i.e.n/an/aSemitic languages, n.i.e.n/an/aFrisian2,095<0.01%n/an/aDogrib (Tlicho)1,645<0.01%n/an/aTibeto-Burman languages, n.i.e.1,405<0.01%n/an/an/an/aSiouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)1,265<0.01%n/an/aAlgonquin1,260<0.01%n/an/aScottish Gaelic1,095<0.01%n/an/an/an/aWelsh1,075<0.01%n/an/an/an/aCarrier1,030<0.01%n/an/a1,560<0.01%Inuinnaqtun (Inuvialuktun)1,020<0.01%n/an/a365<0.01%Mohawk985<0.01%n/an/a290<0.01%South Slavey950<0.01%n/an/aGitxsan (Gitksan)880<0.01%n/an/a1,180<0.01%North Slave (Hare)765<0.01%n/an/a1,065<0.01%Chilcotin655<0.01%n/an/a1,070<0.01%Celtic languages, n.i.e.530<0.01%n/an/an/an/aChipewyann/an/an/an/a525<0.01%Michif465<0.01%n/an/an/an/aShuswap (Secwepemctsin)445<0.01%n/an/a935<0.01%Nisga'a400<0.01%n/an/a680<0.01%Malecite300<0.01%n/an/a535<0.01%Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)260<0.01%n/an/a360<0.01%Tlingit95<0.01%n/an/a80<0.01%Other languagesn/an/aMultiple language responsesEnglish and FrenchEnglish and a non-official languageFrench and a non-official languageEnglish, French, and a non-official languageTotal=== Work ===+ Language used most often at workLanguage% of total population (2016)% of total population (2006)EnglishFrenchNon-officialEnglish and FrenchEnglish and non-officialOther=== Home ===+ Language used most often at homeLanguage% of total population (2016)% of total population (2006)EnglishFrenchNon-officialEnglish and non-officialEnglish and FrenchOther" ], [ "Immigration", "According to the 2021 Canadian census, immigrants in Canada number 8.3 million persons and make up approximately 23 percent of Canada's total population.", "This represents the eighth-largest immigrant population in the world, while the proportion represents one of the highest ratios for industrialized Western countries.Since confederation in 1867 through to the contemporary era, decadal and demi-decadal census reports have detailed immigration statistics.", "During this period, the highest annual immigration rate in Canada occurred in 1913, when 400,900 new immigrants accounted for 5.3 percent of the total population, while the greatest number of foreign-born individuals admitted to Canada in single year occurred in 2021, with 405,330 new immigrants accounting for 1.1 percent of the total population.Statistics Canada projects that immigrants will represent between 29.1% and 34.0% of Canada's population in 2041, compared with 23.0% in 2021, while the Canadian population with at least one foreign born parent (first and second generation persons) could rise to between 49.8% and 54.3%, up from 44.0% in 2021.Immigrants from specific countries are divided into several ethnic groups.", "For example, there are both ethnic Macedonians and Albanians from North Macedonia, both Turks and Kurds from Turkey, both Arabs and Berbers from Algeria and Morocco.", "Immigrants from Iran are divided into Mazandaranians, Azeris, Persians, Kurds and Lurs.+Canada Immigration StatisticsYearImmigrant percentageImmigrant populationTotal responsesTotal population1871594,2073,689,2571881602,9844,324,8101891643,871 4,833,2391901699,5005,371,31519111,586,9617,206,64319211,955,7368,787,94919312,307,52510,374,19619412,018,84711,506,65519512,059,91114,009,42919612,844,26318,238,24719713,295,53521,568,31021,568,31119813,843,33524,083,49524,343,18119863,908,15025,022,00525,309,33119914,342,89026,994,04527,296,85919964,971,07028,528,12528,846,76120015,448,48029,639,03030,007,09420066,186,95031,241,03031,612,89720116,775,76532,852,32533,476,68820167,540,83034,460,06035,151,72820218,361,50536,328,47536,991,981" ], [ "Religion", "In 2021, 53.3% of Canadians were Christians, down from 67.3% in 2011.29.9% were Catholic while 11.4% were Protestant (all other listed denominations excluding Christian Orthodox, Latter Day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses).", "7.6% were Christian not otherwise specified, 2.1% were \"other Christian and Christian-related traditions\", 1.7% were Christian Orthodox, 0.4% were Jehovah's Witnesses and 0.2% were Latter Day Saints adherents.34.6% of Canadians were non-religious or secular, up from 23.9% in 2011.Of the non-Christian religions listed, 4.9% of Canadians were Muslim (3.2% in 2011), 2.3% were Hindu (1.5% in 2011), 2.1% were Sikh (1.4% in 2011), 1.0% were Buddhist (1.1% in 2011), 0.9% were Jewish (1.0% in 2011), 0.2% were believers of traditional (North American Indigenous) spirituality (same as 2011), and 0.6% were believers of other religions and spiritual traditions (0.4% in 2011).Religion status of the Canadian Population in 2021 Religion Total Percent Buddhist Christian    Christian n.o.s.", "Anabaptist    Anglican    Baptist    Roman Catholic    Christian Orthodox    Jehovah's Witness    Latter Day Saints    Lutheran    Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness)    Pentecostal and other Charismatic    Presbyterian    Reformed    United Church    Other Christian and Christian-related traditions Hindu Jewish Muslim Sikh Traditional (North American Indigenous) Spirituality Other religions and spiritual traditions No religion and secular perspectives" ], [ "See also", "* Demographics of North America* 1666 census of New France* 2016 Canadian census* 2021 Canadian census* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes* Interprovincial migration in Canada* Canada immigration statistics* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, ." ], [ "External links", "* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada* Canada's population clock" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of Canada" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Canada''' function within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions.", "Canada is a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch is head of state.", "In practice, the executive powers are directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons of Canada and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada.Canada is described as a \"full democracy\", with a tradition of liberalism, and an egalitarian, moderate political ideology.", "Extremism has never been prominent in Canadian politics.", "The traditional \"brokerage\" model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology.", "Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.", "An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.", "Canada has placed emphasis on diversity, equity and inclusiveness for all its people.The country has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom.", "The two dominant political parties in Canada have historically been the Liberal Party of Canada and the current Conservative Party of Canada (as well as its numerous predecessors).", "Parties like the New Democratic Party, the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have grown in prominence, exerting their own influence to the political process.Canada has evolved variations: party discipline in Canada is stronger than in the United States and United Kingdom, and more parliamentary votes are considered motions of confidence, which tends to diminish the role of non-Cabinet members of parliament (MPs).", "Such members, in the government caucus, and junior or lower-profile members of opposition caucuses, are known as backbenchers.", "Backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the National Defence Committee." ], [ "Context", "Canada's governmental structure was originally established by the British Parliament through the ''British North America Act, 1867'' (now the ''Constitution Act, 1867''), but the federal model and division of powers were devised by Canadian politicians.", "Particularly after World War I, citizens of the self-governing Dominions, such as Canada, began to develop a strong sense of identity, and, in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British government and the governments of the six Dominions jointly agreed that the Dominions had full autonomy within the British Commonwealth.In 1931, after further consultations and agreements between the British government and the governments of the Dominions, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, giving legal recognition to the autonomy of Canada and other Dominions.", "However, Canadian politicians were unable to obtain consensus on a process for amending the constitution, which was therefore not affected by the Statute of Westminster, meaning amendments to Canada's constitution continued to require the approval of the British parliament until that date.", "Similarly, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain continued to make the final decision on criminal appeals until 1933 and on civil appeals until 1949.It was not until 1982, with the Patriation of the Constitution, that the role of the British Parliament was ended." ], [ "Political culture", "A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and FreedomsCanada's egalitarian approach to governance has emphasized social welfare, economic freedom, and multiculturalism, which is based on selective economic migrants, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, that has wide public and political support.", "Its broad range of constituent nationalities and policies that promote a \"just society\" are constitutionally protected.", "Individual rights, equality and inclusiveness (social equality) have risen to the forefront of political and legal importance for most Canadians, as demonstrated through support for the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a relatively free economy, and social liberal attitudes toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination), divorce, homosexuality, same-sex marriage, birth control, euthanasia or cannabis use.", "There is also a sense of collective responsibility in Canadian political culture, as is demonstrated in general support for universal health care, multiculturalism, evolution, gun control, foreign aid, and other social programs.At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising brokerage politics\", the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).", "\"The traditional ''brokerage'' model of Canadian politics leaves littleroom for ideology\" as the Canadian catch-all party system requires support from a broad spectrum of voters.", "The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale, with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left.", "Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2021 election: the Liberal Party who currently form the government, the Conservative Party who are the Official Opposition, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada.Polls have suggested that Canadians generally do not have a solid understanding of civics.", "This has been theorized to be a result of less attention being given to the subject in provincial education curricula, beginning in the 1960s.", "By 2008, a poll showed only 24 per cent of respondents could name the monarch as head of state.", "Likewise, Senator Lowell Murray wrote five years earlier that \"the Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadians' understanding of our system of Government.", "\"'Which Criticisms are Founded?'", "Protecting Canadian Democracy: The Senate You Never Knew'', edited by S. Joyal.", "Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.", "p. 136.As John Robson of the ''National Post'' opined in 2015: \"Intellectually, voters and commentators succumb to the mistaken notion that we elect 'governments' of prime ministers and cabinets with untrammelled authority, that indeed ideal 'democracy' consists precisely in this kind of plebiscitary autocracy.\"" ], [ "Governmental organization", "; Type of government : Westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within a constitutional monarchy.", "; Administrative divisions : Ten provinces and three territories*: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon*.", "; Constitution : Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written legislation.", "; Legal system : English common law for all matters within federal jurisdiction and in all provinces and territories except Quebec, which is based on the civil law, based on the Custom of Paris in pre-revolutionary France as set out in the Civil Code of Quebec; accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction, with reservations.", "; Suffrage : Citizens aged 18 years or older.", "Only two adult citizens in Canada cannot vote: the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer.", "The Governor General is eligible to vote, but abstains due to constitutional convention.===Monarchy===; Head of state: Charles III, King of Canada (since September 8, 2022).", "; Viceroy: Mary Simon, Governor General of Canada (since July 26, 2021).Canada is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and practical, but not political.", "The monarch is vested with all powers of state and sits at the centre of a construct in which the power of the whole is shared by multiple institutions of government acting under the sovereign's authority.", "The executive is thus formally referred to as the ''King-in-Council'', the legislature as the ''King-in-Parliament'', and the courts as the ''King-on-the-Bench''.Though the person who is monarch of Canada (currently ) is also the monarch of 14 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, he nevertheless reigns separately as King of Canada, an office that is \"truly Canadian\" and \"totally independent from that of the monarch of the United Kingdom or the other Commonwealth realms.\"", "On the advice of the Canadian prime minister, the sovereign appoints a federal viceregal representative—the governor general(currently Mary Simon)—who, since 1947, is permitted to exercise almost all of the monarch's royal prerogative; though, there are some duties which must be specifically performed by the monarch themselves (such as assent of certain bills).", "In case of the governor general's absence or incapacitation, the administrator of Canada performs the Crown's most basic functions.Royal assent is required to enact laws.", "As part of the royal prerogative, the royal sign-manual gives authority to letters patent and orders-in-Council.", "Much of the royal prerogative is only exercised in-council, on the advice of the Cabinet; within the conventional stipulations of a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign's direct participation in any of these areas of governance is limited.", "The royal prerogative also includes summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament in order to call an election and extends to foreign affairs, which include the negotiation and ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and declarations of war; the accreditation of Canadian diplomats and receipt of foreign diplomats; and the issuance of passports.===Executive power===Canada's Prime Ministers from 1867 to 1963.The Prime Minister of Canada serves as the head of government.", "; Head of government: Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada (since November 4, 2015).", "; Cabinet: Ministers (usually around thirty) chosen by the prime minister and appointed by the governor general to lead various ministries and agencies, generally with regional representation.", "Traditionally most, if not all, cabinet ministers will be members of the leader's own party in the House of Commons or Senate (see Cabinet of Canada); however this is not legally or constitutionally mandated, and occasionally, the prime minister will appoint a cabinet minister from another party.", "; Elections : The monarchy is hereditary.", "The governor general is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term, though it is traditionally approximately five years.", "Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is usually designated by the governor general to become Prime Minister.===Legislative power===The bicameral Parliament of Canada consists of three parts: the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Commons.Currently, the Senate, which is frequently described as providing regional representation, has 105 members appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister to serve until age 75.It was created with equal representation from the three regions of Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes (originally New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, expanded in 1873 to include Prince Edward Island).", "In 1915, a new Western division was created, with six senators from each of the four western provinces, so that each of the four regions had 24 seats in the Senate.", "When Newfoundland and Labrador joined Confederation in 1949, it was not included in an existing region and was assigned six seats.", "Each of the three territories has one seat.", "It is not based on representation-by-population.", "The normal number of senators can be exceeded by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, as long as the additional senators are distributed equally with regard to region (up to a total of eight additional Senators).", "This power of additional appointment has only been used once, when Prime Minister Brian Mulroney petitioned Queen Elizabeth II to add eight seats to the Senate so as to ensure the passage of the Goods and Services Tax legislation.A democratically elected body, the House of Commons of Canada is one of three components of the Parliament of Canada.The House of Commons currently has 338 members elected in single-member districts in a plurality voting system (first past the post), meaning that members must attain only a plurality (the most votes of any candidate) rather than a majority.", "The electoral districts are also known as ridings.Mandates cannot exceed five years; an election must occur by the end of this time.", "This fixed mandate has been exceeded only once, when Prime Minister Robert Borden perceived the need to do so during World War I.", "A constitutional amendment was passed, extending the life of the Parliament by one year, by the unanimous consent of the House of Commons.", "The size of the House and apportionment of seats to each province is revised after every census, conducted every five years, and is based on population changes and approximately on representation-by-population.===Elections and government formation===Canadians vote for the election of their local member of parliament (MP) only.", "A vote is cast directly for a candidate.", "The candidate in each riding who receives a plurality of votes (first-past-the-post system) is elected.", "An MP need not be a member of any political party: such MPs are known as independents.", "When a number of MPs share political opinions they may form a body known as a political party.The ''Canada Elections Act'' defines a political party as \"an organization one of whose fundamental purposes is to participate in public affairs by endorsing one or more of its members as candidates and supporting their election.\"", "Forming and registering a federal political party are two different things.", "There is no legislation regulating the formation of federal political parties.", "Elections Canada cannot dictate how a federal political party should be formed or how its legal, internal and financial structures should be established.Most parties elect their leaders in instant-runoff elections to ensure that the winner receives more than 50% of the votes.", "Normally the party leader stands as a candidate to be an MP during an election.", "This happens at leadership conventions.", "Canada's parliamentary system empowers political parties and their party leaders.", "Where one party gets a majority of the seats in the House of Commons, that party is said to have a \"majority government.\"", "Through party discipline, the party leader, who is elected in only one riding, exercises a great deal of control over the cabinet and the parliament.Historically, the prime minister and senators are selected by the Governor General as a representative of the King, though in modern practice the monarch's duties are ceremonial.", "Consequently, the prime minister, while technically selected by the Governor General, is for all practical purposes selected by the party with the majority of seats.", "That is, the party that gets the most seats normally forms the government, with that party's leader becoming prime minister.", "The prime minister is not directly elected by the general population, although the prime minister is almost always directly elected as an MP within his or her constituency.Often the most popular party in an election takes a majority of the seats, even if it did not receive a majority of the vote.", "However, as there are usually three or more political parties represented in parliament, often no party takes a majority of the seats.", "A minority government occurs when the party that holds the most seats in the House of Commons holds fewer seats than the opposition parties combined.", "In this scenario, the party leader whose party has the most seats in the House is selected by the governor general to lead the government; however, for the government to survive and to pass laws, the leader chosen must have the support of the majority of the House, meaning they need the support of the elected members of at least one other party.", "This can be done on a case-by-case basis, through a coalition government (which has never been done in Canadian history) or through a confidence-and-supply agreement (such as the one the Liberals and the NDP signed in 2022)." ], [ "Federal-provincial relations", "William Lyon Mackenzie King (centre), Prime minister of Canada, between Howard Ferguson (left), Premier of Ontario, and Louis-Alexandre Taschereau (right), Premier of Quebec, at the Dominion-Provincial Conference, 1927.As a federation, the existence and powers of the federal government and the ten provinces are guaranteed by the Constitution.", "The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' sets out the basic constitutional structure of the federal government and the provinces.", "The powers of the federal Parliament and the provinces can only be changed by constitutional amendments passed by the federal and provincial governments.", "The Crown is the formal head of state of the federal government and each of the ten provinces, but rarely has any political role.", "The governments are led by the representatives of the people: elected by all Canadians, at the federal level, and by the Canadian citizens of each provinces, at the provincial level.Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly Dominion-provincial) relations is a regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to preserve and strengthen its distinctive nature, western provinces desire more control over their abundant natural resources, especially energy reserves; industrialized Central Canada is concerned with its manufacturing base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent than the rest of the country.In order to ensure that social programs such as health care and education are funded consistently throughout Canada, the \"have-not\" (poorer) provinces receive a proportionately greater share of federal \"transfer (equalization) payments\" than the richer, or \"have\", provinces do; this has been somewhat controversial.", "The richer provinces often favour freezing transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favour, based on the claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal government services, and the poorer provinces often favour an increase on the basis that the amount of money they receive is not sufficient for their existing needs.Particularly in the past decade, critics have argued that the federal government's exercise of its unlimited constitutional spending power has contributed to strained federal-provincial relations.", "This power allows the federal government to influence provincial policies, by offering funding in areas that the federal government cannot itself regulate.", "The federal spending power is not expressly set out in the ''Constitution Act, 1867''; however, in the words of the Court of Appeal for Ontario the power \"can be inferred\" from s. 91(1A), \"the public debt and property\".A prime example of an exercise of the spending power is the ''Canada Health Act'', which is a conditional grant of money to the provinces.", "Regulation of health services is, under the Constitution, a provincial responsibility.", "However, by making the funding available to the provinces under the ''Canada Health Act'' contingent upon delivery of services according to federal standards, the federal government has the ability to influence health care delivery.===Quebec and Canadian politics===Except for three short-lived transitional or minority governments, prime ministers from Quebec led Canada continuously from 1968 to early 2006.People from Quebec led both Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments in this period.Monarchs, governors general, and prime ministers are now expected to be at least functional, if not fluent, in both English and French.", "In selecting leaders, political parties give preference to candidates who are fluently bilingual.By law, three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada must be held by judges from Quebec.", "This representation makes sure that at least three judges have sufficient experience with the civil law system to treat cases involving Quebec laws." ], [ "National unity", "Canada has a long and storied history of secessionist movements (see Secessionist movements of Canada).", "National unity has been a major issue in Canada since the forced union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840.The predominant and lingering issue concerning Canadian national unity has been the ongoing conflict between the French-speaking majority in Quebec and the English-speaking majority in the rest of Canada.", "Quebec's continued demands for recognition of its \"distinct society\" through special political status has led to attempts for constitutional reform, most notably with the failed attempts to amend the constitution through the Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord (the latter of which was rejected through a national referendum).Since the Quiet Revolution, sovereigntist sentiments in Quebec have been variably stoked by the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982 (without Quebec's consent) and by the failed attempts at constitutional reform.", "Two provincial referendums, in 1980 and 1995, rejected proposals for sovereignty with majorities of 60% and 50.6% respectively.", "Given the narrow federalist victory in 1995, a reference was made by the Chrétien government to the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 regarding the legality of unilateral provincial secession.", "The court decided that a unilateral declaration of secession would be unconstitutional.", "This resulted in the passage of the ''Clarity Act'' in 2000.The Bloc Québécois, a sovereigntist party which runs candidates exclusively in Quebec, was started by a group of MPs who left the Progressive Conservative (PC) party (along with several disaffected Liberal MPs), and first put forward candidates in the 1993 federal election.", "With the collapse of the PCs in that election, the Bloc and Liberals were seen as the only two viable parties in Quebec.", "Thus, prior to the 2006 election, any gain by one party came at the expense of the other, regardless of whether national unity was really at issue.", "The Bloc, then, benefited (with a significant increase in seat total) from the impressions of corruption that surrounded the Liberal Party in the lead-up to the 2004 election.", "However, the newly unified Conservative party re-emerged as a viable party in Quebec by winning 10 seats in the 2006 election.", "In the 2011 election, the New Democratic Party succeeded in winning 59 of Quebec's 75 seats, successfully reducing the number of seats of every other party substantially.", "The NDP surge nearly destroyed the Bloc, reducing them to 4 seats, far below the minimum requirement of 12 seats for Official party status.Newfoundland and Labrador is also a problem regarding national unity.", "As the Dominion of Newfoundland was a self-governing country equal to Canada until 1949, there are large, though unco-ordinated, feelings of Newfoundland nationalism and anti-Canadian sentiment among much of the population.", "This is due in part to the perception of chronic federal mismanagement of the fisheries, forced resettlement away from isolated settlements in the 1960s, the government of Quebec still drawing inaccurate political maps whereby they take parts of Labrador, and to the perception that mainland Canadians look down upon Newfoundlanders.", "In 2004, the Newfoundland and Labrador First Party contested provincial elections and in 2008 in federal ridings within the province.", "In 2004, then-premier Danny Williams ordered all federal flags removed from government buildings as a result of lost offshore revenues to equalization clawbacks.", "On December 23, 2004, premier Williams made this statement to reporters in St. John's,Western alienation is another national-unity-related concept that enters into Canadian politics.", "Residents of the four western provinces, particularly Alberta, have often been unhappy with a lack of influence and a perceived lack of understanding when residents of Central Canada consider \"national\" issues.", "While this is seen to play itself out through many avenues (media, commerce, and so on.", "), in politics, it has given rise to a number of political parties whose base constituency is in western Canada.", "These include the United Farmers of Alberta, who first won federal seats in 1917, the Progressives (1921), the Social Credit Party (1935), the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (1935), the Reconstruction Party (1935), New Democracy (1940) and most recently the Reform Party (1989).The Reform Party's slogan \"The West Wants In\" was echoed by commentators when, after a successful merger with the PCs, the successor party to both parties, the Conservative Party won the 2006 election.", "Led by Stephen Harper, who is an MP from Alberta, the electoral victory was said to have made \"The West IS In\" a reality.", "However, regardless of specific electoral successes or failures, the concept of western alienation continues to be important in Canadian politics, particularly on a provincial level, where opposing the federal government is a common tactic for provincial politicians.", "For example, in 2001, a group of prominent Albertans produced the Alberta Agenda, urging Alberta to take steps to make full use of its constitutional powers, much as Quebec has done." ], [ "Political conditions", "Canada is considered by most sources to be a very stable democracy.", "In 2006, ''The Economist'' ranked Canada the third-most democratic nation in its Democracy Index, ahead of all other nations in the Americas and ahead of every nation more populous than itself.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices, in 2023 Canada was the 19th most electoral democratic country in the world.", "More recently, with the existence of strong third parties and first-past-the-post elections amongst other factors, Canada on a federal and provincial level has experienced huge swings in seat shares, where third parties (eg NDP, Reform) end up (usually briefly) replacing the Liberals, the Progressive Conservatives or the Conservatives as the main opposition or even the government and leaving them as a rump.", "Such examples federally include the 1993 federal election with the collapse of the Progressive Conservatives, and the 2011 election leaving the Liberal Party a (temporary) rump along with Bloc Québécois.", "Other examples include the changes of fortune for the Alberta NDP during the province's 2015 and 2019 elections, and possibly the 2018 Quebec elections with the rise of Coalition Avenir Québec taking government from the Liberals and Parti Québécois.The governing political party(s) in each Canadian province.", "Multicoloured provinces are governed by a coalition or minority government consisting of more than one party.On a provincial level, in the legislatures of western provinces the NDP often is the left-leaning main party instead of that province's Liberal Party branch, the latter generally being a rump or smaller than the NDP.", "The other main party (right of the NDP) is either the Progressive Conservatives or their successor, or the Saskatchewan Party in Saskatchewan.=== Party systems ===According to recent scholars, there have been four party systems in Canada at the federal level since Confederation, each with its own distinctive pattern of social support, patronage relationships, leadership styles, and electoral strategies.", "Political scientists disagree on the names and precise boundaries of the eras, however.", "Steve Patten identifies four party systems in Canada's political historyClarkson (2005) shows how the Liberal Party has dominated all the party systems, using different approaches.", "It began with a \"clientelistic approach\" under Laurier, which evolved into a \"brokerage\" system of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s under Mackenzie King.", "The 1950s saw the emergence of a \"pan-Canadian system\", which lasted until the 1990s.", "The 1993 election — categorized by Clarkson as an electoral \"earthquake\" which \"fragmented\" the party system, saw the emergence of regional politics within a four party-system, whereby various groups championed regional issues and concerns.", "Clarkson concludes that the inherent bias built into the first-past-the-post system, has chiefly benefited the Liberals.===Party funding===The rules governing the funding of parties are designed to ensure reliance on personal contributions.", "Personal donations to federal parties and campaigns benefit from tax credits, although the amount of tax relief depends on the amount given.", "Also only people paying income taxes receive any benefit from this.The rules are based on the belief that union or business funding should not be allowed to have as much impact on federal election funding as these are not contributions from citizens and are not evenly spread out between parties.", "The new rules stated that a party had to receive 2% of the vote nationwide in order to receive the general federal funding for parties.", "Each vote garnered a certain dollar amount for a party (approximately $1.75) in future funding.", "For the initial disbursement, approximations were made based on previous elections.", "The NDP received more votes than expected (its national share of the vote went up) while the new Conservative Party of Canada received fewer votes than had been estimated and was asked to refund the difference.", "Quebec was the first province to implement a similar system of funding many years before the changes to funding of federal parties.Federal funds are disbursed quarterly to parties, beginning at the start of 2005.For the moment, this disbursement delay leaves the NDP and the Green Party in a better position to fight an election, since they rely more on individual contributors than federal funds.", "The Green Party now receives federal funds, since it for the first time received a sufficient share of the vote in the 2004 election.In 2007, news emerged of a funding loophole that \"could cumulatively exceed the legal limit by more than $60,000\", through anonymous recurrent donations of $200 to every riding of a party from corporations or unions.", "At the time, for each individual, the legal annual donation limit was $1,100 for each party, $1,100 combined total for each party's associations, and in an election year, an additional $1,100 combined total for each party's candidates.", "All three limits increase on 1 April every year based on the inflation rate.Two of the biggest federal political parties in Canada experienced a drop in donations in 2020, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic impact on the global economy.===Political parties, leaders and status===''Ordered by number of elected representatives in the House of Commons''*Liberal Party: Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada *Conservative Party: Pierre Poilievre, Leader of the Official Opposition*Bloc Québécois: Yves-François Blanchet*New Democratic Party: Jagmeet Singh*Green Party: Elizabeth May===Leaders' debates===Leaders' debates in Canada consist of two debates, one English and one French, both produced by a consortium of Canada's five major television broadcasters (CBC/SRC, CTV, Global and TVA) and usually consist of the leaders of all parties with representation in the House of Commons.These debates air on the networks of the producing consortium as well as the public affairs and parliamentary channel CPAC and the American public affairs network C-SPAN." ], [ "Judiciary", "The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court in the Canadian justice system.The highest court in Canada is the Supreme Court of Canada and is the final court of appeal in the Canadian justice system.", "The court is composed of nine judges: eight Puisne Justices and the Chief Justice of Canada.", "Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada are appointed by the Governor-in-Council.", "The ''Supreme Court Act'' limits eligibility for appointment to persons who have been judges of a superior court, or members of the bar for ten or more years.", "Members of the bar or superior judge of Quebec, by law, must hold three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada." ], [ "Government departments and structure", "The Canadian government operates the public service using departments, smaller agencies (for example, commissions, tribunals, and boards), and crown corporations.", "There are two types of departments: central agencies such as Finance, Privy Council Office, and Treasury Board Secretariat have an organizing and oversight role for the entire public service; line departments are departments that perform tasks in a specific area or field, such as the departments of Agriculture, Environment, or Defence.", "*Significant departments include Finance, Revenue, Human Resources and Skills Development, National Defence, Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, and Foreign Affairs/International Trade.Scholar Peter Aucoin, writing about the Canadian Westminster system, raised concerns in the early 2000s about the centralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day." ], [ "Immigration", "In 1967, Canada established a point-based system to determine if immigrants should be eligible to enter the country, using meritorious qualities such as the applicant's ability to speak both French and English, their level of education, and other details that may be expected of someone raised in Canada.", "This system was considered ground-breaking at the time since prior systems were slanted on the basis of ethnicity.", "However, many foreign nationals still found it challenging to secure work after emigrating, resulting in a higher unemployment rate amongst the immigrant population.", "After winning power at the 2006 federal election, the Conservative Party sought to curb this issue by placing weight on whether or not the applicant has a standing job offer in Canada.", "The change has been a source of some contention as opponents argue that businesses use this change to suppress wages, with corporate owners leveraging the knowledge that an immigrant should hold a job to successfully complete the immigration process." ], [ "Elections", "* ''Elections''** House of Commons: direct plurality representation (last election held October 21, 2019)** Senate: appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the prime minister* ''Election results''" ], [ "See also", "* Monarchy of Canada* Government of Canada* Parliament of Canada* Court system of Canada* Conservatism in Canada* Constitutional debate in Canada* Fair Vote Canada* Federal political financing in Canada* Liberalism in Canada* List of Canadian federal electoral districts* List of Canadian federal general elections* List of Canadian political scandals* List of political parties in Canada* Populism in Canada* Republicanism in Canada* Socialism in Canada" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** Argyle, Ray.", "''Turning Points: The Campaigns That Changed Canada - 2011 and Before'' (2011) 440pp excerpt and text search ch.", "1* * * * * * * Hyde, Anthony (1997).", "''Promises, Promises: Breaking Faith in Canadian Politics''.", "Toronto: Viking.", "viii, 218 p. * * * * * Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan, eds.", "''The Canadian Federal Election of 2011'' (2011) excerpt and text search; 386pp; essays by experts* * * ; Political thought* Katherine Fierlbeck, '' Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History'', Broadview Press, 2006* Ian McKay, '' Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left History'', Between the Lines, 2006" ], [ "External links", "* Canada Newsnet (formerly PoliWonk) - Extensive Canadian Politics news and resources* Canadian-Politics.com Comprehensive overview of politics in Canada* CBC Digital Archives – Scandals, Boondoggles and White Elephants* CBC Digital Archives – Campaigning for Canada* Canadian Governments Compared* Canadian Politics Online Digital Textbook" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of Canada" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy, with the world's tenth-largest economy , and a nominal GDP of approximately .", "Canada is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.", "In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.", "Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.", "In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.", "The Toronto Stock Exchange is the tenth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over .", "Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.", "It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (14th in 2023) and \"is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world\".", "It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (14th in 2019) and Global Innovation Indexes (15th in 2022).", "Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.", "The country's average household disposable income per capita is \"well above\" the OECD average.", "Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability and foreign direct investment.Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.", "Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.", "Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.", "Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.", "Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.", "The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.", "In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted the federal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).", "The government abolished the NEP in the 1980s and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada to encourage foreign investment.", "The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).", "As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.", "Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.", "The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third or fourth-largest.", "Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.", "The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.", "Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.", "The fishing industry is also a key contributor to the economy." ], [ "Overview", "With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only North American country to use the parliamentary system of government.", "As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world.", "Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise.", "Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War II in 1945.Approximately 89% of Canada's land is Crown land.", "Canada has one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world.", "Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production.", "As of 2019, Canada has 56 companies in the Forbes Global 2000 list, ranking ninth just behind South Korea and ahead of Saudi Arabia.International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources.", "In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports.", "Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009.In 2009, exports accounted for about 30% of Canada's GDP.", "The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009.Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.About 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP.", "They are still paramount in many parts of the country.", "Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber.", "Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction.", "Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as Encana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold.", "The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States.", "There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones.", "For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society.", "While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region.", "This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism.", "At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy.", "Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.Natural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability.", "Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion.", "Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay.", "Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective.", "In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources.", "High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion.", "Instead, many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable.", "Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years.", "After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly.", "The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries." ], [ "Measuring productivity", "Productivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness.", "OECD's ''Compendium of Productivity Indicators'', published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues.", "It analyses the role of \"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\" and the \"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth\".", "According to the definition above \"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\".", "Measures of productivity include the gross domestic product (GDP) and total factor productivity.===Multifactor productivity===Another productivity measure, used by OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP).", "This indicator assesses an economy's \"underlying productive capacity ('potential output'), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures\".", "MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation.According to OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002.One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor.", "Raising MFP growth is \"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages\".Since 2010 productivity growth has picked up, almost entirely driven by above average multifactor productivity growth.", "However, productivity on the whole still lags behind the upper half of OECD countries such as the United States.", "Canada's productivity is now around the median OECD productivity, close to that of Australia.", "More can be done to increase productivity, such as increasing the productivity of capital through improving the capital stock to output ratio and capital quality.", "This could be achieved through the liberalization of internal trade barriers, as suggested in the OECD's latest Canadian economic survey." ], [ "Bank of Canada", "The mandate of the central bank—the Bank of Canada is to conduct monetary policy that \"preserves the value of money by keeping inflation low and stable\".===Monetary Policy Report===The Bank of Canada issues its bank rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year.", "The Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system.", "Under the inflation-targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy since the early 1990s, the Bank of Canada sets an inflation target The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent.", "They established a set of inflation-reduction targets to keep inflation \"low, stable and predictable\" and to foster \"confidence in the value of money\", contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living.In a January 9, 2019 statement on the release of the Monetary Policy Report, Bank of Canada Governor Stephen S. Poloz summarized major events since the October report, such as \"negative economic consequences\" of the US-led trade war with China.", "In response to the ongoing trade war \"bond yields have fallen, yield curves have flattened even more and stock markets have repriced significantly\" in \"global financial markets\".", "In Canada, low oil prices will impact Canada's \"macroeconomic outlook\".", "Canada's housing sector is not stabilizing as quickly as anticipated.===Inflation targeting===During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%.", "Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \"most advanced-world central banks\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget.", "The inflation target was set at 2 per cent.", "Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI).", "In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016.The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate\", quantitative easing, and credit easing.As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar.", "From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \"price gains fairly reliable\".Following the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy was questioned.", "By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank's mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent\".On July 15, 2015, the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter\".", "According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent.", "This reflects \"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products\".", "Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.In response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the economy was \"being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\" which has made the global economy \"fragile\".The Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.The Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level.", "As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years.", "Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%.", "In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end.", "Early on July 12, 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%.Following the COVID-19 pandemic, critics have pointed out that the Bank of Canada’s inflation-targeting has had unintended consequences, such as fuelling an increase in home prices and contributing to wealth inequalities by supporting higher equity values." ], [ "Key industries", "In 2020, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by the industry as a percentage value of GDP: Industry Share of GDP Real estate and rental and leasing 13.01% Manufacturing 10.37% Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction 8.21% Finance and insurance 7.06% Construction 7.08% Health care and social assistance 6.63% Public administration 6.28% Wholesale trade 5.78% Retail trade 5.60% Professional, scientific and technical services 5.54% Educational services 5.21% Transportation and warehousing 4.60% Information and cultural industries 3.00% Administrative and support, waste management, and remediation services 2.46% Utilities 2.21% Accommodation and food services 2.15% Other services (except public administration) 1.89% Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting 1.53% Arts, entertainment and recreation 0.77% Management of companies and enterprises 0.62%===Service sector===The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP.", "The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians.", "The retail industry is concentrated mainly in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls.", "In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Walmart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States).", "This has led to fewer workers in this sector and the migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.Financial District in Downtown Vancouver.", "Canadian business services are largely concentrated in large urban areas of Canada.The second-largest portion of the service sector is the business service, and it employs only a slightly smaller percentage of the population.", "This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries.", "This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years.", "It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are primarily under the influence of the government.", "The health care industry has been quickly growing and is the third-largest in Canada.", "Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada).", "Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States.", "Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.===Manufacturing===Ford's Oakville Assembly in the Greater Toronto Area.", "Central Canada is home to several auto factories of the major American and Japanese automakers.The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a raw material production-based economy to a manufacturing-based economy and then to a service-based economy.", "At its World War II peak in 1944, Canada's manufacturing sector accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 10.37% in 2017.Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s.", "A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP.", "Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08.As of 2017, manufacturing accounts for 10% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 5% of GDP since 2005.Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation.====Steel====ArcelorMittal Dofasco, view from Burlington StreetCanada was the world's nineteenth-largest steel exporter in 2018.In year-to-date 2019 (through March), further referred to as YTD 2019, Canada exported 1.39 million metric tons of steel, a 22 percent decrease from 1.79 million metric tons in YTD 2018.Based on available data, Canada's exports represented about 1.5 percent of all steel exported globally in 2017.By volume, Canada's 2018 steel exports represented just over one-tenth the volume of the world's largest exporter, China.", "In value terms, steel represented 1.4 percent of the total goods Canada exported in 2018.The growth in exports in the decade since 2009 has been 29%.", "The largest producers in 2018 were ArcelorMittal, Essar Steel Algoma, and the first of those alone accounted for roughly half of Canadian steel production through its two subsidiaries.", "The top two markets for Canada's exports were its NAFTA partners, and by themselves accounted for 92 percent of exports by volume.", "Canada sent 83 percent of its steel exports to the United States in YTD 2019.The gap between domestic demand and domestic production increased to −2.4 million metric tons, up from −0.2 million metric tons in YTD 2018.In YTD 2019, exports as a share of production decreased to 41.6 percent from 53 percent in YTD 2018.In 2017, heavy industry accounted for 10.2% of Canada's Greenhouse gas emissions.=== Mining ===Canada is one of the largest producers of metals (as of 2019):+metalworld ranksourceplatinum4gold5nickel5copper10iron (ore)8titanium4potash1niobium2In 2019, the country was also the 4th largest world producer of sulfur; the world's 7th largest producer of molybdenum; the 7th worldwide producer of cobalt; the 8th largest world producer of lithium; the 8th largest world producer of zinc; the 13th largest world producer of gypsum; the 14th worldwide producer of antimony; the world's 10th largest producer of graphite; in addition to being the 6th largest world producer of salt.", "It was the 2nd largest producer in the world of uranium in 2018.===Energy===Canada has access to cheap sources of energy because of its geography.", "This has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminum industries in British Columbia and Quebec.", "Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy.====Electricity====The electricity sector in Canada has played a significant role in the economic and political life of the country since the late 19th century.", "The sector is organized along provincial and territorial lines.", "In a majority of provinces, large government-owned integrated public utilities play a leading role in the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity.", "Ontario and Alberta have created electricity markets in the last decade in order to increase investment and competition in this sector of the economy.", "In 2017, the electricity sector accounted for 10% of total national greenhouse gas emissions.", "Canada has substantial electricity trade with the neighbouring United States amounting to 72 TWh exports and 10 TWh imports in 2017.Hydroelectricity accounted for 59% of all electric generation in Canada in 2016, making Canada the world's second-largest producer of hydroelectricity after China.", "Since 1960, large hydroelectric projects, especially in Quebec, British Columbia, Manitoba and Newfoundland and Labrador, have significantly increased the country's generation capacity.The second-largest single source of power (15% of the total) is nuclear power, with several plants in Ontario generating more than half of that province's electricity and one generator in New Brunswick.", "This makes Canada the world's sixth-largest electricity producer generated by nuclear power, producing 95 TWh in 2017.Fossil fuels provide 19% of Canadian electric power, about half as coal (9% of the total), and the remainder a mix of natural gas and oil.", "Only five provinces use coal for electricity generation.", "Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Nova Scotia rely on coal for nearly half of their generation, while other provinces and territories use little or none.", "Alberta and Saskatchewan also use a substantial amount of natural gas.", "Remote communities, including all of Nunavut and much of the Northwest Territories, produce most of their electricity from diesel generators at high economic and environmental costs.", "The federal government has set up initiatives to reduce dependence on diesel-fired electricity.Non-hydro renewables are a fast-growing portion of the total, at 7% in 2016.====Oil and gas====Syncrude's Mildred Lake plant site at the Athabasca oil sands in Alberta.Canada possesses extensive oil and gas resources centered in Alberta, and the Northern Territories but is also present in neighboring British Columbia and Saskatchewan.", "The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third-largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, according to USGS.", "The oil and gas industry represents 27% of Canada's total greenhouse gas emissions, an increase of 84% since 1990, mostly due to the development of the oil sands.Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario.", "Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar.", "This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands.The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to make Canada oil-sufficient and to ensure equal supply and price of oil in all parts of Canada, especially for the eastern manufacturing base.", "This policy proved deeply divisive as it forced Alberta to sell low-priced oil to eastern Canada.", "The policy was eliminated 5 years after it was first announced amid a collapse of oil prices in 1985.The new Prime Minister Brian Mulroney had campaigned against the policy in the 1984 Canadian federal election.", "One of the most controversial sections of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.===Agriculture===An inland grain terminal along the Yellowhead Highway in Saskatchewan.Canada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly wheat and other grains.", "Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia.", "As with all other developed nations, the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.", "The agriculture and agri-food manufacturing sector created $49.0 billion to Canada's GDP in 2015, accounting for 2.6% of total GDP.", "This sector also accounts for 8.4% of Canada's Greenhouse gas emissions.The Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and support as with other developed nations.", "However, Canada has strongly supported reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization.", "In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on support for the industry.", "$2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \"green box\" license, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief.", "All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for." ], [ "Free-trade agreements", "=== Free-trade agreements in force ===:Source:* Canada–Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force January 1, 1997, modernization ongoing)* Canada–Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force July 5, 1997)* Canada–Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force November 1, 2002, modernization ongoing)* Canada–European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force July 1, 2009)* Canada–Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force August 1, 2009)* Canada–Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed November 21, 2008, entered into force August 15, 2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\" signed on May 27, 2010)* Canada–Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on June 28, 2009, entered into force October 1, 2012)* Canada–Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on May 14, 2010, entered into force April 1, 2013)* Canada–South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on March 11, 2014, entered into force January 1, 2015)* Canada–Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (Signed 11 July 2016, entered into force August 1, 2017)* Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement with EU (signed 30 October 2016, entered into force 21 September 2017)* Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (signed March 8, 2018, entered into force December 30, 2018)* Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement (signed November 30, 2018, entered into force July 1, 2020)* Canada–UK Trade Continuity Agreement (signed 9 December 2020, entered into force 1 April 2021)=== Free-trade agreements no longer in force ===:Source:* Canada–U.S.", "Free Trade Agreement (signed October 12, 1987, entered into force January 1, 1989, later superseded by NAFTA)* Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded October 5, 2015, superseded by CPTPP)* North American Free Trade Agreement (entered into force January 1, 1994, later superseded by CUSMA)===Ongoing free-trade agreements negotiations===:Source:Canada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries respectively trade blocs:*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador*Dominican Republic*India*Japan*Morocco*Singapore*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)Canada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:*Canada and Central American Free Trade Agreement*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)" ], [ "Political issues", "=== Canada–United States trade relations ===Canada and the United States share a common trading relationship.", "Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.Flags of Canada and the United StatesThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005.In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States.", "Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports.", "By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined.", "Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan.", "Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.–Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it.", "Trade has since increased by 40%.", "NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules.", "It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement.", "NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.The largest component of U.S.–Canada trade is in the commodity sector.The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports.", "Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.At $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada.", "The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity.", "Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world.", "Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas.", "The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields.", "Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution.", "In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market.", "The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries.", "By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's October 12, 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary.", "A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents.", "The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result.", "The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.The U.S. remains Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments.", "In 2018, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada totaled $406 billion, while the stock of Canadian investment in the U.S. totaled $595 billion, or 46% of the overall CDIA stock for 2018.This made Canada the second largest investing country in the U.S. for 2018 US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, insurance and other services." ], [ "Debt", " Inverted yield curve in 2006 – 2007 and 2019===Canadian government debt===Canadian government debt, also called Canada's public debt, is the liabilities of the government sector.", "For 2019 (the fiscal year ending 31 March 2020), total financial liabilities or gross debt was $2434 billion for the consolidated Canadian general government (federal, provincial, territorial, and local governments combined).", "This corresponds to 105.3% as a ratio of GDP (GDP was $2311 billion).", "Of the $2434 billion, $1146 billion or 47% was federal (central) government liabilities (49.6% as a ratio of GDP).", "Provincial government liabilities comprise most of the remaining liabilities.===Household debt===Household debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans.", "In March 2015, the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.According to Statistics Canada, total household credit as of July 2019 was CAD$2.2 trillion.", "According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt." ], [ "Mergers and acquisitions", "Since 1985, 63,755 deals in- and outbound Canada have been announced, with an overall value of US$3.7 billion.", "Almost 50% of the targets of Canadian companies (outbound deals) have a parent company in the US.", "Inbound deals are 82% percent from the US.Here is a list of the biggest deals in Canadian history:RankDate announcedAcquiror nameAcquiror nationTarget nameTarget nationValue (in bil.", "USD)1January 26, 2000Spin-offCanadaNortel Networks CorpCanada59.972June 20, 2000Vivendi SAFranceSeagram Co LtdCanada40.433December 7, 2007Rio Tinto Canada Holdings IncCanadaAlcan IncCanada37.634June 9, 2016Enbridge IncCanadaSpectra Energy CorpUnited States28.295March 12, 2014Enbridge Income FundCanadaEnbridge Inc-LiquidsCanada24.796November 5, 2008ShareholdersCanadaCenovus Energy IncCanada20.267July 23, 2012CNOOC Canada Holding LtdCanadaNexen IncCanada19.128May 15, 2006Xstrata PLCSwitzerlandFalconbridge LtdCanada17.409November 8, 2006Cia Vale do Rio Doce SABrazilInco LtdCanada17.1510March 23, 2009Suncor Energy IncCanadaPetro-CanadaCanada15.5811July 29, 2008Teck Cominco LtdCanadaFording Canadian Coal TrustCanada13.60" ], [ "Raw data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates for 2022–2027).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)1980288.711,798.2276.111,281.42.2%10.2%7.5%44.6%1981327.113,197.5307.212,396.73.5%12.5%7.6%46.1%1982336.213,404.9314.612,543.9-3.2%10.8%11.1%51.7%1983358.514,149.5341.913,493.22.6%5.8%12.0%57.2%1984393.415,380.2356.713,947.45.9%4.3%11.4%60.2%1985425.016,466.0366.214,185.94.7%4.0%10.5%65.2%1986442.916,990.4379.014,539.82.1%4.2%9.6%69.3%1987472.317,893.0433.116,408.14.1%4.4%8.8%69.8%1988510.619,085.3509.419,041.24.4%4.0%7.8%69.7%1989542.919,947.7567.220,842.52.3%5.0%7.5%71.0%1990564.120,415.1596.121,572.10.2%4.8%8.2%73.7%1991571.020,403.3612.521,885.6-2.1%5.6%10.3%81.7%1992589.320,805.6594.420,984.80.9%1.5%11.2%88.2%1993619.321,615.6579.120,210.52.7%1.9%11.4%94.7%1994661.022,823.8579.920,024.64.5%0.2%10.4%97.5%1995693.023,682.4605.920,706.72.7%2.1%9.5%100.1%1996717.124,252.2630.621,325.71.6%1.6%9.6%100.2%1997760.725,469.8655.021,930.54.3%1.6%9.1%95.3%1998799.326,532.4634.021,046.63.9%1.0%8.3%93.3%1999852.428,068.8678.422,340.65.2%1.7%7.6%89.0%2000916.829,914.7744.624,296.75.2%2.7%6.8%80.4%2001954.230,810.5739.023,859.71.8%2.5%7.2%81.5%2002998.431,887.8760.124,279.23.0%2.3%7.7%79.6%20031,036.432,794.3895.628,338.71.8%2.8%7.6%75.9%20041,097.134,390.01,026.532,176.63.1%1.9%7.2%71.9%20051,167.736,260.71,173.536,439.63.2%2.2%6.8%70.6%20061,235.537,980.71,319.440,558.92.6%2.0%6.3%69.9%20071,295.239,428.21,468.944,717.02.1%2.1%6.1%66.9%20081,333.340,159.11,552.946,773.81.0%2.4%6.2%67.9%20091,302.538,788.01,376.540,990.6-2.9%0.3%8.4%79.3%20101,358.940,017.61,617.347,627.33.1%1.8%8.1%81.2%20111,430.841,716.41,793.352,285.93.1%2.9%7.6%81.8%20121,468.142,351.11,828.452,744.01.8%1.5%7.4%85.4%20131,554.144,360.41,846.652,708.62.3%0.9%7.1%86.1%20141,621.445,812.01,805.851,020.82.9%1.9%7.0%85.6%20151,594.944,702.51,556.543,626.50.7%1.1%6.9%91.2%20161,678.446,554.11,528.042,382.61.0%1.4%7.1%91.8%20171,776.948,688.11,649.345,192.03.0%1.6%6.4%88.9%20181,869.850,531.61,725.346,625.92.8%2.3%5.9%88.9%20191,939.051,652.61,742.046,404.01.9%1.9%5.8%87.2%20201,859.748,946.81,645.443,306.6-5.2%0.7%9.6%117.8%20212,025.052,973.01,988.352,015.14.5%3.4%7.4%112.9%20222,240.457,827.52,200.456,794.03.3%6.9%5.3%102.2%20232,353.959,872.22,326.659,179.01.5%4.2%5.9%98.7%20242,441.861,274.72,420.760,745.31.6%2.4%6.2%96.3%20252,544.963,042.62,531.262,703.52.3%1.9%6.1%93.3%20262,642.564,649.42,630.364,352.51.9%1.9%6.0%90.9%20272,739.466,221.62,728.465,954.51.7%2.0%6.0%88.7%===Unemployment rate=== Province Unemployment ratepercentage of labour forceas of October 2022EmploymentAlberta 5.8%2,487,000British Columbia 5.4%2,810,000Manitoba 5.2%701,000Newfoundland and Labrador 10.0%236,000New Brunswick 6.6%389,000Nova Scotia 6.6%503,000 Ontario 6.2%7,946,000 Prince Edward Island 6.2%92,000 Quebec 4.9%4,521,000 Saskatchewan 4.4%602,000 '''Canada (national)''' 5.7%'''20,288,000'''===Export trade===Export trade from Canada measured in US dollars.", "In 2021, Canada exported US$503.4 billion.That dollar amount reflects a 19.5% gain since 2017 and a 29.1% increase from 2020 to 2021.PartnerValueFractionUnited States $380.4 billion75.6%China $23 billion4.6%United Kingdom $12.9 billion2.6%Japan $11.5 billion2.3%Mexico $6.5 billion1.3%Germany $5.5 billion1.1%South Korea$4.5 billion0.9%Netherlands$3.8 billion0.8%France$3.2 billion0.6%Belgium$3.0 billion0.6%Hong Kong$2.8 billion0.6%Norway$2.5 billion0.5%Switzerland$1.6 billion0.5%India$2.35 billion0.5%Italy$2.1 billion0.4%===Import trade===Import trade in 2017 measured in US dollars.PartnerValueFractionUnited States $222.0 billion 51.3%China $54.7 billion 12.7%Mexico $27.4 billion 6.3%Germany $13.8 billion 3.2%Japan $13.5 billion 3.1%United Kingdom $6.9 billion 1.6%South Korea $6.7 billion 1.5%Italy $6.3 billion 1.5%France $4.8 billion 1.1%Vietnam $3.9 billion 0.9%" ], [ "See also", "*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan*Comparison of Canadian and American economies*Economy of Alberta*Economy of Ontario*Economy of Quebec*Economy of Saskatchewan*History of the petroleum industry in Canada*List of Median household income of cities in Canada*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product*List of Canadian metropolitan areas by GDP" ], [ "Notes", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh.", "''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.''", "Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.", "* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.''", "Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002.", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Statistics Canada* Department of Finance Canada* Bank of Canada* Canada – OECD* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook* Canada profile at The World Bank* Canada Exports and Imports" ] ]

[ [ "Telecommunications in Canada" ], [ "Introduction", "Present-day '''telecommunications in Canada''' include telephone, radio, television, and internet usage.", "In the past, telecommunications included telegraphy available through Canadian Pacific and Canadian National." ], [ "History", "The All Red Line cable for the British Empire.", "Canada as an interconnection-point.", "c.a.", "1903The history of telegraphy in Canada dates back to the Province of Canada.", "While the first telegraph company was the Toronto, Hamilton and Niagara Electro-Magnetic Telegraph Company, founded in 1846, it was the Montreal Telegraph Company, controlled by Hugh Allan and founded a year later, that dominated in Canada during the technology's early years.Following the 1852 Telegraph Act, Canada's first permanent transatlantic telegraph link was a submarine cable built in 1866 between Ireland and Newfoundland.", "Telegrams were sent through networks built by Canadian Pacific and Canadian National.In 1868 Montreal Telegraph began facing competition from the newly established Dominion Telegraph Company.", "1880 saw the Great North Western Telegraph Company established to connect Ontario and Manitoba but within a year it was taken over by Western Union, leading briefly to that company's control of almost all telegraphy in Canada.", "In 1882, Canadian Pacific transmitted its first commercial telegram over telegraph lines they had erected alongside its tracks, breaking Western Union's monopoly.", "Great North Western Telegraph, facing bankruptcy, was taken over in 1915 by Canadian Northern.By the end of World War II, Canadians communicated by telephone more than any other country.", "In 1967 the CP and CN networks were merged to form CNCP Telecommunications.As of 1951, approximately 7000 messages were sent daily from the United States to Canada.", "An agreement with Western Union required that U.S. company to route messages in a specified ratio of 3:1, with three telegraphic messages transmitted to Canadian National for every message transmitted to Canadian Pacific.", "The agreement was complicated by the fact that some Canadian destinations were served by only one of the two networks." ], [ "Fixed-line telephony", "The logo of Bell Canada, the nation's largest telephone company.Telephones - fixed lines: total subscriptions: 13.926 million (2020)::* Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 36.9 (2020 est.", ")Telephones - mobile cellular: 36,093,021 (2020)::* Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 95.63 (2020 est.", ")Telephone system: (2019)::* Domestic: Nearly 37 per 100 fixed-line and 96 per 100 mobile-cellular teledensity; domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations (2020)::* International: country code - +1; submarine cables provide links within the Americas and Europe; satellite earth stations - 7 (5 Intelsat - 4 trans-Atlantic Ocean and 1 trans-Pacific Ocean, and 2 Intersputnik - (Atlantic Ocean region)" ], [ "Call signs", "ITU prefixes: Letter combinations available for use in Canada as the first two letters of a television or radio station's call sign are '''CF, CG, CH, CI, CJ, CK, CY, CZ, VA, VB, VC, VD, VE, VF, VG, VO, VX, VY, XJ, XK, XL, XM, XN''' and '''XO'''.", "Only '''CF, CH, CI, CJ''' and '''CK''' are currently in common use, although four radio stations in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador retained call letters beginning with '''VO''' when Newfoundland joined Canadian Confederation in 1949.Stations owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation use '''CB''' through a special agreement with the government of Chile.", "Some codes beginning with '''VE''' and '''VF''' are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters." ], [ "Radio", "As of 2016, there were over 1,100 radio stations and audio services broadcasting in Canada.", "Of these, 711 are private commercial radio stations.", "These commercial stations account for over three quarters of radio stations in Canada.", "The remainder of the radio stations are a mix of public broadcasters, such as CBC Radio, as well as campus, community, and Aboriginal stations." ], [ "Television", "As of 2018, 762 TV services were broadcasting in Canada.", "This includes both conventional television stations and discretionary services.Cable and satellite television services are available throughout Canada.", "The largest cable providers are Bell Canada, Rogers Cable, Vidéotron, Telus and Cogeco, while the two licensed satellite providers are Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct." ], [ "Internet", "Bell, Rogers, Telus, and Shaw are among the bigger ISPs in Canada.", "Depending on your location, Bell and Rogers would be the big internet service providers in Eastern provinces, while Shaw and Telus are the main players competing in western provinces.", "*Internet service providers: there are more than 44 ISPs in Canada, including Beanfield, Bell Canada, Cable Axion, Cablevision (Canada), Chebucto Community Net, Cogeco, Colbanet, Craig Wireless, Dery Telecom, Eastlink (company), Electronic Box, Everus Communications, Guest-tek, Information Gateway Services, Internet Access Solutions, Internex Online, Inukshuk Wireless, Jet2.net, Look Communications, Managed Network Systems, Inc., Mountain Cablevision, National Capital FreeNet, Novus Entertainment, Ontera, Persona Communications, Primus Canada, Project Chapleau, Qiniq, Rally Internet, Rogers Hi-Speed Internet, Rose Media, Rush Communications Ltd., SaskTel, Seaside Communications, Shaw Communications, Source Cable, SSI Micro, TAO (collective), TekSavvy, Telus, Telus Internet, Vidéotron, Vmedia, Web Community Resource Networks, Wireless Nomad, YourLink\t* Internet Exchange Points: There are multiple Internet Exchange Points in Canada, the largest of which are in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.", "Most ISP's peer at one or more of these Exchanges, except for Bell Canada.", "The Toronto Internet Exchange ranks as one of the largest internet exchanges in the world.", "*Country codes: .CA, CDN, 124*Internet users: 33 million users *Internet hosts: 8.7 million (2012-2017)*Percentage of households with Internet access: 87(2016)*Total households with high speed connection: 67% (2014)*Total users of home online banking: 68% (2016)" ], [ "Mobile networks", "The three major mobile network operators are Rogers Wireless (13.7 million subscribers), Bell Mobility (10 million) and Telus Mobility (9.5 million), which have a combined 86% of market share." ], [ "Administration and Government", "Federally, telecommunications are overseen by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission ()–CRTC as outlined under the provisions of both the Telecommunications Act and Radiocommunication Acts.", "CRTC further works with Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (formerly Industry Canada) on various technical aspects including: allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment.", "As Canada comprises a part of the North American Numbering Plan for area codes, the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium within Canada is responsible for allocating and managing area codes in Canada." ], [ "See also", "* Media in Canada* List of newspapers in Canada* List of mobile network operators of the Americas* List of telephone operating companies* List of area codes in Canada* List of postcode areas in Canada* Canadian Association of Broadcasters* Canadian Broadcast Standards Council* Canadian Broadcasting Corporation* Canadian Communications Foundation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*;Bibliography* Canada’s internet infrastructure Internet Exchange Points (IXPs), Canadian Internet Registration Authority (CIRA)* Canadian Area Codes, Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium, Inc. (CNAC)* Canada, SubmarineCableMap.com* National Broadband Internet Service Availability Map, Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada" ], [ "External links", "* The Canadian Communications Foundation – A History of Canadian Broadcasting* Find Service Providers in Canada, CRTC (Mobile, Phone, Internet, or free/paid TV) by location* Compare Internet & Phone Plans in Canada – Free Online Comparison Tool" ] ]

[ [ "Transportation in Canada" ], [ "Introduction", "Canada, the world's second-largest country in total area, is dedicated to having an efficient, high-capacity multimodal transportation spanning often vast distances between natural resource extraction sites, agricultural and urban areas.", "Canada's transportation system includes more than of roads, 10 major international airports, 300 smaller airports, of functioning railway track, and more than 300 commercial ports and harbours that provide access to the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic oceans as well as the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence Seaway.", "In 2005, the transportation sector made up 4.2% of Canada's GDP, compared to 3.7% for Canada's mining and oil and gas extraction industries.Transport Canada oversees and regulates most aspects of transportation within federal jurisdiction, including interprovincial transport.", "This primarily includes rail, air and maritime transportation.", "Transport Canada is under the direction of the federal government's Minister of Transport.", "The Transportation Safety Board of Canada is responsible for maintaining transportation safety in Canada by investigating accidents and making safety recommendations.+Gross domestic product, transport industries, 2005IndustryShare of transportation GDP (%) Air transportation 9 Rail transportation 13 Water transportation 3 Truck transportation 35 Transit and ground passenger transportation 12 Pipeline transportation 11 Scenic and sightseeing transport / Transport support 17 Total: 100" ], [ "History", "The standard history covers the French regime, fur traders, the canals, and early roads, and gives extensive attention to the railways.===European contact===Prior to the arrival of European settlers, Aboriginal peoples in Canada walked.", "They also used canoes, kayaks, umiaks and Bull Boats, in addition to the snowshoe, toboggan and sled in winter.", "They had no wheeled vehicles, and no animals larger than dogs.Europeans adopted canoes as they pushed deeper into the continent's interior, and were thus able to travel via the waterways that fed from the St. Lawrence River and Hudson Bay.In the 19th century and early 20th century transportation relied on harnessing oxen to ''Red River ox carts'' or horse to wagon.", "Maritime transportation was via manual labour such as canoe or wind on sail.", "Water or land travel speeds was approximately .Settlement was along river routes.", "Agricultural commodities were perishable, and trade centres were within .", "Rural areas centred around villages, and they were approximately apart.", "The advent of steam railways and steamships connected resources and markets of vast distances in the late 19th century.", "Railways also connected city centres, in such a way that the traveller went by sleeper, railway hotel, to the cities.", "Crossing the country by train took four or five days, as it still does by car.", "People generally lived within of the downtown core thus the train could be used for inter-city travel and the tram for commuting.The advent of the interstate or Trans-Canada Highway in Canada in 1963 established ribbon development, truck stops, and industrial corridors along throughways.===Evolution===The Federal Department of Transport (established November 2, 1936) supervised railways, canals, harbours, marine and shipping, civil aviation, radio and meteorology.", "The Transportation Act of 1938 and the amended Railway Act, placed control and regulation of carriers in the hands of the Board of Transport commissioners for Canada.", "The Royal Commission on Transportation was formed December 29, 1948, to examine transportation services to all areas of Canada to eliminate economic or geographic disadvantages.", "The commission also reviewed the Railway Act to provide uniform yet competitive freight-rates." ], [ "Roads", "The Trans-Canada highway in Chilliwack, BCThere is a total of of roads in Canada, of which are paved, including of expressways (the third-longest collection in the world, behind the Interstate Highway System of the United States and China's National Trunk Highway System).", "As of 2008, were unpaved.In 2009, there were 20,706,616 road vehicles registered in Canada, of which 96% were vehicles under , 2.4% were vehicles between and 1.6% were or greater.", "These vehicles travelled a total of 333.29 billion kilometres, of which 303.6 billion was for vehicles under 4.5 tonnes, 8.3 billion was for vehicles between 4.5 and 15 tonnes and 21.4 billion was for vehicles over 15 tonnes.", "For the 4.5- to 15-tonne trucks, 88.9% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, 4.9% were inter-province, 2.8% were between Canada and the US and 3.4% made outside of Canada.", "For the trucks over 15 tonnes, 59.1% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, 20% inter-province trips, 13.8% Canada-US trips and 7.1% trips made outside of Canada.Ambassador Bridge between Windsor, Ontario and Detroit, Michigan has a quarter of US-Canada trade cross over it.Canada's vehicles consumed a total of of gasoline and of diesel.", "Trucking generated 35% of the total GDP from transport, compared to 25% for rail, water and air combined (the remainder being generated by the industry's transit, pipeline, scenic and support activities).", "Hence roads are the dominant means of passenger and freight transport in Canada.Roads and highways were managed by provincial and municipal authorities until construction of the Northwest Highway System (the Alaska Highway) and the Trans-Canada Highway project initiation.", "The Alaska Highway of 1942 was constructed during World War II for military purposes connecting Fort St. John, British Columbia with Fairbanks, Alaska.", "The transcontinental highway, a joint national and provincial expenditure, was begun in 1949 under the initiation of the Trans Canada Highway Act on December 10, 1949.The highway was completed in 1962 at a total expenditure of $1.4 billion.Internationally, Canada has road links with both the lower 48 US states and Alaska.", "The Ministry of Transportation maintains the road network in Ontario and also employs Ministry of Transport Enforcement Officers for the purpose of administering the Canada Transportation Act and related regulations.", "The Department of Transportation in New Brunswick performs a similar task in that province as well.Regulations enacted in regards to Canada highways are the 1971 Motor Vehicle Safety Act and the 1990 Highway Traffic Act.The safety of Canada's roads is moderately good by international standards, and is improving both in terms of accidents per head of population and per billion vehicle kilometers." ], [ "Air transport", "Air transportation made up 9% of the transport sector's GDP generation in 2005.Canada's largest air carrier and its flag carrier is Air Canada, which had 34 million customers in 2006 and, as of April 2010, operates 363 aircraft (including Air Canada Jazz).", "CHC Helicopter, the largest commercial helicopter operator in the world, is second with 142 aircraft and WestJet, a low-cost carrier formed in 1996, is third with 100 aircraft.", "Canada's airline industry saw significant change following the signing of the US-Canada open skies agreement in 1995, when the marketplace became less regulated and more competitive.The Canadian Transportation Agency employs transportation enforcement officers to maintain aircraft safety standards, and conduct periodic aircraft inspections, of all air carriers.", "The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority is charged with the responsibility for the security of air traffic within Canada.", "In 1994 the National Airports Policy was enacted===Principal airports===Of over 1,800 registered Canadian aerodromes, certified airports, heliports, and floatplane bases, 26 are specially designated under Canada's National Airports System (NAS): these include all airports that handle 200,000 or more passengers each year, as well as the principal airport serving each federal, provincial, and territorial capital.", "However, since the introduction of the policy only one, Iqaluit Airport, has been added and no airports have been removed despite dropping below 200,000 passengers.", "The Government of Canada, with the exception of the three territorial capitals, retains ownership of these airports and leases them to local authorities.", "The next tier consists of 64 regional/local airports formerly owned by the federal government, most of which have now been transferred to other owners (most often to municipalities).Below is a table of Canada's ten biggest airports by passenger traffic in 2019.Toronto Pearson, Canada's busiest airportVancouver International AirportRankAirportLocationTotal passengersAnnual change 1 Toronto Pearson International Airport Toronto 50,499,431 2.0% 2 Vancouver International Airport Vancouver 26,395,820 1.8% 3 Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport Montreal 20,305,106 4.5% 4 Calgary International Airport Calgary 17,957,780 3.5% 5 Edmonton International Airport Edmonton 8,151,532 1.2% 6 Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport Ottawa 5,106,487 0.1% 7 Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport Winnipeg 4,484,249 0.0% 8 Halifax Stanfield International Airport Halifax 4,188,4433.0% 9 Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport Toronto - − 10 Kelowna International Airport Kelowna 2,032,144 1.3%" ], [ "Railways", "Rogers PassIn 2007, Canada had a total of of freight and passenger railway, of which is electrified.", "While intercity passenger transportation by rail is now very limited, freight transport by rail remains common.", "Total revenues of rail services in 2006 was $10.4 billion, of which only 2.8% was from passenger services.", "In a year are usually earned about $11 billion, of which 3.2% is from passengers and the rest from freight.", "The Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Kansas City are Canada's two major freight railway companies, each having operations throughout North America.", "In 2007, 357 billion tonne-kilometres of freight were transported by rail, and 4.33 million passengers travelled 1.44 billion passenger-kilometres (an almost negligible amount compared to the 491 billion passenger-kilometres made in light road vehicles).", "34,281 people were employed by the rail industry in the same year.Nationwide passenger services are provided by the federal crown corporation Via Rail.", "Three Canadian cities have commuter rail services: in the Montreal area by Exo, in the Toronto area by GO Transit, and in the Vancouver area by West Coast Express.", "Smaller railways such as Ontario Northland, Rocky Mountaineer, and Algoma Central also run passenger trains to remote rural areas.In Canada railways are served by standard gauge, , rails.", "See also track gauge in Canada.Canada has railway links with the lower 48 US States, but no connection with Alaska, although a line has been proposed.", "There are no other international rail connections." ], [ "Waterways", "The Port of Vancouver, Canada's busiest portIn 2005, of cargo was loaded and unloaded at Canadian ports.", "The Port of Vancouver is the busiest port in Canada, moving or 15% of Canada's total in domestic and international shipping in 2003.Transport Canada oversees most of the regulatory functions related to marine registration, safety of large vessel, and port pilotage duties.", "Many of Canada's port facilities are in the process of being divested from federal responsibility to other agencies or municipalities.Inland waterways comprise , including the St. Lawrence Seaway.", "Transport Canada enforces acts and regulations governing water transportation and safety.+Container traffic in Canadian ports, 2006RankPortProvinceTEUsBoxesContainerized cargo (tonnes)1VancouverBritish Columbia2,207,7301,282,80717,640,0242MontrealQuebec1,288,910794,73511,3393163 HalifaxNova Scotia530,722311,0654,572,0204 St. John'sNewfoundland and Labrador118,00855,475512,7875 Fraser RiverBritish Columbia94,651''N/A''742,7836 Saint JohnNew Brunswick44,56624,982259,4597 TorontoOntario24,58524,585292,834 en route to the Tsawwassen ferry terminal from the Swartz Bay ferry terminal===Ferry services===*Passenger ferry service**Vancouver Island and surrounding islands and peninsulas to the British Columbia mainland**Several Sunshine Coast communities to the British Columbia mainland and to Alaska**Internationally to St. Pierre and Miquelon*Automobile ferry service**Nova Scotia to Newfoundland and Labrador**Quebec to Newfoundland across the Strait of Belle Isle**Labrador to Newfoundland**Chandler to the Magdalen Islands, Quebec**Prince Edward Island to the Magdalen Islands, Quebec**Prince Edward Island to Nova Scotia**Digby, Nova Scotia, to Saint John, New BrunswickWelland Canal, Port Weller, Lock #1===Canals===The main route canals of Canada are those of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes.", "The others are subsidiary canals.", "* St. Lawrence Seaway* Welland Canal* Soo Locks* Trent-Severn Waterway* Rideau Canal===Ports and harbours===The National Harbours Board administered Halifax, Saint John, Chicoutimi, Trois-Rivières, Churchill, and Vancouver until 1983.At one time, over 300 harbours across Canada were supervised by the Department of Transport.", "A program of divestiture was implemented around the turn of the millennium, and as of 2014, 493 of the 549 sites identified for divestiture in 1995 have been sold or otherwise transferred, as indicated by a DoT list.", "The government maintains an active divestiture programme, and after divestiture Transport Canada oversees only 17 Canada Port Authorities for the 17 largest shipping ports.====Pacific coast====*Victoria, British Columbia*Vancouver, British Columbia*Prince Rupert, British Columbia====Atlantic coast====*Halifax, Nova Scotia*Saint John, New Brunswick*St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador*Sept-Îles, Quebec*Sydney, Nova Scotia*Botwood, Newfoundland and Labrador====Arctic coast====*Churchill, ManitobaChurchill, Manitoba Seaport====Great Lakes and St Lawrence River====*Bécancour, Quebec*Hamilton, Ontario*Montreal, Quebec*Quebec City, Quebec*Trois-Rivières, Quebec*Thunder Bay, Ontario*Toronto, Ontario*Windsor, Ontario===Merchant marine===Canada's merchant marine comprised a ''total'' of 173 ships ( or over) or at the end of 2007." ], [ "Pipelines", "The TransCanada pipeline routePipelines are part of the energy extraction and transportation network of Canada and are used to transport natural gas, natural gas liquids, crude oil, synthetic crude and other petroleum based products.", "Canada has of pipeline for transportation of crude and refined oil, and for liquefied petroleum gas." ], [ "Public transit", "Some North American cities arranged by size along the horizontal axis and public transportation use on the vertical axis.Montreal Metro's McGill station during rush hourMost Canadian cities have public transport, if only a bus system.", "Three Canadian cities have rapid transit systems, four have light rail systems, and three have commuter rail systems (see below).", "In 2016, 12.4% of Canadians used public transportation to get to work.", "This compares to 79.5% that got to work using a car (67.4% driving alone, 12.1% as part of a carpool), 5.5% that walked and 1.4% that rode a bike.Government organizations across Canada owned 17,852 buses of various types in 2016.Organizations in Ontario (38.8%) and Quebec (21.9%) accounted for just over three-fifths of the country's total bus fleet.", "Urban municipalities owned more than 85% of all buses.in 2016, diesel buses were the leading bus type in Canada (65.9%), followed by bio-diesel (18.1%) and hybrid (9.4%) buses.", "Electric, natural gas and other buses collectively accounted for the remaining 6.6%.===Rapid transit systems===There are three rapid transit systems operating in Canada: the Montreal Metro, the Toronto subway, and the Vancouver SkyTrain.+Rapid transit in CanadaLocationTransitWeekday daily ridershipLength/stations Montreal, QuebecMontreal Metro1,254,700 (Q4 2016) / 68 Toronto, OntarioToronto subway1,207,300 (Q4 2016) / 75 Vancouver, British ColumbiaSkyTrain454,600 (December 2016) / 53There is also an airport circulator, the Link Train, at Toronto Pearson International Airport.", "It operates 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and is wheelchair-accessible.", "It is free of cost.===Light rail systems===There are light rail systems in four cities – the Calgary CTrain, the Edmonton LRT, the Ottawa O-Train, and Waterloo Region's Ion – while Toronto has an extensive streetcar system.+Light rail transit in CanadaLocationTransitWeekday daily ridershipLength/stations Toronto, OntarioToronto streetcar system530,600 (Q4 2019) / 685 Calgary, AlbertaCTrain313,800 (Q4 2019) / 45 Edmonton, AlbertaEdmonton LRT113,804 (2019) / 29 Ottawa, OntarioO-Train159,000 (Q4 2019) / 18 Waterloo Region, Ontario Ion rapid transit N/A / 19The 2016 Canada's Core Public Infrastructure Survey from Statistics Canada found that all of Canada's 247 streetcars were owned by the City of Toronto.", "The vast majority (87.9%) of these streetcars were purchased from 1970 to 1999, while 12.1% were purchased in 2016.Reflecting the age of the streetcars, 88.0% were reported to be in very poor condition, while 12.0% were reported to be in good condition.===Commuter train systems===Commuter trains serve the cities and surrounding areas of Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver:+Commuter train systems in CanadaLocationTransitDaily ridershipSystem length Toronto, OntarioGO Transit187,000 (2013) Montreal, QuebecAgence métropolitaine de transport83,100 (Q2 2013) Vancouver, British ColumbiaWest Coast Express11,100 (Q2 2013)" ], [ "See also", "* Royal Commission on Railways*''The Romance of Transportation in Canada'', a National Film Board of Canada animated short* Taxicabs of Canada* Plug-in electric vehicles in Canada" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brown, Ron.", "''Rails Across the Prairies: The Railway Heritage of Canada's Prairie Provinces'' (Dundurn, 2012)* Currie, Archibald William.", "''Economics of Canadian transportation'' (U of Toronto Press, 1954.", ")* Daniels, Rudolph L. ''Trains across the continent: North American railroad history'' (Indiana University Press, 2000)* Glazebrook, G.P.", "de T. ''A history of transportation in Canada'' (1938; reprinted 1969), The standard scholarly history* McCalla, Robert J.", "''Water Transportation in Canada'' (1994)* McIlwraith, Thomas F. \"Transportation in Old Ontario.\"", "''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 14.2 (1984): 177–192.", "* Pigott, Peter.", "''Canada: The History'' (2014); Pigott has numerous books on aviation in Canada* Schreiner, John.", "''Transportation: The evolution of Canada's networks'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972)* Stagg, Ronald.", "''The Golden Dream: A History of the St. Lawrence Seaway'' (Dundurn, 2010)* Willoughby, William R. ''The St. Lawrence waterway: a study in politics and diplomacy'' (University of Wisconsin Press, 1961)" ], [ "External links", "* Directory of Canada Transportation Companies www.transportationindustry.ca* \"Transportation and Maps\" in ''Virtual Vault'', an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada* North American transportation statistics" ] ]

[ [ "Canada–United States relations" ], [ "Introduction", " Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.", "The two countries consider themselves among the \"closest of allies\".", "They share the longest border () between any two nations in the world, and also have significant military interoperability.", "Both Americans and Canadians have generally ranked each other as one of their respective \"favorite nations\".", "Canadian Anti-Americanism manifests itself in a variety of ways, ranging from political, to cultural.Starting with the American Revolution, when Loyalists were resettled in Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against American dominance or annexation.", "The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border in both directions, but the war ended with unchanged borders.", "The British ceased aiding Native American attacks on the United States, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada.", "Apart from minor unsuccessful raids, it has remained peaceful.", "As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the Canadian Confederation (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911).", "Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO.", "A high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture; a dynamic that has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988 and the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994.Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, the issue of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism.", "Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA, the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the 2020 United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), which has progressively merged the two economies.", "Co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage." ], [ "History", "=== Colonial wars ===Map of European colonies in North America, c. 1750.Territorial claims by European powers were fought over during the French and Indian Wars.Before the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French that were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas.", "In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies.", "The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British.", "Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec.", "The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north.", "The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men.", "Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics.", "The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust.", "There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties.", "The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763).", "In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.=== American Revolutionary War ===''The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec, December 31, 1775'', by John Trumbull, depicting the failed American invasion of northeastern Quebec.At the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation.", "When northeastern Quebec was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort.", "Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts.", "The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S.", "The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.", "The American forces had much better success in southwestern Quebec, owing to the leadership of Virginia militia leader George Rogers Clark.", "In 1778, 200 men under Clark, supplied and supported mainly by Virginia, came down the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky, marched across southern Illinois, and then captured Kaskaskia without loss of life.", "From there, part of his men took Vincennes, but was soon lost to British Lieutenant Colonel Henry Hamilton, the commander at Fort Detroit.", "It was later retaken by Clark in the Siege of Fort Vincennes in February 1779.Roughly half of Clark's militia in the theater were Canadien volunteers sympathetic to the American cause.In the end, America won its independence and the Treaty of Paris compelled Britain to cede parts of southwestern Canada to them.", "Following America's independence, Canada became a refuge for about an estimated 70,000 or 15% of Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S. or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.", "Among the original Loyalists, there were 3,500 free African Americans.", "Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1,200 migrated to Sierra Leone.", "About 2,000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833.Around 85% of the loyalists remained in the new United States and became American citizens.=== War of 1812 ===The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border.", "Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war.", "The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts.", "Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time.", "Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the United States declared war on Britain.", "The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Native American tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783.American \"honor\" was an implicit issue.", "While the Americans could not hope to defeat the Royal Navy and control the seas, they could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the most advantageous means of attacking the British Empire.", "Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to American expansion, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes.", "Americans may also have wanted to acquire Canada.Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada.", "There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers.", "However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada militia.", "Aided by the large Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, the Capitol, and other public buildings.", "At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden.", "However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois.", "With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes, the threat to American expansion was ended.", "The upshot was both the United States and Canada asserted their sovereignty, Canada remained under British rule, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over.", "The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815.A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canada–US border.", "Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican Church of Canada as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people.", "The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \"militia myth\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York.=== Post War of 1812 and mid-19th century ===In the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-British conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\"Upper Canada\") and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches.", "A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control.", "Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed.", "The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from the United States.", "Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\"Lower Canada\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US.", "The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.The Webster–Ashburton Treaty formalized the U.S.–Canada border in Maine, averting the Aroostook War.", "During the Manifest Destiny era, the \"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight\" agenda called for U.S. annexation of what became Western Canada; the U.S. and Britain instead agreed to a boundary of the 49th parallel.", "As harsher fugitive slave laws were passed, Canada became a destination for slaves escaping on the Underground Railroad.=== American Civil War ===raid at St. Albans, Vermont.", "The Confederate soldiers launched their raid from the Province of Canada.During the American Civil War, the British Empire was neutral.", "About 40,000 Canadians volunteered for the Union Army—many already lived in the U.S., and a few for the Confederate Army.", "However, hundreds of Americans who were called up in the draft fled to Canada.", "Several events caused strained relations between the British Empire and the United States, over the former's unofficial role in supporting the Confederacy.", "Blockade runners loaded with arms came from Britain and made use of Canadian ports in the Maritimes to break through the Union blockade to deliver the weaponry to the Confederacy in exchange for cotton.", "Attacks were made on American merchant shipping by British-built Confederate warships such as CSS ''Alabama''.", "On December 7, 1863, pro-Confederate Canadian sympathizers hijacked an American steamer and killed a crew member off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts then used the steamer, originally intended as a blockade runner, to flee back to the Maritimes where they were later able to escape justice for murder and piracy.", "Confederate Secret Service agents also used Canada as a base to attack American border towns, such as St. Albans, Vermont on October 19, 1864, where they killed an American citizen, robbed three banks of over US$200,000, then escaped to Canada where they were arrested but then released by a Canadian court to widespread American anger.", "Many Americans suspected – falsely – that the Canadian government knew of the raid ahead of time.", "American Secretary of State William H. Seward let the British government know that \"it is impossible to consider those proceedings as either legal, just or friendly towards the United States.", "\"==== Alabama claims ====Americans were angry at Britain's perceived support for the Confederacy during the American Civil War.", "Some leaders demanded a huge payment, on the premise that British involvement had lengthened the war by two years, a claim confirmed by post-Civil War historians and scholars.", "Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion in war reparations, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States.When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast.", "Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims.", "Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for dropping the damage claims.", "The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and Pro-American Englishmen seemingly combining forces.", "The plan was dropped for multiple reasons.", "London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion.", "The \"Alabama Claims\" dispute went to international arbitration.", "In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 rejected the American claims for damages relating to the British blockade running but ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million only for damages caused by British-built Confederate ships.", "Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.=== Late 19th century ===Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain retained control of diplomacy and of defence policy.", "Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude.", "The Oregon Treaty of 1846 largely resolved the issue, splitting the disputed territory – the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half eventually formed the states of Washington and Oregon.", "The Battle of Eccles Hill in 1870.The American-based Fenian Brotherhood launched several raids into Canada in 1866 and 1870–71.Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions called the \"Fenian raids\" conducted by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence.", "The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War of 1861–1865, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians.", "The Fenian raids were small-scale attacks carried out by the Fenian Brotherhood, an Irish Republican organization based among Irish Catholics in the United States.", "Targets included British Army forts, customs posts and other locations near the border.", "The raids were small, unsuccessful episodes in 1866, and again from 1870 to 1871.They aimed to bring pressure on Great Britain to withdraw from Ireland.", "None of these raids achieved their aims and all were quickly defeated by local Canadian forces.The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense.", "Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.=== Early 20th century ======= Alaska boundary ====Border claims made during the Alaska boundary dispute.", "The border dispute was settled by arbitration in 1903, with the modern boundary marked by a yellow line.A short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903.The issue was unimportant until the Klondike Gold Rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports.", "Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska.", "It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields.", "The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada.", "The arbitration validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at London.1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission.", "To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed.", "It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.==== Free trade rejected ====A 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\"trusts\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interestsAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada.", "The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers.", "Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets.", "The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \"sell out\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger.", "The Conservative slogan was \"No truck or trade with the Yankees\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.==== World War I ====British Canadians were annoyed in 1914–16 when the United States insisted on neutrality and seemed to profit heavily while Canada was sacrificing its wealth and its youth.", "However when the US finally declared war on Germany in April 1917, there was swift cooperation and friendly coordination, as one historian reports: Official co-operation between Canada and the United States—the pooling of grain, fuel, power, and transportation resources, the underwriting of a Canadian loan by bankers of New York—produced a good effect on the public mind.", "Canadian recruiting detachments were welcomed in the United States, while a reciprocal agreement was ratified to facilitate the return of draft-evaders.", "A Canadian War Mission was established at Washington, and in many other ways the activities of the two countries were coordinated for efficiency.", "Immigration regulations were relaxed and thousands of American farmhands crossed the border to assist in harvesting Canadian crops.", "Officially and publicly, at least, the two nations were on better terms than ever before in their history, and on the American side, this attitude extended through almost all classes of society.==== Post-First World War ====Canada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire.", "Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s.", "Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927.The United States' first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips.", "Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.In July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit confederated Canada.", "The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver.", "Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park.", "A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930 when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada.", "Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth.", "U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.Down to the 1920s, the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios on paper with the other as an enemy.", "These were routine training exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war.", "In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No.", "1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling an invasion by the United States until British reinforcements arrived.", "Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.Herbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire\".Franklin D. Roosevelt speaking at Queen's University at Kingston.", "Roosevelt spoke on the US relations with Canada while there.In 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada.", "Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.=== Second World War ===The two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers.", "Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors.", "They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb.", "49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition.", "Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable British Columbia Coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war.", "Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion.", "In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than the unified command for the West Coast.==== Newfoundland ====The United States built large military bases in Newfoundland during World War II.", "At the time it was a British crown colony, having lost dominion status.", "The American spending ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party.", "Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referendums.", "There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.=== Cold War ===A NATO summit in Paris, May 1955.Both Canada and the United States are founding members of the military alliance.Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, working closely with his Foreign Minister Louis St. Laurent, handled foreign relations 1945–48 in a cautious fashion.", "Canada donated money to the United Kingdom to help it rebuild; was elected to the UN Security Council; and helped design NATO.", "However, Mackenzie King rejected free trade with the United States, and decided not to play a role in the Berlin airlift.", "Canada had been actively involved in the League of Nations, primarily because it could act separately from Britain.", "It played a modest role in the postwar formation of the United Nations, as well as the International Monetary Fund.", "It played a somewhat larger role in 1947 in designing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.", "After the mid-20th century onwards, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners.", "Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.==== Vietnam War resisters ====While Canada openly accepted draft evaders and later deserters from the United States, there was never a serious international dispute due to Canada's actions, while Sweden's acceptance was heavily criticized by the United States.", "The issue of accepting American exiles became a local political debate in Canada that focused on Canada's sovereignty in its immigration law.", "The United States did not become involved because American politicians viewed Canada as a geographically close ally not worth disturbing.==== Nixon Shock 1971 ====addresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972The United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war, the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \"Nixon Shock\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic.", "Washington refused to exempt Canada from its 1971 New Economic Policy, so Trudeau saw a solution in closer economic ties with Europe.", "Trudeau proposed a \"Third Option\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of the American market.", "In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States dead.Relations deteriorated on many points in the Nixon years (1969–74), including trade disputes, defense agreements, energy, fishing, the environment, cultural imperialism, and foreign policy.", "They changed for the better when Trudeau and President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981) found a better rapport.", "The late 1970s saw a more sympathetic American attitude toward Canadian political and economic needs, the pardoning of draft evaders who had moved to Canada, and the passing of old such as the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War.", "Canada more than ever welcomed American investments during \"the stagflation\" that hurt both nations.=== 1990s ===American, Canadian, and Mexican dignitaries initialing the draft North American Free Trade Agreement in October 1992The main issues in Canada–U.S.", "relations in the 1990s focused on the North American Free Trade Agreement, which was signed in 1994.It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs.", "Wilson says, \"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced large and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses\".", "However, he adds, \"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.", "\"=== Migration history ===From the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been an extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.New England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775 and were neutral during the American Revolution.", "At the end of the American Revolution, about 75,000 United Empire Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal.", "From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Upper Canada (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario).", "In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon Territory.", "In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest.", "Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies.", "In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage.", "The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.Loyalists landing in present day New Brunswick.", "Large movements of population occurred in both directions from the late-18th to 20th century.Canada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S.", "In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S. After 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North.", "By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes.", "It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt.", "By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces.", "The net result of the flows was that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900.Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities.", "By the late 20th century, most had abandoned the French language (see New England French), but most kept the Catholic religion.", "About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements." ], [ "Relations between political executives", "The executive of each country is represented differently.", "The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \"administration\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \"government\" or \"ministry\" directs the executive.=== W. L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945) ===Mackenzie King, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the First Quebec Conference in 1943.In 1940, W.L.", "Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a defense pact, known as the Ogdensburg Agreement.", "King hosted conferences for Churchill and Roosevelt, but did not participate in the talks.=== Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953) ===Prime Minister Laurent and President Truman were both anti-communist during the early years of the Cold War.=== John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961) ===President Dwight Eisenhower (1952–1961) took pains to foster good relations with Progressive Conservative John Diefenbaker (1957–1963).", "That led to approval of plans to join together in NORAD, an integrated air defence system, in mid-1957.Relations with President John Kennedy were much less cordial.", "Diefenbaker opposed apartheid in the South Africa and helped force it out of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "His indecision on whether to accept Bomarc nuclear missiles from the United States led to his government's downfall.=== John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963) ===Diefenbaker and President John F. Kennedy did not get along well personally.", "This was evident in Diefenbaker's response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where he was slow to support the United States.", "However, Diefenbaker's Minister of Defence went behind Diefenbaker's back and did send Canada's military to high alert given Canada's legal treaty obligations, and in order to try and appease Kennedy.=== Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968) ===In 1965, Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson gave a speech in Philadelphia criticizing American involvement in the Vietnam War.", "This infuriated Lyndon B. Johnson, who gave him a harsh talk, saying \"You don't come here and piss on my rug\".=== Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989) ===Ronald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987Relations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close.", "This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.", "Mulroney delivered eulogies at the funerals of both Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush.=== Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001) ===APEC summit meeting in November 1993Although Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to President Bill Clinton, both men had a passion for golf.", "During a news conference with Prime Minister Chrétien in April 1997, President Clinton quipped \"I don't know if any two world leaders have played golf together more than we have, but we meant to break a record\".", "Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly.", "Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements.", "Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.=== Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003) ===Jean Chrétien shakes hands with George W. Bush during a meeting in September 2002Relations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office.", "Canada offered its full assistance to the U.S. as the September 11 attacks were unfolding.", "One tangible show of support was Operation Yellow Ribbon, in which more than 200 U.S.-bound flights were diverted to Canada after the U.S. shut down their airspace.", "Later, however, Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \"root causes\" of terrorism.", "Some Americans criticized his \"smug moralism\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met with negative responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.=== Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009) ===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations.", "Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.=== Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015) ===Barack Obama meeting with Stephen Harper in Ottawa, February 2009President Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation.", "With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \"Buy American\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season.", "In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama.", "During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.==== Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011) ====On February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.", "\"Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \"first of its kind\" initiative by selecting \"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC January 10, 2013)\".On December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February.", "The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic.", "An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\".", "The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement.", "These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S.", "border.=== Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017) ===President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, March 2016President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office.", "Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \"enhanced Canada–U.S.", "partnership\".On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S.", "relations and would instead provide a \"fresh start\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \"the Canada–U.S.", "relationship is much bigger than any one project.\"", "Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \"extraordinarily helpful\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \"do more than its part\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.Trudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016.Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer.", "Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \"message of hope and change\" and \"positive and optimistic vision\".", "Obama and Trudeau also held \"productive\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.=== Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017 – January 2021) ===President Donald Trump and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, June 2019Following the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \"earliest opportunity\".", "Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office.", "Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber.", "Diafiltered Milk was brought up by Trump as an area that needed negotiating.In 2018, Trump and Trudeau negotiated the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), a free trade agreement concluded between Canada, Mexico, and the United States that succeeded the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).", "The agreement has been characterized as \"NAFTA 2.0\", or \"New NAFTA\", since many provisions from NAFTA were incorporated and its changes were seen as largely incremental.", "On July 1, 2020, the USMCA entered into force in all member states.In June 2018, after Trudeau explained that Canadians would not be \"pushed around\" by the Trump tariffs on Canada's aluminum and steel, Trump labelled Trudeau as \"dishonest\" and \"meek\", and accused Trudeau of making \"false statements\", although it is unclear which statements Trump was referring to.", "Trump's adviser on trade, Peter Navarro, said that there was a \"special place in hell\" for Trudeau as he employed \"bad faith diplomacy with President Donald J. Trump and then tries to stab him in the back on the way out the door ... that comes right from Air Force One.\"", "Days later, Trump said that Trudeau's comments are \"going to cost a lot of money for the people of Canada\".In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson Morgan Ortagus said the US \"view Canada's claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law\".=== Justin Trudeau and Joe Biden (January 2021 – present) ===President Joe Biden and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, March 2023Following the victory of Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him on his successful victory; indicating a significant improvement in Canada–U.S.", "relationships, which had been strained in the years prior during the Presidency of Donald Trump.On January 22, 2021, Biden and Trudeau held their first phone call.", "Trudeau was the first foreign leader to receive a phone call from Biden as President.On February 23, 2021, Biden and Trudeau held their first bilateral meeting.", "Although virtual, the bilateral meeting was Biden's first as President.", "The two leaders discussed \"COVID-19, economic recovery, climate change, and refugees and migration\" among other subjects." ], [ "Military and security", "North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.The Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan.", "The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions.", "Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country.", "The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters.", "The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments.", "In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).", "Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003.Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War.", "Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters.", "Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.According to Canadian and U.S. officials, a U.S. fighter jet shot down an unidentified object over Canada on 23 February 2023 on the orders of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.", "The operation was coordinated by the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), a joint U.S.-Canadian air defense organization.", "Prime Minister Trudeau said investigators were looking for debris.", "This decision was made following the conversation between Biden and Trudeau.The foreign policies of the countries have been closely aligned, yet ultimately independent, since the Cold War.", "There is also debate on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.", "=== Iran hostage crisis ===During the 1979 revolution, protesters invaded the US embassy and took many hostages.", "Six Americans evaded capture and were sheltered by the British and Canadian diplomatic missions.", "After a US military operation to get them out of Iran failed, Canadian diplomat Ken Taylor, Secretary of State for External Affairs Flora MacDonald, and Prime Minister Joe Clark decided to smuggle the six Americans out of Iran on an international flight by using Canadian passports.", "An Order in Council was made to issue multiple official copies of Canadian passports with fake identities to the American diplomats in the Canadian sanctuary.", "The passports contained forged Iranian visas prepared by the US Central Intelligence Agency.=== War in Afghanistan ===ISAF soldiers gather to commemorate the 65th anniversary of 1st Special Service Force in Bagram, Afghanistan.", "The 1st Special Service Force was an American-Canadian unit during World War II.Canada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaeda attacks on September 11, 2001.Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002.On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians.", "A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \"second-guessing\" his field tactical decision.", "Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active.", "Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.The Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C. maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\".The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.=== 2003 Invasion of Iraq ===According to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \"Global war on terror\".=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===Canadian Minister of Defence Harjit Sajjan meets with US Secretary of Defense Ash Carter at NATO headquarters in 2016Canada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh.", "In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan met the U.S. special envoy for this coalition.", "The Americans thanked Canada \"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces\".=== Illicit drugs ===In 2003, the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana.", "David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \"We would have to respond.", "We would be forced to respond.\"", "However, the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws until the Liberal Party of Canada legalised recreational cannabis use in 2018.A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border.", "The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\"", "The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada." ], [ "Trade", "Timber being floated along the Fraser River in Vancouver.", "Trade disputes over softwood lumber exist between the two countries.Canada and the United States have the world's second largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year.", "Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim that Canada disputes.", "The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases.", "Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural protectionism in cultural industries such as magazines, radio, and television.", "Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies.", "Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11." ], [ "Environmental issues", "Richard Nixon and Pierre Trudeau at the signing ceremony for the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement in 1972A principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters.", "The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution.", "However, there have been some disputes.", "Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.Beginning in 1986, the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \"Acid Rain Treaty\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada.", "The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims.", "However, Mulroney was able to prevail.", "The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration.", "Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000.Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer.", "The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States.", "As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation that created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation that monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions.", "Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement.", "Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.", "In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.With large freshwater supplies in Canada and long-term concern about water scarcity in parts of the United States, water export availability or restriction has been identified as an issue of possible future contention between the countries.=== Newfoundland fisheries dispute ===The United States and Britain had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland.", "Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland.", "In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights.", "However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive.", "The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \"liberties\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved.", "Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s.", "The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail.", "However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties.", "Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909.It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems." ], [ "Common memberships", "Canada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations, including:* Arctic Council* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation* Canadian Hockey League (CHL)* CONCACAF* FIBA* FIFA* Food and Agriculture Organization* G7* G-10* G-20 major economies* International Chamber of Commerce* International Development Association* International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)* International Monetary Fund (IMF)* International Olympic Committee (IOC)* Interpol* Major League Baseball (MLB)* Major League Soccer (MLS)* National Basketball Association (NBA)* National Hockey League (NHL)* National Lacrosse League (NLL)* North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)* North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)* North American Numbering Plan* North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)* Organization of American States* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America* UKUSA Community* United Nations (UN)* UNESCO* World Bowling* World Health Organization (WHO)* World Trade Organization (WTO)* World Bank* World Rugby=== Territorial disputes ===A \"buoy\" on Machias Seal Island.", "The waters around the island is one of several maritime territorial disputes between the two countries.", "The two countries have had a number of territorial disputes throughout their histories.", "Current maritime territorial disputes between the two countries include the Beaufort Sea, Dixon Entrance, Strait of Juan de Fuca, San Juan Islands, Machias Seal Island, and North Rock.", "Additionally, the United States is one of several countries that contends the Northwest Passage is international waters; whereas the Canadian government asserts it forms Canadian Internal Waters.", "The Inside Passage is also disputed as international waters by the United States.Historical boundary disputes include the Aroostook War at the Maine–New Brunswick border; the Oregon boundary dispute at the present day British Columbia–Washington border; and the Alaska Boundary Dispute at the Alaska–British Columbia border.", "The Maine–New Brunswick boundary dispute was resolved through the Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842, the Oregon boundary dispute through the Oregon Treaty of 1846, and the Alaska boundary dispute through arbitration in 1903.==== Northwest Passage ====Popular routes on the Northwest PassageA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic).", "Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters).", "Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident.", "In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone.", "In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.", "...", "Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\"", "A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \"Arctic Cooperation\", which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada\".", "However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position.", "Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada.", "His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions.", "The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.=== Views of presidents and prime ministers ===Presidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration.", "Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.", "* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \"As for myself, my course is clear.", "A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die.", "With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the 'veiled treason' which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\"", "(February 3, 1891.", ")Canada's first Prime Minister also said:* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.", "\"* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.", "\"* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \"Geography has made us neighbors.", "History has made us friends.", "Economics has made us partners.", "And necessity has made us allies.", "Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.", "\"* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed.", "We have much to give thanks for.", "But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\"", "Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.", "* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \"is like sleeping with an elephant.", "No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.", "\"* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.", "\"* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States was dead.", "\"It is time for us to recognize\", he stated, \"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.", "\"* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support.", "Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.", "* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.", "\"* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit on February 19, 2009, said, \"I love this country.", "We could not have a better friend and ally.\"" ], [ "Public opinion", "Today there remain cross-border cultural ties and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012.As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters.", "According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively.", "In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view the U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.", "More recently, however, a poll in January 2018 showed Canadians' approval of U.S. leadership dropped by over 40 percentage points under President Donald Trump, in line with the view of residents of many other U.S. allied and neutral countries.", "Since then, Canadian opinion of the U.S. has improved significantly, following an international rebound in the U.S image abroad following the transition as President of the United States from Donald Trump to Joe Biden, with 61% of Canadians having a favorable opinion of the United States in 2021.=== Anti-Americanism ===Anti-Americanism in Canada has unique historic roots.", "Since the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \"Americanization\" or a cultural takeover.", "In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \"the fear of Americanization\".", "Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.A Canadian political cartoon from 1869 of a \"Young Canada\" kicking out Uncle Sam from \"Dominion House\", while John Bull watches in the backgroundCanadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it.", "Anti-American Canadians (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canada had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \"progress\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony.", "There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in Anglophone Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest.", "Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization.", "In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Québécois had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living.", "While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans.", "However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.Signage advocating against free trade with the United States on a building in Toronto in 1911The history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L.", "Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997).", "Current studies report the phenomenon persists.", "Two scholars report, \"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\"", "Jamie Glazov writes, \"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962.He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\"", "Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\"", "John R. Wennersten writes, \"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware.", "Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\"", "However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries.", "By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs.", "Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.", "\"=== Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents ===Anti-Trump rally organized in Vancouver in January 2017United States President George W. Bush was \"deeply disliked\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''.", "A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him.", "Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive.", "A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \"if they could\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney.", "The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \"good\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \"bad\".", "Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\".", "The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008.John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \"never liked\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.A November 2016 poll found 82% of Canadians preferred Hillary Clinton over Donald Trump.", "A January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \"disapproved\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \"unsure\".", "The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.", "A July 2019 poll found 79% of Canadians preferred Joe Biden or Bernie Sanders over Trump.", "A Pew Research poll released in June 2021, showed that Canadian opinion of American president Joe Biden is much more favorable than his predecessor Donald Trump, with 77% approving of his leadership and having confidence in him to do the right thing." ], [ "Resident diplomatic missions", ";Resident diplomatic missions of Canada in the United States* Washington, D.C. (Embassy)* Atlanta (Consulate-General)* Boston (Consulate-General)* Chicago (Consulate-General)* Dallas (Consulate-General)* Denver (Consulate-General)* Detroit (Consulate-General)* Los Angeles (Consulate-General)* Miami (Consulate-General)* Minneapolis (Consulate-General)* New York City (Consulate-General)* San Francisco (Consulate-General)* Seattle (Consulate-General)* Houston (Trade Office)* Palo Alto (Trade Office)* San Diego (Trade Office);Resident diplomatic missions of the United States in Canada* Ottawa (Embassy)* Calgary (Consulate-General)* Halifax (Consulate-General)* Montreal (Consulate-General)* Quebec City (Consulate-General)* Toronto (Consulate-General)* Vancouver (Consulate-General)* Winnipeg (Consulate)File:Embassy of Canada in Washington, D.C..JPG|Embassy of Canada in Washington, D.C.File:Trade office of Canada - Palo Alto, CA.jpg|Trade office of Canada in Palo AltoFile:American Embassy in Ottawa.jpg|Embassy of the United States in OttawaFile:US Consulate-General in Quebec City-3.jpg|Consulate-General of the United States in Quebec CityFile:Consulate of the United States in Toronto.JPG|Consulate-General of the United States in Toronto" ], [ "See also", "* American Canadians* Canada–United States border* Canada–United States sports rivalries* Canadian Americans* Canadian nationalism, in which autonomy from and contrast with the United States is a major issue* Comparison of Canadian and American economies* Comparison of the Canadian and American healthcare systems* Foreign relations of Canada* Foreign relations of the United States* History of homeland security in the United States* North Atlantic triangle* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America* United Kingdom–United States relations* List of ambassadors of Canada to the United States* List of ambassadors of the United States to Canada* CIA activities in Canada" ], [ "References", "=== Cited sources ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Azzi, Stephen.", "''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada–US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds.", "''Transnationalism: Canada–United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp.", "online 2012 review* Bothwell, Robert.", "''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries* Boyko, John.", "''Cold fire: Kennedy's northern front'' (Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2016)* Congressional Research Service.", "''Canada–U.S.", "Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2021) 2021 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress; Updated February 10, 2021* Clarkson, Stephen.", "''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \"Anti-Americanism in Canada\", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol.", "497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp.", "105–119 in JSTOR* Dunning, William Archibald.", "''The British Empire and the United States'' (1914) online celebratory study by leading American scholar.", "* Dyment, David \"Doing the Continental: A New Canadian-American Relationship\" (Dundurn Press, 2010)* Engler, Yves* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)* Gravelle, Timothy B.", "\"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\"", "''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.", "* Gravelle, Timothy B.", "\"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r?", "Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics\".", "''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.", "* Greaves, Wilfrid.", "\"Democracy, Donald Trump, and the Canada-US Security Environment\".", "(NAADSN – North American and Arctic Defense Security Network, 2020).", "online* * Hale, Geoffrey.", "''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011* Hillmer, Norman, and Philippe Lagassé, eds.", "''Justin Trudeau and Canadian foreign policy'' (Springer, 2018) online.", "* Holland, Kenneth.", "\"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century\".", "''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6.online* Holmes, Ken.", "\"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations\".", "''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.", "* Holmes, John W. \"Canadian External Policies since 1945\" \"International Journal\" 18#2 (1963) 137-147.https://doi.org/10.1177/002070206301800201 online* Holmes, John W. \"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada\", ''International Organization'', Vol.", "28, No.", "4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp.", "611–635 in JSTOR* Innes, Hugh, ed.", "''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972).", "; re 1970s* Keenleyside, Hugh Ll.", "''Canada and the United States'' (1929) online* Lennox, Patrick.", "''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S.", "Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.", "* Little, John Michael.", "\"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945\", PhD dissertation.", "''Dissertation Abstracts International'', 1978, Vol.", "38 Issue 9, p5696-5697* Lumsden, Ian, ed.", "''The Americanization of Canada'', ed.", "for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970).", "* McInnis, Edgard W. ''The Unguarded Frontier: A History of American-Canadian Relations'' (1942) online; well-regarded older study * MacKenzie, Scott A.", "\"But There Was No War: The Impossibility of a United States Invasion of Canada after the Civil War\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' (2017): online* McKercher, Asa.", "''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016).", "xii, 298 pp. 1960-1963.", "* Molloy, Patricia.", "''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \"myths\"* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant.", "''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant.", "''''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (2nd ed.1989)* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015).", "x, 326 pp.", "* Pacheco, Daniela Pereira.", "\"Politics on Twitter: a comparison between Donald Trump and Justin Trudeau\".", "(ICSCP 2020).", "online* Paltiel, Jeremy.", "\"Canada's middle-power ambivalence: The palimpsest of US power under the Chinese shadow\".", "in ''America's Allies and the Decline of US Hegemony'' (Routledge, 2019) pp.", "126–140.", "* Pederson, William D. ed.", "''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies* * Stoett, Peter J.", "\"Fairweather Friends?", "Canada–United States Environmental Relations in the Days of Trump and the Era of Climate Change\".", "in ''Canada–US Relations'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp. 105–123.", "* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search* Tagg, James.", "\"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism\", ''The History Teacher'', 37#3 (May 2004), pp.", "309–334 in JSTOR* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall.", "''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed.", "McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp* Wrong, Hume, and John W. Holmes.", "\"The Canada–United States Relationship 1927/1951\".", "''International Journal'' 31#3 (1976): 529–45.The Canada–United States Relationship 1927/1951 online=== Trade and tariffs ===* Ciuriak, Dan, How U.S. Trade Policy Has Changed Under President Donald Trump – Perceptions From Canada (SSRN, March 29, 2019).", "online or How U.S. Trade Policy Has Changed Under President Donald Trump – Perceptions From Canada* Georges, Patrick.", "\"Canada's Trade Policy Options under Donald Trump: NAFTA's rules of origin, Canada US security perimeter, and Canada's geographical trade diversification opportunities\".", "(Working Paper #1707E Department of Economics, University of Ottawa, 2017).", "online* Grey, Earl.", "''The Commercial Policy of the British Colonies and the McKinley Tariff'' (London: Macmillan, 1892).", "online* Lawder, Robert H. ''Commerce between the United States & Canada, Observations on Reciprocity and the McKinley Tariff'' (Toronto: Monetary Times Printing, 1892).", "online* Muirhead, Bruce.", "\"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock\", ''American Review of Canadian Studies'', Vol.", "34, 2004* Palen, Marc-William.", "\"Protection, federation and union: The global impact of the McKinley tariff upon the British Empire, 1890–94\".", "''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 38.3 (2010): 395–418 online.", "* Rioux, Hubert.", "\"Canada First vs. America First: Economic Nationalism and the Evolution of Canada–US Trade Relations\".", "''European Review of International Studies'' 6.3 (2019): 30–56.online=== Primary sources ===* Gallagher, Connell.", "\"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974\".", "''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp.", "176–79 online.", "* * * Riddell, Walter A. ed.", "''Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939'' Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents" ], [ "External links", "* History of Canada – U.S. relations* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada* Canadian Association of New York* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L.", "Granatstein * Canadian-American Relations, by John English * ''A New North American Neighborhood: The Alaskan Boundary Question and Canadian American Relations, 1898–1913'' Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library" ] ]

[ [ "Christianity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christianity''' () is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus.", "It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers, comprising around 31.2% of the world population.", "Its adherents, known as Christians, are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories.", "Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament in Christianity) and chronicled in the New Testament.Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, and doctrinally diverse concerning justification and the nature of salvation, ecclesiology, ordination, and Christology.", "The creeds of various Christian denominations generally hold in common Jesus as the Son of God—the Logos incarnated—who ministered, suffered, and died on a cross, but rose from the dead for the salvation of humankind; and referred to as the gospel, meaning the \"good news\".", "The four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John describe Jesus's life and teachings, with the Old Testament as the gospels' respected background.Christianity began in the 1st century after the birth of Jesus as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic influence, in the Roman province of Judea.", "The disciples of Jesus spread their faith around the Eastern Mediterranean area, despite significant persecution.", "The inclusion of Gentiles led Christianity to slowly separate from Judaism (2nd century).", "Emperor Constantine I decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire (380).", "The Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy both split over differences in Christology (5th century), while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East–West Schism (1054).", "Protestantism split into numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century).", "Following the Age of Discovery (15th–17th century), Christianity expanded throughout the world via missionary work, extensive trade and colonialism.", "Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages.The six major branches of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (1.3 billion people), Protestantism (900 million), Eastern Orthodoxy (220 million), Oriental Orthodoxy (60 million), Restorationism (35 million), and the Church of the East (600 thousand).", "Smaller church communities number in the thousands despite efforts toward unity (ecumenism).", "In the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a decline in adherence, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian.", "Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents.", "Christians remain greatly persecuted in many regions of the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia." ], [ "Etymology", "Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' (), probably coming from Isaiah 40:3, \"prepare the way of the Lord\".", "According to Acts 11:26, the term \"Christian\" (, ), meaning \"followers of Christ\" in reference to Jesus's disciples, was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there.", "The earliest recorded use of the term \"Christianity/Christianism\" (, ) was by Ignatius of Antioch around 100 AD.", "The name Jesus comes from , likely from ''Yēšūaʿ.''" ], [ "Beliefs", "While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are differences of interpretations and opinions of the Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based.=== Creeds ===Eastern Christian icon depicting Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds.", "They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.", "\"Jesus is Lord\" is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with the World Council of Churches.The Apostles' Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith.", "It is used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western Christian tradition, including the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Western Rite Orthodoxy.", "It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists.This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries.", "Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator.", "Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period.", "The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.", "Its points include:* Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit* The death, descent into hell, resurrection and ascension of Christ* The holiness of the Church and the communion of saints* Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithfulThe Nicene Creed was formulated, largely in response to Arianism, at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively, and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431.The Chalcedonian Definition, or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox, taught Christ \"to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably\": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also perfectly united into one person.The Athanasian Creed, received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: \"We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance\".Most Christians (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Protestant alike) accept the use of creeds and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.Certain Evangelical Protestants, though not all of them, reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds.", "Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, and the Churches of Christ.=== Jesus ===depictions of JesusThe central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ).", "Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus's coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.", "The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept.", "The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and \"true God and true man\" (or both fully divine and fully human).", "Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin.", "As fully God, he rose to life again.", "According to the New Testament, he rose from the dead, ascended to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father, and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of the Messianic prophecy, including the resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and the final establishment of the Kingdom of God.According to the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary.", "Little of Jesus's childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although infancy gospels were popular in antiquity.", "In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the New Testament, because that part of his life is believed to be most important.", "The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.==== Death and resurrection ====Crucifixion'', representing the death of Jesus on the Cross, painting by Diego Velázquez, Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in history.", "Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.", "According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later.The New Testament mentions several post-resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including \"more than five hundred brethren at once\", before Jesus's ascension to heaven.", "Jesus's death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week, which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday.The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life.Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.", "Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus's followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.", "Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection, seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth.", "Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.", "Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, \"If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless\".=== Salvation ===The Law and the Gospel'' by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529); Moses and Elijah point the sinner to Jesus for salvation.Paul the Apostle, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.", "For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are \"Christ's\" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and \"heirs according to the promise\" The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the \"mortal bodies\" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the \"children of God\", and were therefore no longer \"in the flesh\".Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family.", "According to Eastern Orthodox theology, based upon their understanding of the atonement as put forward by Irenaeus' recapitulation theory, Jesus' death is a ransom.", "This restores the relation with God, who is loving and reaches out to humanity, and offers the possibility of ''theosis'' c.q.", "divinization, becoming the kind of humans God wants humanity to be.", "According to Catholic doctrine, Jesus' death satisfies the wrath of God, aroused by the offense to God's honor caused by human's sinfulness.", "The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.", "In Protestant theology, Jesus' death is regarded as a substitutionary penalty carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God's moral law.Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God.", "Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible.Spurgeon, '' A Defense of Calvinism ''.", "In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus.=== Trinity ===The Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.", "''Trinity'' refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons: the ''Father'', the ''Son'' (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the ''Holy Spirit''.", "Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.", "In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, \"the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God\".", "They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father.", "Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation.", "While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the Old Testament, it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the New Testament and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present.", "But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times.", "However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the Trinity is depicted in art, the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a cruciform halo identifying Christ, and in depictions of the Garden of Eden, this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur.", "In some Early Christian sarcophagi, the Logos is distinguished with a beard, \"which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent\".The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity.", "From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith.", "According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded \"that God must exist as both a unity and trinity\", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis).", "The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son.", "Regardless of this apparent difference, the three \"persons\" are each eternal and omnipotent.", "Other Christian religions including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share those views on the Trinity.The Greek word ''trias'' is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: \"of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom\".", "The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent, ''trinitas'', appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian.", "In the following century, the word was in general use.", "It is found in many passages of Origen.==== Trinitarianism ====''Trinitarianism'' denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity.", "Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs.", "Although the words \"Trinity\" and \"Triune\" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate apprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.", "Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of Tritheism), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father (Arianism).", "Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons.==== Nontrinitarianism ====''Nontrinitarianism'' (or ''antitrinitarianism'') refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity.", "Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to disputes about Christology.", "Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the Gnosticism of the Cathars between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with Unitarian theology in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, in the 18th-century Enlightenment, among Restorationist groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century, and most recently, in Oneness Pentecostal churches.=== Eschatology ===The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible.", "The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, (mainly for Evangelical groups) the Millennium and the following Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven, (for liturgical branches) Purgatory, and Hell, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth.Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation).", "All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment.", "Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.==== Death and afterlife ====Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation.", "This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics, Orthodox and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death.In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.", "Those who have attained this goal are called ''saints'' (Latin ''sanctus'', \"holy\").Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection.", "These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment.", "Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view." ], [ "Practices", "Christmas Eve Midnight Mass at a Catholic parish church in Woodside, New York City, U.S.Old Order Anabaptist and Conservative Anabaptist women, for modesty, wear cape dresses and headcoverings, the latter of which is taught as a church ordinance.Depending on the specific denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, the Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), prayer (including the Lord's Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children.", "Most denominations have ordained clergy who lead regular communal worship services.Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language.", "Many ritualistic Christian churches make a distinction between sacred language, liturgical language and vernacular language.", "The three important languages in the early Christian era were: Latin, Greek and Syriac.=== Communal worship ===Services of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as liturgy.", "Justin Martyr described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his ''First Apology'' () to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting.", "Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels.", "Instruction is given based on these readings, in the form of a sermon or homily.", "There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung.", "Psalms, hymns, worship songs, and other church music may be sung.", "Services can be varied for special events like significant feast days.Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of a meal.", "It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples bread, saying, \"This is my body\", and gave them wine saying, \"This is my blood\".", "In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service.", "Some denominations such as Confessional Lutheran churches continue to practice 'closed communion'.", "They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church.", "Catholics further restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin.", "Many other churches, such as Anglican Communion and the Methodist Churches (such as the Free Methodist Church and United Methodist Church), practice 'open communion' since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.=== Sacraments or ordinances ===In Christian belief and practice, a ''sacrament'' is a rite, instituted by Christ, that confers grace, constituting a sacred mystery.", "The term is derived from the Latin word ''sacramentum'', which was used to translate the Greek word for ''mystery''.", "Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ.", "The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist; however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: Confirmation (Chrismation in the Eastern tradition), Holy Orders (or ordination), Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony (see Christian views on marriage).Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognized by churches in the High Church tradition—notably Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic, some Lutherans and Anglicans.", "Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.", "Certain denominations of Christianity, such as Anabaptists, use the term \"ordinances\" to refer to rites instituted by Jesus for Christians to observe.", "Seven ordinances have been taught in many Conservative Mennonite Anabaptist churches, which include \"baptism, communion, footwashing, marriage, anointing with oil, the holy kiss, and the prayer covering\".", "In addition to this, the Church of the East has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick.", "These include Holy Leaven (Melka) and the sign of the cross.", "The Schwarzenau Brethren Anabaptist churches, such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, observe the agape feast (lovefeast), a rite also observed by Moravian Church and Methodist Churches.=== Liturgical calendar ===Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the liturgical year.", "The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of seasons, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of paraments and vestments for clergy, scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home.Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective rites.", "Calendars set aside holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary, or the saints, and periods of fasting, such as Lent and other pious events such as memoria, or lesser festivals commemorating saints.", "Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively.", "A few denominations such as Quaker Christians make no use of a liturgical calendar.=== Symbols ===An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel, Ephesus, Asia MinorMost Christian denominations have not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians, invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols.The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.", "Tertullian, in his book ''De Corona'', tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.", "Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.", "Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ''ichthys'' (fish) forming an acrostic for the Greek phrase ''Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter'' (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ), (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove and olive branch (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others.", "These all derive from passages of the New Testament.=== Baptism ===Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church.", "Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations.", "Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance.", "Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation.", "Baptists and Plymouth Brethren view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious.", "Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology (or mode) of the act.", "These modes are: by ''immersion''; if immersion is total, by ''submersion''; by affusion (pouring); and by aspersion (sprinkling).", "Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of infant baptism; the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.", "The Lutheran Church and the Catholic Church also practice infant baptism, usually by affusion, and using the Trinitarian formula.", "Anabaptist Christians practice believer's baptism, in which an adult chooses to receive the ordinance after making a decision to follow Jesus.", "Anabaptist denominations such as the Mennonites, Amish and Hutterites use pouring as the mode to administer believer's baptism, whereas Anabaptists of the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions baptize by immersion.=== Prayer ===In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer, which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer.", "The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the ''Didache'' and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm.In the second century ''Apostolic Tradition'', Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray at seven fixed prayer times: \"on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight\" and \"the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion\".", "Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and prostrations have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church.", "Breviaries such as the Shehimo and Agpeya are used by Oriental Orthodox Christians to pray these canonical hours while facing in the eastward direction of prayer.The ''Apostolic Tradition'' directed that the sign of the cross be used by Christians during the minor exorcism of baptism, during ablutions before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation.", "''Intercessory prayer'' is prayer offered for the benefit of other people.", "There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people.", "In the Epistle of James, no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah.", "The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.The ancient church, in both Eastern and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, and some Lutheran and Anglican churches.", "Apart from certain sectors within the latter two denominations, other Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.", "The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous.According to the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'': \"Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God\".", "The ''Book of Common Prayer'' in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.", "Frequently in Western Christianity, when praying, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal commendation ceremony.", "At other times the older orans posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in." ], [ "Scriptures", "The Bible is the sacred book in Christianity.Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary.", "Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God.", "The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate.", "The Greek word referring to inspiration in is ''theopneustos'', which literally means \"God-breathed\".Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles inerrant.", "Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant.", "Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version.", "Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.The canon of the Old Testament accepted by Protestant churches, which is only the Tanakh (the canon of the Hebrew Bible), is shorter than that accepted by the Orthodox and Catholic churches which also include the deuterocanonical books which appear in the Septuagint, the Orthodox canon being slightly larger than the Catholic; Protestants regard the latter as apocryphal, important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception.", "Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.", "The New Testament, originally written in Koine Greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all major churches.Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and ''Divine Principle'' in the Unification Church.=== Catholic interpretation ===St.", "Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, the largest church in the world and a symbol of the Catholic ChurchIn antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch.", "The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''theoria'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture.", "The ''spiritual'' sense is further subdivided into:* The ''allegorical'' sense, which includes typology.", "An example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a \"type\" (sign) of baptism.", "* The ''moral'' sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.", "* The ''anagogical'' sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world.Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:* The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''* That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held* That scripture must be read within the \"living Tradition of the whole Church\" and* That \"the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome\".=== Protestant interpretation ======= Qualities of Scripture ====Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of ''sola scriptura''—that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation; other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of ''prima scriptura'' which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that \"tradition, experience, and reason\" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible.", "Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or \"perspicuous\").", "Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be \"enveloped in darkness\".", "He advocated for \"one definite and simple understanding of Scripture\".", "John Calvin wrote, \"all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light\".", "Related to this is \"efficacy\", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and \"sufficiency\", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.==== Original intended meaning of Scripture ====Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method.", "The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text.", "This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.", "The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text.", "The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application.", "The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense.", "As Milton S. Terry said: \"A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection.", "The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture\".", "Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation.", "Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology." ], [ "History", "=== Early Christianity ======= Apostolic Age ====The Cenacle on Mount Zion in Jerusalem, claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and PentecostChristianity developed during the 1st century AD as a Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism.", "An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of Jesus, Peter, and John.Jewish Christianity soon attracted Gentile God-fearers, posing a problem for its Jewish religious outlook, which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commandments.", "Paul the Apostle solved this by insisting that salvation by faith in Christ, and participation in his death and resurrection by their baptism, sufficed.", "At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging Christian identity as separate from Judaism.", "Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion.==== Ante-Nicene period ====A folio from Papyrus 46, an early-3rd-century collection of Pauline epistlesThis formative period was followed by the early bishops, whom Christians consider the successors of Christ's apostles.", "From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith.", "These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and the study of them is called patristics.", "Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen.Persecution of Christians occurred intermittently and on a small scale by both Jewish and Roman authorities, with Roman action starting at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD.", "Examples of early executions under Jewish authority reported in the New Testament include the deaths of Saint Stephen and James, son of Zebedee.", "The Decian persecution was the first empire-wide conflict, when the edict of Decius in 250 AD required everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods.", "The Diocletianic Persecution beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe.", "Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan.While Proto-orthodox Christianity was becoming dominant, heterodox sects also existed at the same time, which held radically different beliefs.", "Gnostic Christianity developed a duotheistic doctrine based on illusion and enlightenment rather than forgiveness of sin.", "With only a few scriptures overlapping with the developing orthodox canon, most Gnostic texts and Gnostic gospels were eventually considered heretical and suppressed by mainstream Christians.", "A gradual splitting off of Gentile Christianity left Jewish Christians continuing to follow the Law of Moses, including practices such as circumcision.", "By the fifth century, they and the Jewish–Christian gospels would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity.==== Spread and acceptance in Roman Empire ====Monastery of St. Matthew, located atop Mount Alfaf in northern Iraq, is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.Christianity spread to Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire, including Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires.", "The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around Carthage.", "Mark the Evangelist is claimed to have started the Church of Alexandria in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the Coptic Orthodox Church.", "Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo.The 7th-century Khor Virap monastery in the shadow of Mount Ararat; Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion, in AD 301.King Tiridates III made Christianity the state religion in Armenia between 301 and 314, thus Armenia became the first officially Christian state.", "It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier.Constantine I was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed.", "During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians was ended with the Edict of Toleration in 311 and the Edict of Milan in 313.At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only 5% of the Roman population.", "Influenced by his adviser Mardonius, Constantine's nephew Julian unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity.", "On 27 February 380, Theodosius I, Gratian, and Valentinian II established Nicene Christianity as the State church of the Roman Empire.", "As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and many other Protestant churches.", "Nicaea was the first of a series of ecumenical councils, which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology.", "The Church of the East did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors (Assyrian Church of the East).In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization, and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.", "There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.", "Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.", "The later rise of Islam in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in the Horn of Africa and the Nubian Church in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia).=== Middle Ages ======= Early Middle Ages ====Christendom by AD 600 after its spread to Africa and Europe from the Middle EastWith the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the West, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals.", "The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes.", "While Arianists instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the Massacre of Verden, for example), what would later become Catholicism also spread among the Hungarians, the Germanic, the Celtic, the Baltic and some Slavic peoples.Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and Kingdom of Italy culture and Benedict of Nursia set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries.", "Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland, and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.In the 7th century, Muslims conquered Syria (including Jerusalem), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to Islam, and placing the rest under a separate legal status.", "Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with Persia.", "Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of Carolingian leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the Frankish Kingdom.The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church.", "Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration.", "In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors.", "The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.", "In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.==== High and Late Middle Ages ====An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the Deësis mosaic at the Hagia Sophia in ConstantinoplePope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade.", "Illustration by Jean Colombe from the ''Passages d'outremer'', .In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools became universities (see, for example, University of Oxford, University of Paris and University of Bologna).", "Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (''Scholae monasticae''), led by monks and nuns.", "Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century AD.", "These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians.", "The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.Accompanying the rise of the \"new towns\" throughout Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting.", "The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans and the Dominicans, founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic, respectively.", "Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe.", "Another new order was the Cistercians, whose large, isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas.", "In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals.Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the impulse to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.", "From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the First Crusade was launched.", "These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion.", "The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a schism between the Latin Church of Western Christianity branch, the now-Catholic Church, and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch (the Eastern Orthodox Church).", "The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy.", "The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day.", "However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches.In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death.", "Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290, the first of many such expulsions in Europe.Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy, various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution.=== Modern era ======= Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation ====Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his ''Ninety-five Theses'' in 1517.The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning.", "During the Reformation, Martin Luther posted the ''Ninety-five Theses'' 1517 against the sale of indulgences.", "Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe.", "In 1521 the Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches.Other reformers like Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Calvin, Knox, and Arminius further criticized Catholic teaching and worship.", "These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices.", "The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England.", "Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved.Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the Magisterial Reformation as corrupted.", "Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation, which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations.Michelangelo's 1498–99 ''Pietà'' in St. Peter's Basilica; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the Renaissance.Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform.", "The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine.", "During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity.", "Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe.", "Lutheranism spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, Livonia, and Scandinavia.", "Anglicanism was established in England in 1534.Calvinism and its varieties, such as Presbyterianism, were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France.", "Arminianism gained followers in the Netherlands and Frisia.", "Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor.", "The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples.", "These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration.In the revival of neoplatonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the Renaissance were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of Renaissance art.", "Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.", "Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution.", "Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle.==== Post-Enlightenment ====A depiction of Madonna and Child in a 19th-century Kakure Kirishitan Japanese woodcutIn the era known as the Great Divergence, when in the West, the Age of Enlightenment and the scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies, such as versions of socialism and liberalism.", "Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the dechristianization of France during the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and certain Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism.Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era.", "In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state.", "Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states.", "Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg, looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations.", "In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical.", "Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations.", "Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation.", "Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent, often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy.", "This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council, and in Germany would lead directly to the ''Kulturkampf''.Ordination of new pastors in Cameroon, 2014Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own, particularly in the Czech Republic and Estonia, while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe.", "Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the Global South and Third World countries.", "The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity.", "Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians, most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon." ], [ "Demographics", "With around 2.4 billion adherents according to a 2020 estimation by Pew Research Center, split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the world's largest religion.", "High birth rates and conversions in the global South were cited as the reasons for the Christian population growth.", "For the last hundred years, the Christian share has stood at around 33% of the world population.", "This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America.", "According to a 2015 Pew Research Center study, within the next four decades, Christianity will remain the largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.A Christian procession in Brazil, the country with the largest Catholic population in the worldTrinity Sunday in Russia; the Russian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a country that had a policy of state atheism.|alt=Show on the life of Jesus at Igreja da Cidade in São José dos Campos, affiliated with the Brazilian Baptist ConventionAccording to some scholars, Christianity ranks at first place in net gains through religious conversion.", "As a percentage of Christians, the Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.", "), while Protestants and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world.", "The so-called ''popular Protestantism'' is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.", "Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity.", "Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics.", "And if in 2018, the U.N. projects that Africa's population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow, as will other religious groups.", "According to Pew Research Center, Africa is expected to be home to 1.1 billion African Christians by 2050.In 2010, 87% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the majority, while 13% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the minority.", "Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Sub-Saharan Africa.", "There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.", "In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Armenia, Cyprus, Georgia, East Timor, and the Philippines.", "However, it is declining in some areas including the northern and western United States, some areas in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain, Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, Canada, and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration, and Macau).The total Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil and the southern United States, however, the percentage of the population identifying as Christian is in decline.", "Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been largely stable in Central Europe, except in the Czech Republic.", "On the other hand, Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentages in Eastern Europe, China, other Asian countries, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, North Africa (Maghreb), Gulf Cooperation Council countries, and Oceania.Despite a decline in adherence in the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the region, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian.", "Christianity remains the largest religion in Western Europe, where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018.A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians.", "By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities.There are many charismatic movements that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America, and Asia.", "Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America.", "From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelical Protestants grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam.", "According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey from the University of Melbourne, since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the Evangelical and Pentecostal forms.A study conducted by St. Mary's University estimated about 10.2 million Muslim converts to Christianity in 2015; according to the study significant numbers of Muslim converts to Christianity can be found in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Central Asia (including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and other countries), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Middle East (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and other countries), North Africa (including Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia), Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Western World (including Albania, Belgium, France, Germany, Kosovo, the Netherlands, Russia, Scandinavia, United Kingdom, the United States, and other western countries).", "It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in Africa and Asia; according to a report by the Singapore Management University, more people in Southeast Asia are converting to Christianity, many of them young and having a university degree.", "According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of there is a \"rapid expansion\" of Christianity in Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea.", "According to scholar Terence Chong from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, since the 1980s Christianity is expanding in China, Singapore, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea, and Vietnam.In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.", "Some sources view this as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions, while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.", "Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.", "According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of European Christians say they attend services once a month or more.", "Conversely, according to the World Values Survey, about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians, and about 90% of African Christians (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly.", "According to a 2018 study by the Pew Research Center, Christians in Africa and Latin America and the United States have high levels of commitment to their faith.Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic), Costa Rica (Catholic), the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran), England (Anglican), Greece (Greek Orthodox), Iceland (Lutheran), Liechtenstein (Catholic), Malta (Catholic), Monaco (Catholic), Norway (Lutheran), Samoa, Tonga (Methodist), Tuvalu (Reformed), and Vatican City (Catholic).There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination.+ Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2020 data) Tradition Followers % of the Christian population % of the world population Follower dynamics Dynamics in- and outside Christianity Roman Catholic Church 1,329,610,000 50.1 15.9 Growing Growing Protestantism 900,640,000 36.7 11.6 Growing GrowingEastern Orthodox Church 220,380,000 11.9 3.8 Growing DecliningOther Christianity 28,430,000 1.3 0.4 Growing Growing Christianity 2,382,750,000 100 31.7 Growing Stable+ '''Christians (self-described) by region'''+ (Pew Research Center, 2010 data) Region Christians % Christian Europe 558,260,000 75.2 Latin America–Caribbean 531,280,000 90.0 Sub-Saharan Africa 517,340,000 62.9 Asia Pacific 286,950,000 7.1 North America 266,630,000 77.4 Middle East–North Africa 12,710,000 3.7World 2,173,180,000 31.5+ Regional median ages of Christians compared with overall median ages (Pew Research Center, 2010 data) Christian median age in region (years) Regional median age (years) World 30 29 Sub-Saharan Africa 19 18 Latin America-Caribbean 27 27 Asia-Pacific 28 29 Middle East-North Africa 29 24 North America 39 37 Europe 42 40The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.File:Christian World—Pew Research Center 2010.svg|Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink.File:State Religions.svg|Nations with Christianity as their state religion are in blue.File:Percent of Catholics by Country–Pew Research 2011.svg|Distribution of CatholicsFile:Countries by percentage of Protestants (2010).svg|Distribution of ProtestantsFile:Percent of Eastern Orthodox Christians by country.svg|Distribution of Eastern OrthodoxFile:Percent of Oriental Orthodox Christians by country.svg|Distribution of Oriental OrthodoxFile:Percent of Other Christians by Country–Pew Research 2011.svg|Distribution of other Christians" ], [ "Churches and denominations", "Christianity can be taxonomically divided into six main groups: Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East, and Restorationism.", "A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, which has its origins in the East–West Schism (Great Schism) of the 11th century.", "Recently, neither Western nor Eastern World Christianity has also stood out, for example, in African-initiated churches.", "However, there are other present and historical Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.There is a diversity of doctrines and liturgical practices among groups calling themselves Christian.", "These groups may vary ecclesiologically in their views on a classification of Christian denominations.", "The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant, such as Lutheran and Anglican denominations.=== Catholic Church ===Pope Francis, the current leader of the Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church consists of those particular Churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance.", "Like Eastern Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church, through apostolic succession, traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.", "Catholics maintain that the \"one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church\" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities and works towards reconciliation among all Christians.", "The Catholic faith is detailed in the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''.Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass.", "The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ.", "The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and devotions.", "Its teaching includes Divine Mercy, sanctification through faith and evangelization of the Gospel as well as Catholic social teaching, which emphasises voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy.", "The Catholic Church operates thousands of Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.", "Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations.Canon law () is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.", "The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system, and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West.", "while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches ''sui iuris.", "''As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization.", "The 2,834 sees are grouped into 24 particular autonomous Churches (the largest of which being the Latin Church), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering of sacraments.", "With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church and represents 50.1% of all Christians as well as 16.7% of the world's population.", "Catholics live all over the world through missions, diaspora, and conversions.=== Eastern Orthodox Church ===St.", "George's Cathedral in Istanbul: It has been the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople whose leader is regarded as the ''primus inter pares'' in the Eastern Orthodox Church.The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.", "Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.Eastern Orthodox theology is based on holy tradition which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the seven Ecumenical Councils, the Scriptures, and the teaching of the Church Fathers.", "The church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles.", "It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition.", "Its patriarchates, reminiscent of the pentarchy, and other autocephalous and autonomous churches reflect a variety of hierarchical organisation.", "It recognises seven major sacraments, of which the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in synaxis.", "The church teaches that through consecration invoked by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ.", "The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the God-bearer, honoured in devotions.Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 230 million adherents, although Protestants collectively outnumber them, substantially.", "As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East.", "The majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians live mainly in Southeast and Eastern Europe, Cyprus, Georgia, and parts of the Caucasus region, Siberia, and the Russian Far East.", "Over half of Eastern Orthodox Christians follow the Russian Orthodox Church, while the vast majority live within Russia.", "There are also communities in the former Byzantine regions of Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, and in the Middle East.", "Eastern Orthodox communities are also present in many other parts of the world, particularly North America, Western Europe, and Australia, formed through diaspora, conversions, and missionary activity.=== Oriental Orthodoxy ===Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa, the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox; the largest of the Oriental Orthodox ChurchesThe Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called \"Old Oriental\" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology.The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India), and Armenian Apostolic churches.", "These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically.", "These churches are generally not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.", "Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide.As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia, Egypt, Turkey, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Iran, Azerbaijan and parts of the Middle East and India.", "An Eastern Christian body of autocephalous churches, its bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination, and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils.Some Oriental Orthodox Churches such as the Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other Christian denominations, and its followers adhere to certain practices: following dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut, require that their male members undergo circumcision, and observes ritual purification.=== Church of the East ===A 6th-century Nestorian church, St. John the Arab, in the Assyrian village of Geramon in Hakkari, southeastern Turkey.The Church of the East, which was part of the Great Church, shared communion with those in the Roman Empire until the Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorius in 431.Continuing as a ''dhimmi'' community under the Rashidun Caliphate after the Muslim conquest of Persia (633–654), the Church of the East played a major role in the history of Christianity in Asia.", "Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largest Christian denomination in terms of geographical extent.", "It established dioceses and communities stretching from the Mediterranean Sea and today's Iraq and Iran, to India (the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians of Kerala), the Mongol kingdoms in Central Asia, and China during the Tang dynasty (7th–9th centuries).", "In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under the Mongol Empire, where influential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court.The Assyrian Church of the East, with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent Eastern Christian denomination which claims continuity from the Church of the East—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the Chaldean Catholic Church, an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Pope.", "It is an Eastern Christian church that follows the traditional christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East.", "Largely aniconic and not in communion with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of Syriac Christianity, and uses the East Syriac Rite in its liturgy.Saint Mary Church; an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of Urmia, IranIts main spoken language is Syriac, a dialect of Eastern Aramaic, and the majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians, mostly living in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, India (Chaldean Syrian Church), and in the Assyrian diaspora.", "It is officially headquartered in the city of Erbil in northern Iraqi Kurdistan, and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient Assyria.", "Its hierarchy is composed of metropolitan bishops and diocesan bishops, while lower clergy consists of priests and deacons, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the Caucasus and Russia).The Ancient Church of the East distinguished itself from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964.It is one of the Assyrian churches that claim continuity with the historical Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.", "It is officially headquartered in the city of Baghdad, Iraq.", "The majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians.=== Protestantism ===In 1521, the Edict of Worms condemned Martin Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas.", "This split within the Roman Catholic church is now called the Reformation.", "Prominent Reformers included Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin.", "The 1529 Protestation at Speyer against being excommunicated gave this party the name Protestantism.", "Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans.", "Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally and are referred to as the Reformed tradition.", "The Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organized in the Anglican Communion.", "Some Lutherans identify as Evangelical Catholics and some but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.", "Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields.Since the Anglican, Lutheran, and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated for the most part in cooperation with the government, these movements are termed the \"Magisterial Reformation\".", "On the other hand, groups such as the Anabaptists, who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the Radical Reformation, which though sometimes protected under ''Acts of Toleration'', do not trace their history back to any state church.", "They are further distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers—credobaptism (Anabaptists include the Amish, Apostolic, Bruderhof, Mennonites, Hutterites, River Brethren and Schwarzenau Brethren groups.", ")The term ''Protestant'' also refers to any churches which formed later, with either the Magisterial or Radical traditions.", "In the 18th century, for example, Methodism grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical revival movement.", "Several Pentecostal and non-denominational churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of Methodism.", "Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress \"accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior\", which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth, they often refer to themselves as being born-again.Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism by number of followers, although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination.", "Estimates vary, mainly over the question of which denominations to classify as Protestant.", "Yet, the total number of Protestant Christians is generally estimated between 800 million and 1 billion, corresponding to nearly 40% of the world's Christians.", "The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e.", "Adventism, Anabaptism (Amish, Apostolic, Bruderhof, Hutterites, Mennonites, River Brethren, and Schwarzenau Brethren), Anglicanism, Baptists, Lutheranism, Methodism, Moravianism/Hussites, Pentecostalism, Plymouth Brethren, Quakerism, Reformed Christianity (Congregationalists, Continental Reformed, Reformed Anglicans, and Presbyterians), and Waldensianism are the main families of Protestantism.", "Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, neo-charismatic, independent, and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves as \"Christians\" or \"born-again Christians\".", "They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and creedalism of other Christian communities by calling themselves \"non-denominational\" or \"evangelical\".", "Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.=== Restorationism ===A 19th-century drawing of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery receiving the Aaronic priesthood from John the Baptist.", "Latter Day Saints believe that the Priesthood ceased to exist after the death of the apostles and therefore needed to be restored.The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches.", "They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.", "A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy.", "In Asia, is a known Restorationist denomination that was established during the early 1900s.", "Other examples of Restorationist denominations include Irvingianism and Swedenborgianism.Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York.", "One of the largest churches produced from the movement is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists.", "Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee.", "Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and the previously mentioned Latter Day Saints movement.", "While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.=== Other ===Unitarian Church of Transylvania in Cluj-NapocaWithin Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, Unitarian Churches emerged from the Reformed tradition in the 16th century; the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is an example of such a denomination that arose in this era.", "They adopted the Anabaptist doctrine of credobaptism.Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church, include the word ''Catholic'' in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See.Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobors and Molokans, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism.Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish.", "The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity.", "Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of \"Yeshua\" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.Esoteric Christians, such as The Christian Community, regard Christianity as a mystery religion and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices, hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of \"enlightened\", \"initiated\", or highly educated people.Nondenominational Christianity or non-denominational Christianity consists of churches which typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities by not formally aligning with a specific Christian denomination.", "Nondenominational Christianity first arose in the 18th century through the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, with followers organizing themselves as \"Christians\" and \"Disciples of Christ\", but many typically adhere to evangelical Christianity." ], [ "Cultural influence", "The history of the Christendom spans about 1,700 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, and technology.", "Since the spread of Christianity from the Levant to Europe and North Africa during the early Roman Empire, Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West.", "Consequently, different versions of the Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, centred around the cities of Rome (Western Christianity) and Carthage, whose communities were called Western or Latin Christendom, and Constantinople (Eastern Christianity), Antioch (Syriac Christianity), Kerala (Indian Christianity) and Alexandria (Coptic Christianity), whose communities were called Eastern or Oriental Christendom.", "The Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Eastern Christian civilization.", "From the 11th to 13th centuries, Latin Christendom rose to the central role of the Western world.The Bible has had a profound influence on Western civilization and on cultures around the globe; it has contributed to the formation of Western law, art, texts, and education.", "With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written.", "From practices of personal hygiene to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, toilet etiquette, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more.Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy, science and technology, medicine, fine arts and architecture, politics, literatures, music, and business.", "According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference.Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa, the Near East, Middle East, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.", "Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world (particularly Jacobite and Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Ummayyads and the Abbasids, by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic.", "They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine.", "Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians in the Middle East have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam, and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Mashriq, Turkey, and Iran.=== Influence on Western culture ===Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians.", "The notion of \"Europe\" and the \"Western World\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \"Christianity and Christendom\".", "Many historians even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman Empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.", "Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.", "Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature, and so on.Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.", "Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many Catholic clergy, Jesuits in particular, have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science.", "Some scholars state that Christianity contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution.", "Protestantism also has had an important influence on science.", "According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other.The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, contribution to the medical and health care, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), architecture, literature, personal hygiene (ablution), and family life.", "Historically, ''extended families'' were the basic family unit in the Christian culture and countries.Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion.", "''Postchristianity'' is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism.", "It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies." ], [ "Ecumenism", "Bishop John M. Quinn of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Winona and Bishop Steven Delzer of Evangelical Lutheran Southeastern Minnesota Synod leading a Reformation Day service (2017)|229x229pxChristian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.", "One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the World Evangelical Alliance founded in 1846 in London or the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia, which includes Catholics.The other way was an institutional union with united churches, a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany.", "Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada, and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia.", "The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom.The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions.", "The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the \"Church of Reconciliation\".", "The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054; the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; and some Lutheran and Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation.", "In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration." ], [ "Criticism, persecution, and apologetics", "=== Criticism ===The monument to Giordano Bruno in the place he was executed in RomeCriticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic Age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g., and ).", "In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g., that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.", "Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, God in Judaism is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.", "One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote ''The True Word'', a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.", "In response, the church father Origen published his treatise ''Contra Celsum'', or ''Against Celsus'', a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted.", "Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.", "The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume ''Adversus Christianos'' as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus.By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body.", "In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the \"unnatural\" teachings of Christianity (e.g.", "sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.", "In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in ''Why I Am Not a Christian'', formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g.", "Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism.", "New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in ''The Christ Myth Theory and its problems''.=== Persecution ===Christians fleeing their homes in the Ottoman Empire, .", "Many Christians were persecuted and killed during the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Assyrian genocide.Christians are one of the most persecuted religious groups in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia.", "In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to \"high, very high, or extreme persecution\" with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.", "In 2019, a report commissioned by the United Kingdom's Secretary of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America, among others, and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.", "This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians.=== Apologetics ===A copy of the ''Summa Theologica'' by Thomas AquinasChristian apologetics aims to present a rational basis for Christianity.", "The word \"apologetic\" (Greek: ἀπολογητικός ''apologētikos'') comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι ''apologeomai'', meaning \"(I) speak in defense of\".", "Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle.", "The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God's existence in the ''Summa Theologica'', while his ''Summa contra Gentiles'' was a major apologetic work.", "Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity.", "Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.", "He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality.", "The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his ''Questions of Truth'', discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox, and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God.", "Creationist apologetics is apologetics that aims to defend creationism." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Christianity* Christian atheism* Christianity and Islam* Christianity and Judaism* Christianity and politics* Christian mythology* Christianisation* One true church* Prophets of Christianity" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* Bahnsen, Greg.", "''A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6) .", "* Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.).", "''The Essential Jesus''.", "Pacific Press (2002).", ".", "* Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom and others.", "(ed.).", "''World Christian Encyclopedia''.", "Oxford University Press (2001).", "* Barry, John F. ''One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief''.", "William H. Sadlier (2001).", "* Benton, John.", "''Is Christianity True?''", "Darlington, Eng.", ": Evangelical Press (1988).", "* Bettenson, Henry (ed.).", "''Documents of the Christian Church''.", "Oxford University Press (1943).", "* * * * Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch.", "''The Western Experience.", "Volume II: The Early Modern Period''.", "Alfred A. Knopf (1974).", ".", "* Coffey, John.", "''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''.", "Pearson Education (2000).", "* Cross, F.L.", "; Livingstone, E.A.", "(ed.).", "''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''.", "Oxford University Press (1997).", ".", "* Deppermann, Klaus.", "''Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation''.", ".", "* Dilasser, Maurice.", "''The Symbols of the Church''.", "Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999).", "* Duffy, Eamon.", "''Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes''.", "Yale University Press (1997).", "* * Esler, Philip F. ''The Early Christian World''.", "Routledge (2004).", "* Farrar, F.W. ''", "Mercy and Judgment.", "A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, \"What Is Of Faith?\"''.", "Macmillan, London/New York (1904).", "* Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David, eds.", "New Dictionary of Theology.", "consulting ed.", "Packer, James.", "Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press (1988).", "* Foutz, Scott. ''", "Martin Luther and Scripture''.", "* Fowler, Jeaneane D. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students'', Sussex Academic Press (1997).", ".", "* Fuller, Reginald H. ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'' Scribners (1965).", ".", "* Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, ''Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church'', Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) * Funk, Robert.", "''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''.", "Polebridge Press (1998).", ".", "* Glenny, W. Edward.", "''Typology: A Summary of the Present Evangelical Discussion''.", "* * Hanegraaff, Hank.", "''Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity''.", "Thomas Nelson (2000).", ".", "* Harnack, Adolf von. ''", "History of Dogma'' (1894).", "* Hickman, Hoyt L. and others.", "''Handbook of the Christian Year''.", "Abingdon Press (1986).", "* Hitchcock, Susan Tyler.", "''Geography of Religion''.", "National Geographic Society (2004) * Kelly, J.N.D.", "''Early Christian Doctrines''.", "* Kelly, J.N.D.", "''The Athanasian Creed''.", "Harper & Row, New York (1964).", "* Kirsch, Jonathan.", "''God Against the Gods''.", "* Kreeft, Peter.", "''Catholic Christianity''.", "Ignatius Press (2001) * Letham, Robert.", "''The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship''.", "P & R Publishing (2005).", ".", "* Lorenzen, Thorwald.", "''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today''.", "Smyth & Helwys (2003).", ".", "* McLaughlin, R. Emmet, ''Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540'', New Haven: Yale University Press (1986).", ".", "* MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ''The Reformation: A History''.", "Viking Adult (2004).", "* MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ''A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years''.", "London, Allen Lane.", "2009.", "* Marber, Peter.", "''Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles''.", "FT Press (2003).", "* Marthaler, Berard.", "''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues''.", "Paulist Press (1994).", "* Mathison, Keith.", "''The Shape of Sola Scriptura'' (2001).", "* McClintock, John, ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature''.", "Harper &Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889)* McManners, John.", "''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''.", "Oxford University Press (1990).", ".", "* Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.).", "''Oxford Companion to the Bible''.", "Oxford University Press (1993).", ".", "* .", "* Norman, Edward.", "''The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History''.", "University of California (2007) * Olson, Roger E., ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''.", "InterVarsity Press (2002).", ".", "* Orlandis, Jose, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church''.", "Scepter Publishers (1993) * Otten, Herman J.", "''Baal or God?", "Liberalism or Christianity, Fantasy vs.", "Truth: Beliefs and Practices of the Churches of the World Today''.... Second ed.", "New Haven, Mo.", ": Lutheran News, 1988.", "* Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.)", "''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''.", "Yale University Press (2003).", ".", "* Putnam, Robert D. ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society''.", "Oxford University Press (2002).", "* * Riley-Smith, Jonathan.", "''The Oxford History of the Crusades''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, (1999).", "* Schama, Simon.", "''A History of Britain''.", "Hyperion (2000).", ".", "* Servetus, Michael.", "''Restoration of Christianity''.", "Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007).", "* Simon, Edith.", "''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''.", "Time-Life Books (1966).", ".", "* Spitz, Lewis.", "''The Protestant Reformation''.", "Concordia Publishing House (2003).", ".", "* Spurgeon, Charles. ''", "A Defense of Calvinism''.", "* Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan.", "''The Study of Anglicanism''.", "Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998).", ".", "* Talbott, Thomas. ''", "Three Pictures of God in Western Theology'' (1995).", "* Ustorf, Werner.", "\"A missiological postscript\", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.).", "''The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000''.", "Cambridge University Press (2003).", "* Walsh, Chad.", "''Campus Gods on Trial''.", "Rev.", "and enl.", "ed.", "New York: Macmillan Co., 1962, t.p.", "1964.xiv, 4, 154 p.* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * MacCulloch, Diarmaid.", "''Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years'' (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pp.", "; survey by leading historian* * * * * Roper, J.C., ''Bp''.", "(1923), ''et al.''.", "''Faith in God'', in series, ''Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada'', vol.", "2.Toronto, Ont.", ": Musson Book Co.", "''N.B''.", ": The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover.", "* * * * * * * Wills, Garry, \"A Wild and Indecent Book\" (review of David Bentley Hart, ''The New Testament: A Translation'', Yale University Press, 577 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXV, no.", "2 (8 February 2018), pp.", "34–35.Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament." ], [ "External links", "* * \"Christianity\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Religion & Ethics – Christianity A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC" ] ]

[ [ "Computing" ], [ "Introduction", "Computer simulation, one of the main cross-computing methodologies'''Computing''' is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery.", "It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software.", "Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects.", "Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology and software engineering.The term ''computing'' is also synonymous with counting and calculating.", "In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers.ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer" ], [ "History", "The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables.", "Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before numeral systems.", "The earliest known tool for use in computation is the abacus, and it is thought to have been invented in Babylon circa between 2700–2300 BC.", "Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper \"The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena\" by C. E. Wynn-Williams.", "Claude Shannon's 1938 paper \"A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits\" then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations.The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925.John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs, built the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947.In 1953, the University of Manchester built the first transistorized computer, the Manchester Baby.", "However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.", "The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits, leading to what is known as the computer revolution or microcomputer revolution." ], [ "Computer", "A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program.", "The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions.", "The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm.", "Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the CPU type.The execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program.", "Instructions express the computations performed by the computer.", "They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine.", "Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions.=== Computer hardware ===Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including central processing unit, memory and input/output.", "Computational logic and computer architecture are key topics in the field of computer hardware.=== Computer software ===Computer software, or just ''software'', is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer.", "Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer.", "It is a set of ''programs, procedures, algorithms,'' as well as its ''documentation'' concerned with the operation of a data processing system.", "Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software.", "The term was coined to contrast with the old term ''hardware'' (meaning physical devices).", "In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.", "Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.====System software====System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software.", "System software includes operating systems, utility software, device drivers, window systems, and firmware.", "Frequently used development tools such as compilers, linkers, and debuggers are classified as system software.", "System software and middleware manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software.==== Application software ====Application software, also known as an ''application'' or an ''app'', is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks.", "Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software and media players.", "Many application programs deal principally with documents.", "Apps may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately.", "Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications.", "The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user.", "Application software applies the power of a particular computing platform or system software to a particular purpose.", "Some apps, such as Microsoft Office, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on.", "For example, a ''geography application for Windows'' or an ''Android application for education'' or ''Linux gaming''.", "Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as killer applications.=== Computer network ===A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers '''interconnected''' by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information.", "When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network.", "Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope.Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming.", "One well-known communications protocol is Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks.", "Another common protocol is the Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e.", "for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.==== Internet ====The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users.", "This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global.", "These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies.", "The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web and the infrastructure to support email.=== Computer programming ===Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs.", "This source code is written in a programming language, which is an artificial language that is often more restrictive than natural languages, but easily translated by the computer.", "Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used.", "The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development.", "However, the term ''programmer'' may apply to a range of program quality, from hacker to open source contributor to professional.", "It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new killer application.==== Computer programmer ====A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software.", "The term ''computer programmer'' can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software.", "One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst.", "A programmer's primary computer language (C, C++, Java, Lisp, Python etc.)", "is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with ''Web''.", "The term ''programmer'' can be used to refer to a software developer, software engineer, computer scientist, or software analyst.", "However, members of these professions typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.=== Computer industry ===The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and computer networking infrastructures, manufacturing computer components and providing information technology services, including system administration and maintenance.The software industry includes businesses engaged in development, maintenance and publication of software.", "The industry also includes software services, such as training, documentation, and consulting." ], [ "{{Anchor|DISCIPLINES}}Sub-disciplines of computing", "=== Computer engineering ===Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software.", "Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering.", "Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design.", "This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.=== Software engineering ===Software engineering (SE) is the application of a systematic, disciplined and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches.", "That is, the application of engineering to software.", "It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem.", "The first reference to the term is the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived ''software crisis'' at the time.", "Software development, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm.", "The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK).", "The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.=== Computer science ===Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications.", "A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in computer systems, and purely theoretical areas.", "Some, such as computational complexity theory, which studies fundamental properties of computational problems, are highly abstract, while others, such as computer graphics, emphasize real-world applications.", "Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations.", "For example, programming language theory studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of computer programming investigates the use of programming languages and complex systems.", "The field of human–computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.", "=== Cybersecurity ===The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks.", "This includes information and data privacy, preventing disruption of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software and data.=== Data science ===Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.", "Data mining, big data, statistics and machine learning are all interwoven with data science.=== Information systems ===Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data.", "The ACM's ''Computing Careers'' describes IS as: The study of IS bridges business and computer science, using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline.", "The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design.=== Information technology ===Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise.", "The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones.", "Several industries are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-commerce and computer services." ], [ "Research and emerging technologies", "DNA-based computing and quantum computing are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of quantum algorithms.", "Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes DNA origami on photolithography and quantum antennae for transferring information between ion traps.", "By 2011, researchers had entangled 14 qubits.", "Fast digital circuits, including those based on Josephson junctions and rapid single flux quantum technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of nanoscale superconductors.Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components.", "This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.", "IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip.", "This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).", "One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack.", "This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.Another field of research is spintronics.", "Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup.", "Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine photonics and spintronics.", "There is also research ongoing on combining plasmonics, photonics, and electronics.=== Cloud computing ===Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user.", "It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of Software as a Service, Platforms as a Service, and Infrastructure as a Service, depending on the functionality offered.", "Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.", "It allows individual users or small business to benefit from economies of scale.One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency.", "Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy.", "It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.", "However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy.", "Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers.", "This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.=== Quantum computing ===Quantum computing is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics.", "While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.", "Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses qubits.", "Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e.", "in both states of one and zero, simultaneously.", "Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured.", "This trait of qubits is known as quantum entanglement, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.", "Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in molecular modeling.", "Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations." ], [ "See also", "* Artificial intelligence* Computational thinking* Creative computing* Electronic data processing* Enthusiast computing* Index of history of computing articles* Instruction set architecture* Lehmer sieve* List of computer term etymologies* Mobile computing* Scientific computing" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*FOLDOC: the Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing" ] ]

[ [ "Casino" ], [ "Introduction", "Caesars Palace, a popular casino on the Las Vegas StripA '''casino''' is a facility for certain types of gambling.", "Casinos are often built near or combined with hotels, resorts, restaurants, retail shops, cruise ships, and other tourist attractions.", "Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sports." ], [ "{{vanchor|Etymology}} and usage", "''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root means a house.", "The term ''casino'' may mean a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club.", "During the 19th century, ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports.", "Examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island.", "In modern-day Italian, a is a brothel (also called , literally \"closed house\"), a mess (confusing situation), or a noisy environment; a gaming house is spelt , with an accent.Not all casinos are used for gaming.", "The Catalina Casino, on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built.", "The Copenhagen Casino was a Danish theatre which also held public meetings during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy.In military and non-military usage, a (Spanish) or (German) is an officers' mess." ], [ "History of gambling houses", "Gambling at the Orient Saloon in Bisbee, Arizona, photographed by C.S.", "Fly in The precise origin of gambling is unknown.", "It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history.", "From Ancient Mesopotamia, Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.The first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy, in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season.", "It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons.", "The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco.", "It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with.", "During the early 20th century in the US, gambling was outlawed by state legislation.", "However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, where the US's first legalized casinos were set up.", "In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now the US's second largest gambling city." ], [ "Gambling in casinos", "Slot machines, a standard attraction of casinos, in Atlantic City, New JerseyMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age of 18 to 21.Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker.", "Most games have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an advantage over the players.", "This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective).", "This advantage is called the ''house edge''.", "In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake.", "Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.", "''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\"winnings\") returned to players.Casinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.Video Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos.", "investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive." ], [ "Design", "Factors influencing gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting.", "Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the decision of the audio directors at Silicon Gaming to make its slot machines resonate in \"the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash\".Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odor released by Las Vegas slot machines generated about 50% more in daily revenue.", "He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, causing a more aggressive form of gambling." ], [ "Markets", "The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over US$1 billion as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report onthe outlook for the global casino market:===By region===Rank RegionRevenue (US$M)20092010Projected2011Projected 1 United States57,24056,50058,030 2 Asia Pacific 21,84532,30541,259 3 Europe, Middle East, Africa17,25916,18616,452 4 Canada 3,7123,8354,045 5 Latin America 425528594 '''Total''''''100,481''''''109,354''''''120,380'''===By markets===Rank Location No.", "ofCasinos Revenue (US$Billion)20092010Projected2011Projected..201920202021 1 Macau 33 14.9522.4428.38 297.57 10.86 2 Las Vegas, Nevada 122 10.259.9510.30 11.967.813.4 3 Singapore 2 2.12 2.755.48 4 France 189 3.963.913.96 11.4610.3611.48 5 Atlantic City, New Jersey 12 3.943.553.33 3.292.654.73 6 Australia 11 2.702.772.85 7 South Korea 17 2.402.432.51 8 Germany 76 2.072.052.08 11.5210.526.51 9 South Africa 36 1.84 1.782.01 1.781.891.34 10 United Kingdom 141 1.211.191.21 17.2215.417.09 11 Poland 36 1.091.091.13 12 Niagara Falls, Ontario 2 1.101.111.20 4.84.272.18 ===By company===According to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of the biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted to almost US$55 billion in 2011.SJM Holdings Ltd. was the leading company in this field, earning $9.7 bn in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. at $7.4 bn.", "The third-biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment, with revenue of US$6.2 bn.===Significant sites===While there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well known specifically for gambling.", "Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.====Monte Carlo, Monaco====Monte Carlo Casino, located in Monte Carlo city, in Monaco, is a casino and a tourist attraction.Monte Carlo Casino has been depicted in many books, including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 million.", "This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.", "Monte Carlo Casino has also been featured in multiple James Bond novels and films.The casino is mentioned in the song \"The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo\" as well as the film of the same name.====Campione d'Italia====Casinò di Campione is located in the tiny Italian enclave of Campione d'Italia, within Ticino, Switzerland.", "The casino was founded in 1917 as a site to gather information from foreign diplomats during the First World War.", "Today it is owned by the Italian government, and operated by the municipality.", "With gambling laws being less strict than in Italy and Switzerland, it is among the most popular gambling destination besides Monte Carlo.", "The income from the casino is sufficient for the operation of Campione without the imposition of taxes, or obtaining of other revenue.", "In 2007, the casino moved into new premises of more than , making it the largest casino in Europe.", "The new casino was built alongside the old one, which dated from 1933 and has since been demolished.====Malta====The archipelago of Malta is a particularly famous place for casinos, standing out mainly with the historic casino located at the princely residence of Dragonara.", "Dragonara Palace was built in 1870.Its name comes from the Dragonara Point, the peninsula where it is built.", "On 15 July 1964, the palace opened as a casino.====Macau====The Venetian MacaoThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble.", "This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby Hong Kong, where gambling was more closely regulated.", "The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world.", "Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.====Germany====Machine-based gaming is only permitted in land-based casinos, restaurants, bars and gaming halls, and only subject to a licence.", "Online slots are, at the moment, only permitted if they are operated under a Schleswig-Holstein licence.", "AWPs are governed by federal law – the Trade Regulation Act and the Gaming Ordinance.====Portugal====The Casino Estoril, in Portuguese Riviera, is Europe's largest casino by capacity.The Casino Estoril, located in the municipality of Cascais, on the Portuguese Riviera, near Lisbon, is the largest casino in Europe by capacity.During the World War II, it was reputed to be a gathering point for spies, dispossessed royals, and wartime adventurers; it became an inspiration for Ian Fleming's James Bond 007 novel ''Casino Royale''.====Russia====There are four legal gaming zones in Russia: \"Siberian Coin\" (Altay), \"Yantarnaya\" (Kaliningrad region), \"Azov-city\" (Rostov region) and \"Primorie\" (Primorie region).====Singapore====Singapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore.", "The Marina Bay Sands is the second most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$6.8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings.====United States====The Las Vegas Strip in Las Vegas, the heart of the gambling industry in the United StatesWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world.", "The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos.", "40 states now have some form of casino gambling.", "Interstate competition, such as gaining tourism, has been a driving factor to continuous legalization.", "Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.The Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States.", "Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey, ranks second, and the Chicago region third.Top American casino markets by revenue (2022 annual revenues):# Las Vegas Strip $7.05 billion# Atlantic City $2.57 billion# Chicago region $2.01 billion# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $2.00 billion# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.61 billion# New York City $1.46 billion# Philadelphia $1.40 billion# Detroit $1.29 billion# St. Louis $1.03 billion# Boulder Strip $967 million# Reno/Sparks $889 million# Kansas City $861 million# The Poconos $849 million# Lake Charles, Louisiana $843 million# Black Hawk/Central City $812 million# Downtown Las Vegas $731 million# Tunica/Lula $696 million# Cincinnati $655 million# Shreveport/Bossier City $646 million# Pittsburgh/Meadowlands $630 millionThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.Native American gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.====Vietnam====In Vietnam, the term \"casinos\" encompasses gambling activities within the country.", "Unofficially defined, a \"casino\" typically denotes a well-established and professional gambling establishment that is generally lawful but exclusively caters to foreign players.", "On the other hand, \"gambling houses\" or \"gambling dens\" are smaller, illicit gambling venues.As of 2022, Vietnam has 9 operating casinos, including: Đồ Sơn casino (Hải Phòng), Lợi Lai casino, Hoàng Gia casino (Quảng Ninh), Hồng Vận casino (Quảng Ninh), Lào Cai casino (Lào Cai), Silver Shores casino (Đà Nẵng), Hồ Tràm casino (Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu), Nam Hội An casino (Quảng Nam), Phú Quốc casino in Kien Giang.In a survey conducted by the Vietnamese Institute for Sustainable Regional Development and released on September 30, 2015, it was found that 71% of the respondents held the belief that allowing Vietnamese individuals to access casinos would result in an increase in the number of players.", "Furthermore, 47.4% of the participants expressed the view that engaging in rewarding recreational activities has a positive impact on job opportunities for residents.", "Additionally, 46.2% of the respondents believed that such activities contribute positively to Vietnam's ability to attract investments." ], [ "Security", "Thousand Islands CasinoGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this.", "Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department.", "The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity.", "A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky.", "Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime.", "Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.When it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.In addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times." ], [ "Business practices", "Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons.", "Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.", "Casino Helsinki in Helsinki, Finland, for example, donates all of its profits to charity." ], [ "Crime", "Casinos have been linked to organised crime, with early casinos in Las Vegas originally dominated by the American Mafia and in Macau by Triad syndicates.According to some police reports, local incidence of reported crime often doubles or triples within three years of a casino's opening.", "In a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population.It has been said that economic studies showing a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population: they count crimes committed by visitors but do not count visitors in the population measure, which overstates the crime rate.", "Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite the overstatement, is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available." ], [ "Occupational health and safety", "Casinos are subject to specific regulations for worker safety, as casino employees are both at greater risk for cancers resulting from exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke and musculoskeletal injuries from repetitive motions while running table games over many hours.", "These are not the extent of the hazards casino workers may be exposed to, but every location is different.", "Most casinos do not meet the requirements for certain protective measures, such as protection against airborne metal dusts from coins or hearing protection against high noise levels, though these measures are still implemented when evaluated and determined necessary." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Casinò di Campione, night.jpg|alt=Italy's Casinò di Campione, near Lugano, is the largest casino in Europe|Italy's Casinò di Campione, near Lugano, is the largest casino in Europe.File:Leicester Square, London.jpg|The Empire at Leicester Square in London also includes a casino.File:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, SingaporeFile:Galaxy Macau Night.jpg|The Galaxy Macau at night in Cotai, MacauFile:Wynn 2 (2).jpg|Wynn Las Vegas in Paradise, Nevada, United StatesFile:Casino-Funchal.jpg|The Casino da Madeira in Funchal, Madeira, PortugalFile:Mikonkatu 19.jpg|The Casino Helsinki at night in Helsinki, FinlandFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, SingaporeFile:Genting 01.jpg|The casino in Genting Highlands, Malaysia own by Genting GroupFile:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in the Cotai Strip is the largest casino in the world, owned by Las Vegas Sands.File:Casino de Monte-Carlo.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, MonacoFile:MGM COTAI Macau.jpg|MGM Cotai owned by MGM Resorts International, located in Cotai, MacauFile:Borgata Slots, Atlantic City, Feb 2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States" ], [ "See also", "* American Gaming Association* Black Book (gaming)* Casino hotel** List of casino hotels* Casino token* European Gaming & Amusement Federation* Gambling in Macau* Gambling* Gaming in Mexico* Gambling in the United States* Gambling in Manila* Gaming Control Boards* Gaming law* Global Gaming Expo* List of casinos* Locals casino* Native American gaming* Online casino* Online gambling* Online poker* Sports betting" ], [ "Further reading", "* Poley, Jared (2023).", "''Luck, Leisure, and the Casino in Nineteenth-Century Europe: A Cultural History of Gambling''.", "Cambridge University Press." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Khmer language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Khmer''' (; , UNGEGN: ) is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Khmer people, and the official and national language of Cambodia.", "Khmer has been influenced considerably by Sanskrit and Pali, especially in the royal and religious registers, through Hinduism and Buddhism.", "It is also the earliest recorded and earliest written language of the Mon–Khmer family, predating Mon and Vietnamese, due to Old Khmer being the language of the historical empires of Chenla, Angkor and, presumably, their earlier predecessor state, Funan.The vast majority of Khmer speakers speak ''Central Khmer'', the dialect of the central plain where the Khmer are most heavily concentrated.", "Within Cambodia, regional accents exist in remote areas but these are regarded as varieties of Central Khmer.", "Two exceptions are the speech of the capital, Phnom Penh, and that of the Khmer Khe in Stung Treng province, both of which differ sufficiently enough from Central Khmer to be considered separate dialects of Khmer.Outside of Cambodia, three distinct dialects are spoken by ethnic Khmers native to areas that were historically part of the Khmer Empire.", "The Northern Khmer dialect is spoken by over a million Khmers in the southern regions of Northeast Thailand and is treated by some linguists as a separate language.", "Khmer Krom, or Southern Khmer, is the first language of the Khmer of Vietnam, while the Khmer living in the remote Cardamom Mountains speak a very conservative dialect that still displays features of the Middle Khmer language.Khmer is primarily an analytic, isolating language.", "There are no inflections, conjugations or case endings.", "Instead, particles and auxiliary words are used to indicate grammatical relationships.", "General word order is subject–verb–object, and modifiers follow the word they modify.", "Classifiers appear after numbers when used to count nouns, though not always so consistently as in languages like Chinese.", "In spoken Khmer, topic-comment structure is common, and the perceived social relation between participants determines which sets of vocabulary, such as pronouns and honorifics, are proper.Khmer differs from neighboring languages such as Burmese, Thai, Lao, and Vietnamese in that it is not a tonal language.", "Words are stressed on the final syllable, hence many words conform to the typical Mon–Khmer pattern of a stressed syllable preceded by a minor syllable.", "The language has been written in the Khmer script, an abugida descended from the Brahmi script via the southern Indian Pallava script, since at least the 7th century.", "The script's form and use has evolved over the centuries; its modern features include subscripted versions of consonants used to write clusters and a division of consonants into two series with different inherent vowels." ], [ "Classification", "Khmer is a member of the Austroasiatic language family, the autochthonous family in an area that stretches from the Malay Peninsula through Southeast Asia to East India.", "Austroasiatic, which also includes Mon, Vietnamese and Munda, has been studied since 1856 and was first proposed as a language family in 1907.Despite the amount of research, there is still doubt about the internal relationship of the languages of Austroasiatic.Diffloth places Khmer in an eastern branch of the Mon-Khmer languages.", "In these classification schemes Khmer's closest genetic relatives are the Bahnaric and Pearic languages.", "More recent classifications doubt the validity of the Mon-Khmer sub-grouping and place the Khmer language as its own branch of Austroasiatic equidistant from the other 12 branches of the family." ], [ "Geographic distribution and dialects", "The approximate locations where various dialects of Khmer are spokenKhmer is spoken by some 13 million people in Cambodia, where it is the official language.", "It is also a second language for most of the minority groups and indigenous hill tribes there.", "Additionally there are a million speakers of Khmer native to southern Vietnam (1999 census) and 1.4 million in northeast Thailand (2006).Khmer dialects, although mutually intelligible, are sometimes quite marked.", "Notable variations are found in speakers from Phnom Penh (Cambodia's capital city), the rural Battambang area, the areas of Northeast Thailand adjacent to Cambodia such as Surin province, the Cardamom Mountains, and southern Vietnam.", "The dialects form a continuum running roughly north to south.", "Standard Cambodian Khmer is mutually intelligible with the others but a Khmer Krom speaker from Vietnam, for instance, may have great difficulty communicating with a Khmer native of Sisaket Province in Thailand.The following is a classification scheme showing the development of the modern Khmer dialects.", "* Middle Khmer** Cardamom (Western) Khmer** Central Khmer*** Surin (Northern) Khmer*** Standard Khmer and related dialects (including Khmer Krom)A Khmer speaker with Phnom Penh dialect.", "'''Standard Khmer''', or '''Central Khmer''', the language as taught in Cambodian schools and used by the media, is based on the dialect spoken throughout the Central Plain, a region encompassed by the northwest and central provinces.", "'''Northern Khmer''' (called in Khmer) refers to the dialects spoken by many in several border provinces of present-day northeast Thailand.", "After the fall of the Khmer Empire in the early 15th century, the Dongrek Mountains served as a natural border leaving the Khmer north of the mountains under the sphere of influence of the Kingdom of Lan Xang.", "The conquests of Cambodia by Naresuan the Great for Ayutthaya furthered their political and economic isolation from Cambodia proper, leading to a dialect that developed relatively independently from the midpoint of the Middle Khmer period.This has resulted in a distinct accent influenced by the surrounding tonal languages Lao and Thai, lexical differences, and phonemic differences in both vowels and distribution of consonants.", "Syllable-final , which has become silent in other dialects of Khmer, is still pronounced in Northern Khmer.", "Some linguists classify Northern Khmer as a separate but closely related language rather than a dialect.", "'''Western Khmer''', also called Cardamom Khmer or Chanthaburi Khmer, is spoken by a very small, isolated population in the Cardamom mountain range extending from western Cambodia into eastern Central Thailand.", "Although little studied, this variety is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer.", "'''Phnom Penh Khmer''' is spoken in the capital and surrounding areas.", "This dialect is characterized by merging or complete elision of syllables, which speakers from other regions consider a \"relaxed\" pronunciation.", "For instance, \"Phnom Penh\" is sometimes shortened to \"m'Penh\".", "Another characteristic of Phnom Penh speech is observed in words with an \"r\" either as an initial consonant or as the second member of a consonant cluster (as in the English word \"bread\").", "The \"r\", trilled or flapped in other dialects, is either pronounced as a uvular trill or not pronounced at all.This alters the quality of any preceding consonant, causing a harder, more emphasized pronunciation.", "Another unique result is that the syllable is spoken with a low-rising or \"dipping\" tone much like the \"hỏi\" tone in Vietnamese.", "For example, some people pronounce ('fish') as : the is dropped and the vowel begins by dipping much lower in tone than standard speech and then rises, effectively doubling its length.", "Another example is the word ('study'), which is pronounced , with the uvular \"r\" and the same intonation described above.", "'''Khmer Krom''' or '''Southern Khmer''' is spoken by the indigenous Khmer population of the Mekong Delta, formerly controlled by the Khmer Empire but part of Vietnam since 1698.Khmers are persecuted by the Vietnamese government for using their native language and, since the 1950s, have been forced to take Vietnamese names.", "Consequently, very little research has been published regarding this dialect.", "It has been generally influenced by Vietnamese for three centuries and accordingly displays a pronounced accent, tendency toward monosyllabic words and lexical differences from Standard Khmer.", "'''Khmer Khe''' is spoken in the Se San, Srepok and Sekong river valleys of Sesan and Siem Pang districts in Stung Treng Province.", "Following the decline of Angkor, the Khmer abandoned their northern territories, which the Lao then settled.", "In the 17th century, Chey Chetha XI led a Khmer force into Stung Treng to retake the area.", "The Khmer Khe living in this area of Stung Treng in modern times are presumed to be the descendants of this group.", "Their dialect is thought to resemble that of pre-modern Siem Reap." ], [ "Historical periods", "A stone carved in Old KhmerLinguistic study of the Khmer language divides its history into four periods one of which, the Old Khmer period, is subdivided into pre-Angkorian and Angkorian.", "Pre-Angkorian Khmer is the Old Khmer language from 600 CE through 800.Angkorian Khmer is the language as it was spoken in the Khmer Empire from the 9th century until the 13th century.The following centuries saw changes in morphology, phonology and lexicon.", "The language of this transition period, from about the 14th to 18th centuries, is referred to as Middle Khmer and saw borrowings from Thai in the literary register.", "Modern Khmer is dated from the 19th century to today.The following table shows the conventionally accepted historical stages of Khmer.+ Historical Stages of Khmer Historical stage Date Pre- or Proto-Khmer Before 600 CE Pre-Angkorian Old Khmer 600–800 Angkorian Old Khmer 800 to mid-14th century Middle Khmer Mid-14th century to 18th century Modern Khmer 1800–presentJust as modern Khmer was emerging from the transitional period represented by Middle Khmer, Cambodia fell under the influence of French colonialism.", "Thailand, which had for centuries claimed suzerainty over Cambodia and controlled succession to the Cambodian throne, began losing its influence on the language.", "In 1887 Cambodia was fully integrated into French Indochina, which brought in a French-speaking aristocracy.", "This led to French becoming the language of higher education and the intellectual class.", "By 1907, the French had wrested over half of modern-day Cambodia, including the north and northwest where Thai had been the prestige language, back from Thai control and reintegrated it into the country.Many native scholars in the early 20th century, led by a monk named Chuon Nath, resisted the French and Thai influences on their language.", "Forming the government sponsored Cultural Committee to define and standardize the modern language, they championed Khmerization, purging of foreign elements, reviving affixation, and the use of Old Khmer roots and historical Pali and Sanskrit to coin new words for modern ideas.", "Opponents, led by Keng Vannsak, who embraced \"total Khmerization\" by denouncing the reversion to classical languages and favoring the use of contemporary colloquial Khmer for neologisms, and Ieu Koeus, who favored borrowing from Thai, were also influential.Koeus later joined the Cultural Committee and supported Nath.", "Nath's views and prolific work won out and he is credited with cultivating modern Khmer-language identity and culture, overseeing the translation of the entire Pali Buddhist canon into Khmer.", "He also created the modern Khmer language dictionary that is still in use today, helping preserve Khmer during the French colonial period." ], [ "Phonology", "The phonological system described here is the inventory of sounds of the standard spoken language, represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).===Consonants=== Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Plosive () () () () ~ ~ Fricative () Liquid Approximant ~ The voiceless plosives may occur with or without aspiration (as vs. , etc.", "); this difference is contrastive before a vowel.", "However, the aspirated sounds in that position may be analyzed as sequences of two phonemes: .", "This analysis is supported by the fact that infixes can be inserted between the stop and the aspiration; for example ('big') becomes ('size') with a nominalizing infix.", "When one of these plosives occurs initially before another consonant, aspiration is no longer contrastive and can be regarded as mere phonetic detail: slight aspiration is expected when the following consonant is not one of (or if the initial plosive is ).The voiced plosives are pronounced as implosives by most speakers, but this feature is weak in educated speech, where they become .In syllable-final position, and approach and respectively.", "The stops are unaspirated and have no audible release when occurring as syllable finals.In addition, the consonants , , and occur occasionally in recent loan words in the speech of Cambodians familiar with French and other languages.===Vowels===Various authors have proposed slightly different analyses of the Khmer vowel system.", "This may be in part because of the wide degree of variation in pronunciation between individual speakers, even within a dialectal region.", "The description below follows Huffman (1970).", "The number of vowel nuclei and their values vary between dialects; differences exist even between the Standard Khmer system and that of the Battambang dialect on which the standard is based.Vowel Diagram (Monophthongs)+ Monophthongs of Khmer Front Central Back short long short long short long Close Close-mid Open-mid Open + Diphthongs of Khmer Front Central Back Shortcentering Long centering , mid closing open closing In addition, some diphthongs and triphthongs are analyzed as a vowel nucleus plus a semivowel ( or ) coda because they cannot be followed by a final consonant.", "These include: (with short monophthongs) , , , , ; (with long monophthongs) , ; (with long diphthongs) , , , , and .===Syllable structure===A Khmer syllable begins with a single consonant, or else with a cluster of two, or rarely three, consonants.", "The only possible clusters of three consonants at the start of a syllable are , and (with aspirated consonants analyzed as two-consonant sequences) .", "There are 85 possible two-consonant clusters (including pʰ etc.", "analyzed as /ph/ etc.).", "All the clusters are shown in the following table, phonetically, i.e.", "superscript ʰ can mark either contrastive or non-contrastive aspiration (see above).", "t+h k+h t+r k+r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - str- skr- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Slight vowel epenthesis occurs in the clusters consisting of a plosive followed by , in those beginning , and in the cluster .After the initial consonant or consonant cluster comes the syllabic nucleus, which is one of the vowels listed above.", "This vowel may end the syllable or may be followed by a coda, which is a single consonant.", "If the syllable is stressed and the vowel is short, there must be a final consonant.", "All consonant sounds except and the aspirates can appear as the coda (although final /r/ is heard in some dialects, most notably in Northern Khmer).A minor syllable (unstressed syllable preceding the main syllable of a word) has a structure of CV-, CrV-, CVN- or CrVN- (where C is a consonant, V a vowel, and N a nasal consonant).", "The vowels in such syllables are usually short; in conversation they may be reduced to , although in careful or formal speech, including on television and radio, they are clearly articulated.", "An example of such a word is ''mɔnuh, mɔnɨh, mĕəʾnuh'' ('person'), pronounced , or more casually .===Stress===Stress in Khmer falls on the final syllable of a word.", "Because of this predictable pattern, stress is non-phonemic in Khmer (it does not distinguish different meanings).Most Khmer words consist of either one or two syllables.", "In most native disyllabic words, the first syllable is a minor (fully unstressed) syllable.", "Such words have been described as ''sesquisyllabic'' (i.e.", "as having one-and-a-half syllables).", "There are also some disyllabic words in which the first syllable does not behave as a minor syllable, but takes secondary stress.", "Most such words are compounds, but some are single morphemes (generally loanwords).", "An example is ('language'), pronounced .Words with three or more syllables, if they are not compounds, are mostly loanwords, usually derived from Pali, Sanskrit, or more recently, French.", "They are nonetheless adapted to Khmer stress patterns.", "Primary stress falls on the final syllable, with secondary stress on every second syllable from the end.", "Thus in a three-syllable word, the first syllable has secondary stress; in a four-syllable word, the second syllable has secondary stress; in a five-syllable word, the first and third syllables have secondary stress, and so on.", "Long polysyllables are not often used in conversation.Compounds, however, preserve the stress patterns of the constituent words.", "Thus , the name of a kind of cookie (literally 'bird's nest'), is pronounced , with secondary stress on the second rather than the first syllable, because it is composed of the words ('nest') and ('bird').===Phonation and tone===Khmer once had a phonation distinction in its vowels, but this now survives only in the most archaic dialect (Western Khmer).", "The distinction arose historically when vowels after Old Khmer voiced consonants became breathy voiced and diphthongized; for example became .", "When consonant voicing was lost, the distinction was maintained by the vowel (); later the phonation disappeared as well ().", "These processes explain the origin of what are now called a-series and o-series consonants in the Khmer script.Although most Cambodian dialects are not tonal, the colloquial Phnom Penh dialect has developed a tonal contrast (level versus peaking tone) as a by-product of the elision of .===Intonation===Intonation often conveys semantic context in Khmer, as in distinguishing declarative statements, questions and exclamations.", "The available grammatical means of making such distinctions are not always used, or may be ambiguous; for example, the final interrogative particle can also serve as an emphasizing (or in some cases negating) particle.The intonation pattern of a typical Khmer declarative phrase is a steady rise throughout followed by an abrupt drop on the last syllable.", ":       ('I don't want it')Other intonation contours signify a different type of phrase such as the \"full doubt\" interrogative, similar to yes–no questions in English.", "Full doubt interrogatives remain fairly even in tone throughout, but rise sharply towards the end.", ":       ('do you want to go to Siem Reap?", "')Exclamatory phrases follow the typical steadily rising pattern, but rise sharply on the last syllable instead of falling.", ":       ('this book is expensive!')" ], [ "Grammar", "Khmer is primarily an analytic language with no inflection.", "Syntactic relations are mainly determined by word order.", "Old and Middle Khmer used particles to mark grammatical categories and many of these have survived in Modern Khmer but are used sparingly, mostly in literary or formal language.", "Khmer makes extensive use of auxiliary verbs, \"directionals\" and serial verb construction.", "Colloquial Khmer is a zero copula language, instead preferring predicative adjectives (and even predicative nouns) unless using a copula for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity in more complex sentences.", "Basic word order is subject–verb–object (SVO), although subjects are often dropped; prepositions are used rather than postpositions.Topic-Comment constructions are common and the language is generally head-initial (modifiers follow the words they modify).", "Some grammatical processes are still not fully understood by western scholars.", "For example, it is not clear if certain features of Khmer grammar, such as actor nominalization, should be treated as a morphological process or a purely syntactic device, and some derivational morphology seems \"purely decorative\" and performs no known syntactic work.Lexical categories have been hard to define in Khmer.", "Henri Maspero, an early scholar of Khmer, claimed the language had no parts of speech, while a later scholar, Judith Jacob, posited four parts of speech and innumerable particles.", "John Haiman, on the other hand, identifies \"a couple dozen\" parts of speech in Khmer with the caveat that Khmer words have the freedom to perform a variety of syntactic functions depending on such factors as word order, relevant particles, location within a clause, intonation and context.", "Some of the more important lexical categories and their function are demonstrated in the following example sentence taken from a hospital brochure:===Morphology===Modern Khmer is an isolating language, which means that it uses little productive morphology.", "There is some derivation by means of prefixes and infixes, but this is a remnant of Old Khmer and not always productive in the modern language.", "Khmer morphology is evidence of a historical process through which the language was, at some point in the past, changed from being an agglutinative language to adopting an isolating typology.", "Affixed forms are lexicalized and cannot be used productively to form new words.", "Below are some of the most common affixes with examples as given by Huffman.", "Affix Function Word Meaning Affixed Word Meaning prefixed causation \"broke, torn\"\"origin\" \"to tear apart\"\"to originate (trans.)\"", "prefixed derives adjectivesnominalization \"to extinguish\"\"to hide\" \"extinguished\"\"a screen, shade\" prefixed reciprocity \"to bite\"\"similar\" \"to bite each other\"\"to compare\" prefixed , , causation \"to break (intrans.", ")\"\"to walk\"\"to study, learn\" \"to cause to break\"\"to take for a walk\"\"to teach\" infixed causation \"to be clean\"\"to die\" \"to clean\"\"to kill\" infixed , nominalization \"to walk\"\"to know (something)\"\"to believe\" \"a trip\"\"information\"\"belief\"Compounding in Khmer is a common derivational process that takes two forms, coordinate compounds and repetitive compounds.", "Coordinate compounds join two unbound morphemes (independent words) of similar meaning to form a compound signifying a concept more general than either word alone.", "Coordinate compounds join either two nouns or two verbs.", "Repetitive compounds, one of the most productive derivational features of Khmer, use reduplication of an entire word to derive words whose meaning depends on the class of the reduplicated word.", "A repetitive compound of a noun indicates plurality or generality while that of an adjectival verb could mean either an intensification or plurality.Coordinate compounds:Repetitive compounds:====Nouns and pronouns====Khmer nouns do not inflect for grammatical gender or singular/plural.", "There are no articles, but indefiniteness is often expressed by the word for \"one\" ( ) following the noun as in ( \"a dog\").", "Plurality can be marked by postnominal particles, numerals, or reduplication of a following adjective, which, although similar to intensification, is usually not ambiguous due to context.Classifying particles are used after numerals, but are not always obligatory as they are in Thai or Chinese, for example, and are often dropped in colloquial speech.", "Khmer nouns are divided into two groups: mass nouns, which take classifiers; and specific, nouns, which do not.", "The overwhelming majority are mass nouns.Possession is colloquially expressed by word order.", "The possessor is placed after the thing that is possessed.", "Alternatively, in more complex sentences or when emphasis is required, a possessive construction using the word (, \"property, object\") may be employed.", "In formal and literary contexts, the possessive particle () is used:Pronouns are subject to a complicated system of social register, the choice of pronoun depending on the perceived relationships between speaker, audience and referent (see Social registers below).", "Khmer exhibits pronoun avoidance, so kinship terms, nicknames and proper names are often used instead of pronouns (including for the first person) among intimates.", "Subject pronouns are frequently dropped in colloquial conversation.Adjectives, verbs and verb phrases may be made into nouns by the use of nominalization particles.", "Three of the more common particles used to create nouns are , , and .", "These particles are prefixed most often to verbs to form abstract nouns.", "The latter, derived from Sanskrit, also occurs as a suffix in fixed forms borrowed from Sanskrit and Pali such as (\"health\") from (\"to be healthy\").====Adjectives and adverbs====Adjectives, demonstratives and numerals follow the noun they modify.", "Adverbs likewise follow the verb.", "Morphologically, adjectives and adverbs are not distinguished, with many words often serving either function.", "Adjectives are also employed as verbs as Khmer sentences rarely use a copula.Degrees of comparison are constructed syntactically.", "Comparatives are expressed using the word : \"A X B\" (A is more X than B).", "The most common way to express superlatives is with : \"A X \" (A is the most X).", "Intensity is also expressed syntactically, similar to other languages of the region, by reduplication or with the use of intensifiers.====Verbs====As is typical of most East Asian languages, Khmer verbs do not inflect at all; tense, aspect and mood can be expressed using auxiliary verbs, particles (such as , placed before a verb to express continuous aspect) and adverbs (such as \"yesterday\", \"earlier\", \"tomorrow\"), or may be understood from context.", "Serial verb construction is quite common.Khmer verbs are a relatively open class and can be divided into two types, main verbs and auxiliary verbs.", "Huffman defined a Khmer verb as \"any word that can be (negated)\", and further divided main verbs into three classes.Transitive verbs are verbs that may be followed by a direct object:Intransitive verbs are verbs that can not be followed by an object:Adjectival verbs are a word class that has no equivalent in English.", "When modifying a noun or verb, they function as adjectives or adverbs, respectively, but they may also be used as main verbs equivalent to English \"be + ''adjective''\".", "; ; ; ===Syntax===Syntax is the rules and processes that describe how sentences are formed in a particular language, how words relate to each other within clauses or phrases and how those phrases relate to each other within a sentence to convey meaning.", "Khmer syntax is very analytic.", "Relationships between words and phrases are signified primarily by word order supplemented with auxiliary verbs and, particularly in formal and literary registers, grammatical marking particles.", "Grammatical phenomena such as negation and aspect are marked by particles while interrogative sentences are marked either by particles or interrogative words equivalent to English \"wh-words\".A complete Khmer sentence consists of four basic elements—an optional topic, an optional subject, an obligatory predicate, and various adverbials and particles.", "The topic and subject are noun phrases, predicates are verb phrases and another noun phrase acting as an object or verbal attribute often follows the predicate.====Basic constituent order====When combining these noun and verb phrases into a sentence the order is typically SVO:When both a direct object and indirect object are present without any grammatical markers, the preferred order is SV(DO)(IO).", "In such a case, if the direct object phrase contains multiple components, the indirect object immediately follows the noun of the direct object phrase and the direct object's modifiers follow the indirect object:This ordering of objects can be changed and the meaning clarified with the inclusion of particles.", "The word , which normally means \"to arrive\" or \"towards\", can be used as a preposition meaning \"to\":Alternatively, the indirect object could precede the direct object if the object-marking preposition were used:However, in spoken discourse OSV is possible when emphasizing the object in a topic–comment-like structure.====Noun phrase====The noun phrase in Khmer typically has the following structure:: = () () () () ()The elements in parentheses are optional.", "Honorifics are a class of words that serve to index the social status of the referent.", "Honorifics can be kinship terms or personal names, both of which are often used as first and second person pronouns, or specialized words such as ('god') before royal and religious objects.", "The most common demonstratives are ('this, these') and ('that, those').", "The word ('those over there') has a more distal or vague connotation.If the noun phrase contains a possessive adjective, it follows the noun and precedes the numeral.", "If a descriptive attribute co-occurs with a possessive, the possessive construction () is expected.Some examples of typical Khmer noun phrases are:The Khmer particle marked attributes in Old Khmer noun phrases and is used in formal and literary language to signify that what precedes is the noun and what follows is the attribute.", "Modern usage may carry the connotation of mild intensity.====Verb phrase====Khmer verbs are completely uninflected, and once a subject or topic has been introduced or is clear from context the noun phrase may be dropped.", "Thus, the simplest possible sentence in Khmer consists of a single verb.", "For example, 'to go' on its own can mean \"I'm going.", "\", \"He went.", "\", \"They've gone.", "\", \"Let's go.", "\", etc.", "This also results in long strings of verbs such as:Khmer uses three verbs for what translates into English as the copula.", "The general copula is ; it is used to convey identity with nominal predicates.", "For locative predicates, the copula is .", "The verb is the \"existential\" copula meaning \"there is\" or \"there exists\".Negation is achieved by putting before the verb and the particle at the end of the sentence or clause.", "In colloquial speech, verbs can also be negated without the need for a final particle, by placing before them.Past tense can be conveyed by adverbs, such as \"yesterday\" or by the use of perfective particles such as Different senses of future action can also be expressed by the use of adverbs like \"tomorrow\" or by the future tense marker , which is placed immediately before the verb, or both:Imperatives are often unmarked.", "For example, in addition to the meanings given above, the \"sentence\" can also mean \"Go!\".", "Various words and particles may be added to the verb to soften the command to varying degrees, including to the point of politeness (jussives):Prohibitives take the form \" + \" and also are often softened by the addition of the particle to the end of the phrase.====Questions====There are three basic types of questions in Khmer.", "Questions requesting specific information use question words.", "Polar questions are indicated with interrogative particles, most commonly , a homonym of the negation particle.", "Tag questions are indicated with various particles and rising inflection.", "The SVO word order is generally not inverted for questions.In more formal contexts and in polite speech, questions are also marked at their beginning by the particle .====Passive voice====Khmer does not have a passive voice, but there is a construction utilizing the main verb (\"to hit\", \"to be correct\", \"to affect\") as an auxiliary verb meaning \"to be subject to\" or \"to undergo\"—which results in sentences that are translated to English using the passive voice.====Clause syntax====Complex sentences are formed in Khmer by the addition of one or more clauses to the main clause.", "The various types of clauses in Khmer include the coordinate clause, the relative clause and the subordinate clause.", "Word order in clauses is the same for that of the basic sentences described above.", "Coordinate clauses do not necessarily have to be marked; they can simply follow one another.", "When explicitly marked, they are joined by words similar to English conjunctions such as (\"and\") and (\"and then\") or by clause-final conjunction-like adverbs and , both of which can mean \"also\" or \"and also\"; disjunction is indicated by (\"or\").Relative clauses can be introduced by (\"that\") but, similar to coordinate clauses, often simply follow the main clause.", "For example, both phrases below can mean \"the hospital bed that has wheels\".Relative clauses are more likely to be introduced with if they do not immediately follow the head noun.", "Khmer subordinate conjunctions always precede a subordinate clause.", "Subordinate conjunctions include words such as (\"because\"), (\"seems as if\") and (\"in order to\")." ], [ "Numerals", "Counting in Khmer is based on a biquinary system: the numbers from 6 to 9 have the form \"five one\", \"five two\", etc.", "The words for multiples of ten from 30 to 90 are not related to the basic Khmer numbers, but are Chinese in origin, and probably came to Khmer via Thai.", "Khmer numerals, which were inherited directly from Indian numerals, are used more widely than Western numerals, which like Khmer numerals were inherited from Indian, but first passed through the Arabic numerals before reaching the west.The principal number words are listed in the following table, which gives Western and Khmer digits, Khmer spelling and IPA transcription.", "Value Khmer Word form IPA UNGEGN Value Khmer Word form IPA UNGEGN 0 1 2 20 , 3 30 ៣០ 4 40 5 50 6 60 7 , 70 8 80 9 90 10 100 Intermediate numbers are formed by compounding the above elements.", "Powers of ten are denoted by loan words: (100), (1,000), (10,000), (100,000) and (1,000,000) from Thai and (10,000,000) from Sanskrit.Ordinal numbers are formed by placing the particle before the corresponding cardinal number." ], [ "Social registers", "Khmer employs a system of registers in which the speaker must always be conscious of the social status of the person spoken to.", "The different registers, which include those used for common speech, polite speech, speaking to or about royals and speaking to or about monks, employ alternate verbs, names of body parts and pronouns.", "As an example, the word for \"to eat\" used between intimates or in reference to animals is .", "Used in polite reference to commoners, it is .", "When used of those of higher social status, it is or .", "For monks the word is and for royals, .", "Another result is that the pronominal system is complex and full of honorific variations, just a few of which are shown in the table below.", "Situational usage I/me you he/she/it Intimate or addressing an inferior neutral Formal , , (or kinship term, title or rank) Layperson to/about Buddhist clergy Buddhist clergy to layperson , , , (to female) (to male) (to female), (to male) (to female), (to male) (to male), (to female) (to male), when addressing royalty or (male), (female) or (male), (female) or (male), (female)" ], [ "Writing system", "An example of modern Khmer script at the Cambodian Embassy in BerlinKhmer is written with the Khmer script, an abugida developed from the Pallava script of India before the 7th century when the first known inscription appeared.", "Written left-to-right with vowel signs that can be placed after, before, above or below the consonant they follow, the Khmer script is similar in appearance and usage to Thai and Lao, both of which were based on the Khmer system.", "The Khmer script is also distantly related to the Mon–Burmese script.", "Within Cambodia, literacy in the Khmer alphabet is estimated at 77.6%.Consonant symbols in Khmer are divided into two groups, or series.", "The first series carries the inherent vowel while the second series carries the inherent vowel .", "The Khmer names of the series, ('voiceless') and ('voiced'), respectively, indicate that the second series consonants were used to represent the voiced phonemes of Old Khmer.", "As the voicing of stops was lost, however, the contrast shifted to the phonation of the attached vowels, which, in turn, evolved into a simple difference of vowel quality, often by diphthongization.", "This process has resulted in the Khmer alphabet having two symbols for most consonant phonemes and each vowel symbol having two possible readings, depending on the series of the initial consonant: + = 'grandfather' + = 'duck'" ], [ "Examples", "Reading the first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Khmer.The following text is from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "Khmer UNGEGNromanization '''' IPAtranscription ." ], [ "See also", "* Hem Chieu* Khmer literature* Romanization of Khmer" ], [ "References and notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ferlus, Michel.", "(1992).", "''Essai de phonétique historique du khmer'' (Du milieu du premier millénaire de notre ère à l'époque actuelle)\", Mon–Khmer Studies XXI: 57–89)* Headley, Robert and others.", "(1977).", "''Cambodian-English Dictionary''.", "Washington, Catholic University Press.", "* Herington, Jennifer and Amy Ryan.", "(2013).", "Sociolinguistic Survey of the Khmer Khe in Cambodia .", "Chiang Mai: Linguistics Institute, Payap University.", "* Huffman, F. E., Promchan, C., & Lambert, C.-R. T. (1970).", "''Modern spoken Cambodian''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press.", "* Huffman, F. E., Lambert, C.-R. T., & Im Proum.", "(1970).", "''Cambodian system of writing and beginning reader with drills and glossary''.", "Yale linguistic series.", "New Haven: Yale University Press.", "* Jacob, Judith.", "(1966).", "'Some features of Khmer versification', in C. E. Bazell, J. C. Catford, M. A. K. Halliday, and R. H. Robins, eds., In Memory of J. R Firth, 227–41.London: Longman.", "Includes discussion of the two series of syllables and their places in Khmer shymes* Jacob, Judith.", "(1974).", "''A Concise Cambodian-English Dictionary''.", "London, Oxford University Press.", "* Jacob, J. M. (1996).", "''The traditional literature of Cambodia: a preliminary guide''.", "London oriental series, v. 40.New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Jacob, J. M., & Smyth, D. (1993).", "''Cambodian linguistics, literature and history: collected articles''.", "London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.", "* Keesee, A. P. K. (1996).", "''An English-spoken Khmer dictionary: with romanized writing system, usage, and idioms, and notes on Khmer speech and grammar''.", "London: Kegan Paul International.", "* Meechan, M. (1992).", "''Register in Khmer the laryngeal specification of pharyngeal expansion''.", "Ottawa: National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada.", "* Sak-Humphry, C. (2002).", "''Communicating in Khmer: an interactive intermediate level Khmer course''.", "Manoa, Hawai'i: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, School of Hawaiian, Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawai'i at Manoa.", "OCLC: 56840636* Smyth, D. (1995).", "''Colloquial Cambodian: a complete language course''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Stewart, F., & May, S. (2004).", "''In the shadow of Angkor: contemporary writing from Cambodia''.", "Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.", "* Tonkin, D. (1991).", "''The Cambodian alphabet: how to write the Khmer language''.", "Bangkok: Trasvin Publications." ], [ "External links", "* Kheng.info—An online audio dictionary for learning Khmer, with thousands of native speaker recordings and text segmentation software.", "* SEAlang Project: Mon–Khmer languages.", "The Khmeric Branch* Khmer Swadesh vocabulary list (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)* Dictionary and SpellChecker open sourced and collaborative project based on Chuon Nath Khmer Dictionary* How to install Khmer script on a Windows 7 computer* How to install Khmer script on a Windows XP computer* '' Khmer'' at UCLA Language Materials project* Online Khmer & English dictionary* Khmer Online Dictionaries* Khmer audio lessons at Wikiotics* http://unicode-table.com/en/sections/khmer/* http://unicode-table.com/en/sections/khmer-symbols/NOUN:nounVERB:verbOBJ:objectOM:object markerMARKER:markerREL:relativeCOHORT:cohortativeDIR:directionalCOMPL:complementRESP:respectful" ] ]

[ [ "Central processing unit" ], [ "Introduction", "A central processing unit (CPU) made by Intel: An Intel Core i9-14900KInside a central processing unit: The integrated circuit of Intel's Xeon 3060, first manufactured in 2006A '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''')—also called a '''central processor''' or '''main processor'''—is the most important processor in a given computer.", "Its electronic circuitry executes instructions of a computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations.", "This role contrasts with that of external components, such as main memory and I/O circuitry, and specialized coprocessors such as graphics processing units (GPUs).The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged.", "Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic–logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory), decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components.", "Modern CPUs devote a lot of semiconductor area to caches and instruction-level parallelism to increase performance and to CPU modes to support operating systems and virtualization.Most modern CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors, with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip.", "Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are multi-core processors.", "The individual physical CPUs, '''processor cores''', can also be multithreaded to support CPU-level multithreading.An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC)." ], [ "History", "EDVAC, one of the first stored-program computersEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \"fixed-program computers\".", "The \"central processing unit\" term has been in use since as early as 1955.Since the term \"CPU\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.The idea of a stored-program computer had been already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that ENIAC could be finished sooner.", "On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed a paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''.", "It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types.", "Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer.", "This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.", "With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory.", "EDVAC was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Baby, which was a small-scale experimental stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer.", "However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.", "This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers, and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC).", "The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers.", "Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.", "Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas.", "The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also used a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.", "The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both.", "Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard-architecture processors.Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices.", "The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches.", "Vacuum-tube computers such as EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers—such as the slower but earlier Harvard Mark I—failed very rarely.", "In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems.", "Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.", "Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.===Transistor CPUs===IBM PowerPC 604e processorThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated the building of smaller and more reliable electronic devices.", "The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor.", "Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements, like vacuum tubes and relays.", "With this improvement, more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speeds and performances.", "This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer.", "To facilitate this improvement, IBM used the concept of a microprogram (often called \"microcode\"), which still sees widespread use in modern CPUs.", "The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries.", "In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets—the PDP-8.Fujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processorsTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors.", "Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.", "The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements, which were almost exclusively transistors by this time; CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period.", "Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector processors began to appear.", "These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.===Small-scale integration CPUs===core memory and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I, made of medium-scale integrated circuitsDuring this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed.", "The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \"chip\".", "At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs.", "CPUs based on these \"building block\" ICs are generally referred to as \"small-scale integration\" (SSI) devices.", "SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo Guidance Computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors.", "To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.IBM's System/370, follow-on to the System/360, used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules.", "DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs, but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.===Large-scale integration CPUs===Lee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \"manifesto\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI).", "The only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) semiconductor manufacturing process (either PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic).", "However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips because bipolar junction transistors were faster than MOS chips up until the 1970s (a few companies such as Datapoint continued to build processors out of TTL chips until the early 1980s).", "In the 1960s, MOS ICs were slower and initially considered useful only in applications that required low power.", "Following the development of silicon-gate MOS technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, MOS ICs largely replaced bipolar TTL as the standard chip technology in the early 1970s.As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU.", "MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands.", "By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs.", "In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.===Microprocessors===Inside of a laptop, with the CPU removed from socketSince microprocessors were first introduced they have almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods.", "The first commercially available microprocessor, made in 1971, was the Intel 4004, and the first widely used microprocessor, made in 1974, was the Intel 8080.Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software.", "Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors.", "Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.", "Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one.", "The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance.", "This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz.", "Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold.", "This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which had proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity until 2016.While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, the basic design and function has not changed much at all.", "Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines.", "As Moore's law no longer holds, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology.", "Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant.", "These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the use of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model." ], [ "Operation", "The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program.", "The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory.", "Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter.", "If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally.", "In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded and executed simultaneously.", "This section describes what is generally referred to as the \"classic RISC pipeline\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontrollers).", "It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \"jumps\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions.", "In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \"flags\" register.", "These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations.", "For example, in such processors a \"compare\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.===Fetch===Fetch involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory.", "The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by the program counter (PC; called the \"instruction pointer\" in Intel x86 microprocessors), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched.", "After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence.", "Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned.", "This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).===Decode===The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do.", "In the decode step, performed by binary decoder circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).", "Often, one group of bits (that is, a \"field\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands.", "Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable binary decoder circuit.", "In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses.", "In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.===Execute===After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed.", "Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions.", "During each action, control signals electrically enable or disable various parts of the CPU so they can perform all or part of the desired operation.", "The action is then completed, typically in response to a clock pulse.", "Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.", "In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.For example, if an instruction that performs addition is to be executed, registers containing operands (numbers to be summed) are activated, as are the parts of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that perform addition.", "When the clock pulse occurs, the operands flow from the source registers into the ALU, and the sum appears at its output.", "On subsequent clock pulses, other components are enabled (and disabled) to move the output (the sum of the operation) to storage (e.g., a register or memory).", "If the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set, influencing the next operation." ], [ "Structure and implementation", "Block diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer.", "Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set.", "Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program.", "Each instruction is represented by a unique combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode.", "While processing an instruction, the CPU decodes the opcode (via a binary decoder) into control signals, which orchestrate the behavior of the CPU.", "A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation).", "Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic–logic unit or ALU.", "In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory.", "Besides the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).===Control unit===The '''control unit''' (CU) is a component of the CPU that directs the operation of the processor.", "It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor.It directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals.", "Most computer resources are managed by the CU.", "It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices.", "John von Neumann included the control unit as part of the von Neumann architecture.", "In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction.===Arithmetic logic unit===Symbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signalsThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations.", "The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform.", "Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers, external memory, or constants generated by the ALU itself.When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs.", "The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.Modern CPUs typically contain more than one ALU to improve performance.===Address generation unit===The address generation unit (AGU), sometimes also called the address computation unit (ACU), is an execution unit inside the CPU that calculates addresses used by the CPU to access main memory.", "By having address calculations handled by separate circuitry that operates in parallel with the rest of the CPU, the number of CPU cycles required for executing various machine instructions can be reduced, bringing performance improvements.While performing various operations, CPUs need to calculate memory addresses required for fetching data from the memory; for example, in-memory positions of array elements must be calculated before the CPU can fetch the data from actual memory locations.", "Those address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, modulo operations, or bit shifts.", "Often, calculating a memory address involves more than one general-purpose machine instruction, which do not necessarily decode and execute quickly.", "By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use the AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle.Capabilities of an AGU depend on a particular CPU and its architecture.", "Thus, some AGUs implement and expose more address-calculation operations, while some also include more advanced specialized instructions that can operate on multiple operands at a time.", "Some CPU architectures include multiple AGUs so more than one address-calculation operation can be executed simultaneously, which brings further performance improvements due to the superscalar nature of advanced CPU designs.", "For example, Intel incorporates multiple AGUs into its Sandy Bridge and Haswell microarchitectures, which increase bandwidth of the CPU memory subsystem by allowing multiple memory-access instructions to be executed in parallel.===Memory management unit (MMU)===Many microprocessors (in smartphones and desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory.", "Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.===Cache===A CPU cache is a hardware cache used by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to reduce the average cost (time or energy) to access data from the main memory.", "A cache is a smaller, faster memory, closer to a processor core, which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations.", "Most CPUs have different independent caches, including instruction and data caches, where the data cache is usually organized as a hierarchy of more cache levels (L1, L2, L3, L4, etc.", ").All modern (fast) CPUs (with few specialized exceptions) have multiple levels of CPU caches.", "The first CPUs that used a cache had only one level of cache; unlike later level 1 caches, it was not split into L1d (for data) and L1i (for instructions).", "Almost all current CPUs with caches have a split L1 cache.", "They also have L2 caches and, for larger processors, L3 caches as well.", "The L2 cache is usually not split and acts as a common repository for the already split L1 cache.", "Every core of a multi-core processor has a dedicated L2 cache and is usually not shared between the cores.", "The L3 cache, and higher-level caches, are shared between the cores and are not split.", "An L4 cache is currently uncommon, and is generally on dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), rather than on static random-access memory (SRAM), on a separate die or chip.", "That was also the case historically with L1, while bigger chips have allowed integration of it and generally all cache levels, with the possible exception of the last level.", "Each extra level of cache tends to be bigger and is optimized differently.Other types of caches exist (that are not counted towards the \"cache size\" of the most important caches mentioned above), such as the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that is part of the memory management unit (MMU) that most CPUs have.Caches are generally sized in powers of two: 2, 8, 16 etc.", "KiB or MiB (for larger non-L1) sizes, although the IBM z13 has a 96 KiB L1 instruction cache.===Clock rate===Most CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations.", "The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave.", "The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU.", "In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \"edges\" of the rising and falling clock signal.", "This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective.", "However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster.", "This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs.", "For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal.", "Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit.", "This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction.", "Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU.", "The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time.", "In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state.", "Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them).", "However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs.", "One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; this reduces the power requirements of the Xbox 360.===Clockless CPUs===Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether.", "While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs.", "While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without using a global clock signal.", "Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains.", "While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations.", "This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.===Voltage regulator module===Many modern CPUs have a die-integrated power managing module which regulates on-demand voltage supply to the CPU circuitry allowing it to keep balance between performance and power consumption.===Integer range===Every CPU represents numerical values in a specific way.", "For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three).", "Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \"high\" or \"low\" voltage.A six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40.Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent.", "In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called ''word size'', ''bit width'', ''data path width'', ''integer precision'', or ''integer size''.", "A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values on which it can it can directly operate.", "For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location).", "For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations.", "To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat).", "As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available.", "When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages.", "A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost.", "For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set architecture was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device.", "For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating-point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating-point numbers.", "The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic.", "Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose use where a reasonable balance of integer and floating-point capability is required.===Parallelism===Model of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructionsThe description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take.", "This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs.", "Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction.", "As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \"hung up\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution.", "Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased.", "This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ).", "However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel.", "When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the use of on-die execution resources);* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.====Instruction-level parallelism====Basic five-stage pipeline.", "In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.One of the simplest methods for increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing.", "This is a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is used in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs.", "Pipelining allows multiple instruction to be executed at a time by breaking the execution pathway into discrete stages.", "This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict.", "Therefore, pipelined processors must check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the pipeline if necessary.", "A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).A simple superscalar pipeline.", "By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.Improvements in instruction pipelining led to further decreases in the idle time of CPU components.", "Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units, such as load–store units, arithmetic–logic units, floating-point units and address generation units.", "In a superscalar pipeline, instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously).", "If so, they are dispatched to execution units, resulting in their simultaneous execution.", "In general, the number of instructions that a superscalar CPU will complete in a cycle is dependent on the number of instructions it is able to dispatch simultaneously to execution units.Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher.", "The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible.", "This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and requires significant amounts of CPU cache.", "It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, register renaming, out-of-order execution and transactional memory crucial to maintaining high levels of performance.", "By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed.", "Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes.", "Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies.", "Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream, a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.When a fraction of the CPU is superscalar, the part that is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls.", "The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not.", "Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar.", "Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar abilities to its floating-point features.Simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing it to execute instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle.", "Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar.", "In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or instruction set architecture (ISA).", "The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the CPU's work in boosting ILP and thereby reducing design complexity.====Task-level parallelism====Another strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel.", "This area of research is known as parallel computing.", "In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).One technology used for this purpose is multiprocessing (MP).", "The initial type of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system.", "In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory.", "By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another.", "To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s.", "SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors.", "Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors.", "When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program.", "A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel.", "Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread.", "A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel.", "This technology is known as multi-threading (MT).", "The approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU are replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP.", "In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads.", "The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT.", "One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory.", "In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1.Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc.", "This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4.By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture.", "Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.====Data parallelism====A less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism.", "The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device.", "As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction.", "This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction.", "Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as ''single instruction'' stream, ''multiple data'' stream (SIMD) and ''single instruction'' stream, ''single data'' stream (SISD), respectively.", "The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data.", "Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks.", "Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction.", "This is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.Most early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications.", "However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant.", "Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors.", "Some of these early SIMD specifications – like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX – were integer-only.", "This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers.", "Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one instruction set architecture (ISA).", "Some notable modern examples include Intel's Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).===Hardware performance counter===Many modern architectures (including embedded ones) often include hardware performance counters (HPC), which enables low-level (instruction-level) collection, benchmarking, debugging or analysis of running software metrics.", "HPC may also be used to discover and analyze unusual or suspicious activity of the software, such as return-oriented programming (ROP) or sigreturn-oriented programming (SROP) exploits etc.", "This is usually done by software-security teams to assess and find malicious binary programs.Many major vendors (such as IBM, Intel, AMD, and Arm etc.)", "provide software interfaces (usually written in C/C++) that can be used to collected data from CPUs registers in order to get metrics.", "Operating system vendors also provide software like perf (Linux) to record, benchmark, or trace CPU events running kernels and applications." ], [ "Privileged modes", "Most modern CPUs have privileged modes to support operating systems and virtualization.Cloud computing can use virtualization to provide '''virtual central processing units''' ('''vCPU'''s) for separate users.A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating.", "When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster.", "In some systems, it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster.", "Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned into resources pools with fine granularity." ], [ "{{anchor|PCM}}Performance", "The ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.Many reported IPS values have represented \"peak\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others.", "The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations.", "Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \"benchmarks\" for this purpose such as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit.", "Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor.", "In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation.", "Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e.", "dual-core, quad-core, etc.)", "increases the workload that can be handled.", "This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc.", "which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed.", "These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task.", "Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.", "Multi-core CPUs enhance a computer's ability to run several tasks simultaneously by providing additional processing power.", "However, the increase in speed is not directly proportional to the number of cores added.", "This is because the cores need to interact through specific channels, and this inter-core communication consumes a portion of the available processing speed.Due to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as simultaneous multithreading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware use gradually became a more complex task.", "As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual use of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology." ], [ "See also", "* Addressing mode* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit* Complex instruction set computer* Computer bus* Computer engineering* CPU core voltage* CPU socket* Data processing unit* Digital signal processor* Graphics processing unit* Comparison of instruction set architectures* Protection ring* Reduced instruction set computer* Stream processing* True Performance Index* Tensor Processing Unit* Wait state" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers." ] ]

[ [ "Carnivora" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carnivora''' is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as '''carnivorans'''.", "The order Carnivora is the fifth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species.Carnivorans live on every major landmass and in a variety of habitats, ranging from the cold polar regions to the hyper-arid region of the Sahara Desert to the open seas.", "They come in a very large array of different body plans with a wide diversity of shapes and sizes.Carnivora can be divided into two suborders, the Feliformia, containing the true felids and several \"cat-like\" animals; and the Caniformia, containing the true canids and many somewhat \"dog-like\" animals.", "* The feliforms include families such as the felids or \"cats\" (both great cats and lesser cats), hyenas, mongooses and civets.", "The majority of feliform species are found in the Old World, though the cats and one extinct genus of hyena have successfully diversified into the Americas.", "* The caniforms include the canines, bears, raccoons, mustelids, skunks and pinnipeds.", "Members of this group are found worldwide with immense diversity in their diet, behavior and morphology." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''carnivore'' is derived from Latin ''carō'' (stem ''carn-'') 'flesh' and ''vorāre'' 'to devour', and refers to any meat-eating organism." ], [ "Phylogeny", "The oldest known carnivoran line mammals (Carnivoramorpha) appeared in North America 6 million years after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.", "These early ancestors of carnivorans would have resembled small weasel or genet-like mammals, occupying a nocturnal shift on the forest floor or in the trees, as other groups of mammals like the mesonychians and later the creodonts were occupying the megafaunal faunivorous niche.", "However, following the extinction of mesonychians and the oxyaenid creodonts at the end of the Eocene, carnivorans quickly moved into this niche, with forms like the nimravids being the dominant large-bodied ambush predators during the Oligocene alongside the hyaenodont creodonts (which similarly produced larger, more open-country forms at the start of the Oligocene).", "By the time Miocene epoch appeared, most if not all of the major lineages and families of carnivorans had diversified and become the most dominant group of large terrestrial predators in Eurasia and North America, with various lineages being successful in megafaunal faunivorous niches at different intervals during the Miocene and later epochs." ], [ "Systematics", "===Evolution===Life reconstruction of ''Tapocyon robustus'', a species of miacidThe order Carnivora belongs to a group of mammals known as Laurasiatheria, which also includes other groups such as bats and ungulates.", "Within this group the carnivorans are placed in the clade Ferae.", "Ferae includes the closest extant relative of carnivorans, the pangolins, as well as several extinct groups of mostly Paleogene carnivorous placentals such as the creodonts, the arctocyonians, and mesonychians.", "The creodonts were originally thought of as the sister taxon to the carnivorans, perhaps even ancestral to, based on the presence of the carnassial teeth, but the nature of the carnassial teeth is different between the two groups.", "In carnivorans the carnassials are positioned near the front of the molar row, while in the creodonts they are positioned near the back of the molar row, and this suggests a separate evolutionary history and an order-level distinction.", "In addition, recent phylogenetic analysis suggests that creodonts are more closely related to pangolins while mesonychians might be the sister group to carnivorans and their stem-relatives.The closest stem-carnivorans are the miacoids.", "The miacoids include the families Viverravidae and Miacidae, and together the Carnivora and Miacoidea form the stem-clade Carnivoramorpha.", "The miacoids were small, genet-like carnivoramorphs that occupy a variety of niches such as terrestrial and arboreal habitats.", "Recent studies have shown a supporting amount of evidence that Miacoidea is an evolutionary grade of carnivoramorphs that, while viverravids are monophyletic basal group, the miacids are paraphyletic in respect to Carnivora (as shown in the phylogeny below).Carnivoramorpha as a whole first appeared in the Paleocene of North America about 60 million years ago.", "Crown carnivorans first appeared around 42 million years ago in the Middle Eocene.", "Their molecular phylogeny shows the extant Carnivora are a monophyletic group, the crown group of the Carnivoramorpha.", "From there carnivorans have split into two clades based on the composition of the bony structures that surround the middle ear of the skull, the cat-like feliforms and the dog-like caniforms.", "In feliforms, the auditory bullae are double-chambered, composed of two bones joined by a septum.", "Caniforms have single-chambered or partially divided auditory bullae, composed of a single bone.", "Initially, the early representatives of carnivorans were small as the creodonts (specifically, the oxyaenids) and mesonychians dominated the apex predator niches during the Eocene, but in the Oligocene, carnivorans became a dominant group of apex predators with the nimravids, and by the Miocene most of the extant carnivoran families have diversified and become the primary terrestrial predators in the Northern Hemisphere.===Classification of the extant carnivorans===In 1758, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus placed all carnivorans known at the time into the group Ferae (not to be confused with the modern concept of Ferae which also includes pangolins) in the tenth edition of his book ''Systema Naturae''.", "He recognized six genera: ''Canis'' (canids and hyaenids), ''Phoca'' (pinnipeds), ''Felis'' (felids), ''Viverra'' (viverrids, herpestids, and mephitids), ''Mustela'' (non-badger mustelids), ''Ursus'' (ursids, large species of mustelids, and procyonids).", "It was not until 1821 that the English writer and traveler Thomas Edward Bowdich gave the group its modern and accepted name.Initially, the modern concept of Carnivora was divided into two suborders: the terrestrial '''Fissipedia''' and the marine Pinnipedia.", "Below is the classification of how the extant families were related to each other after American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson in 1945:* Order Carnivora Bowdich, 1821** Suborder Fissipedia Blumenbach, 1791*** Superfamily Canoidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817**** Family Canidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – dogs**** Family Ursidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – bears**** Family Procyonidae Bonaparte, 1850 – raccoons and pandas**** Family Mustelidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – skunks, badgers, otters, and weasels*** Superfamily Feloidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817**** Family Viverridae J. E. Gray, 1821 – civets and mongooses**** Family Hyaenidae J. E. Gray, 1821 – hyenas**** Family Felidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – cats** Suborder Pinnipedia Iliger, 1811*** Family Otariidae J. E. Gray, 1825 – eared seals*** Family Odobenidae J.", "A. Allen, 1880 – walrus*** Family Phocidae J. E. Gray, 1821 – earless sealsSince then, however, the methods in which mammalogists use to assess the phylogenetic relationships among the carnivoran families has been improved with using more complicated and intensive incorporation of genetics, morphology and the fossil record.", "Research into Carnivora phylogeny since 1945 has found Fisspedia to be paraphyletic in respect to Pinnipedia, with pinnipeds being either more closely related to bears or to weasels.", "The small carnivoran families Viverridae, Procyonidae, and Mustelidae have been found to be polyphyletic: * Mongooses and a handful of Malagasy endemic species are found to be in a clade with hyenas, with the Malagasy species being in their own family Eupleridae.", "* The African palm civet is a basal cat-like carnivoran.", "* The linsang is more closely related to cats.", "* Pandas are not procyonids nor are they a natural grouping.", "The giant panda is a true bear while the red panda is a distinct family.", "* Skunks and stink badgers are placed in their own family, and are the sister group to a clade containing Ailuridae, Procyonidae and Mustelidae ''sensu stricto''.Below is a table chart of the extant carnivoran families and number of extant species recognized by various authors of the first (2009) and fourth (2014) volumes of the ''Handbook of the Mammals of the World'':'''Carnivora Bowdich, 1821''''''Feliformia Kretzoi, 1945''''''Nandinioidea Pocock, 1929''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureNandiniidae Pocock, 1929African Palm CivetSub-Saharan Africa1''Nandinia binotata'' (J. E. Gray, 1830)'''Feloidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureFelidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817CatsAmericas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Madagascar, Australasia and several islands)37''Felis catus'' Linnaeus, 1758150pxPrionodontidae Horsfield, 1822LinsangsIndomalayan realm2''Prionodon linsang'' (Hardwicke, 1821)'''Viverroidea J. E. Gray, 1821''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureViverridae J. E. Gray, 1821Civets, genets, and oyansSouthern Europe, Indomalayan realm, and Africa (introduced to Madagascar)34''Viverra zibetha'' Linnaeus, 1758150px'''Herpestoidea Bonaparte, 1845''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureHyaenidae J. E. Gray, 1821HyenasAfrica, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent4''Hyaena hyaena'' (Linnaeus, 1758)150pxHerpestidae Bonaparte, 1845MongoosesIberian Peninsula, Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indomalayan realm34''Herpestes ichneumon'' (Linnaeus, 1758)150pxEupleridae Chenu, 1850Malagasy mongooses and civetsMadagascar8''Eupleres goudotii'' Doyère, 1835150px'''Caniformia Kretzoi, 1945''''''Canoidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureCanidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817DogsAmericas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Madagascar, Australasia and several islands)35''Canis familiaris'' Linnaeus, 1758150px'''Ursoidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureUrsidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817BearsAmericas and Eurasia8''Ursus arctos'' Linnaeus, 1758150px'''Phocoidea J. E. Gray, 1821''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureOdobenidae J.", "A. Allen, 1880WalrusThe North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere1''Odobenus rosmarus'' (Linnaeus, 1758)150pxOtariidae J. E. Gray, 1825Eared SealsSubpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters throughout the Pacific and Southern Oceans and the southern Indian and Atlantic Oceans15''Otaria flavescens'' (Linnaeus, 1758)150pxPhocidae J. E. Gray, 1821Earless SealsThe sea and Lake Baikal18''Phoca vitulina'' Linnaeus, 1758150px'''Musteloidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817''' Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image FigureMephitidae Bonaparte, 1845Skunks and stink badgersAmericas, western Philippines, and Indonesia and Malaysia12''Mephitis mephitis'' (Schreber, 1776)150pxAiluridae J. E. Gray, 1843Red PandaEastern Himalayas and southwestern China1''Ailurus fulgens'' F. Cuvier, 1825150pxProcyonidae J. E. Gray, 1825RaccoonsAmericas (introduced to Europe, the Caucasus, and Japan)12''Procyon lotor'' (Linnaeus, 1758)150pxMustelidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817Weasels, otters, and badgersAmericas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Australasia and several islands)57''Mustela erminea'' Linnaeus, 1758150px" ], [ "Anatomy", "===Skull===fossa (''Cryptoprocta ferox'').", "Note the large and conical canine and carnassial teeth common in feliforms.The canine teeth are usually large, conical, thick and stress resistant.", "All of the terrestrial species of carnivorans have three incisors on each side of each jaw (the exception is the sea otter (''Enhydra lutris'') which only has two lower incisor teeth).", "The third molar has been lost.", "The carnassial pair is made up of the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar teeth.", "Like most mammals, the dentition is heterodont, though in some species, such as the aardwolf (''Proteles cristata''), the teeth have been greatly reduced and the cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects.", "In pinnipeds, the teeth are homodont as they have evolved to grasp or catch fish, and the cheek teeth are often lost.", "In bears and raccoons, the carnassial pair is secondarily reduced.", "The skulls are heavily built with a strong zygomatic arch.", "Often a sagittal crest is present, sometimes more evident in sexually dimorphic species such as sea lions and fur seals, though it has also been greatly reduced in some small carnivorans.", "The braincase is enlarged with the frontoparietal bone at the front.", "In most species, the eyes are at the front of the face.", "In caniforms, the rostrum is usually long with many teeth, while in feliforms it is shorter with fewer teeth.", "The carnassial teeth of feliforms are generally more sectional than those of caniforms.", "The turbinates are large and complex in comparison to other mammals, providing a large surface area for olfactory receptors.===Postcranial region===A black-backed jackal (''Lupulella mesomelas'') trying to predate on a brown fur seal (''Arctocephalus pusillus'') pup.", "These two species illustrate the diversity in bodyplan seen among carnivorans, especially between pinnipeds and their terrestrial relatives.Aside from an accumulation of characteristics in the dental and cranial features, not much of their overall anatomy unites carnivorans as a group.", "All species of carnivorans are quadrupedal and most have five digits on the front feet and four digits on the back feet.", "In terrestrial carnivorans, the feet have soft pads.", "The feet can either be digitigrade as seen in cats, hyenas and dogs or plantigrade as seen in bears, skunks, raccoons, weasels, civets and mongooses.", "In pinnipeds, the limbs have been modified into flippers.Members of the Carnivora order, like this tiger, have pads on their feet.Unlike cetaceans and sirenians, which have fully functional tails to help them swim, pinnipeds use their limbs underwater to swim.", "Earless seals use their back flippers; sea lions and fur seals use their front flippers, and the walrus use all of their limbs.", "As a result, pinnipeds have significantly shorter tails than other carnivorans.Aside from the pinnipeds, dogs, bears, hyenas, and cats all have distinct and recognizable appearances.", "Dogs are usually cursorial mammals and are gracile in appearance, often relying on their teeth to hold prey; bears are much larger and rely on their physical strength to forage for food.", "Compared to dogs and bears, cats have longer and stronger forelimbs armed with retractable claws to hold on to prey.", "Hyenas are dog-like feliforms that have sloping backs due to their front legs being longer than their hind legs.", "The raccoon family and red panda are small, bear-like carnivorans with long tails.", "The other small carnivoran families Nandiniidae, Prionodontidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae, Eupleridae, Mephitidae and Mustelidae have through convergent evolution maintained the small, ancestral appearance of the miacoids, though there is some variation seen such as the robust and stout physicality of badgers and the wolverine (''Gulo gulo'').", "Male carnivorans usually have bacula, which are absent in hyenas and binturongs.The length and density of the fur vary depending on the environment that the species inhabits.", "In warm climate species, the fur is often short in length and lighter.", "In cold climate species, the fur is either dense or long, often with an oily substance that helps to retain heat.", "The pelage coloration differs between species, often including black, white, orange, yellow, red, and many shades of grey and brown.", "Some are striped, spotted, blotched, banded, or otherwise boldly patterned.", "There seems to be a correlation between habitat and color pattern; for example spotted or banded species tend to be found in heavily forested environments.", "Some species like the grey wolf are polymorphic with different individual having different coat colors.", "The arctic fox (''Vulpes lagopus'') and the stoat (''Mustela erminea'') have fur that changes from white and dense in the winter to brown and sparse in the summer.", "In pinnipeds and polar bears, a thick insulating layer of blubber helps maintain their body temperature." ], [ "Relationship with humans", "Carnivorans are arguably the group of mammals of most interest to humans.", "The dog is noteworthy for not only being the first species of carnivoran to be domesticated, but also the first species of any taxon.", "In the last 10,000 to 12,000 years, humans have selectively bred dogs for a variety of different tasks and today there are well over 400 breeds.", "The cat is another domesticated carnivoran and it is today considered one of the most successful species on the planet, due to their close proximity to humans and the popularity of cats as pets.", "Many other species are popular, and they are often charismatic megafauna.", "Many civilizations have incorporated a species of carnivoran into their culture: a prominent example is the lion, viewed as a symbol of power and royalty in many societies.", "Yet many species such as wolves and the big cats have been broadly hunted, resulting in extirpation in some areas.", "Habitat loss and human encroachment as well as climate change have been the primary cause of many species going into decline.", "Four species of carnivorans have gone extinct since the 1600s: Falkland Island wolf (''Dusicyon australis'') in 1876; the sea mink (''Neogale macrodon'') in 1894; the Japanese sea lion (''Zalophus japonicus'') in 1951 and the Caribbean monk seal (''Neomonachus tropicalis'') in 1952.Some species such as the red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'') and stoat (''Mustela erminea'') have been introduced to Australasia and have caused many native species to become endangered or even extinct." ], [ "See also", "* Mammal classification* Carnivoraformes* List of carnivorans* List of carnivorans by population" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* High-Resolution Images of Carnivore Brains" ] ]

[ [ "Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Colombia''' (, ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''', is a country mostly in South America with insular regions in North America.", "The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuela to the east and northeast, Brazil to the southeast, Ecuador and Peru to the south and southwest, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and Panama to the northwest.", "Colombia is divided into 32 departments.", "The Capital District of Bogotá is also the country's largest city hosting the main financial and cultural hub.", "Other major urbes include Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Cúcuta, Ibagué, Villavicencio and Bucaramanga.", "It covers an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers (440,831 sq mi) and has a population of around 52 million.", "Its rich cultural heritage—including language, religion, cuisine, and art—reflects its history as a colony, fusing cultural elements brought by immigration from Europe and the Middle East, with those brought by the African diaspora, as well as with those of the various Indigenous civilizations that predate colonization.", "Spanish is the official language, although Creole English and 64 other languages are recognized regionally.Colombia has been home to many indigenous peoples and cultures since at least 12,000 BCE.", "The Spanish first landed in La Guajira in 1499, and by the mid-16th century, they had colonized much of present-day Colombia, and established the New Kingdom of Granada, with Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital.", "Independence from the Spanish Empire was achieved in 1819, with what is now Colombia emerging as the United Provinces of New Granada.", "The new polity experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858) and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before becoming a republic—the current Republic of Colombia—in 1886.With the backing of the United States and France, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, resulting in Colombia's present borders.", "Beginning in the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict and political violence, both of which escalated in the 1990s.", "Since 2005, there has been significant improvement in security, stability, and rule of law, as well as unprecedented economic growth and development.", "Colombia is recognized for its healthcare system, being the best healthcare in Latin America according to the World Health Organization and 22nd in the world.", "Its diversified economy is the third-largest in South America, with macroeconomic stability and favorable long-term growth prospects.Colombia is one of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries; it has the highest level of biodiversity per square mile in the world and the second-highest level overall.", "Its territory encompasses Amazon rainforest, highlands, grasslands and deserts.", "It is the only country in South America with coastlines (and islands) along both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.", "Colombia is a key member of major global and regional organizations including the UN, the WTO, the OECD, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance and the Andean Community; it is also a NATO Global Partner and a major non-NATO ally of the United States." ], [ "Etymology", "The name \"Colombia\" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (, , ).", "It was conceived as a reference to all of the New World.", "The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).When Venezuela, Ecuador, and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \"Republic of New Granada\".", "New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation.", "In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms and ." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-Columbian era ===Location map of the pre-Columbian cultures of ColombiaOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin.", "The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá.", "These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE).", "At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found.", "Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca.", "The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found in San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE.", "Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.", "A site including of pictographs that is under study at Serranía de la Lindosa was revealed in November 2020.Their age is suggested as being 12,500 years old (c. 10,480 B.C.)", "by the anthropologists working on the site, because of extinct fauna depicted.", "It was during the earliest known human occupation of the area.Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared.", "Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Zenú, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by ''caciques''.", "The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation.", "They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations.", "The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.", "The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes.", "Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different.", "Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.=== Colonial period ===Vasco Núñez de Balboa, founder of Santa María la Antigua del Darién the first stable European settlement on the continentAlonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499.Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500.Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502.In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.", "Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533.Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \"New Kingdom of Granada\".", "In August 1538, he provisionally founded its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Muyquytá, and named it \"Santa Fe\".", "The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá.", "Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period.", "Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \"city of gold\".", "The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.", "After the Spanish conquest, the population of Colombia collapsed from between 7 to 12 million to around 1.2 million people years later, a collapse of around 80-90%.", "Later on in the colonial period, the population in the modern day territory of Colombia dropped to around 800,000 people, and rose in the early 19th century to around 1.4 million where out would drop again in the independence war to 1-1.2 million.", "The population of Colombia would not recover from this for 450 years until the 1940s, when the population surpassed its 1500s peak.The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities.", "Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.", "Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity.", "Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonized territories, creating large farms and possession of mines.", "In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.", "In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima.", "In 1547, New Granada became a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty, with its capital at Santa Fe de Bogota.", "In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena.", "But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.An illustration of the Battle of Cartagena de Indias, a major Spanish victory in the War of Jenkins' EarIn the 16th century, European slave traders had begun to bring enslaved Africans to the Americas.", "Spain was the only European power that did not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves; the Spanish Empire instead relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants from other European nations the license to trade enslaved peoples to their overseas territories.", "This system brought Africans to Colombia, although many spoke out against the institution.", "The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown.", "To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established by the Spanish colonial authorities: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.However, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas.", "Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up in Córdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain.", "They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly.Map of the Viceroyalty of New GranadaThe Viceroyalty of New Granada was established in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739.Its capital was Santa Fé de Bogotá.", "This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.", "Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained less developed compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, and the city of Cartagena quickly became a top target for the British.", "A massive British expeditionary force was dispatched to capture the city, but, after achieving initial inroads, devastating outbreaks of disease crippled their numbers, and the British were forced to withdraw.", "The battle became one of Spain's most decisive victories in the conflict, and secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.", "The 18th-century priest, botanist, and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of New Granada.", "Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.", "It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.", "In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis.", "In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.=== Independence ===Formation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish EmpireThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle that ensured success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation.", "The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day.", "This movement followed the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar.", "Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty.", "Cartagena became independent in November 1811.In 1811, the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio.", "The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability.", "Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America.", "The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas.", "The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819.The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River.", "The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic.", "Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President.", "However, the new republic was unstable and the Gran Colombia ultimately collapsed.Modern Colombia comes from one of the countries that emerged after the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the other two being Ecuador and Venezuela.", "Colombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849, respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas.", "Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830.The so-called \"Department of Cundinamarca\" adopted the name \"New Granada\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \"Confederación Granadina\" (Granadine Confederation).", "After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \"United States of Colombia\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia.", "Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).=== 20th century ===The United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation.", "The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty.", "Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin.", "The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations.", "The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.The Bogotazo in 1948Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\"The Violence\").", "Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president.", "It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States.", "Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.The Axis of Peace and Memory, a memorial to the victims of the Colombian conflict (1964–present)After Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the National Front, a coalition that would jointly govern the country.", "Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.", "The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress.", "Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between government forces, leftist guerrilla groups and right wing paramilitaries.", "The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas.", "Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition.", "Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia.", "This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.", "Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.Beginning in the mid-1970s Colombian drug cartels became major producers, processors and exporters of illegal drugs, primarily marijuana and cocaine.On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated.", "The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.===21st century===Former President Juan Manuel Santos signed a peace accordThe administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–2010) adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign.", "The government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors.", "As part of a controversial peace process, the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) had ceased to function formally as an organization .", "In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and the guerrillas of the FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict.", "However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful.", "Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved.", "In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.", "The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.", "Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW.", "A Special Jurisdiction of Peace has been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.", "During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.", "Gustavo Petro, the country's first left-wing presidentIn June 2018, Ivan Duque, the candidate of the right-wing Democratic Center party, won the presidential election.", "On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the new President of Colombia to succeed Juan Manuel Santos.", "Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to ideological differences between the two governments.", "Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela.", "Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful.", "Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations.", "In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut off diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque had helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country.", "Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaidó as the country's legitimate president.", "In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations.Protests started on 28 April 2021 when the government proposed a tax bill that would greatly expand the range of the 19 percent value-added tax.", "The 19 June 2022 election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla, Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% for independent candidate Rodolfo Hernández.", "The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented President Iván Duque from seeking re-election.", "On 7 August 2022, Petro was sworn in, becoming the country's first leftist president." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic map of ColombiaThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region; the Pacific Coastal region; the Caribbean coastal region; the ''Llanos'' (plains); the Amazon rainforest region; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.", "It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama, to the east by Venezuela and Brazil, and to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.", "It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S and between longitudes 67° and 79°W.East of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and in the far southeast, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest.", "Together these lowlands make up over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population.", "To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert.", "By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation.", "The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta as seen from the ISSPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature.", "Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands.", "Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the southwestern departments of Cauca and Nariño), these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira, and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending northeast to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga, and Cúcuta.", "Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach .", "At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá.", "Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.", "The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.=== Climate ===Colombia map of Köppen climate classificationThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall.", "Colombia has a diverse range of climate zones, including tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climates.Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation.", "Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above .", "About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone.", "The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between .", "The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between .", "Beyond lies the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos.", "Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.=== Biodiversity and conservation ===Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species.", "Colombia is the country with the planet's highest biodiversity, having the highest rate of species by area as well as the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country.", "About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined.", "Colombia has 10% of the world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.The national flower of Colombia, the endemic orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', is named for Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.", "Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish.", "It is also the country with the most endemic species of butterflies, is first in orchid species, and has approximately 7,000 species of beetles.", "Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms.", "There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country.", "In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.Protected areas and the \"National Park System\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.", "Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.", "Colombia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 25th globally out of 172 countries.", "Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater." ], [ "Government and politics", "Casa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991.In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers.", "The president is elected by popular vote to serve a single four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed the one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit).", "At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.", "All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.Capitolio Nacional seat of the Congress.The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate.", "The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts.", "Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.Palace of Justice of Colombia, seat and symbol of the Judiciary of ColombiaThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch.", "Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 1991 has been applied through an adversarial system.Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Álvaro Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009.However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of Defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus.", "A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.", "Santos won re-election with nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%.", "In 2018, Iván Duque won in the second round of the election with 54% of the vote, against 42% for his left-wing rival, Gustavo Petro.", "His term as Colombia's president ran for four years, beginning on 7 August 2018.In 2022, Colombia elected Gustavo Petro, who became its first leftist leader, and Francia Marquez, who was the first black person elected as vice president.=== Foreign affairs ===The VII Summit of the Pacific Alliance: Former President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.Colombia was one of the four founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries.", "Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, and the Andean Community of Nations.Colombia is a global partner of NATO and a major non-NATO ally of the United States.=== Military ===Colombian Navy Frigate ARC ''Caldas''The executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces.", "The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police.", "Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel.", "In 2016, 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world.", "Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.", "In 2018, Colombia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Aerospace Force; and the Colombian Navy.", "The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country.", "Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades, and special units, the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation, and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia and the Aerospace Force by 15 air units.=== Administrative divisions ===Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca).", "Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas.", "Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council.", "There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.In addition to the capital, four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features.", "These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura.", "Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example, in Antioquia and Cundinamarca).", "Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \"department ''corregimientos''\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.", "Department Capital city 1 Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas Leticia 2 Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia Medellín 3 Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca Arauca 4 Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico Barranquilla 5 Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar Cartagena 6 Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá Tunja 7 Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas Manizales 8 Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá Florencia 9 Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare 10 Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca Popayán 11 Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar Valledupar 12 Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó Quibdó 13 Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba Montería 14 Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca Bogotá 15 Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía Inírida 16 Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare San José del Guaviare 17 Flag of the Department of Huila Huila Neiva Department Capital city 18 Flag of La Guajira La Guajira 19 Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena Santa Marta 20 Flag of the Department of Meta Meta Villavicencio 21 Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño Pasto 22 Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander Cúcuta 23 Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo Mocoa 24 Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío Armenia 25 Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda Pereira 26 Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina San Andrés 27 Flag of the Department of Santander Santander Bucaramanga 28 Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre Sincelejo 29 Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima Ibagué 30 Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca Cali 31 Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés Mitú 32 Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada Puerto Carreño 33 Flag of Bogotá Bogotá Bogotá" ], [ "Economy", "Skyline of Bogotá's skyscrapersColombia GDP by sector in 2017Bancolombia headquarters in MedellínHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanized rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.6% of GDP; 20% of the workforce were employed in industry and 65% in services, responsible for 33% and 60% of GDP respectively.", "The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand.", "Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998.The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery was long and painful.", "However, growth reaching 7% in 2007, one of the highest in Latin America.", "According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2023, Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$1 trillion, 32nd in the world and third in South America, after Brazil and Argentina.Total government expenditures account for 28% of the domestic economy.", "External debt equals 40% of gross domestic product.", "A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings.", "Annual inflation closed 2017 at 4.09% YoY (vs. 5.75% YoY in 2016).", "The average national unemployment rate in 2017 was 9.4%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%).", "Colombia has free-trade zones (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.", "The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities.", "Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.Colombia is rich in natural resources, and it is heavily dependent on energy and mining exports.", "Colombia's main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipment, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others.", "Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.", "Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US$1 billion.In 2017, however, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.4% were in \"extreme poverty\".", "The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.0 percent of the population.", "The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.The contribution of tourism to GDP was US$5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016.Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017.=== Agriculture and natural resources ===Cerrejón is an open-pit coal mine, the largest of its type, the largest in Latin America and the tenth biggest in the worldIn agriculture, Colombia is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa.", "The country also has considerable production of rice, potato and cassava.", "Although it is not the largest coffee producer in the world (Brazil claims that title), the country has been able to carry out, for decades, a global marketing campaign to add value to the country's product.", "Colombian palm oil production is one of the most sustainable on the planet, compared to the largest existing producers.", "Colombia is also among the 20 largest producers in the world of beef and chicken meat.", "Colombia is also the 2nd largest flower exporter in the world, after the Netherlands.Colombia is an important exporter of coal and petroleum – in 2020, more than 40% of the country's exports were based on these two products.", "In 2018 it was the 5th largest coal exporter in the world.", "In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels/day, exporting a good part of its production – the country was the 19th largest oil exporter in the world in 2020.In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer of emerald, and in the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, beating the record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012.In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons.", "Currently, the country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.===Energy and transportation===Sogamoso DamThe electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from Renewable energy sources.", "69.93% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation.", "Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.CartagenaTransportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport.In 2021, Colombia had of roads, of which were paved.", "At the end of 2017, the country had around of duplicated highways.", "Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails.", "Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.The target of Colombia's government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent.", "A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50 bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá's airport.", "Colombia is a middle-income country.=== Science and technology ===Colciencias is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology.", "iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions provide.", "Colombia was ranked 66th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small.", "Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia.", "The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.Important inventions related to medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electrical engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, an invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure.", "Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of hydrocephalus.", "Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \"Paisa Mutation\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis''." ], [ "Demographics", "Population density of Colombia in 2013With an estimated 50 million people in 2020, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million.", "Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates.", "The population growth rate for 2016 is estimated to be 0.9%.", "About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old.", "The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.", "Colombia is projected to have a population of 55.3 million by 2050.The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region.", "The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population.", "Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America.", "The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.", "The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today.", "In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015).", "Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.1 per thousand in 2016.In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP on education.===Languages===Around than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also used in the country.", "English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database.", "The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language.", "Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today – most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families.", "There are currently more than 850,000 speakers of native languages.=== Ethnic groups ===Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original Native inhabitants, Spanish conquistadors, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.", "The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history.", "Whites live all throughout the country, mainly in urban centers and the burgeoning highland and coastal cities.", "The populations of the major cities also include mestizos.", "Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms.", "Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.The 2018 census reported that the \"non-ethnic population\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 87.6% of the national population.", "6.7% is of African ancestry.", "Indigenous Amerindians constitute 4.3% of the population.", "Raizal people constitute 0.06% of the population.", "Palenquero people constitute 0.02% of the population.", "0.01% of the population are Roma.The Federal Research Division estimated that the 86% of the population that did not consider themselves part of one of the ethnic groups indicated by the 2006 census was divided into 49% Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and 37% White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of German and Italian ancestry.Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures.", "Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people.", "Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú.", "The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia.", "In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.Sub-Saharan Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century.", "Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Pacific Coast.", "Numerous Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia.", "A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East and Europe.", "Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Levantines.", "There are also important communities of Romanis and Jews.", "There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.", "In August 2019, Colombia offered citizenship to more than 24,000 children of Venezuelan refugees who were born in Colombia.=== Religion ===The Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of NariñoThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain.", "However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%–79%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism).", "Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion.", "1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as the Baháʼí Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Eastern Orthodox Church, and spiritual studies.", "The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know.", "In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.", "1,519,562 people in Colombia, or around 3% of the population reported following an Indigenous religion.While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.===Health===Colombia leads the annual ''América Economía'' ranking of the best clinics and hospitals in Latin America.The overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 79.3 years (76.7 years for males and 81.9 years for females).", "Healthcare reforms have led to massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country, with health standards in Colombia improving very much since the 1980s.", "The new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012.In 2017, the government declared a cancer research and treatment center as a Project of National Strategic Interest.A 2016 study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.", "In 2022, 26 Colombian hospitals were among the 61 best in Latin America (42% total).", "Also in 2023, two Colombian hospitals were among the Top 75 of the world.=== Education ===The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar'').", "Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law.", "It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade.", "Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades.", "It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.)", "according to the curriculum adopted by each school.M5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel GómezAfter the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded.", "The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade).", "Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior'').", "This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies.", "Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business.", "This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.", "''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine.", "In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title.", "Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen.", "For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%.", "This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure.", "The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively.", "School-life expectancy was 14.42 years.", "A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.===Crime===Colombian National Police Special Operations Command (COPES), displayed in Pereira.", "A subdivision of the National Police for the fight against organized crime and terrorist acts.=== Urbanization ===Colombia is a highly urbanized country with 77.1% of the population living in urban areas.", "The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with 7,387,400 inhabitants, Medellín, with 2,382,399 inhabitants, Cali, with 2,172,527 inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with 1,205,284 inhabitants." ], [ "Culture", "Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences.", "Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture.", "Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common.", "Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.=== Literature ===Nobel literature prize winner Gabriel García MárquezColombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''.", "In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón and Juan Rodríguez Freyle.Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea.", "In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).", "Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement.", "In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas.", "Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly influenced the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas.", "In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \"nothingness\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa.", "During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters.=== Visual arts ===Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history.", "Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums.", "There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE.", "Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its \"classical period\".", "They erected raised ceremonial centers, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms out of stone.Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown.", "During this era, in the Spanish colony, the most important Neogranadine (Colombian) painters were Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos, Gaspar de Figueroa, Baltasar Vargas de Figueroa, Baltasar de Figueroa (the Elder), Antonio Acero de la Cruz and Joaquín Gutiérrez, of which their works are preserved.", "Also important was Alonso de Narváez who, although born in the Province of Seville, spent most of his life in colonial Colombia, also the Italian Angelino Medoro, lived in Colombia and Peru, and left works of art preserved in several churches in Tunja city.", "During the mid-19th century, one of the most remarkable painters was Ramón Torres Méndez, who produced a series of good quality paintings depicting the people and their customs of different Colombian regions.", "Also noteworthy in the 19th century were Andrés de Santa María, Pedro José Figueroa, Epifanio Garay, Mercedes Delgado Mallarino, José María Espinosa, Ricardo Acevedo Bernal, between many others.More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.", "Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century.", "Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes.", "Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic \"Naturaleza muerta en silencio\" (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism.", "Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor).", "Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt, Oscar Murillo, Doris Salcedo and Oscar Muñoz are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture.", "During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend.", "During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype.", "Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841.The Piloto public library has Latin America's largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists.", "In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.=== Architecture ===Throughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.CartagenaColonial Popayán main plaza, Cauca DepartmentColonial Villa de Leyva, Boyacá DepartmentAncient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples.", "Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila, Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads, and several circular plazas), and the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane, and mud.Architecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen.", "When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation.", "The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers posed to Spanish colonial settlements from English, French and Dutch pirates and hostile indigenous groups.", "Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders have a great urban influence.", "Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces.", "Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.The National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism.", "Wood was extensively used in doors, windows, railings, and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia.", "The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence.", "The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century.", "The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period.", "Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence.", "The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses.", "The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.=== Music ===Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum of rhythms.", "It is known as the land of a thousand rhythms, at around 1,024 folk rhythms.", "Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.", "Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa.", "Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.Regions of Colombia by its traditional music.Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music.", "The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \"vallenato\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao, is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum, and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle).", "An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows due to the striking colours of the costumes).", "Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.Jorge Celedón of the Binomio de Oro de América band.", "The Vallenato, along with Cumbia, are the two most popular Colombian folk music genres heard in Latin America.Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \"danza\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).", "Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.The instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas.", "Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices.", "Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas.", "Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.=== Popular culture ===The Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America.", "The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies.", "Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations.", "The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.", "Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \"Cultural Invasion\" (Bogotá).Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003.Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.Some important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''.", "Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations.", "Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated.", "The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates.", "There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo.", "Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.=== Cuisine ===Bandeja paisa (top) and Ajiaco (bottom) are two of the most traditional plates in the country.Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups.", "Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region.", "Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.", "Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit.", "Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup).", "Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas.", "Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten.", "Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).", "Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba.", "Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).===Sports===Mariana Pajón is a Colombian cyclist, two-time Olympic gold medalist and BMX World Champion.Tejo is Colombia's national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.", "But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular.", "Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match.", "Colombia has been awarded \"mover of the year\" twice.Colombia is a hub for roller skaters.", "The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.", "Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.Baseball is popular in cities like Cartagena and Barranquilla.", "Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería, who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010 and others who have played in Major League Baseball.", "Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.Boxing is one of the sports that has produced more world champions for Colombia.Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events.", "Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Colombia-related articles* Outline of Colombia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===General information===* Colombia at Britannica.com* * Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Colombia.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures* Official investment portal* Official Colombia Tourism Website* Study Spanish in Colombia* National Administrative Department of Statistics===Government===* Colombia Online Government website===Culture===* Ministry of Culture===Geography===* National parks of Colombia*" ] ]

[ [ "Citizen Kane" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Citizen Kane''''' is a 1941 American drama film directed by, produced by, and starring Orson Welles.", "Welles and Herman J. Mankiewicz wrote the screenplay.", "The picture was Welles' first feature film.", "''Citizen Kane'' is frequently cited as the greatest film ever made.", "For 40 years (5 decennial polls: 1962, 1972, 1982, 1992, 2002), it stood at number 1 in the British Film Institute's ''Sight & Sound'' decennial poll of critics, and it topped the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list in 1998, as well as its 2007 update.", "The film was nominated for Academy Awards in nine categories and it won for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) by Mankiewicz and Welles.", "''Citizen Kane'' is praised for Gregg Toland's cinematography, Robert Wise's editing, Bernard Herrmann's music, and its narrative structure, all of which have been considered innovative and precedent-setting.The quasi-biographical film examines the life and legacy of Charles Foster Kane, played by Welles, a composite character based on American media barons William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, Chicago tycoons Samuel Insull and Harold McCormick, as well as aspects of the screenwriters' own lives.", "Upon its release, Hearst prohibited any mention of the film in his newspapers.After the Broadway success of Welles's Mercury Theatre and the controversial 1938 radio broadcast \"The War of the Worlds\" on ''The Mercury Theatre on the Air'', Welles was courted by Hollywood.", "He signed a contract with RKO Pictures in 1939.Although it was unusual for an untried director, he was given freedom to develop his own story, to use his own cast and crew, and to have final cut privilege.", "Following two abortive attempts to get a project off the ground, he wrote the screenplay for ''Citizen Kane'', collaborating with Herman J. Mankiewicz.", "Principal photography took place in 1940, the same year its innovative trailer was shown, and the film was released in 1941.Although it was a critical success, ''Citizen Kane'' failed to recoup its costs at the box office.", "The film faded from view after its release, but it returned to public attention when it was praised by French critics such as André Bazin and re-released in 1956.In 1958, the film was voted number 9 on the prestigious Brussels 12 list at the 1958 World Expo.", "''Citizen Kane'' was selected by the Library of Congress as an inductee of the 1989 inaugural group of 25 films for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".Roger Ebert wrote of it: \"Its surface is as much fun as any movie ever made.", "Its depths surpass understanding.", "I have analyzed it a shot at a time with more than 30 groups, and together we have seen, I believe, pretty much everything that is there on the screen.", "The more clearly I can see its physical manifestation, the more I am stirred by its mystery.\"" ], [ "Plot", "In a mansion called Xanadu, part of a vast palatial estate in Florida, the elderly Charles Foster Kane is on his deathbed.", "Holding a snow globe, he utters his last word, \"Rosebud\", and dies.", "A newsreel obituary tells the life story of Kane, an enormously wealthy newspaper publisher and industry magnate.", "Kane's death becomes sensational news around the world, and the newsreel's producer tasks reporter Jerry Thompson with discovering the meaning of \"Rosebud\".Thompson sets out to interview Kane's friends and associates.", "He tries to approach his second wife, Susan Alexander Kane, now an alcoholic who runs her own nightclub, but she refuses to talk to him.", "Thompson goes to the private archive of the late banker Walter Parks Thatcher.", "Through Thatcher's written memoirs, Thompson learns about Kane's rise from a Colorado boarding house and the decline of his fortune.In 1871, gold was discovered through a mining deed belonging to Kane's mother, Mary Kane.", "She hired Thatcher to establish a trust that would provide for Kane's education and assume guardianship of him.", "While the parents and Thatcher discussed arrangements inside the boarding house, the young Kane played happily with a sled in the snow outside.", "When Kane's parents introduced him to Thatcher, the boy struck Thatcher with his sled and attempted to run away.By the time Kane gained control of his trust at the age of 25, the mine's productivity and Thatcher's prudent investing had made Kane one of the richest men in the world.", "Kane took control of the ''New York Inquirer'' newspaper and embarked on a career of yellow journalism, publishing scandalous articles that attacked Thatcher's (and his own) business interests.", "The sale of Kane's newspaper empire to Thatcher after the 1929 stock market crash left him short of cash.Thompson interviews Kane's personal business manager, Mr. Bernstein.", "Bernstein recalls that Kane hired the best journalists available to build the ''Inquirer''s circulation.", "Kane rose to power by successfully manipulating public opinion regarding the Spanish–American War and marrying Emily Norton, the niece of the President of the United States.Thompson interviews Kane's estranged best friend, Jedediah Leland, in a retirement home.", "Leland says that Kane's marriage to Emily disintegrated over the years, and he began an affair with amateur singer Susan Alexander while running for Governor of New York.", "Both his wife and his political opponent discovered the affair, and the public scandal ended his political career.", "Kane married Susan and forced her into a humiliating operatic career for which she had neither the talent nor the ambition, even building a large opera house for her.", "After Leland began to write a negative review of Susan's disastrous opera debut, Kane fired him but finished the negative review and printed it.", "Susan protested that she never wanted the opera career anyway, but Kane forced her to continue the season.Susan consents to an interview with Thompson and describes the aftermath of her opera career.", "She attempted suicide, and so Kane finally allowed her to abandon singing.", "After many unhappy years and after being hit by Kane, she finally decided to leave him.", "Kane's butler Raymond recounts that, after Susan left him, he began violently destroying the contents of her bedroom.", "When he happened upon a snow globe, he grew calm and said \"Rosebud\".", "Thompson concludes that he cannot solve the mystery and that the meaning of Kane's last word will remain unknown.Back at Xanadu, Kane's belongings are cataloged or discarded by the staff.", "They find the sled on which eight-year-old Kane was playing on the day that he was taken from his home in Colorado and throw it into a furnace with other items.", "Behind their backs, the sled slowly burns and its trade name, printed on top, becomes visible through the flames: \"Rosebud\"." ], [ "Cast", "The beginning of the film's ending credits states that \"Most of the principal actors in ''Citizen Kane'' are new to motion pictures.", "The Mercury Theatre is proud to introduce them.\"", "The cast is then listed in the following order, with Orson Welles' credit for playing Charles Foster Kane appearing last:* Joseph Cotten as Jedediah Leland, Kane's best friend and a reporter for ''The Inquirer''.", "Cotten also appears (hidden in darkness) in the ''News on the March'' screening room.", "* Dorothy Comingore as Susan Alexander Kane, Kane's mistress and second wife.", "* Agnes Moorehead as Mary Kane, Kane's mother.", "* Ruth Warrick as Emily Monroe Norton Kane, Kane's first wife.", "* Ray Collins as Jim W. Gettys, Kane's political rival for the post of Governor of New York.", "* Erskine Sanford as Herbert Carter, editor of ''The Inquirer''.", "Sanford also appears (hidden in darkness) in the ''News on the March'' screening room.", "* Everett Sloane as Mr. Bernstein, Kane's friend and employee at ''The Inquirer''.", "* William Alland as Jerry Thompson, a reporter for ''News on the March''.", "Alland also voices the narrator of the ''News on the March'' newsreel.", "* Paul Stewart as Raymond, Kane's butler.", "* George Coulouris as Walter Parks Thatcher, a banker who becomes Kane's legal guardian.", "* Fortunio Bonanova as Signor Matiste, vocal coach of Susan Alexander Kane.", "* Gus Schilling as John, headwaiter at the El Rancho nightclub.", "Schilling also appears (hidden in darkness) in the ''News on the March'' screening room.", "* Philip Van Zandt as Mr. Rawlston, ''News on the March'' open at the producer.", "* Georgia Backus as Bertha Anderson, attendant at the library of Walter Parks Thatcher.", "* Harry Shannon as Jim Kane, Kane's father.", "* Sonny Bupp as Charles Foster Kane III, Kane's son.", "* Buddy Swan as Charles Foster Kane, age eight.", "* Orson Welles as Charles Foster Kane, a wealthy newspaper publisher.Additionally, Charles Bennett appears as the entertainer at the head of the chorus line in the ''Inquirer'' party sequence, and cinematographer Gregg Toland makes a cameo appearance as an interviewer depicted in part of the ''News on the March'' newsreel.", "Actor Alan Ladd, still unknown at that time, makes a small appearance as a reporter smoking a pipe at the end of the film." ], [ "Production", "===Development===The War of the Worlds\" caught the attention of RKOHollywood had shown interest in Welles as early as 1936.He turned down three scripts sent to him by Warner Bros.", "In 1937, he declined offers from David O. Selznick, who asked him to head his film company's story department, and William Wyler, who wanted him for a supporting role in ''Wuthering Heights''.", "\"Although the possibility of making huge amounts of money in Hollywood greatly attracted him,\" wrote biographer Frank Brady, \"he was still totally, hopelessly, insanely in love with the theater, and it is there that he had every intention of remaining to make his mark.", "\"Following \"The War of the Worlds\" broadcast of his CBS radio series ''The Mercury Theatre on the Air'', Welles was lured to Hollywood with a remarkable contract.", "RKO Pictures studio head George J. Schaefer wanted to work with Welles after the notorious broadcast, believing that Welles had a gift for attracting mass attention.", "RKO was also uncharacteristically profitable and was entering into a series of independent production contracts that would add more artistically prestigious films to its roster.", "Throughout the spring and early summer of 1939, Schaefer constantly tried to lure the reluctant Welles to Hollywood.", "Welles was in financial trouble after failure of his plays ''Five Kings'' and ''The Green Goddess''.", "At first he simply wanted to spend three months in Hollywood and earn enough money to pay his debts and fund his next theatrical season.", "Welles first arrived on July 20, 1939, and on his first tour, he called the movie studio \"the greatest electric train set a boy ever had\".Welles signed his contract with RKO on August 21, which stipulated that Welles would act in, direct, produce and write two films.", "Mercury would get $100,000 for the first film by January 1, 1940, plus 20% of profits after RKO recouped $500,000, and $125,000 for a second film by January 1, 1941, plus 20% of profits after RKO recouped $500,000.The most controversial aspect of the contract was granting Welles complete artistic control of the two films so long as RKO approved both projects' stories and so long as the budget did not exceed $500,000.RKO executives would not be allowed to see any footage until Welles chose to show it to them, and no cuts could be made to either film without Welles's approval.", "Welles was allowed to develop the story without interference, select his own cast and crew, and have the right of final cut.", "Granting the final cut privilege was unprecedented for a studio because it placed artistic considerations over financial investment.", "The contract was deeply resented in the film industry, and the Hollywood press took every opportunity to mock RKO and Welles.", "Schaefer remained a great supporter and saw the unprecedented contract as good publicity.", "Film scholar Robert L. Carringer wrote: \"The simple fact seems to be that Schaefer believed Welles was going to pull off something really big almost as much as Welles did himself.", "\"Orson Welles at his Hollywood home in 1939, during the long months it took to launch his first film projectWelles spent the first five months of his RKO contract trying to get his first project going, without success.", "\"They are laying bets over on the RKO lot that the Orson Welles deal will end up without Orson ever doing a picture there,\" wrote ''The Hollywood Reporter''.", "It was agreed that Welles would film ''Heart of Darkness'', previously adapted for ''The Mercury Theatre on the Air'', which would be presented entirely through a first-person camera.", "After elaborate pre-production and a day of test shooting with a hand-held camera—unheard of at the time—the project never reached production because Welles was unable to trim $50,000 from its budget.", "Schaefer told Welles that the $500,000 budget could not be exceeded; as war loomed, revenue was declining sharply in Europe by the fall of 1939.He then started work on the idea that became ''Citizen Kane''.", "Knowing the script would take time to prepare, Welles suggested to RKO that while that was being done—\"so the year wouldn't be lost\"—he make a humorous political thriller.", "Welles proposed ''The Smiler with a Knife'', from a novel by Cecil Day-Lewis.", "When that project stalled in December 1939, Welles began brainstorming other story ideas with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who had been writing Mercury radio scripts.", "\"Arguing, inventing, discarding, these two powerful, headstrong, dazzlingly articulate personalities thrashed toward ''Kane''\", wrote biographer Richard Meryman.===Screenplay===One of the long-standing controversies about ''Citizen Kane'' has been the authorship of the screenplay.", "Welles conceived the project with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who was writing radio plays for Welles's CBS Radio series, ''The Campbell Playhouse''.", "Mankiewicz based the original outline on the life of William Randolph Hearst, whom he knew socially and came to hate after being exiled from Hearst's circle.In February 1940 Welles supplied Mankiewicz with 300 pages of notes and put him under contract to write the first draft screenplay under the supervision of John Houseman, Welles's former partner in the Mercury Theatre.", "Welles later explained, \"I left him on his own finally, because we'd started to waste too much time haggling.", "So, after mutual agreements on storyline and character, Mank went off with Houseman and did his version, while I stayed in Hollywood and wrote mine.\"", "Taking these drafts, Welles drastically condensed and rearranged them, then added scenes of his own.", "The industry accused Welles of underplaying Mankiewicz's contribution to the script, but Welles countered the attacks by saying, \"At the end, naturally, I was the one making the picture, after all—who had to make the decisions.", "I used what I wanted of Mank's and, rightly or wrongly, kept what I liked of my own.", "\"The terms of the contract stated that Mankiewicz was to receive no credit for his work, as he was hired as a script doctor.", "Before he signed the contract Mankiewicz was particularly advised by his agents that all credit for his work belonged to Welles and the Mercury Theatre, the \"author and creator\".", "As the film neared release, however, Mankiewicz began wanting a writing credit for the film and even threatened to take out full-page advertisements in trade papers and to get his friend Ben Hecht to write an exposé for ''The Saturday Evening Post''.", "Mankiewicz also threatened to go to the Screen Writers Guild and claim full credit for writing the entire script by himself.After lodging a protest with the Screen Writers Guild, Mankiewicz withdrew it, then vacillated.", "The question was resolved in January 1941 when the studio, RKO Pictures, awarded Mankiewicz credit.", "The guild credit form listed Welles first, Mankiewicz second.", "Welles's assistant Richard Wilson said that the person who circled Mankiewicz's name in pencil, then drew an arrow that put it in first place, was Welles.", "The official credit reads, \"Screenplay by Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson Welles\".", "Mankiewicz's rancor toward Welles grew over the remaining twelve years of his life.Questions over the authorship of the ''Citizen Kane'' screenplay were revived in 1971 by influential film critic Pauline Kael, whose controversial 50,000-word essay \"Raising Kane\" was commissioned as an introduction to the shooting script in ''The Citizen Kane Book'', published in October 1971.The book-length essay first appeared in February 1971, in two consecutive issues of ''The New Yorker'' magazine.In the ensuing controversy, Welles was defended by colleagues, critics, biographers and scholars, but his reputation was damaged by its charges.", "The essay's thesis was later questioned and some of Kael's findings were also contested in later years.Questions of authorship continued to come into sharper focus with Carringer's 1978 thoroughly researched essay, \"The Scripts of ''Citizen Kane''\".", "Carringer studied the collection of script records—\"almost a day-to-day record of the history of the scripting\"—that was then still intact at RKO.", "He reviewed all seven drafts and concluded that \"the full evidence reveals that Welles's contribution to the ''Citizen Kane'' script was not only substantial but definitive.", "\"===Casting===The Mercury Theatre was an independent repertory theatre company founded by Orson Welles and John Houseman in 1937.The company produced theatrical presentations, radio programs, films, promptbooks and phonographic recordings.", "''Citizen Kane'' was a rare film in that its principal roles were played by actors new to motion pictures.", "Ten were billed as Mercury Actors, members of the skilled repertory company assembled by Welles for the stage and radio performances of the Mercury Theatre, an independent theater company he founded with Houseman in 1937.", "\"He loved to use the Mercury players,\" wrote biographer Charles Higham, \"and consequently he launched several of them on movie careers.", "\"The film represents the feature film debuts of William Alland, Ray Collins, Joseph Cotten, Agnes Moorehead, Erskine Sanford, Everett Sloane, Paul Stewart, and Welles himself.", "Despite never having appeared in feature films, some of the cast members were already well known to the public.", "Cotten had recently become a Broadway star in the hit play ''The Philadelphia Story'' with Katharine Hepburn and Sloane was well known for his role on the radio show ''The Goldbergs''.", "Mercury actor George Coulouris was a star of the stage in New York and London.Not all of the cast came from the Mercury Players.", "Welles cast Dorothy Comingore, an actress who played supporting parts in films since 1934 using the name \"Linda Winters\", as Susan Alexander Kane.", "A discovery of Charlie Chaplin, Comingore was recommended to Welles by Chaplin, who then met Comingore at a party in Los Angeles and immediately cast her.Welles had met stage actress Ruth Warrick while visiting New York on a break from Hollywood and remembered her as a good fit for Emily Norton Kane, later saying that she looked the part.", "Warrick told Carringer that she was struck by the extraordinary resemblance between herself and Welles's mother when she saw a photograph of Beatrice Ives Welles.", "She characterized her own personal relationship with Welles as motherly.", "\"He trained us for films at the same time that he was training himself,\" recalled Agnes Moorehead.", "\"Orson believed in good acting, and he realized that rehearsals were needed to get the most from his actors.", "That was something new in Hollywood: nobody seemed interested in bringing in a group to rehearse before scenes were shot.", "But Orson knew it was necessary, and we rehearsed every sequence before it was shot.", "\"When ''The March of Time'' narrator Westbrook Van Voorhis asked for $25,000 to narrate the ''News on the March'' sequence, Alland demonstrated his ability to imitate Van Voorhis and Welles cast him.Welles later said that casting character actor Gino Corrado in the small part of the waiter at the El Rancho broke his heart.", "Corrado had appeared in many Hollywood films, often as a waiter, and Welles wanted all of the actors to be new to films.Other uncredited roles went to Thomas A. Curran as Teddy Roosevelt in the faux newsreel; Richard Baer as Hillman, a man at Madison Square Garden, and a man in the ''News on the March'' screening room; and Alan Ladd, Arthur O'Connell and Louise Currie as reporters at Xanadu.Ruth Warrick (died 2005) was the last surviving member of the principal cast.", "Sonny Bupp (died 2007), who played Kane's young son, was the last surviving credited cast member.", "Kathryn Trosper Popper (died March 6, 2016) was reported to have been the last surviving actor to have appeared in ''Citizen Kane''.", "Jean Forward (died September 2016), a soprano who dubbed the singing voice of Susan Alexander, was the last surviving performer from the film.===Filming===''Citizen Kane'' trailerProduction advisor Miriam Geiger quickly compiled a handmade film textbook for Welles, a practical reference book of film techniques that he studied carefully.", "He then taught himself filmmaking by matching its visual vocabulary to ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'', which he ordered from the Museum of Modern Art, and films by Frank Capra, René Clair, Fritz Lang, King Vidor and Jean Renoir.", "The one film he genuinely studied was John Ford's ''Stagecoach'', which he watched 40 times.", "\"As it turned out, the first day I ever walked onto a set was my first day as a director,\" Welles said.", "\"I'd learned whatever I knew in the projection room—from Ford.", "After dinner every night for about a month, I'd run ''Stagecoach'', often with some different technician or department head from the studio, and ask questions.", "'How was this done?'", "'Why was this done?'", "It was like going to school.", "\"Welles's cinematographer for the film was Gregg Toland, described by Welles as \"just then, the number-one cameraman in the world.\"", "To Welles's astonishment, Toland visited him at his office and said, \"I want you to use me on your picture.\"", "He had seen some of the Mercury stage productions (including ''Caesar'') and said he wanted to work with someone who had never made a movie.", "RKO hired Toland on loan from Samuel Goldwyn Productions in the first week of June 1940.", "\"And he never tried to impress us that he was doing any miracles,\" Welles recalled.", "\"I was calling for things only a beginner would have been ignorant enough to think anybody could ever do, and there he was, ''doing'' them.\"", "Toland later explained that he wanted to work with Welles because he anticipated the first-time director's inexperience and reputation for audacious experimentation in the theater would allow the cinematographer to try new and innovative camera techniques that typical Hollywood films would never have allowed him to do.", "Unaware of filmmaking protocol, Welles adjusted the lights on set as he was accustomed to doing in the theater; Toland quietly re-balanced them, and was angry when one of the crew informed Welles that he was infringing on Toland's responsibilities.", "During the first few weeks of June, Welles had lengthy discussions about the film with Toland and art director Perry Ferguson in the morning, and in the afternoon and evening he worked with actors and revised the script.Cinematographer Gregg Toland wanted to work with Welles for the opportunity of trying experimental camera techniques that other films did not allow.On June 29, 1940—a Saturday morning when few inquisitive studio executives would be around—Welles began filming ''Citizen Kane''.", "After the disappointment of having ''Heart of Darkness'' canceled, Welles followed Ferguson's suggestion and deceived RKO into believing that he was simply shooting camera tests.", "\"But we were shooting the ''picture'',\" Welles said, \"because we wanted to get started and be already into it before anybody knew about it.", "\"At the time RKO executives were pressuring him to agree to direct a film called ''The Men from Mars'', to capitalize on \"The War of the Worlds\" radio broadcast.", "Welles said that he would consider making the project but wanted to make a different film first.", "At this time he did not inform them that he had already begun filming ''Citizen Kane.", "''The early footage was called \"Orson Welles Tests\" on all paperwork.", "The first \"test\" shot was the ''News on the March'' projection room scene, economically filmed in a real studio projection room in darkness that masked many actors who appeared in other roles later in the film.", "\"At $809 Orson did run substantially beyond the test budget of $528—to create one of the most famous scenes in movie history,\" wrote Barton Whaley.The next scenes were the El Rancho nightclub scenes and the scene in which Susan attempts suicide.", "Welles later said that the nightclub set was available after another film had wrapped and that filming took 10 to 12 days to complete.", "For these scenes Welles had Comingore's throat sprayed with chemicals to give her voice a harsh, raspy tone.", "Other scenes shot in secret included those in which Thompson interviews Leland and Bernstein, which were also shot on sets built for other films.Aerial view of Otto Hermann Kahn's Oheka Castle that portrays the fictional ''Xanadu'' During production, the film was referred to as ''RKO 281''.", "Most of the filming took place in what is now Stage 19 on the Paramount Pictures lot in Hollywood.", "There was some location filming at Balboa Park in San Diego and the San Diego Zoo.", "Photographs of German-Jewish investment banker Otto Hermann Kahn's real-life estate Oheka Castle were used to portray the fictional Xanadu.In the end of July, RKO approved the film and Welles was allowed to officially begin shooting, despite having already been filming \"tests\" for several weeks.", "Welles leaked stories to newspaper reporters that the \"tests\" had been so good that there was no need to re-shoot them.", "The first \"official\" scene to be shot was the breakfast montage sequence between Kane and his first wife Emily.", "To strategically save money and appease the RKO executives who opposed him, Welles rehearsed scenes extensively before actually shooting and filmed very few takes of each shot set-up.", "Welles never shot master shots for any scene after Toland told him that Ford never shot them.", "To appease the increasingly curious press, Welles threw a cocktail party for selected reporters, promising that they could watch a scene being filmed.", "When the journalists arrived Welles told them they had \"just finished\" shooting for the day but still had the party.", "Welles told the press that he was ahead of schedule (without factoring in the month of \"test shooting\"), thus discrediting claims that after a year in Hollywood without making a film he was a failure in the film industry.Welles fell ten feet (3 m) while shooting the scene in which Kane shouts at the departing Boss Jim W. Gettys; his injuries required him to direct from a wheelchair for two weeks.", "Welles usually worked 16 to 18 hours a day on the film.", "He often began work at 4 a.m. since the special effects make-up used to age him for certain scenes took up to four hours to apply.", "Welles used this time to discuss the day's shooting with Toland and other crew members.", "The special contact lenses used to make Welles look elderly proved very painful, and a doctor was employed to place them into Welles's eyes.", "Welles had difficulty seeing clearly while wearing them, which caused him to badly cut his wrist when shooting the scene in which Kane breaks up the furniture in Susan's bedroom.", "While shooting the scene in which Kane shouts at Gettys on the stairs of Susan Alexander's apartment building, Welles fell ten feet; an X-ray revealed two bone chips in his ankle.The injury required him to direct the film from a wheelchair for two weeks.", "He eventually wore a steel brace to resume performing on camera; it is visible in the low-angle scene between Kane and Leland after Kane loses the election.", "For the final scene, a stage at the Selznick studio was equipped with a working furnace, and multiple takes were required to show the sled being put into the fire and the word \"Rosebud\" consumed.", "Paul Stewart recalled that on the ninth take the Culver City Fire Department arrived in full gear because the furnace had grown so hot the flue caught fire.", "\"Orson was delighted with the commotion\", he said.When \"Rosebud\" was burned, Welles choreographed the scene while he had composer Bernard Herrmann's cue playing on the set.Unlike Schaefer, many members of RKO's board of governors did not like Welles or the control that his contract gave him.", "However such board members as Nelson Rockefeller and NBC chief David Sarnoff were sympathetic to Welles.", "Throughout production Welles had problems with these executives not respecting his contract's stipulation of non-interference and several spies arrived on set to report what they saw to the executives.", "When the executives would sometimes arrive on set unannounced the entire cast and crew would suddenly start playing softball until they left.", "Before official shooting began the executives intercepted all copies of the script and delayed their delivery to Welles.", "They had one copy sent to their office in New York, resulting in it being leaked to press.Principal shooting wrapped October 24.Welles then took several weeks away from the film for a lecture tour, during which he also scouted additional locations with Toland and Ferguson.", "Filming resumed November 15 with some re-shoots.", "Toland had to leave due to a commitment to shoot Howard Hughes' ''The Outlaw'', but Toland's camera crew continued working on the film and Toland was replaced by RKO cinematographer Harry J.", "Wild.", "The final day of shooting on November 30 was Kane's death scene.", "Welles boasted that he only went 21 days over his official shooting schedule, without factoring in the month of \"camera tests\".", "According to RKO records, the film cost $839,727.Its estimated budget had been $723,800.===Post-production===''Citizen Kane'' was edited by Robert Wise and assistant editor Mark Robson.", "Both would become successful film directors.", "Wise was hired after Welles finished shooting the \"camera tests\" and began officially making the film.", "Wise said that Welles \"had an older editor assigned to him for those tests and evidently he was not too happy and asked to have somebody else.", "I was roughly Orson's age and had several good credits.\"", "Wise and Robson began editing the film while it was still shooting and said that they \"could tell certainly that we were getting something very special.", "It was outstanding film day in and day out.", "\"Welles gave Wise detailed instructions and was usually not present during the film's editing.", "The film was very well planned out and intentionally shot for such post-production techniques as slow dissolves.", "The lack of coverage made editing easy since Welles and Toland edited the film \"in camera\" by leaving few options of how it could be put together.", "Wise said the breakfast table sequence took weeks to edit and get the correct \"timing\" and \"rhythm\" for the whip pans and overlapping dialogue.", "The ''News on the March'' sequence was edited by RKO's newsreel division to give it authenticity.", "They used stock footage from Pathé News and the General Film Library.During post-production Welles and special effects artist Linwood G. Dunn experimented with an optical printer to improve certain scenes that Welles found unsatisfactory from the footage.", "Whereas Welles was often immediately pleased with Wise's work, he would require Dunn and post-production audio engineer James G. Stewart to re-do their work several times until he was satisfied.Welles hired Bernard Herrmann to compose the film's score.", "Where most Hollywood film scores were written quickly, in as few as two or three weeks after filming was completed, Herrmann was given 12 weeks to write the music.", "He had sufficient time to do his own orchestrations and conducting, and worked on the film reel by reel as it was shot and cut.", "He wrote complete musical pieces for some of the montages, and Welles edited many of the scenes to match their length." ], [ "Style", "Film scholars and historians view ''Citizen Kane'' as Welles's attempt to create a new style of filmmaking by studying various forms of it and combining them into one.", "However, Welles stated that his love for cinema began only when he started working on the film.", "When asked where he got the confidence as a first-time director to direct a film so radically different from contemporary cinema, he responded, \"Ignorance, ignorance, sheer ignorance—you know there's no confidence to equal it.", "It's only when you know something about a profession, I think, that you're timid or careful.", "\"David Bordwell wrote that \"The best way to understand ''Citizen Kane'' is to stop worshipping it as a triumph of technique.\"", "Bordwell argues that the film did not invent any of its famous techniques such as deep focus cinematography, shots of the ceilings, chiaroscuro lighting and temporal jump-cuts, and that many of these stylistics had been used in German Expressionist films of the 1920s, such as ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari''.", "But Bordwell asserts that the film did put them all together for the first time and perfected the medium in one single film.", "In a 1948 interview, D. W. Griffith said, \"I loved ''Citizen Kane'' and particularly loved the ideas he took from me.", "\"Arguments against the film's cinematic innovations were made as early as 1946 when French historian Georges Sadoul wrote, \"The film is an encyclopedia of old techniques.\"", "He pointed out such examples as compositions that used both the foreground and the background in the films of Auguste and Louis Lumière, special effects used in the films of Georges Méliès, shots of the ceiling in Erich von Stroheim's ''Greed'' and newsreel montages in the films of Dziga Vertov.French film critic André Bazin defended the film, writing: \"In this respect, the accusation of plagiarism could very well be extended to the film's use of panchromatic film or its exploitation of the properties of gelatinous silver halide.\"", "Bazin disagreed with Sadoul's comparison to Lumière's cinematography since ''Citizen Kane'' used more sophisticated lenses, but acknowledged that it had similarities to such previous works as ''The 49th Parallel'' and ''The Power and the Glory''.", "Bazin stated that \"even if Welles did not invent the cinematic devices employed in ''Citizen Kane'', one should nevertheless credit him with the invention of their ''meaning''.\"", "Bazin championed the techniques in the film for its depiction of heightened reality, but Bordwell believed that the film's use of special effects contradicted some of Bazin's theories.===Storytelling techniques===''Citizen Kane'' rejects the traditional linear, chronological narrative and tells Kane's story entirely in flashbacks using different points of view, many of them from Kane's aged and forgetful associates, the cinematic equivalent of the unreliable narrator in literature.", "Welles also dispenses with the idea of a single storyteller and uses multiple narrators to recount Kane's life, a technique not used previously in Hollywood films.", "Each narrator recounts a different part of Kane's life, with each story overlapping another.", "The film depicts Kane as an enigma, a complicated man who leaves viewers with more questions than answers as to his character, such as the newsreel footage where he is attacked for being both a communist and a fascist.The technique of flashbacks had been used in earlier films, notably ''The Power and the Glory'' (1933), but no film was as immersed in it as ''Citizen Kane''.", "Thompson the reporter acts as a surrogate for the audience, questioning Kane's associates and piecing together his life.Films typically had an \"omniscient perspective\" at the time, which Marilyn Fabe says give the audience the \"illusion that we are looking with impunity into a world which is unaware of our gaze\".", "''Citizen Kane'' also begins in that fashion until the ''News on the March'' sequence, after which we the audience see the film through the perspectives of others.", "The ''News on the March'' sequence gives an overview of Kane's entire life (and the film's entire story) at the beginning of the film, leaving the audience without the typical suspense of wondering how it will end.", "Instead, the film's repetitions of events compels the audience to analyze and wonder why Kane's life happened the way that it did, under the pretext of finding out what \"Rosebud\" means.", "The film then returns to the omniscient perspective in the final scene, when only the audience discovers what \"Rosebud\" is.===Cinematography===The most innovative technical aspect of ''Citizen Kane'' is the extended use of deep focus, where the foreground, background, and everything in between are all in sharp focus.", "Cinematographer Toland did this through his experimentation with lenses and lighting.", "Toland described the achievement in an article for ''Theatre Arts'' magazine, made possible by the sensitivity of modern speed film:New developments in the science of motion picture photography are not abundant at this advanced stage of the game but periodically one is perfected to make this a greater art.", "Of these I am in an excellent position to discuss what is termed \"Pan-focus\", as I have been active for two years in its development and used it for the first time in ''Citizen Kane''.", "Through its use, it is possible to photograph action from a range of eighteen inches from the camera lens to over two hundred feet away, with extreme foreground and background figures and action both recorded in sharp relief.", "Hitherto, the camera had to be focused either for a close or a distant shot, all efforts to encompass both at the same time resulting in one or the other being out of focus.", "This handicap necessitated the breaking up of a scene into long and short angles, with much consequent loss of realism.", "With pan-focus, the camera, like the human eye, sees an entire panorama at once, with everything clear and lifelike.Another unorthodox method used in the film was the low-angle shots facing upwards, thus allowing ceilings to be shown in the background of several scenes.", "Every set was built with a ceiling which broke with studio convention, and many were constructed of fabric that concealed microphones.", "Welles felt that the camera should show what the eye sees, and that it was a bad theatrical convention to pretend that there was no ceiling—\"a big lie in order to get all those terrible lights up there,\" he said.", "He became fascinated with the look of low angles, which made even dull interiors look interesting.", "One extremely low angle is used to photograph the encounter between Kane and Leland after Kane loses the election.", "A hole was dug for the camera, which required drilling into the concrete floor.Welles credited Toland on the same title card as himself.", "\"It's impossible to say how much I owe to Gregg,\" he said.", "\"He was superb.\"", "He called Toland \"the best director of photography that ever existed.", "\"===Sound===''Citizen Kane''s sound was recorded by Bailey Fesler and re-recorded in post-production by audio engineer James G. Stewart, both of whom had worked in radio.", "Stewart said that Hollywood films never deviated from a basic pattern of how sound could be recorded or used, but with Welles \"deviation from the pattern was possible because he demanded it.\"", "Although the film is known for its complex soundtrack, much of the audio is heard as it was recorded by Fesler and without manipulation.Welles used techniques from radio like overlapping dialogue.", "The scene in which characters sing \"Oh, Mr. Kane\" was especially complicated and required mixing several soundtracks together.", "He also used different \"sound perspectives\" to create the illusion of distances, such as in scenes at Xanadu where characters speak to each other at far distances.", "Welles experimented with sound in post-production, creating audio montages, and chose to create all of the sound effects for the film instead of using RKO's library of sound effects.Welles used an aural technique from radio called the \"lightning-mix\".", "Welles used this technique to link complex montage sequences via a series of related sounds or phrases.", "For example, Kane grows from a child into a young man in just two shots.", "As Thatcher hands eight-year-old Kane a sled and wishes him a Merry Christmas, the sequence suddenly jumps to a shot of Thatcher fifteen years later, completing the sentence he began in both the previous shot and the chronological past.", "Other radio techniques include using a number of voices, each saying a sentence or sometimes merely a fragment of a sentence, and splicing the dialogue together in quick succession, such as the projection room scene.", "The film's sound cost $16,996, but was originally budgeted at $7,288.Film critic and director François Truffaut wrote that \"Before ''Kane'', nobody in Hollywood knew how to set music properly in movies.", "''Kane'' was the first, in fact the only, great film that uses radio techniques. ...", "A lot of filmmakers know enough to follow Auguste Renoir's advice to fill the eyes with images at all costs, but only Orson Welles understood that the sound track had to be filled in the same way.\"", "Cedric Belfrage of ''The Clipper'' wrote \"of all of the delectable flavours that linger on the palate after seeing ''Kane'', the use of sound is the strongest.", "\"===Make-up===The make-up for ''Citizen Kane'' was created and applied by Maurice Seiderman (1907–1989), a junior member of the RKO make-up department.", "He had not been accepted into the union, which recognized him as only an apprentice, but RKO nevertheless used him to make up principal actors.", "\"Apprentices were not supposed to make up any principals, only extras, and an apprentice could not be on a set without a journeyman present,\" wrote make-up artist Dick Smith, who became friends with Seiderman in 1979.", "\"During his years at RKO I suspect these rules were probably overlooked often.\"", "\"Seiderman had gained a reputation as one of the most inventive and creatively precise up-and-coming makeup men in Hollywood,\" wrote biographer Frank Brady.On an early tour of RKO, Welles met Seiderman in the small make-up lab that he created for himself in an unused dressing room.", "\"Welles fastened on to him at once,\" wrote biographer Charles Higham, as Seiderman had developed his own makeup methods \"that ensured complete naturalness of expression—a naturalness unrivaled in Hollywood.\"", "Seiderman developed a thorough plan for aging the principal characters, first making a plaster cast of the face of each of the actors who aged.", "He made a plaster mold of Welles's body down to the hips.", "\"My sculptural techniques for the characters' aging were handled by adding pieces of white modeling clay, which matched the plaster, onto the surface of each bust,\" Seiderman told Norman Gambill.", "When Seiderman achieved the desired effect, he cast the clay pieces in a soft plastic material that he formulated himself.", "These appliances were then placed onto the plaster bust and a four-piece mold was made for each phase of aging.", "The castings were then fully painted and paired with the appropriate wig for evaluation.Before the actors went before the cameras each day, the pliable pieces were applied directly to their faces to recreate Seiderman's sculptural image.", "The facial surface was underpainted in a flexible red plastic compound; The red ground resulted in a warmth of tone that was picked up by the panchromatic film.", "Over that was applied liquid grease paint, and finally a colorless translucent talcum.", "Seiderman created the effect of skin pores on Kane's face by stippling the surface with a negative cast made from an orange peel.Welles often arrived on the set at 2:30 am, as application of the sculptural make-up took 3½ hours for the oldest incarnation of Kane.", "The make-up included appliances to age Welles's shoulders, breast, and stomach.", "\"In the film and production photographs, you can see that Kane had a belly that overhung,\" Seiderman said.", "\"That was not a costume, it was the rubber sculpture that created the image.", "You could see how Kane's silk shirt clung wetly to the character's body.", "It could not have been done any other way.", "\"Seiderman worked with Charles Wright on the wigs.", "These went over a flexible skull cover that Seiderman created and sewed into place with elastic thread.", "When he found the wigs too full, he untied one hair at a time to alter their shape.", "Kane's mustache was inserted into the makeup surface a few hairs at a time, to realistically vary the color and texture.", "He also made scleral lenses for Welles, Dorothy Comingore, George Coulouris, and Everett Sloane to dull the brightness of their young eyes.", "The lenses took a long time to fit properly, and Seiderman began work on them before devising any of the other makeup.", "\"I painted them to age in phases, ending with the blood vessels and the ''arcus senilis'' of old age.\"", "Seiderman's tour de force was the breakfast montage, shot all in one day.", "\"Twelve years, two years shot at each scene,\" he said.Kane ages convincingly in the breakfast montage, make-up artist Maurice Seiderman's tour de forceThe major studios gave screen credit for make-up only to the department head.", "When RKO make-up department head Mel Berns refused to share credit with Seiderman, who was only an apprentice, Welles told Berns that there would be no make-up credit.", "Welles signed a large advertisement in the Los Angeles newspaper:THANKS TO EVERYBODY WHO GETS SCREEN CREDIT FOR \"CITIZEN KANE\"AND THANKS TO THOSE WHO DON'TTO ALL THE ACTORS, THE CREW, THE OFFICE, THE MUSICIANS, EVERYBODYAND PARTICULARLY TO MAURICE SEIDERMAN, THE BEST MAKE-UP MAN IN THE WORLD===Sets===Although credited as an assistant, the film's art direction was done by Perry Ferguson.", "Welles and Ferguson got along during their collaboration.", "In the weeks before production began Welles, Toland and Ferguson met regularly to discuss the film and plan every shot, set design and prop.", "Ferguson would take notes during these discussions and create rough designs of the sets and story boards for individual shots.", "After Welles approved the rough sketches, Ferguson made miniature models for Welles and Toland to experiment on with a periscope in order to rehearse and perfect each shot.", "Ferguson then had detailed drawings made for the set design, including the film's lighting design.", "The set design was an integral part of the film's overall look and Toland's cinematography.In the original script the Great Hall at Xanadu was modeled after the Great Hall in Hearst Castle and its design included a mixture of Renaissance and Gothic styles.", "\"The Hearstian element is brought out in the almost perverse juxtaposition of incongruous architectural styles and motifs,\" wrote Carringer.", "Before RKO cut the film's budget, Ferguson's designs were more elaborate and resembled the production designs of early Cecil B. DeMille films and ''Intolerance''.", "The budget cuts reduced Ferguson's budget by 33 percent and his work cost $58,775 total, which was below average at that time.To save costs Ferguson and Welles re-wrote scenes in Xanadu's living room and transported them to the Great Hall.", "A large staircase from another film was found and used at no additional cost.", "When asked about the limited budget, Ferguson said \"Very often—as in that much-discussed 'Xanadu' set in ''Citizen Kane''—we can make a foreground piece, a background piece, and imaginative lighting suggests a great deal more on the screen than actually exists on the stage.\"", "According to the film's official budget there were 81 sets built, but Ferguson said there were between 106 and 116.Still photographs of Oheka Castle in Huntington, New York, were used in the opening montage, representing Kane's Xanadu estate.", "Ferguson also designed statues from Kane's collection with styles ranging from Greek to German Gothic.", "The sets were also built to accommodate Toland's camera movements.", "Walls were built to fold and furniture could quickly be moved.", "The film's famous ceilings were made out of muslin fabric and camera boxes were built into the floors for low angle shots.", "Welles later said that he was proud that the film production value looked much more expensive than the film's budget.", "Although neither worked with Welles again, Toland and Ferguson collaborated in several films in the 1940s.===Special effects===The film's special effects were supervised by RKO department head Vernon L. Walker.", "Welles pioneered several visual effects to cheaply shoot things like crowd scenes and large interior spaces.", "For example, the scene in which the camera in the opera house rises dramatically to the rafters, to show the workmen showing a lack of appreciation for Susan Alexander Kane's performance, was shot by a camera craning upwards over the performance scene, then a curtain wipe to a miniature of the upper regions of the house, and then another curtain wipe matching it again with the scene of the workmen.", "Other scenes effectively employed miniatures to make the film look much more expensive than it truly was, such as various shots of Xanadu.Some shots included rear screen projection in the background, such as Thompson's interview of Leland and some of the ocean backgrounds at Xanadu.", "Bordwell claims that the scene where Thatcher agrees to be Kane's guardian used rear screen projection to depict young Kane in the background, despite this scene being cited as a prime example of Toland's deep focus cinematography.", "A special effects camera crew from Walker's department was required for the extreme close-up shots such as Kane's lips when he says \"Rosebud\" and the shot of the typewriter typing Susan's bad review.Optical effects artist Dunn claimed that \"up to 80 percent of some reels was optically printed.\"", "These shots were traditionally attributed to Toland for years.", "The optical printer improved some of the deep focus shots.", "One problem with the optical printer was that it sometimes created excessive graininess, such as the optical zoom out of the snow globe.", "Welles decided to superimpose snow falling to mask the graininess in these shots.", "Toland said that he disliked the results of the optical printer, but acknowledged that \"RKO special effects expert Vernon Walker, ASC, and his staff handled their part of the production—a by no means inconsiderable assignment—with ability and fine understanding.", "\"Any time deep focus was impossible—as in the scene in which Kane finishes a negative review of Susan's opera while at the same time firing the person who began writing the review—an optical printer was used to make the whole screen appear in focus, visually layering one piece of film onto another.", "However, some apparently deep-focus shots were the result of in-camera effects, as in the famous scene in which Kane breaks into Susan's room after her suicide attempt.", "In the background, Kane and another man break into the room, while simultaneously the medicine bottle and a glass with a spoon in it are in closeup in the foreground.", "The shot was an in-camera matte shot.", "The foreground was shot first, with the background dark.", "Then the background was lit, the foreground darkened, the film rewound, and the scene re-shot with the background action.===Music===Incidental music includes the publisher's theme, \"Oh, Mr. Kane\", a tune by Pepe Guízar with special lyrics by Herman Ruby.The film's music was composed by Bernard Herrmann.", "Herrmann had composed for Welles for his Mercury Theatre radio broadcasts.", "Because it was Herrmann's first motion picture score, RKO wanted to pay him only a small fee, but Welles insisted he be paid at the same rate as Max Steiner.The score established Herrmann as an important new composer of film soundtracks and eschewed the typical Hollywood practice of scoring a film with virtually non-stop music.", "Instead Herrmann used what he later described as \"radio scoring\", musical cues typically 5–15 seconds in length that bridge the action or suggest a different emotional response.", "The breakfast montage sequence begins with a graceful waltz theme and gets darker with each variation on that theme as the passage of time leads to the hardening of Kane's personality and the breakdown of his first marriage.Herrmann realized that musicians slated to play his music were hired for individual unique sessions; there was no need to write for existing ensembles.", "This meant that he was free to score for unusual combinations of instruments, even instruments that are not commonly heard.", "In the opening sequence, for example, the tour of Kane's estate Xanadu, Herrmann introduces a recurring leitmotif played by low woodwinds, including a quartet of alto flutes.For Susan Alexander Kane's operatic sequence, Welles suggested that Herrmann compose a witty parody of a Mary Garden vehicle, an aria from ''Salammbô''.", "\"Our problem was to create something that would give the audience the feeling of the quicksand into which this simple little girl, having a charming but small voice, is suddenly thrown,\" Herrmann said.", "Writing in the style of a 19th-century French Oriental opera, Herrmann put the aria in a key that would force the singer to strain to reach the high notes, culminating in a high D, well outside the range of Susan Alexander.", "Soprano Jean Forward dubbed the vocal part for Comingore.", "Houseman claimed to have written the libretto, based on Jean Racine's ''Athalie'' and ''Phedre'', although some confusion remains since Lucille Fletcher remembered preparing the lyrics.", "Fletcher, then Herrmann's wife, wrote the libretto for his opera ''Wuthering Heights''.Music enthusiasts consider the scene in which Susan Alexander Kane attempts to sing the famous cavatina \"Una voce poco fa\" from ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' by Gioachino Rossini with vocal coach Signor Matiste as especially memorable for depicting the horrors of learning music through mistakes.In 1972, Herrmann said, \"I was fortunate to start my career with a film like ''Citizen Kane'', it's been a downhill run ever since!\"", "Welles loved Herrmann's score and told director Henry Jaglom that it was 50 percent responsible for the film's artistic success.Some incidental music came from other sources.", "Welles heard the tune used for the publisher's theme, \"Oh, Mr. Kane\", in Mexico.", "Called \"A Poco No\", the song was written by Pepe Guízar and special lyrics were written by Herman Ruby.", "\"In a Mizz\", a 1939 jazz song by Charlie Barnet and Haven Johnson, bookends Thompson's second interview of Susan Alexander Kane.", "\"I kind of based the whole scene around that song,\" Welles said.", "\"The music is by Nat Cole—it's his trio.\"", "Later—beginning with the lyrics, \"It can't be love\"—\"In a Mizz\" is performed at the Everglades picnic, framing the fight in the tent between Susan and Kane.", "Musicians including bandleader Cee Pee Johnson (drums), Alton Redd (vocals), Raymond Tate (trumpet), Buddy Collette (alto sax) and Buddy Banks (tenor sax) are featured.All of the music used in the newsreel came from the RKO music library, edited at Welles's request by the newsreel department to achieve what Herrmann called \"their own crazy way of cutting\".", "The ''News on the March'' theme that accompanies the newsreel titles is \"Belgian March\" by Anthony Collins, from the film ''Nurse Edith Cavell''.", "Other examples are an excerpt from Alfred Newman's score for ''Gunga Din'' (the exploration of Xanadu), Roy Webb's theme for the film ''Reno'' (the growth of Kane's empire), and bits of Webb's score for ''Five Came Back'' (introducing Walter Parks Thatcher).===Editing===Orson Welles and Ruth Warrick in the breakfast montageOne of the editing techniques used in ''Citizen Kane'' was the use of montage to collapse time and space, using an episodic sequence on the same set while the characters changed costume and make-up between cuts so that the scene following each cut would look as if it took place in the same location, but at a time long after the previous cut.", "In the breakfast montage, Welles chronicles the breakdown of Kane's first marriage in five vignettes that condense 16 years of story time into two minutes of screen time.", "Welles said that the idea for the breakfast scene \"was stolen from ''The Long Christmas Dinner'' by Thornton Wilder ... a one-act play, which is a long Christmas dinner that takes you through something like 60 years of a family's life.\"", "The film often uses long dissolves to signify the passage of time and its psychological effect of the characters, such as the scene in which the abandoned sled is covered with snow after the young Kane is sent away with Thatcher.Welles was influenced by the editing theories of Sergei Eisenstein by using jarring cuts that caused \"sudden graphic or associative contrasts\", such as the cut from Kane's deathbed to the beginning of the ''News on the March'' sequence and a sudden shot of a shrieking cockatoo at the beginning of Raymond's flashback.", "Although the film typically favors mise-en-scène over montage, the scene in which Kane goes to Susan Alexander's apartment after first meeting her is the only one that is primarily cut as close-ups with shots and counter shots between Kane and Susan.", "Fabe says that \"by using a standard Hollywood technique sparingly, Welles revitalizes its psychological expressiveness.\"" ], [ "Sources", "Welles never confirmed a principal source for the character of Charles Foster Kane.", "Houseman wrote that Kane is a synthesis of different personalities, with Hearst's life used as the main source.", "Some events and details were invented, and Houseman wrote that he and Mankiewicz also \"grafted anecdotes from other giants of journalism, including Pulitzer, Northcliffe and Mank's first boss, Herbert Bayard Swope.\"", "Welles said, \"Mr. Hearst was quite a bit like Kane, although Kane isn't really founded on Hearst in particular.", "Many people sat for it, so to speak\".", "He specifically acknowledged that aspects of Kane were drawn from the lives of two business tycoons familiar from his youth in Chicago—Samuel Insull and Harold Fowler McCormick.The character of Jedediah Leland was based on drama critic Ashton Stevens, George Stevens's uncle and Welles's close boyhood friend.", "Some detail came from Mankiewicz's own experience as a drama critic in New York.Many assumed that the character of Susan Alexander Kane was based on Marion Davies, Hearst's mistress whose career he managed and whom Hearst promoted as a motion picture actress.", "This assumption was a major reason Hearst tried to destroy ''Citizen Kane''.", "Welles denied that the character was based on Davies, whom he called \"an extraordinary woman—nothing like the character Dorothy Comingore played in the movie.\"", "He cited Insull's building of the Chicago Opera House, and McCormick's lavish promotion of the opera career of his second wife, Ganna Walska, as direct influences on the screenplay.The character of political boss Jim W. Gettys is based on Charles F. Murphy, a leader in New York City's infamous Tammany Hall political machine.Welles credited \"Rosebud\" to Mankiewicz.", "Biographer Richard Meryman wrote that the symbol of Mankiewicz's own damaged childhood was a treasured bicycle, stolen while he visited the public library and not replaced by his family as punishment.", "He regarded it as the prototype of Charles Foster Kane's sled.", "In his 2015 Welles biography, Patrick McGilligan reported that Mankiewicz himself stated that the word \"Rosebud\" was taken from the name of a famous racehorse, Old Rosebud.", "Mankiewicz had a bet on the horse in the 1914 Kentucky Derby, which he won, and McGilligan wrote that \"Old Rosebud symbolized his lost youth, and the break with his family\".", "In testimony for a copyright infringement suit brought by Hearst biographer Ferdinand Lundberg, Mankiewicz said, \"I had undergone psycho-analysis, and Rosebud, under circumstances slightly resembling the circumstances in ''Citizen Kane'', played a prominent part.\"", "Gore Vidal has argued in the ''New York Review of Books'' that “Rosebud was what Hearst called his friend Marion Davies’s clitoris”.The ''News on the March'' sequence that begins the film satirizes the journalistic style of ''The March of Time'', the news documentary and dramatization series presented in movie theaters by Time Inc. From 1935 to 1938 Welles was a member of the uncredited company of actors that presented the original radio version.Houseman claimed that banker Walter P. Thatcher was loosely based on J. P. Morgan.", "Bernstein was named for Dr. Maurice Bernstein, appointed Welles's guardian; Sloane's portrayal was said to be based on Bernard Herrmann.", "Herbert Carter, editor of ''The Inquirer'', was named for actor Jack Carter." ], [ "Political themes", "Laura Mulvey explored the anti-fascist themes of ''Citizen Kane'' in her 1992 monograph for the British Film Institute.", "The ''News on the March'' newsreel presents Kane keeping company with Hitler and other dictators while he smugly assures the public that there will be no war.", "She wrote that the film reflects \"the battle between intervention and isolationism\" then being waged in the United States; the film was released six months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, while President Franklin D. Roosevelt was laboring to win public opinion for entering World War II.", "\"In the rhetoric of ''Citizen Kane'',\" Mulvey writes, \"the destiny of isolationism is realised in metaphor: in Kane's own fate, dying wealthy and lonely, surrounded by the detritus of European culture and history.", "\"Journalist Ignacio Ramonet has cited the film as an early example of mass media manipulation of public opinion and the power that media conglomerates have on influencing the democratic process.", "He believes that this early example of a media mogul influencing politics is outdated and that today \"there are media groups with the power of a thousand Citizen Kanes.\"", "Media mogul Rupert Murdoch is sometimes labeled as a latter-day ''Citizen Kane''.Comparisons have also been made between the career and character of Donald Trump and Charles Foster Kane.", "''Citizen Kane'' is reported to be one of Trump's favorite films, and his biographer Tim O’Brien has said that Trump is fascinated by and identifies with Kane.", "In an interview with filmmaker Errol Morris, Trump explained his own interpretation of the film's themes, saying \"You learn in 'Kane' maybe wealth isn't everything, because he had the wealth but he didn't have the happiness.", "In real life I believe that wealth does in fact isolate you from other people.", "It's a protective mechanism — you have your guard up much more so than if you didn't have wealth...Perhaps I can understand that.\"" ], [ "Pre-release controversy", "To ensure that Hearst's life's influence on ''Citizen Kane'' was a secret, Welles limited access to dailies and managed the film's publicity.", "A December 1940 feature story in ''Stage'' magazine compared the film's narrative to ''Faust'' and made no mention of Hearst.The film was scheduled to premiere at RKO's flagship theater Radio City Music Hall on February 14, but in early January 1941 Welles was not finished with post-production work and told RKO that it still needed its musical score.", "Writers for national magazines had early deadlines and so a rough cut was previewed for a select few on January 3, 1941 for such magazines as ''Life'', ''Look'' and ''Redbook''.", "Gossip columnist Hedda Hopper (an arch-rival of Louella Parsons, the Hollywood correspondent for Hearst papers) showed up to the screening uninvited.", "Most of the critics at the preview said that they liked the film and gave it good advanced reviews.", "Hopper wrote negatively about it, calling the film a \"vicious and irresponsible attack on a great man\" and criticizing its corny writing and old fashioned photography.", "''Friday'' magazine ran an article drawing point-by-point comparisons between Kane and Hearst and documented how Welles had led on Parsons.", "Up until this Welles had been friendly with Parsons.", "The magazine quoted Welles as saying that he could not understand why she was so nice to him and that she should \"wait until the woman finds out that the picture's about her boss.\"", "Welles immediately denied making the statement and the editor of ''Friday'' admitted that it might be false.", "Welles apologized to Parsons and assured her that he had never made that remark.Film columnist and Hearst employee Louella Parsons was humiliated by ''Citizen Kane'' and made numerous threats to prevent the film's release.Shortly after ''Friday''s article, Hearst sent Parsons an angry letter complaining that he had learned about ''Citizen Kane'' from Hopper and not her.", "The incident made a fool of Parsons and compelled her to start attacking Welles and the film.", "Parsons demanded a private screening of the film and personally threatened Schaefer on Hearst's behalf, first with a lawsuit and then with a vague threat of consequences for everyone in Hollywood.", "On January 10 Parsons and two lawyers working for Hearst were given a private screening of the film.", "James G. Stewart was present at the screening and said that she walked out of the film.Soon after, Parsons called Schaefer and threatened RKO with a lawsuit if they released ''Kane''.", "She also contacted the management of Radio City Music Hall and demanded that they should not screen it.", "The next day, the front page headline in ''Daily Variety'' read, \"HEARST BANS RKO FROM PAPERS.\"", "Hearst began this ban by suppressing promotion of RKO's ''Kitty Foyle'', but in two weeks the ban was lifted for everything except ''Kane.", "''When Schaefer did not submit to Parsons she called other studio heads and made more threats on behalf of Hearst to expose the private lives of people throughout the entire film industry.", "Welles was then threatened with an exposé about his romance with the married actress Dolores del Río, who wanted the affair kept secret until her divorce was finalized.", "In a statement to journalists Welles denied that the film was about Hearst.", "Hearst began preparing an injunction against the film for libel and invasion of privacy, but Welles's lawyer told him that he doubted Hearst would proceed due to the negative publicity and required testimony that an injunction would bring.", "''The Hollywood Reporter'' ran a front-page story on January 13 that Hearst papers were about to run a series of editorials attacking Hollywood's practice of hiring refugees and immigrants for jobs that could be done by Americans.", "The goal was to put pressure on the other studios to force RKO to shelve ''Kane''.", "Many of those immigrants had fled Europe after the rise of fascism and feared losing the haven of the United States.", "Soon afterwards, Schaefer was approached by Nicholas Schenck, head of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's parent company, with an offer on the behalf of Louis B. Mayer and other Hollywood executives to RKO Pictures of $805,000 to destroy all prints of the film and burn the negative.Once RKO's legal team reassured Schaefer, the studio announced on January 21 that ''Kane'' would be released as scheduled, and with one of the largest promotional campaigns in the studio's history.", "Schaefer brought Welles to New York City for a private screening of the film with the New York corporate heads of the studios and their lawyers.", "There was no objection to its release provided that certain changes, including the removal or softening of specific references that might offend Hearst, were made.", "Welles agreed and cut the running time from 122 minutes to 119 minutes.", "The cuts satisfied the corporate lawyers." ], [ "Release", "Theatrical release poster Radio City Music Hall's management refused to screen ''Citizen Kane'' for its premiere.", "A possible factor was Parsons's threat that ''The American Weekly'' would run a defamatory story on the grandfather of major RKO stockholder Nelson Rockefeller.", "Other exhibitors feared being sued for libel by Hearst and refused to show the film.", "In March Welles threatened the RKO board of governors with a lawsuit if they did not release the film.", "Schaefer stood by Welles and opposed the board of governors.", "When RKO still delayed the film's release Welles offered to buy the film for $1 million and the studio finally agreed to release the film on May 1.Schaefer managed to book a few theaters willing to show the film.", "Hearst papers refused to accept advertising.", "RKO's publicity advertisements for the film erroneously promoted it as a love story.", "''Kane'' opened at the RKO Palace Theatre on Broadway in New York on May 1, 1941, in Chicago on May 6, and in Los Angeles on May 8.Welles said that at the Chicago premiere that he attended the theater was almost empty.The day after the New York release, ''The New York Times'' said \"it comes close to being the most sensational film ever made in Hollywood\".", "''The Washington Post'' called it \"one of the most important films in the history\" of filmmaking.", "''The Washington Evening Star'' said Welles was a genius who created \"a superbly dramatic biography of another genius\" and \"a picture that is revolutionary\".", "The ''Chicago Tribune'' called the film interesting and different but \"its sacrifice of simplicity to eccentricity robs it of distinction and general entertainment value\".", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' gave the film a mixed review, saying it was brilliant and skillful at times with an ending that \"rather fizzled\".The film did well in cities and larger towns, but it fared poorly in more remote areas.", "RKO still had problems getting exhibitors to show the film.", "For example, one chain controlling more than 500 theaters got Welles's film as part of a package but refused to play it, reportedly out of fear of Hearst.", "Hearst's disruption of the film's release damaged its box office performance and, as a result, it lost $160,000 during its initial run.", "The film earned $23,878 during its first week in New York.", "By the ninth week it only made $7,279.Overall it lost money in New York, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco and Washington, D.C., but made a profit in Seattle.===Trailer===The film's trailerWritten and directed by Welles at Toland's suggestion, the theatrical trailer for ''Citizen Kane'' differs from other trailers in that it did not feature a single second of footage of the actual film itself, but acts as a wholly original, tongue-in-cheek, pseudo-documentary piece on the film's production.", "Filmed at the same time as ''Citizen Kane'' itself, it offers the only existing behind-the-scenes footage of the film.", "The trailer, shot by Wild instead of Toland, follows an unseen Welles as he provides narration for a tour around the film set, introductions to the film's core cast members, and a brief overview of Kane's character.", "The trailer also contains a number of trick shots, including one of Everett Sloane appearing at first to be running into the camera, which turns out to be the reflection of the camera in a mirror.At the time, it was almost unprecedented for a film trailer to not actually feature anything of the film itself; and while ''Citizen Kane'' is frequently cited as a groundbreaking, influential film, Simon Callow argues its trailer was no less original in its approach.", "Callow writes that it has \"great playful charm ... it is a miniature documentary, almost an introduction to the cinema ... Teasing, charming, completely original, it is a sort of conjuring trick: Without his face appearing once on the screen, Welles entirely dominates its five sic minutes' duration.", "\"===Hearst's response===Hearing about ''Citizen Kane'' enraged Hearst so much that he banned any advertising, reviewing, or mentioning of it in his papers, and had his journalists libel Welles.", "Welles used Hearst's opposition as a pretext for previewing the film in several opinion-making screenings in Los Angeles, lobbying for its artistic worth against the hostile campaign that Hearst was waging.", "A special press screening took place in early March.", "Henry Luce was in attendance and reportedly wanted to buy the film from RKO for $1 million to distribute it himself.", "The reviews for this screening were positive.", "A ''Hollywood Review'' headline read, \"Mr.", "Genius Comes Through; 'Kane' Astonishing Picture\".", "The ''Motion Picture Herald'' reported about the screening and Hearst's intention to sue RKO.", "''Time'' magazine wrote that \"The objection of Mr. Hearst, who founded a publishing empire on sensationalism, is ironic.", "For to most of the several hundred people who have seen the film at private screenings, ''Citizen Kane'' is the most sensational product of the U.S. movie industry.\"", "A second press screening occurred in April.When Schaefer rejected Hearst's offer to suppress the film, Hearst banned every newspaper and station in his media conglomerate from reviewing—or even mentioning—the film.", "He also had many movie theaters ban it, and many did not show it through fear of being socially exposed by his massive newspaper empire.", "The Oscar-nominated documentary ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' lays the blame for the film's relative failure squarely at the feet of Hearst.", "The film did decent business at the box office; it went on to be the sixth highest grossing film in its year of release, a modest success its backers found acceptable.", "Nevertheless, the film's commercial performance fell short of its creators' expectations.", "Hearst's biographer David Nasaw points out that Hearst's actions were not the only reason ''Kane'' failed, however: the innovations Welles made with narrative, as well as the dark message at the heart of the film (that the pursuit of success is ultimately futile) meant that a popular audience could not appreciate its merits.Hearst's attacks against Welles went beyond attempting to suppress the film.", "Welles said that while he was on his post-filming lecture tour a police detective approached him at a restaurant and advised him not to go back to his hotel.", "A 14-year-old girl had reportedly been hidden in the closet of his room, and two photographers were waiting for him to walk in.", "Knowing he would be jailed after the resulting publicity, Welles did not return to the hotel but waited until the train left town the following morning.", "\"But that wasn't Hearst,\" Welles said, \"that was a hatchet man from the local Hearst paper who thought he would advance himself by doing it.", "\"In March 1941, Welles directed a Broadway version of Richard Wright's ''Native Son'' (and, for luck, used a \"Rosebud\" sled as a prop).", "''Native Son'' received positive reviews, but Hearst-owned papers used the opportunity to attack Welles as a communist.", "The Hearst papers vociferously attacked Welles after his April 1941 radio play, \"His Honor, the Mayor\", produced for The Free Company radio series on CBS.Welles described his chance encounter with Hearst in an elevator at the Fairmont Hotel on the night ''Citizen Kane'' opened in San Francisco.", "Hearst and Welles's father were acquaintances, so Welles introduced himself and asked Hearst if he would like to come to the opening.", "Hearst did not respond.", "\"As he was getting off at his floor, I said, 'Charles Foster Kane would have accepted.'", "No reply\", recalled Welles.", "\"And Kane would have, you know.", "That was his style—just as he finished Jed Leland's bad review of Susan as an opera singer.", "\"In 1945, Hearst journalist Robert Shaw wrote that the film got \"a full tide of insensate fury\" from Hearst papers, \"then it ebbed suddenly.", "With one brain cell working, the chief realized that such hysterical barking by the trained seals would attract too much attention to the picture.", "But to this day the name of Orson Welles is on the official son-of-a-bitch list of every Hearst newspaper\".Despite Hearst's attempts to destroy the film, since 1941 references to his life and career have usually included a reference to ''Citizen Kane'', such as the headline 'Son of Citizen Kane Dies' for the obituary of Hearst's son.", "In 2012, the Hearst estate agreed to screen the film at Hearst Castle in San Simeon, breaking Hearst's ban on the film.===Contemporary responses===''Citizen Kane'' received acclaim from several critics.", "''New York Daily News'' critic Kate Cameron called it \"one of the most interesting and technically superior films that has ever come out of a Hollywood studio\".", "''New York World-Telegram'' critic William Boehnel said that the film was \"staggering and belongs at once among the greatest screen achievements\".", "''Time'' magazine wrote that \"it has found important new techniques in picture-making and story-telling.\"", "''Life'' magazine's review said that \"few movies have ever come from Hollywood with such powerful narrative, such original technique, such exciting photography.\"", "John C. Mosher of ''The New Yorker'' called the film's style \"like fresh air\" and raved \"Something new has come to the movie world at last.\"", "Anthony Bower of ''The Nation'' called it \"brilliant\" and praised the cinematography and performances by Welles, Comingore and Cotten.", "John O'Hara's ''Newsweek'' review called it the best picture he'd ever seen and said Welles was \"the best actor in the history of acting.\"", "Welles called O'Hara's review \"the greatest review that anybody ever had.", "\"The day following the premiere of ''Citizen Kane,'' ''The New York Times'' critic Bosley Crowther wrote that \"... it comes close to being the most sensational film ever made in Hollywood.", "\"Count on Mr. Welles: he doesn't do things by halves. ...", "Upon the screen he discovered an area large enough for his expansive whims to have free play.", "And the consequence is that he has made a picture of tremendous and overpowering scope, not in physical extent so much as in its rapid and graphic rotation of thoughts.", "Mr. Welles has put upon the screen a motion picture that really moves.In the UK C. A. Lejeune of ''The Observer'' called it \"The most exciting film that has come out of Hollywood in twenty-five years\" and Dilys Powell of ''The Sunday Times'' said the film's style was made \"with the ease and boldness and resource of one who controls and is not controlled by his medium.\"", "Edward Tangye Lean of ''Horizon'' praised the film's technical style, calling it \"perhaps a decade ahead of its contemporaries.", "\"A few reviews were mixed.", "Otis Ferguson of ''The New Republic'' said it was \"the boldest free-hand stroke in major screen production since Griffith and Bitzer were running wild to unshackle the camera\", but also criticized its style, calling it a \"retrogression in film technique\" and stating that \"it holds no great place\" in film history.", "Ferguson reacted to some of the film's celebrated visual techniques by calling them \"just willful dabbling\" and \"the old shell game.\"", "In a rare film review, filmmaker Erich von Stroheim criticized the film's story and non-linear structure, but praised the technical style and performances, and wrote \"Whatever the truth may be about it, ''Citizen Kane'' is a great picture and will go down in screen history.", "More power to Welles!", "\"Some prominent critics wrote negative reviews.", "In his 1941 review for ''Sur'', Jorge Luis Borges famously called the film \"a labyrinth with no center\" and predicted that its legacy would be a film \"whose historical value is undeniable but which no one cares to see again.\"", "''The Argus Weekend Magazine'' critic Erle Cox called the film \"amazing\" but thought that Welles's break with Hollywood traditions was \"overdone\".", "''Tatler''s James Agate called it \"the well-intentioned, muddled, amateurish thing one expects from high-brows\" and \"a quite good film which tries to run the psychological essay in harness with your detective thriller, and doesn't quite succeed.\"", "Eileen Creelman of ''The New York Sun'' called it \"a cold picture, unemotional, a puzzle rather than a drama\".", "Other people who disliked the film were W. H. Auden and James Agee.", "After watching the film on January 29, 1942 Kenneth Williams, then aged 15, writing in his first diary curtly described it as \"boshey rot\".Modern critics have given ''Citizen Kane'' an even more positive response.", "Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 99% of 125 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 9.70/10.The site's critical consensus reads: \"Orson Welles's epic tale of a publishing tycoon's rise and fall is entertaining, poignant, and inventive in its storytelling, earning its reputation as a landmark achievement in film.\"", "In April 2021, it was noted that the addition of an 80-year-old negative review from the ''Chicago Tribune'' reduced the film's rating from 100% to 99% on the site; ''Citizen Kane'' held its 100% rating until early 2021.On Metacritic, however, the film still has a rare weighted average score of 100 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".===Accolades=== Award Category Nominee(s) Result Academy Awards Outstanding Motion Picture Mercury Best Director Orson Welles Best Actor Best Original Screenplay Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson Welles Best Art Direction–Interior Decoration – Black-and-White Perry Ferguson, Van Nest Polglase, Al Fields and Darrell Silvera Best Cinematography – Black-and-White Gregg Toland Best Film Editing Robert Wise Best Scoring of a Dramatic Picture Bernard Herrmann Best Sound Recording John Aalberg DVD Exclusive Awards Best Audio Commentary Roger Ebert National Board of Review Awards Best Film Top Ten Films Best Acting George Coulouris Orson Welles National Film Preservation Board National Film Registry New York Film Critics Circle Awards Best Film Best Director Orson Welles Best Actor Online Film & Television Association Awards Hall of Fame – Motion Picture Online Film Critics Society Awards Best Overall DVD Satellite Awards Best Classic DVD ''Citizen Kane: Ultimate Collector's Edition'' Saturn Awards Best DVD/Blu-Ray Special Edition Release ''Citizen Kane: 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition'' Village Voice Film Poll Best Film of the Century The National Board of Review recognized both Welles and George Coulouris for their performances in ''Citizen Kane'', which was also voted the best film of 1941.It was widely believed the film would win most of its Academy Award nominations, but it received only the award for Best Original Screenplay.", "''Variety'' reported that block voting by screen extras deprived ''Citizen Kane'' of Best Picture and Best Actor, and similar prejudices were likely to have been responsible for the film receiving no technical awards." ], [ "Legacy", "''Citizen Kane'' was the only film made under Welles's original contract with RKO Pictures, which gave him complete creative control.", "Welles's new business manager and attorney permitted the contract to lapse.", "In July 1941, Welles reluctantly signed a new and less favorable deal with RKO under which he produced and directed ''The Magnificent Ambersons'' (1942), produced ''Journey into Fear'' (1943), and began ''It's All True'', a film he agreed to do without payment.", "In the new contract Welles was an employee of the studio and lost the right to final cut, which later allowed RKO to modify and re-cut ''The Magnificent Ambersons'' over his objections.", "In June 1942, Schaefer resigned the presidency of RKO Pictures and Welles's contract was terminated by his successor.===Release in Europe===During World War II, ''Citizen Kane'' was not seen in most European countries.", "It was shown in France for the first time on July 10, 1946, at the Marbeuf theater in Paris.", "Initially most French film critics were influenced by the negative reviews of Jean-Paul Sartre in 1945 and Georges Sadoul in 1946.At that time many French intellectuals and filmmakers shared Sartre's negative opinion that Hollywood filmmakers were uncultured.", "Sartre criticized the film's flashbacks for its nostalgic and romantic preoccupation with the past instead of the realities of the present and said that \"the whole film is based on a misconception of what cinema is all about.", "The film is in the past tense, whereas we all know that cinema has got to be in the present tense.", "\"André Bazin, a then little-known film critic working for Sartre's ''Les Temps modernes'', was asked to give an impromptu speech about the film after a screening at the Colisée Theatre in the autumn of 1946 and changed the opinion of much of the audience.", "This speech led to Bazin's 1947 article \"The Technique of Citizen Kane\", which directly influenced public opinion about the film.", "Carringer wrote that Bazin was \"the one who did the most to enhance the film's reputation.\"", "Both Bazin's critique of the film and his theories about cinema itself centered around his strong belief in mise-en-scène.", "These theories were diametrically opposed to both the popular Soviet montage theory and the politically Marxist and anti-Hollywood beliefs of most French film critics at that time.", "Bazin believed that a film should depict reality without the filmmaker imposing their \"will\" on the spectator, which the Soviet theory supported.", "Bazin wrote that ''Citizen Kane''s mise-en-scène created a \"new conception of filmmaking\" and that the freedom given to the audience from the deep focus shots was innovative by changing the entire concept of the cinematic image.", "Bazin wrote extensively about the mise-en-scène in the scene where Susan Alexander attempts suicide, which was one long take while other films would have used four or five shots in the scene.", "Bazin wrote that the film's mise-en-scène \"forces the spectator to participate in the meaning of the film\" and creates \"a psychological realism which brings the spectator back to the real conditions of perception.", "\"In his 1950 essay \"The Evolution of the Language of Cinema\", Bazin placed ''Citizen Kane'' center stage as a work which ushered in a new period in cinema.", "One of the first critics to defend motion pictures as being on the same artistic level as literature or painting, Bazin often used the film as an example of cinema as an art form and wrote that \"Welles has given the cinema a theoretical restoration.", "He has enriched his filmic repertory with new or forgotten effects that, in today's artistic context, take on a significance we didn't know they could have.\"", "Bazin also compared the film to Roberto Rossellini's ''Paisan'' for having \"the same aesthetic concept of realism\" and to the films of William Wyler shot by Toland (such as ''The Little Foxes'' and ''The Best Years of Our Lives''), all of which used deep focus cinematography that Bazin called \"a dialectical step forward in film language.", "\"Bazin's praise of the film went beyond film theory and reflected his own philosophy towards life itself.", "His metaphysical interpretations about the film reflected humankind's place in the universe.", "Bazin believed that the film examined one person's identity and search for meaning.", "It portrayed the world as ambiguous and full of contradictions, whereas films up until then simply portrayed people's actions and motivations.", "Bazin's biographer Dudley Andrew wrote that:The world of ''Citizen Kane'', that mysterious, dark, and infinitely deep world of space and memory where voices trail off into distant echoes and where meaning dissolves into interpretation, seemed to Bazin to mark the starting point from which all of us try to construct provisionally the sense of our lives.Bazin went on to co-found ''Cahiers du cinéma'', whose contributors (including future film directors François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard) also praised the film.", "The popularity of Truffaut's auteur theory helped the film's and Welles's reputation.===Re-evaluation===By 1942 ''Citizen Kane'' had run its course theatrically and, apart from a few showings at big city arthouse cinemas, it largely vanished and both the film's and Welles's reputation fell among American critics.", "In 1949 critic Richard Griffith in his overview of cinema, ''The Film Till Now'', dismissed ''Citizen Kane'' as \"... tinpot if not crackpot Freud.", "\"In the United States, it was neglected and forgotten until its revival on television in the mid-to-late 1950s.", "Three key events in 1956 led to its re-evaluation in the United States: first, RKO was one of the first studios to sell its library to television, and early that year ''Citizen Kane'' started to appear on television; second, the film was re-released theatrically to coincide with Welles's return to the New York stage, where he played ''King Lear''; and third, American film critic Andrew Sarris wrote \"Citizen Kane: The American Baroque\" for ''Film Culture'', and described it as \"the great American film\" and \"the work that influenced the cinema more profoundly than any American film since ''The Birth of a Nation''.\"", "Carringer considers Sarris's essay as the most important influence on the film's reputation in the US.During Expo 58, a poll of over 100 film historians named ''Kane'' one of the top ten greatest films ever made (the group gave first-place honors to ''Battleship Potemkin'').", "When a group of young film directors announced their vote for the top six, they were booed for not including the film.In the decades since, its critical status as one of the greatest films ever made has grown, with numerous essays and books on it including Peter Cowie's ''The Cinema of Orson Welles'', Ronald Gottesman's ''Focus on Citizen Kane'', a collection of significant reviews and background pieces, and most notably Kael's essay, \"Raising Kane\", which promoted the value of the film to a much wider audience than it had reached before.", "Despite its criticism of Welles, it further popularized the notion of ''Citizen Kane'' as the great American film.", "The rise of art house and film society circuits also aided in the film's rediscovery.", "David Thomson said that the film 'grows with every year as America comes to resemble it.", "\"The British magazine ''Sight & Sound'' has produced a Top Ten list surveying film critics every decade since 1952, and is regarded as one of the most respected barometers of critical taste.", "''Citizen Kane'' was a runner up to the top 10 in its 1952 poll but was voted as the greatest film ever made in its 1962 poll, retaining the top spot in every subsequent poll until 2012, when ''Vertigo'' displaced it.The film has also ranked number one in the following film \"best of\" lists: Julio Castedo's ''The 100 Best Films of the Century'', Cahiers du cinéma's 100 films pour une cinémathèque idéale, ''Kinovedcheskie Zapiski'', ''Time Out'' magazine's Top 100 Films (Centenary), ''The Village Voice''s 100 Greatest Films, and The Royal Belgian Film Archive's Most Important and Misappreciated American Films.Roger Ebert called ''Citizen Kane'' the greatest film ever made: \"But people don't always ask about the greatest film.", "They ask, 'What's your favorite movie?'", "Again, I always answer with ''Citizen Kane''.", "\"In 1998 ''Time Out'' conducted a reader's poll and ''Citizen Kane'' was voted 3rd best film of all time.", "On February 18, 1999, the United States Postal Service honored ''Citizen Kane'' by including it in its Celebrate the Century series.", "The film was honored again in February 25, 2003, in a series of U.S. postage stamps marking the 75th anniversary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.", "Art director Perry Ferguson represents the behind-the-scenes craftsmen of filmmaking in the series; he is depicted completing a sketch for ''Citizen Kane''.", "''Citizen Kane'' was ranked number one in the American Film Institute's polls of film industry artists and leaders in 1998 and 2007.", "\"Rosebud\" was chosen as the 17th most memorable movie quotation in a 2005 AFI poll.", "The film's score was one of 250 nominees for the top 25 film scores in American cinema in another 2005 AFI poll.", "In 2005 the film was included on ''Time''s All-Time 100 best movies list.In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild published a list of the 75 best-edited films of all time based on a survey of its membership.", "''Citizen Kane'' was listed second.", "In 2015, ''Citizen Kane'' ranked 1st on BBC's \"100 Greatest American Films\" list, voted on by film critics from around the world.===Influence===''Citizen Kane'' has been called the most influential film of all time.", "Richard Corliss has asserted that Jules Dassin's 1941 film ''The Tell-Tale Heart'' was the first example of its influence and the first pop culture reference to the film occurred later in 1941 when the spoof comedy ''Hellzapoppin''' featured a \"Rosebud\" sled.", "The film's cinematography was almost immediately influential and in 1942 ''American Cinematographer'' wrote \"without a doubt the most immediately noticeable trend in cinematography methods during the year was the trend toward crisper definition and increased depth of field.", "\"The cinematography influenced John Huston's ''The Maltese Falcon''.", "Cinematographer Arthur Edeson used a wider-angle lens than Toland and the film includes many long takes, low angles and shots of the ceiling, but it did not use deep focus shots on large sets to the extent that ''Citizen Kane'' did.", "Edeson and Toland are often credited together for revolutionizing cinematography in 1941.Toland's cinematography influenced his own work on ''The Best Years of Our Lives''.", "Other films influenced include ''Gaslight'', ''Mildred Pierce'' and ''Jane Eyre''.", "Cinematographer Kazuo Miyagawa said that his use of deep focus was influenced by \"the camera work of Gregg Toland in ''Citizen Kane''\" and not by traditional Japanese art.Its cinematography, lighting, and flashback structure influenced such film noirs of the 1940s and 1950s as ''The Killers'', ''Keeper of the Flame'', ''Caught'', ''The Great Man'' and ''This Gun for Hire''.", "David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson have written that \"For over a decade thereafter American films displayed exaggerated foregrounds and somber lighting, enhanced by long takes and exaggerated camera movements.\"", "However, by the 1960s filmmakers such as those from the French New Wave and Cinéma vérité movements favored \"flatter, more shallow images with softer focus\" and ''Citizen Kane''s style became less fashionable.", "American filmmakers in the 1970s combined these two approaches by using long takes, rapid cutting, deep focus and telephoto shots all at once.", "Its use of long takes influenced films such as ''The Asphalt Jungle'', and its use of deep focus cinematography influenced ''Gun Crazy'', ''The Whip Hand'', ''The Devil's General'' and ''Justice Is Done''.", "The flashback structure in which different characters have conflicting versions of past events influenced ''La commare secca'' and ''Man of Marble''.The film's structure influenced the biographical films ''Lawrence of Arabia'' and ''Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters''—which begin with the subject's death and show their life in flashbacks—as well as Welles's thriller ''Mr.", "Arkadin''.", "Rosenbaum sees similarities in the film's plot to ''Mr.", "Arkadin'', as well as the theme of nostalgia for loss of innocence throughout Welles's career, beginning with ''Citizen Kane'' and including ''The Magnificent Ambersons'', ''Mr.", "Arkadin'' and ''Chimes at Midnight''.", "Rosenbaum also points out how the film influenced Warren Beatty's ''Reds''.", "The film depicts the life of Jack Reed through the eyes of Louise Bryant, much as Kane's life is seen through the eyes of Thompson and the people who he interviews.", "Rosenbaum also compared the romantic montage between Reed and Bryant with the breakfast table montage in ''Citizen Kane''.Akira Kurosawa's ''Rashomon'' is often compared to the film due to both having complicated plot structures told by multiple characters in the film.", "Welles said his initial idea for the film was \"Basically, the idea ''Rashomon'' used later on,\" however Kurosawa had not yet seen the film before making ''Rashomon'' in 1950.Nigel Andrews has compared the film's complex plot structure to ''Rashomon'', ''Last Year at Marienbad'', ''Memento'' and ''Magnolia''.", "Andrews also compares Charles Foster Kane to Michael Corleone in ''The Godfather'', Jake LaMotta in ''Raging Bull'' and Daniel Plainview in ''There Will Be Blood'' for their portrayals of \"haunted megalomaniacs, presiding over the shards of their own lives.", "\"The films of Paul Thomas Anderson have been compared to it.", "''Variety'' compared ''There Will Be Blood'' to the film and called it \"one that rivals ''Giant'' and ''Citizen Kane'' in our popular lore as origin stories about how we came to be the people we are.\"", "''The Master'' has been called \"movieland's only spiritual sequel to ''Citizen Kane'' that doesn't shrivel under the hefty comparison\".", "''The Social Network'' has been compared to the film for its depiction of a media mogul and by the character Erica Albright being similar to \"Rosebud\".", "The controversy of the Sony hacking before the release of ''The Interview'' brought comparisons of Hearst's attempt to suppress the film.", "The film's plot structure and some specific shots influenced Todd Haynes's ''Velvet Goldmine''.", "Abbas Kiarostami's ''The Traveler'' has been called \"the ''Citizen Kane'' of the Iranian children's cinema.\"", "The film's use of overlapping dialogue has influenced the films of Robert Altman and Carol Reed.", "Reed's films ''Odd Man Out'', ''The Third Man'' (in which Welles and Cotten appeared) and ''Outcast of the Islands'' were also influenced by the film's cinematography.Many directors have listed it as one of the greatest films ever made, including Woody Allen, Michael Apted, Les Blank, Kenneth Branagh, Paul Greengrass, Satyajit Ray, Michel Hazanavicius, Michael Mann, Sam Mendes, Jiří Menzel, Paul Schrader, Martin Scorsese, Denys Arcand, Gillian Armstrong, John Boorman, Roger Corman, Alex Cox, Miloš Forman, Norman Jewison, Richard Lester, Richard Linklater, Paul Mazursky, Ronald Neame, Sydney Pollack and Stanley Kubrick.", "Yasujirō Ozu said it was his favorite non-Japanese film and was impressed by its techniques.", "François Truffaut said that the film \"has inspired more vocations to cinema throughout the world than any other\" and recognized its influence in ''The Barefoot Contessa'', ''Les Mauvaises Rencontres'', ''Lola Montès'', and ''8 1/2''.", "Truffaut's ''Day for Night'' pays tribute to the film in a dream sequence depicting a childhood memory of the character played by Truffaut stealing publicity photos from the film.", "Numerous film directors have cited the film as influential on their own films, including Theo Angelopoulos, Luc Besson, the Coen brothers, Francis Ford Coppola, Brian De Palma, John Frankenheimer, Stephen Frears, Sergio Leone, Michael Mann, Ridley Scott, Martin Scorsese, Bryan Singer and Steven Spielberg.", "Ingmar Bergman disliked the film and called it \"a total bore.", "Above all, the performances are worthless.", "The amount of respect that movie has is absolutely unbelievable!", "\"William Friedkin said that the film influenced him and called it \"a veritable quarry for filmmakers, just as Joyce's ''Ulysses'' is a quarry for writers.\"", "The film has also influenced other art forms.", "Carlos Fuentes's novel ''The Death of Artemio Cruz'' was partially inspired by the film and the rock band The White Stripes paid unauthorized tribute to the film in the song \"The Union Forever\".===Film memorabilia===In 1982, film director Steven Spielberg bought a \"Rosebud\" sled for $60,500; it was one of three balsa sleds used in the closing scenes and the only one that was not burned.", "Spielberg eventually donated the sled to the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures as he stated he felt it belonged in a museum.", "After the Spielberg purchase, it was reported that retiree Arthur Bauer claimed to own another \"Rosebud\" sled.", "In early 1942, when Bauer was 12, he had won an RKO publicity contest and selected the hardwood sled as his prize.", "In 1996, Bauer's estate offered the painted pine sled at auction through Christie's.", "Bauer's son told CBS News that his mother had once wanted to paint the sled and use it as a plant stand, but Bauer told her to \"just save it and put it in the closet.\"", "The sled was sold to an anonymous bidder for $233,500.Welles's Oscar for Best Original Screenplay was believed to be lost until it was rediscovered in 1994.It was withdrawn from a 2007 auction at Sotheby's when bidding failed to reach its estimate of $800,000 to $1.2 million.", "Owned by the charitable Dax Foundation, it was auctioned for $861,542 in 2011 to an anonymous buyer.", "Mankiewicz's Oscar was sold at least twice, in 1999 and again in 2012, the latest price being $588,455.In 1989, Mankiewicz's personal copy of the ''Citizen Kane'' script was auctioned at Christie's.", "The leather-bound volume included the final shooting script and a carbon copy of ''American'' that bore handwritten annotations—purportedly made by Hearst's lawyers, who were said to have obtained it in the manner described by Kael in \"Raising Kane\".", "Estimated to bring $70,000 to $90,000, it sold for a record $231,000.In 2007, Welles's personal copy of the last revised draft of ''Citizen Kane'' before the shooting script was sold at Sotheby's for $97,000.A second draft of the script titled ''American'', marked \"Mr. Welles' working copy\", was auctioned by Sotheby's in 2014 for $164,692.A collection of 24 pages from a working script found in Welles's personal possessions by his daughter Beatrice Welles was auctioned in 2014 for $15,000.In 2014, a collection of approximately 235 ''Citizen Kane'' stills and production photos that had belonged to Welles was sold at auction for $7,812." ], [ "Rights and home media", "The composited camera negative of ''Citizen Kane'' is believed to be lost forever.", "The most commonly-reported explanation is that it was destroyed in a New Jersey film laboratory fire in the 1970s.", "However, in 2021, Nicolas Falacci revealed that he had been told \"the real story\" by a colleague, when he was one of two employees in the film restoration lab which assembled the 1991 \"restoration\" from the best available elements.", "Falacci noted that throughout the process he had daily visits in 1990-91 from an unnamed \"older RKO executive showing up every day – nervous and sweating\".", "According to Falacci's colleague, this elderly man was keen to cover up a clerical error he had made decades earlier when in charge of the studio's inventory, which had resulted in the original camera negatives being sent to a silver reclamation plant, destroying the nitrate film to extract its valuable silver content.", "Falacci's account is impossible to verify, but it would have been fully in keeping with industry standard practice for many decades, which was to destroy prints and negatives of countless older films deemed non-commercially viable, to extract the silver.Subsequent prints were derived from a master positive (a fine-grain preservation element) made in the 1940s and originally intended for use in overseas distribution.", "Modern techniques were used to produce a pristine print for a 50th Anniversary theatrical reissue in 1991 which Paramount Pictures released for then-owner Turner Broadcasting System, which earned $1.6 million in North America and worldwide.In 1955, RKO sold the American television rights to its film library, including ''Citizen Kane'', to C&C Television Corp.", "In 1960, television rights to the pre-1959 RKO's live-action library were acquired by United Artists.", "RKO kept the non-broadcast television rights to its library.In 1976, when home video was in its infancy, entrepreneur Snuff Garrett bought cassette rights to the RKO library for what United Press International termed \"a pittance\".", "In 1978 The Nostalgia Merchant released the film through Media Home Entertainment.", "By 1980 the 800-title library of The Nostalgia Merchant was earning $2.3 million a year.", "\"Nobody wanted cassettes four years ago,\" Garrett told UPI.", "\"It wasn't the first time people called me crazy.", "It was a hobby with me which became big business.\"", "RKO Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax in 1985.On December 3, 1984, The Criterion Collection released the film as its first LaserDisc.", "It was made from a fine grain master positive provided by the UCLA Film and Television Archive.", "When told about the then-new concept of having an audio commentary on the disc, Welles was skeptical but said \"theoretically, that's good for teaching movies, so long as they don't talk nonsense.\"", "In 1992 Criterion released a new 50th Anniversary Edition LaserDisc.", "This version had an improved transfer and additional special features, including the documentary ''The Legacy of Citizen Kane'' and Welles's early short ''The Hearts of Age''.Turner Broadcasting System acquired broadcast television rights to the RKO library in 1986 and the full worldwide rights to the library in 1987.The RKO Home Video unit was reorganized into Turner Home Entertainment that year.", "In 1991 Turner released a 50th Anniversary Edition on VHS and as a collector's edition that includes the film, the documentary ''Reflections On Citizen Kane'', Harlan Lebo's 50th anniversary album, a poster and a copy of the original script.", "In 1996, Time Warner acquired Turner and Warner Home Video absorbed Turner Home Entertainment.", "In 2011, Warner Bros.", "Discovery's Warner Bros. unit had distribution rights for the film.In 2001, Warner Home Video released a 60th Anniversary Collectors Edition DVD.", "The two-disc DVD included feature-length commentaries by Roger Ebert and Peter Bogdanovich, as well as a second DVD with the feature length documentary ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' (1999).", "It was simultaneously released on VHS.", "The DVD was criticized for being \" bright, ; the dirt and grime had been cleared away, but so had a good deal of the texture, the depth, and the sense of film grain.", "\"In 2003, Welles's daughter Beatrice Welles sued Turner Entertainment, claiming the Welles estate is the legal copyright holder of the film.", "She claimed that Welles's deal to terminate his contracts with RKO meant that Turner's copyright of the film was null and void.", "She also claimed that the estate of Orson Welles was owed 20% of the film's profits if her copyright claim was not upheld.", "In 2007 she was allowed to proceed with the lawsuit, overturning the 2004 decision in favor of Turner Entertainment on the issue of video rights.In 2011, it was released on Blu-ray and DVD in a 70th Anniversary Edition.", "The ''San Francisco Chronicle'' called it \"the Blu-ray release of the year.\"", "Supplements included everything available on the 2001 Warner Home Video release, including ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' DVD.", "A 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition added a third DVD with ''RKO 281'' (1999), an award winning TV movie about the making of the film.", "Its packaging extras included a hardcover book and a folio containing mini reproductions of the original souvenir program, lobby cards, and production memos and correspondence.", "The transfer for the US releases were scanned as 4K resolution from three different 35mm prints and rectified the quality issues of the 2001 DVD.", "The rest of the world continued to receive home video releases based on the older transfer.", "This was partially rectified in 2016 with the release of the 75th Anniversary Edition in both the UK and US, which was a straight repackaging of the main disc from the 70th Anniversary Edition.On August 11, 2021 Criterion announced their first 4K Ultra HD releases, a six-film slate, would include ''Citizen Kane''.", "Criterion indicated each title was to be available in a combo pack including a 4K UHD disc of the feature film as well as the film and special features on the companion Blu-rays.", "''Citizen Kane'' was released on November 23, 2021 by the collection as a 4K and 3 Blu-ray disc package.", "However, the release was recalled because at the half-hour mark on the regular blu-ray, the contrast fell sharply, which resulted in a much darker image compared to what was supposed to occur.", "However this issue does not apply to the 4K version itself.===Colorization controversy===In the 1980s, ''Citizen Kane'' became a catalyst in the controversy over the colorization of black-and-white films.", "One proponent of film colorization was Ted Turner, whose Turner Entertainment Company owned the RKO library.", "A Turner Entertainment spokesperson initially stated that ''Citizen Kane'' would not be colorized, but in July 1988 Turner said, \"''Citizen Kane?''", "I'm thinking of colorizing it.\"", "In early 1989 it was reported that two companies were producing color tests for Turner Entertainment.", "Criticism increased when filmmaker Henry Jaglom stated that shortly before his death Welles had implored him \"don't let Ted Turner deface my movie with his crayons.", "\"In February 1989, Turner Entertainment President Roger Mayer announced that work to colorize the film had been stopped due to provisions in Welles's 1939 contract with RKO that \"could be read to prohibit colorization without permission of the Welles estate.\"", "Mayer added that Welles's contract was \"quite unusual\" and \"other contracts we have checked out are not like this at all.\"", "Turner had only colorized the final reel of the film before abandoning the project.", "In 1991 one minute of the colorized test footage was included in the BBC ''Arena'' documentary ''The Complete Citizen Kane''.The colorization controversy was a factor in the passage of the National Film Preservation Act in 1988 which created the National Film Registry the following year.", "ABC News anchor Peter Jennings reported that \"one major reason for doing this is to require people like the broadcaster Ted Turner, who's been adding color to some movies and re-editing others for television, to put notices on those versions saying that the movies have been altered\"." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bazin, André.", "''The Technique of Citizen Kane''.", "Paris, France: Les Temps modernes 2, number 17, 1947.pp. 943–949.", "* Biskind, Peter (ed.", "), Jaglom, Henry and Welles, Orson.", "''My Lunches with Orson: Conversations between Henry Jaglom and Orson Welles''.", "New York: Metropolitan Books, 2013..* Bogdanovich, Peter and Welles, Orson.", "''This is Orson Welles''.", "HarperPerennial 1992.", "* Bogdanovich, Peter and Welles, Orson (uncredited).", "\"The Kane Mutiny\", in ''Esquire'', October 1972.", "* Brady, Frank.", "''Citizen Welles: A Biography of Orson Welles''.", "New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989..* Callow, Simon.", "''Orson Welles: The Road to Xanadu''.", "London: Jonathan Cape, 1995.", "* Carringer, Robert L. ''The Making of Citizen Kane''.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985.hardcover; 1996 revised and updated edition paperback* Carringer, Robert L. \"The Scripts of ''Citizen Kane''\", in ''Critical Inquiry'' No.", "5, 1978.", "* Cook, David A.", "''A History of Narrative Film''.", "W.W. Norton Company, 2004.", "* Gottesman, Ronald (ed.).", "''Focus on Citizen Kane''.", "Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976.", "* Gottesman, Ronald (ed.).", "''Perspectives on Citizen Kane''.", "New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1996.", "* Heylin, Clinton.", "''Despite the System: Orson Welles Versus the Hollywood Studios'', Chicago Review Press, 2005.", "* Howard, James.", "''The Complete Films of Orson Welles''.", "New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1991..* Kael, Pauline, Welles, Orson and Mankiewicz, Herman J.", "''The Citizen Kane Book''.", "Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1971.", "* Leaming, Barbara.", "''Orson Welles, A Biography''.", "New York: Viking Press, 1985..* Meryman, Richard.", "''Mank: The Wit, World and Life of Herman Mankiewicz''.", "New York: William Morrow and Company, 1978..* Mulvey, Laura.", "''Citizen Kane''.", "London: British Film Institute, 1992.", "* Naremore, James (ed.).", "''Orson Welles's Citizen Kane: A Casebook in Criticism''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.", "* Nasaw, David.", "''The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst.''", "New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.", "* Rippy, Marguerite H. ''Orson Welles and the Unfinished RKO Projects: A Postmodern Perspective''.", "Southern Illinois University Press, Illinois, 2009.", "* Rosenbaum, Jonathan.", "\"I Missed It at the Movies: Objections to 'Raising Kane'\", in ''Film Comment'', Spring 1972.", "* Stern, Sydney Ladensohn.", "''The Brothers Mankiewicz: Hope, Heartbreak, and Hollywood Classics''.", "Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2019." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===Database===* * * * * * * * Citizen Kane at Cinema Belgica===Other===* \"''Citizen Kane'': The Once and Future Kane\", essay by Bilge Ebiri on The Criterion Collection* ''Citizen Kane'' essay by Godfrey Cheshire on the National Film Registry website*''Citizen Kane'' essay by Daniel Eagan in ''America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry'', A&C Black, 2010 , pp.", "735–737* ''Citizen Kane'' bibliography via the UC Berkeley Media Resources Center* The American Film Institute's \"100 Greatest Movies\" list* ''Citizen Kane'' and Bernard Herrmann's film score* PBS: ''Citizen Kane'' (Archived)* ''Bright Lights Film Journal'' Essay* Roger Ebert: ''Citizen Kane''* ''The Unofficial Citizen Kane Page''* ''Time'' Magazine Top 100* Greatest films* DVD review* \"Scene-by-scene analysis\" at Movie Movie" ] ]

[ [ "Code" ], [ "Introduction", "In communications and information processing, '''code''' is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium.", "An early example is an invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they thought, saw, heard, or felt to others.", "But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered.", "The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time.The process of '''encoding''' converts information from a source into symbols for communication or storage.", "'''Decoding''' is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient understands, such as English or/and Spanish.One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language, spoken or written, is difficult or impossible.", "For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaler or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters, and numbers.", "Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent." ], [ "Theory", "In information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an algorithm that uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by ''encoded'' strings, which may be in some other target alphabet.", "An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings.Before giving a mathematically precise definition, this is a brief example.", "The mapping:is a code, whose source alphabet is the set and whose target alphabet is the set .", "Using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols ''acab''.Using terms from formal language theory, the precise mathematical definition of this concept is as follows: let S and T be two finite sets, called the source and target alphabets, respectively.", "A '''code''' is a total function mapping each symbol from S to a sequence of symbols over T. The '''extension''' of , is a homomorphism of into , which naturally maps each sequence of source symbols to a sequence of target symbols.=== Variable-length codes ===In this section, we consider codes that encode each source (clear text) character by a code word from some dictionary, and concatenation of such code words give us an encoded string.", "Variable-length codes are especially useful when clear text characters have different probabilities; see also entropy encoding.A ''prefix code'' is a code with the \"prefix property\": there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix (start) of any other valid code word in the set.", "Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes.", "Prefix codes are widely referred to as \"Huffman codes\" even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm.", "Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes, the country and publisher parts of ISBNs, and the Secondary Synchronization Codes used in the UMTS WCDMA 3G Wireless Standard.Kraft's inequality characterizes the sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code.", "Virtually any uniquely decodable one-to-many code, not necessarily a prefix one, must satisfy Kraft's inequality.=== Error-correcting codes ===Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage.", "This so-called error-correcting code works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data.", "Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Walsh–Hadamard, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, algebraic geometry codes, low-density parity-check codes, and space–time codes.Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect ''burst errors'', or ''random errors''." ], [ "Examples", "=== Codes in communication used for brevity ===A cable code replaces words (e.g.", "''ship'' or ''invoice'') with shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly, and less expensively.Codes can be used for brevity.", "When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long-distance communication, elaborate systems of commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single mouths (commonly five-minute groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such \"words\" as ''BYOXO'' (\"Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?", "\"), ''LIOUY'' (\"Why do you not answer my question?", "\"), ''BMULD'' (\"You're a skunk!", "\"), or ''AYYLU'' (\"Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly.\").", "Code words were chosen for various reasons: length, pronounceability, etc.", "Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes.", "Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as a front for the American Black Chamber run by Herbert Yardley between the First and Second World Wars.", "The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs.", "The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more-frequently used characters have shorter representations.", "Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission.=== Character encodings ===Character encodings are representations of textual data.", "A given character encoding may be associated with a specific character set (the collection of characters which it can represent), though some character sets have multiple character encodings and vice versa.", "Character encodings may be broadly grouped according to the number of bytes required to represent a single character: there are single-byte encodings, multibyte (also called wide) encodings, and variable-width (also called variable-length) encodings.", "The earliest character encodings were single-byte, the best-known example of which is ASCII.", "ASCII remains in use today, for example in HTTP headers.", "However, single-byte encodings cannot model character sets with more than 256 characters.", "Scripts that require large character sets such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean must be represented with multibyte encodings.", "Early multibyte encodings were fixed-length, meaning that although each character was represented by more than one byte, all characters used the same number of bytes (\"word length\"), making them suitable for decoding with a lookup table.", "The final group, variable-width encodings, is a subset of multibyte encodings.", "These use more complex encoding and decoding logic to efficiently represent large character sets while keeping the representations of more commonly used characters shorter or maintaining backward compatibility properties.", "This group includes UTF-8, an encoding of the Unicode character set; UTF-8 is the most common encoding of text media on the Internet.=== Genetic code ===Biological organisms contain genetic material that is used to control their function and development.", "This is DNA, which contains units named genes from which messenger RNA is derived.", "This in turn produces proteins through a genetic code in which a series of triplets (codons) of four possible nucleotides can be translated into one of twenty possible amino acids.", "A sequence of codons results in a corresponding sequence of amino acids that form a protein molecule; a type of codon called a stop codon signals the end of the sequence.=== Gödel code ===In mathematics, a Gödel code was the basis for the proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorem.", "Here, the idea was to map mathematical notation to a natural number (using a Gödel numbering).=== Other ===There are codes using colors, like traffic lights, the color code employed to mark the nominal value of the electrical resistors or that of the trashcans devoted to specific types of garbage (paper, glass, organic, etc.", ").In marketing, coupon codes can be used for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product from a (usual internet) retailer.In military environments, specific sounds with the cornet are used for different uses: to mark some moments of the day, to command the infantry on the battlefield, etc.Communication systems for sensory impairments, such as sign language for deaf people and braille for blind people, are based on movement or tactile codes.Musical scores are the most common way to encode music.Specific games have their own code systems to record the matches, e.g.", "chess notation.=== Cryptography ===In the history of cryptography, codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead.Secret codes intended to obscure the real messages, ranging from serious (mainly espionage in military, diplomacy, business, etc.)", "to trivial (romance, games) can be any kind of imaginative encoding: flowers, game cards, clothes, fans, hats, melodies, birds, etc., in which the sole requirement is the pre-agreement on the meaning by both the sender and the receiver." ], [ "Other examples", "Other examples of encoding include:*Encoding (in cognition) - a basic perceptual process of interpreting incoming stimuli; technically speaking, it is a complex, multi-stage process of converting relatively objective sensory input (e.g., light, sound) into a subjectively meaningful experience.", "*A content format - a specific encoding format for converting a specific type of data to information.", "*Text encoding uses a markup language to tag the structure and other features of a text to facilitate processing by computers.", "(See also Text Encoding Initiative.", ")*Semantics encoding of formal language A informal language B is a method of representing all terms (e.g.", "programs or descriptions) of language A using language B.", "*Data compression transforms a signal into a code optimized for transmission or storage, generally done with a codec.", "*Neural encoding - the way in which information is represented in neurons.", "*Memory encoding - the process of converting sensations into memories.", "*Television encoding: NTSC, PAL and SECAMOther examples of decoding include:* Decoding (computer science)* Decoding methods, methods in communication theory for decoding codewords sent over a noisy channel* Digital signal processing, the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals* Digital-to-analog converter, the use of analog circuit for decoding operations* Word decoding, the use of phonics to decipher print patterns and translate them into the sounds of language" ], [ "Codes and acronyms", "Acronyms and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense, all languages and writing systems are codes for human thought.International Air Transport Association airport codes are three-letter codes used to designate airports and used for bag tags.", "Station codes are similarly used on railways but are usually national, so the same code can be used for different stations if they are in different countries.Occasionally, a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word.", "For example, '30' was widely used in journalism to mean \"end of story\", and has been used in other contexts to signify \"the end\"." ], [ "See also", "* Asemic writing* Cipher* Code (semiotics)* Equipment codes* Quantum error correction* Semiotics* Universal language" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Cheirogaleidae" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cheirogaleidae''' are the family of strepsirrhine primates containing the various dwarf and mouse lemurs.", "Like all other lemurs, '''cheirogaleids''' live exclusively on the island of Madagascar." ], [ "Characteristics", "Cheirogaleids are smaller than the other lemurs and, in fact, they are the smallest primates.", "They have soft, long fur, colored grey-brown to reddish on top, with a generally brighter underbelly.", "Typically, they have small ears, large, close-set eyes, and long hind legs.", "Like all strepsirrhines, they have fine claws at the second toe of the hind legs.", "They grow to a size of only 13 to 28 cm, with a tail that is very long, sometimes up to one and a half times as long as the body.", "They weigh no more than 500 grams, with some species weighing as little as 60 grams.Dwarf and mouse lemurs are nocturnal and arboreal.", "They are excellent climbers and can also jump far, using their long tails for balance.", "When on the ground (a rare occurrence), they move by hopping on their hind legs.", "They spend the day in tree hollows or leaf nests.", "Cheirogaleids are typically solitary, but sometimes live together in pairs.Their eyes possess a tapetum lucidum, a light-reflecting layer that improves their night vision.", "Some species, such as the lesser dwarf lemur, store fat at the hind legs and the base of the tail, and hibernate.", "Unlike lemurids, they have long upper incisors, although they do have the comb-like teeth typical of all strepsirhines.", "They have the dental formula: Cheirogaleids are omnivores, eating fruits, flowers and leaves (and sometimes nectar), as well as insects, spiders, and small vertebrates.The females usually have three pairs of nipples.", "After a meager 60-day gestation, they will bear two to four (usually two or three) young.", "After five to six weeks, the young are weaned and become fully mature near the end of their first year or sometime in their second year, depending on the species.", "In human care, they can live for up to 15 years, although their life expectancy in the wild is probably significantly shorter." ], [ "Classification", "The five genera of cheirogaleids contain 42 species.", "* Infraorder Lemuriformes** '''Family Cheirogaleidae'''*** Genus ''Cheirogaleus'': dwarf lemurs**** Montagne d'Ambre dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus andysabini''**** Furry-eared dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus crossleyi''**** Groves' dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus grovesi''**** Lavasoa dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus lavasoensis''**** Greater dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus major''**** Fat-tailed dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus medius''**** Lesser iron-gray dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus minusculus''**** Ankarana dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus shethi''**** Sibree's dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus sibreei''**** Thomas' dwarf lemur, ''Cheirogaleus thomasi''*** Genus ''Microcebus'': mouse lemurs****Arnhold's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus arnholdi''**** Madame Berthe's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus berthae''**** Bongolava mouse lemur ''Microcebus bongolavensis''**** Boraha mouse lemur ''Microcebus boraha''**** Danfoss' mouse lemur ''Microcebus danfossi''**** Ganzhorn's mouse lemur.", "''Microcebus ganzhorni''**** Gerp's mouse lemur.", "''Microcebus gerpi''**** Reddish-gray mouse lemur, ''Microcebus griseorufus''**** Jolly's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus jollyae''**** Jonah's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus jonahi''**** Goodman's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus lehilahytsara''**** MacArthur's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus macarthurii''**** Claire's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus mamiratra'', synonymous to ''M.", "lokobensis''**** Bemanasy mouse lemur, ''Microcebus manitatra''**** Margot Marsh's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus margotmarshae''**** Marohita mouse lemur, ''Microcebus marohita''**** Mittermeier's mouse lemur, ''Microcebus mittermeieri''**** Gray mouse lemur, ''Microcebus murinus''**** Pygmy mouse lemur, ''Microcebus myoxinus''**** Golden-brown mouse lemur, ''Microcebus ravelobensis''**** Brown mouse lemur, ''Microcebus rufus''**** Sambirano mouse lemur, ''Microcebus sambiranensis''**** Simmons' mouse lemur, ''Microcebus simmonsi''**** Anosy mouse lemur.", "''Microcebus tanosi''**** Northern rufous mouse lemur, ''Microcebus tavaratra''*** Genus ''Mirza'': giant mouse lemurs**** Coquerel's giant mouse lemur or Coquerel's dwarf lemur, ''Mirza coquereli''**** Northern giant mouse lemur, ''Mirza zaza''*** Genus ''Allocebus''**** Hairy-eared dwarf lemur, ''Allocebus trichotis''*** Genus ''Phaner'': fork-marked lemurs**** Masoala fork-marked lemur, ''Phaner furcifer''**** Pale fork-marked lemur, ''Phaner pallescens''**** Pariente's fork-marked lemur, ''Phaner parienti''**** Amber Mountain fork-marked lemur, ''Phaner electromontis''" ], [ "Footnotes", "*According to the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the correct name for this family should be Microcebidae, but the name Cheirogaleidae has been retained for stability.", "*In 2008, 7 new species of ''Microcebus'' were formally recognized, but ''Microcebus lokobensis'' (Lokobe mouse lemur) was not among the additions, even though it was described in 2006.Therefore, its status as a species is still questionable." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Callitrichidae" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Callitrichidae''' (also called '''Arctopitheci''' or '''Hapalidae''') are a family of New World monkeys, including marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins.", "At times, this group of animals has been regarded as a subfamily, called the '''Callitrichinae''', of the family Cebidae.This taxon was traditionally thought to be a primitive lineage, from which all the larger-bodied platyrrhines evolved.", "However, some works argue that callitrichids are actually a dwarfed lineage.Ancestral stem-callitrichids likely were \"normal-sized\" ceboids that were dwarfed through evolutionary time.", "This may exemplify a rare example of insular dwarfing in a mainland context, with the \"islands\" being formed by biogeographic barriers during arid climatic periods when forest distribution became patchy, and/or by the extensive river networks in the Amazon Basin.All callitrichids are arboreal.", "They are the smallest of the simian primates.", "They eat insects, fruit, and the sap or gum from trees; occasionally, they take small vertebrates.", "The marmosets rely quite heavily on tree exudates, with some species (e.g.", "''Callithrix jacchus'' and ''Cebuella pygmaea'') considered obligate exudativores.Callitrichids typically live in small, territorial groups of about five or six animals.", "Their social organization is unique among primates, and is called a \"cooperative polyandrous group\".", "This communal breeding system involves groups of multiple males and females, but only one female is reproductively active.", "Females mate with more than one male and each shares the responsibility of carrying the offspring.They are the only primate group that regularly produces twins, which constitute over 80% of births in species that have been studied.", "Unlike other male primates, male callitrichids generally provide as much parental care as females.", "Parental duties may include carrying, protecting, feeding, comforting, and even engaging in play behavior with offspring.", "In some cases, such as in the cotton-top tamarin (''Saguinus oedipus''), males, particularly those that are paternal, even show a greater involvement in caregiving than females.", "The typical social structure seems to constitute a breeding group, with several of their previous offspring living in the group and providing significant help in rearing the young." ], [ "Species and subspecies list", "Emperor tamarin (''Saguinus imperator'')Taxa included in the Callitrichidae are:*'''Family Callitrichidae'''** Genus ''Saguinus''*** Subgenus ''Saguinus''**** Red-handed tamarin, ''Saguinus midas''**** Western black tamarin, ''Saguinus niger''**** Eastern black-handed tamarin, ''Saguinus ursulus''**** Pied tamarin, ''Saguinus bicolor''**** Martins's tamarin, ''Saguinus martinsi''***** ''Saguinus martinsi martinsi''***** ''Saguinus martinsi ochraceus''**** White-footed tamarin, ''Saguinus leucopus''**** Cottontop tamarin, ''Saguinus oedipus''**** Geoffroy's tamarin, ''Saguinus geoffroyi''*** Subgenus ''Tamarinus''**** Moustached tamarin, ''Saguinus mystax''***** Spix's moustached tamarin, ''Saguinus mystax mystax''***** Red-capped moustached tamarin, ''Saguinus mystax pileatus''***** White-rump moustached tamarin, ''Saguinus mystax pluto''**** White-lipped tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus''***** Geoffroy's red-bellied tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus labiatus''***** Gray's red-bellied tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus rufiventer''***** Thomas's red-bellied tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus thomasi''**** Emperor tamarin, ''Saguinus imperator''***** Black-chinned emperor tamarin, ''Saguinus imperator imperator''***** Bearded emperor tamarin, ''Saguinus imperator subgrisescens''**** Mottle-faced tamarin, ''Saguinus inustus''** Genus ''Leontocebus''*** Black-mantled tamarin, ''Leontocebus nigricollis''**** Spix's black-mantle tamarin, ''Leontocebus nigricollis nigricollis''**** Graells's tamarin, ''Leontocebus nigricollis graellsi''**** Hernández-Camacho's black-mantle tamarin, ''Leontocebus nigricollis hernandezi''*** Brown-mantled tamarin, ''Leontocebus fuscicollis''**** Avila Pires' saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus fuscicollis avilapiresi''**** Spix's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus fuscicollis fuscicollis''**** Mura's saddleback tamarin, ''Leontocebus fuscicollis mura''**** Lako's saddleback tamarin, ''Leontocebus fuscicollis primitivus''*** Andean saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus leucogenys''*** Lesson's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus fuscus''*** Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus cruzlimai''*** Weddell's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus weddelli''**** Weddell's tamarin, ''Leontocebus weddelli weddelli''**** Crandall's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus weddelli crandalli''**** White-mantled tamarin, ''Leontocebus weddelli melanoleucus''*** Golden-mantled tamarin, ''Leontocebus tripartitus''*** Illiger's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus illigeri''*** Red-mantled saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus lagonotus''*** Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin, ''Leontocebus nigrifrons''** Genus ''Leontopithecus''*** Golden lion tamarin, ''Leontopithecus rosalia''*** Golden-headed lion tamarin, ''Leontopithecus chrysomelas''*** Black lion tamarin, ''Leontopithecus chrysopygus''*** Superagui lion tamarin, ''Leontopithecus caissara''** Genus ''Patasola''*** ''Patasola magdalenae''** Genus ''Micodon''*** ''Micodon kiotensis''** Genus ''Callimico''*** Goeldi's marmoset, ''Callimico goeldii''** Genus ''Mico''*** Silvery marmoset, ''Mico argentatus''*** Roosmalens' dwarf marmoset, ''Mico humilis''*** White marmoset, ''Mico leucippe''*** Black-tailed marmoset, ''Mico melanurus''*** Schneider's marmoset, ''Mico schneideri''*** Hershkovitz's marmoset, ''Mico intermedia''*** Emilia's marmoset, ''Mico emiliae''*** Black-headed marmoset, ''Mico nigriceps''*** Marca's marmoset, ''Mico marcai''*** Santarem marmoset, ''Mico humeralifer''*** Gold-and-white marmoset, ''Mico chrysoleucos''*** Maués marmoset, ''Mico mauesi''*** Sateré marmoset, ''Mico saterei''*** Rio Acarí marmoset, ''Mico acariensis''*** Rondon's marmoset, ''Mico rondoni''*** Munduruku marmoset, ''Mico munduruku''** Genus ''Cebuella''*** Western pygmy marmoset, ''Cebuella pygmaea''*** Eastern pygmy marmoset, ''Cebuella niveiventris''** Genus ''Callithrix''*** Common marmoset, ''Callithrix jacchus''*** Black-tufted marmoset, ''Callithrix penicillata''*** Wied's marmoset, ''Callithrix kuhlii''*** White-headed marmoset, ''Callithrix geoffroyi''*** Buffy-tufted marmoset, ''Callithrix aurita''*** Buffy-headed marmoset, ''Callithrix flaviceps''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Cebidae" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cebidae''' are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised.", "Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys.", "These species are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America." ], [ "Characteristics", "Cebid monkeys are arboreal animals that only rarely travel on the ground.", "They are generally small monkeys, ranging in size up to that of the brown capuchin, with a body length of 33 to 56 cm, and a weight of 2.5 to 3.9 kilograms.", "They are somewhat variable in form and coloration, but all have the wide, flat, noses typical of New World monkeys.They are omnivorous, mostly eating fruit and insects, although the proportions of these foods vary greatly between species.", "They have the dental formula:Females give birth to one or two young after a gestation period of between 130 and 170 days, depending on species.", "They are social animals, living in groups of between five and forty individuals, with the smaller species typically forming larger groups.", "They are generally diurnal in habit." ], [ "Classification", "Previously, New World monkeys were divided between Callitrichidae and this family.", "For a few recent years, marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins were placed as a subfamily (Callitrichinae) in Cebidae, while moving other genera from Cebidae into the families Aotidae, Pitheciidae and Atelidae.", "The most recent classification of New World monkeys again splits the callitrichids off, leaving only the capuchins and squirrel monkeys in this family.White-fronted capuchin (''Cebus albifrons'');* Subfamily Cebinae (capuchin monkeys)** Genus ''Cebus'' (gracile capuchin monkeys)*** Colombian white-faced capuchin or Colombian white-headed capuchin, ''Cebus capucinus''*** Panamanian white-faced capuchin or Panamanian white-headed capuchin, ''Cebus imitator''*** Marañón white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus yuracus''*** Shock-headed capuchin, ''Cebus cuscinus''*** Spix's white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus unicolor''*** Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus albifrons''*** Guianan weeper capuchin, ''Cebus olivaceus''*** Chestnut capuchin, ''Cebus castaneus''*** Ka'apor capuchin, ''Cebus kaapori''*** Venezuelan brown capuchin, ''Cebus brunneus''*** Sierra de Perijá white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus leucocephalus''*** Río Cesar white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus cesare''*** Varied white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus versicolor''*** Santa Marta white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus malitiosus''*** Ecuadorian white-fronted capuchin, ''Cebus aequatorialis''** Genus ''Sapajus'' (robust capuchin monkeys)*** Tufted capuchin, ''Sapajus apella''*** Blond capuchin, ''Sapajus flavius''*** Black-striped capuchin, ''Sapajus libidinosus''*** Azaras's capuchin, ''Sapajus cay''*** Black capuchin, ''Sapajus nigritus''*** Crested capuchin, ''Sapajus robustus''*** Golden-bellied capuchin, ''Sapajus xanthosternos''* Subfamily Saimiriinae (squirrel monkeys)** Genus ''Saimiri''*** Bare-eared squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri ustus''*** Black squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri vanzolinii''*** Black-capped squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri boliviensis''*** Central American squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri oerstedi''*** Guianan squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri sciureus''*** Humboldt's squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri cassiquiarensis''*** Collins' squirrel monkey, ''Saimiri collinsi''" ], [ "Extinct taxa", "*Genus ''Panamacebus''**''Panamacebus transitus''*Subfamily Cebinae**Genus ''Acrecebus''***''Acrecebus fraileyi''**Genus ''Killikaike''***''Killikaike blakei''**Genus ''Dolichocebus''***''Dolichocebus gaimanensis''*Subfamily Saimiriinae**Genus ''Saimiri''***''Saimiri fieldsi''***''Saimiri annectens''**Genus ''Patasola''***''Patasola magdalenae''" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Chondrichthyes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chondrichthyes''' (; ) is a class of jawed fish that contains the '''cartilaginous fish''' or '''chondrichthyians''', which all have skeletons primarily composed of cartilage.", "They can be contrasted with the Osteichthyes or ''bony fish'', which have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue.", "Chondrichthyes are aquatic vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, placoid scales, conus arteriosus in the heart, and a lack of opecula and swim bladders.", "Within the infraphylum Gnathostomata, cartilaginous fishes are distinct from all other jawed vertebrates.The class is divided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates and sawfish) and Holocephali (chimaeras, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their own class).", "Extant Chondrichthyes range in size from the finless sleeper ray to the over whale shark." ], [ "Anatomy", "===Skeleton===The skeleton is cartilaginous.", "The notochord is gradually replaced by a vertebral column during development, except in Holocephali, where the notochord stays intact.", "In some deepwater sharks, the column is reduced.As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the spleen and the epigonal organ (special tissue around the gonads, which is also thought to play a role in the immune system).", "They are also produced in the Leydig's organ, which is only found in certain cartilaginous fishes.", "The subclass Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both the Leydig's and epigonal organs.===Appendages===Apart from electric rays, which have a thick and flabby body, with soft, loose skin, chondrichthyans have tough skin covered with dermal teeth (again, Holocephali is an exception, as the teeth are lost in adults, only kept on the clasping organ seen on the caudal ventral surface of the male), also called placoid scales (or ''dermal denticles''), making it feel like sandpaper.", "In most species, all dermal denticles are oriented in one direction, making the skin feel very smooth if rubbed in one direction and very rough if rubbed in the other.Originally, the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect.", "In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and puboischiadic bars evolved.", "In rays, the pectoral fins are connected to the head and are very flexible.One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion.===Body covering===Chondrichthyans have tooth-like scales called dermal denticles or placoid scales.", "Denticles usually provide protection, and in most cases, streamlining.", "Mucous glands exist in some species, as well.It is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from dermal denticles that migrated into the mouth, but it could be the other way around, as the teleost bony fish ''Denticeps clupeoides'' has most of its head covered by dermal teeth (as does, probably, ''Atherion elymus'', another bony fish).", "This is most likely a secondary evolved characteristic, which means there is not necessarily a connection between the teeth and the original dermal scales.The old placoderms did not have teeth at all, but had sharp bony plates in their mouth.", "Thus, it is unknown whether the dermal or oral teeth evolved first.", "It has even been suggested that the original bony plates of ''all'' vertebrates are now gone and that the present scales are just modified teeth, even if both the teeth and body armor had a common origin a long time ago.", "However, there is currently no evidence of this.===Respiratory system===All chondrichthyans breathe through five to seven pairs of gills, depending on the species.", "In general, pelagic species must keep swimming to keep oxygenated water moving through their gills, whilst demersal species can actively pump water in through their spiracles and out through their gills.", "However, this is only a general rule and many species differ.A spiracle is a small hole found behind each eye.", "These can be tiny and circular, such as found on the nurse shark (''Ginglymostoma cirratum''), to extended and slit-like, such as found on the wobbegongs (Orectolobidae).", "Many larger, pelagic species, such as the mackerel sharks (Lamnidae) and the thresher sharks (Alopiidae), no longer possess them.===Nervous system===rostral end of the skate is to the right.In chondrichthyans, the nervous system is composed of a small brain, 8–10 pairs of cranial nerves, and a spinal cord with spinal nerves.", "They have several sensory organs which provide information to be processed.", "Ampullae of Lorenzini are a network of small jelly filled pores called electroreceptors which help the fish sense electric fields in water.", "This aids in finding prey, navigation, and sensing temperature.", "The Lateral line system has modified epithelial cells located externally which sense motion, vibration, and pressure in the water around them.", "Most species have large well-developed eyes.", "Also, they have very powerful nostrils and olfactory organs.", "Their inner ears consist of 3 large semicircular canals which aid in balance and orientation.", "Their sound detecting apparatus has limited range and is typically more powerful at lower frequencies.", "Some species have electric organs which can be used for defense and predation.", "They have relatively simple brains with the forebrain not greatly enlarged.", "The structure and formation of myelin in their nervous systems are nearly identical to that of tetrapods, which has led evolutionary biologists to believe that Chondrichthyes were a cornerstone group in the evolutionary timeline of myelin development.===Immune system===Like all other jawed vertebrates, members of Chondrichthyes have an adaptive immune system." ], [ "Reproduction", "Fertilization is internal.", "Development is usually live birth (ovoviviparous species) but can be through eggs (oviparous).", "Some rare species are viviparous.", "There is no parental care after birth; however, some chondrichthyans do guard their eggs.Capture-induced premature birth and abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in sharks/rays when fished.", "Capture-induced parturition is often mistaken for natural birth by recreational fishers and is rarely considered in commercial fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing sharks and rays (88 species to date)." ], [ "Classification", "The class Chondrichthyes has two subclasses: the subclass Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates, and sawfish) and the subclass Holocephali (chimaeras).", "To see the full list of the species, click here.", "Subclasses of cartilaginous fishes Elasmobranchii 140px right Elasmobranchii is a subclass that includes the sharks and the rays and skates.", "Members of the elasmobranchii have no swim bladders, five to seven pairs of gill clefts opening individually to the exterior, rigid dorsal fins, and small placoid scales.", "The teeth are in several series; the upper jaw is not fused to the cranium, and the lower jaw is articulated with the upper.", "The eyes have a tapetum lucidum.", "The inner margin of each pelvic fin in the male fish is grooved to constitute a clasper for the transmission of sperm.", "These fish are widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters.", "Holocephali 140px Holocephali ''(complete-heads)'' is a subclass of which the order Chimaeriformes is the only surviving group.", "This group includes the rat fishes (e.g., ''Chimaera''), rabbit-fishes (e.g., ''Hydrolagus'') and elephant-fishes (''Callorhynchus'').", "Today, they preserve some features of elasmobranch life in Paleaozoic times, though in other respects they are aberrant.", "They live close to the bottom and feed on molluscs and other invertebrates.", "The tail is long and thin and they move by sweeping movements of the large pectoral fins.", "There is an erectile spine in front of the dorsal fin, sometimes poisonous.", "There is no stomach (that is, the gut is simplified and the 'stomach' is merged with the intestine), and the mouth is a small aperture surrounded by lips, giving the head a parrot-like appearance.The fossil record of the Holocephali starts in the Devonian period.", "The record is extensive, but most fossils are teeth, and the body forms of numerous species are not known, or at best poorly understood.", "Extant orders of cartilaginous fishes Group Order Image Common name Authority Families Genera Species Note Total File:CR IUCN 3 1.svg File:EN IUCN 3 1.svg File:VU IUCN 3 1.svg Galeansharks Carcharhiniformes 140px groundsharks Compagno, 1977 8 51 >270 7 10 21 Heterodontiformes 140px bullheadsharks L. S. Berg, 1940 1 1 9 Lamniformes 140px mackerelsharks L. S. Berg, 1958 7+2 extinct 10 16 10 Orectolobiformes 140px carpetsharks Applegate, 1972 7 13 43 7 Squalomorphsharks Hexanchiformes 140px frilledandcow sharks de Buen, 1926 2+3 extinct 4+11 extinct 7+33 extinct Pristiophoriformes 140px sawsharks L. S. Berg, 1958 1 2 6 Squaliformes 140px dogfishsharks Goodrich, 1909 7 23 126 1 6 Squatiniformes 140px angelsharks Buen, 1926 1 1 24 3 4 5 Rays Myliobatiformes 140px stingraysandrelatives Compagno, 1973 10 29 223 1 16 33 Rhinopristiformes 140px sawfishes 1 2 5–7 5–7 Rajiformes 140px skatesandguitarfishes L. S. Berg, 1940 5 36 >270 4 12 26 Torpediniformes 140px electricrays de Buen, 1926 2 12 69 2 9 Holocephali Chimaeriformes 140px chimaera Obruchev, 1953 3+2 extinct 6+3 extinct 39+17 extinct Taxonomy according to Leonard Compagno, 2005 with additions from *†Order Mongolepidiformes Karatajüte-Talimaa & Novitskaya, 1990*†Order Omalodontiformes Turner, 1997*†Order Coronodontiformes Zangerl, 1981*†Order Symmoriiformes Zangerl, 1981*Subclass Holocephali **†Superorder Paraselachimorpha ***†Order Desmiodontiformes Zangerl, 1981***†Order Polysentoriformes Cappetta, 1993***†Order Orodontiformes Zangerl, 1981***†Order Petalodontiformes Zangerl, 1981***†Order Helodontiformes Patterson, 1965***†Order Iniopterygiformes Zanger, 1973***†Order Debeeriiformes Grogan & Lund, 2000***†Order Eugeneodontiformes Zangerl, 1981**Superorder Holocephalimorpha ***†Order Psammodontiformes* Obruchev, 1953***†Order Copodontiformes Obručhev, 1953***†Order Squalorajiformes ***†Order Chondrenchelyiformes Moy-Thomas, 1939***†Order Menaspiformes ***†Order Cochliodontiformes Obručhev, 1953***Order Chimaeriformes Berg, 1940 sensu Obručhev, 1953 (chimaeras)*Subclass Elasmobranchii**†''Plesioselachus'' **†Order Antarctilamniformes Ginter, Liao & Valenzuela-Rios, 2008**†Order Elegestolepidiformes Andreev ''et al.", "'', 2016**†Order Lugalepidida Karatajute-Talimaa, 1997**†Order Squatinactiformes Zangerl, 1981**†Order Protacrodontiformes Zangerl, 1981**†Infraclass Cladoselachimorpha ***†Order Cladoselachiformes Dean, 1909**†Infraclass Xenacanthimorpha Berg, 1940***†Order Bransonelliformes Hampe & Ivanov, 2007***†Order Xenacanthiformes Berg, 1940**Infraclass Euselachii (sharks and rays)***†Order Altholepidiformes Andreev ''et al.", "'', 2015***†Order Polymerolepidiformes ***†Order Ptychodontiformes ***†Order Ctenacanthiformes Zangerl, 1981***†Division Hybodonta****†Order Hybodontiformes Owen, 1846***Division Neoselachii Compagno, 1977****Subdivision Selachii (modern sharks)*****Superorder Galeomorphi Compagno, 1977******Order Heterodontiformes (bullhead sharks)******Order Orectolobiformes (carpet sharks)******Order Lamniformes (mackerel sharks)******Order Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks)*****Superorder Squalomorphi******Order Chlamydoselachiformes******Order Hexanchiformes (frilled and cow sharks)******Order Squaliformes (dogfish sharks)******†Order Protospinaciformes******†Order Synechodontiformes******Order Squatiniformes (angel sharks)******Order Pristiophoriformes (sawsharks)****Subdivision Batoidea*****Order Torpediniformes (electric rays)*****Order Pristiformes (sawfishes)*****Order Rajiformes (skates and guitarfishes)*****Order Myliobatiformes (stingrays and relatives)* position uncertain" ], [ "Evolution", "Cartilaginous fish are considered to have evolved from acanthodians.", "The discovery of ''Entelognathus'' and several examinations of acanthodian characteristics indicate that bony fish evolved directly from placoderm like ancestors, while acanthodians represent a paraphyletic assemblage leading to Chondrichthyes.", "Some characteristics previously thought to be exclusive to acanthodians are also present in basal cartilaginous fish.", "In particular, new phylogenetic studies find cartilaginous fish to be well nested among acanthodians, with ''Doliodus'' and ''Tamiobatis'' being the closest relatives to Chondrichthyes.", "Recent studies vindicate this, as ''Doliodus'' had a mosaic of chondrichthyan and acanthodian traits.", "Dating back to the Middle and Late Ordovician Period, many isolated scales, made of dentine and bone, have a structure and growth form that is chondrichthyan-like.", "They may be the remains of stem-chondrichthyans, but their classification remains uncertain.The earliest unequivocal fossils of acanthodian-grade cartilaginous fishes are ''Qianodus'' and ''Fanjingshania'' from the early Silurian (Aeronian) of Guizhou, China around 439 million years ago, which are also the oldest unambiguous remains of any jawed vertebrates.", "''Shenacanthus vermiformis'', which lived 436 million years ago, had thoracic armour plates resembling those of placoderms.By the start of the Early Devonian, 419 million years ago, jawed fishes had divided into three distinct groups: the now extinct placoderms (a paraphyletic assemblage of ancient armoured fishes), the bony fishes, and the clade that includes spiny sharks and early cartilaginous fish.", "The modern bony fishes, class Osteichthyes, appeared in the late Silurian or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago.", "The first abundant genus of shark, ''Cladoselache'', appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period.", "The first Cartilaginous fishes evolved from ''Doliodus''-like spiny shark ancestors.", "Extinct orders of cartilaginous fishes Group Order Image Common name Authority Families Genera Species Note Holocephali †Orodontiformes 140px †Petalodontiformes 147x147px Petalodonts Zangerl, 1981 4 Members of the holocephali, some genera resembled parrot fish, but some members of the Janassidae resembled skates.", "†Helodontiformes †Iniopterygiformes 140px Members of the holocephali that resembled flying fish, are often characterized by large eyes, large upturned pectoral fins, and club-like tails.", "†Debeeriiformes †Symmoriida 147x147px Symmoriids Zangerl, 1981 (sensu Maisey, 2007) 4 Members of the holocephali, they were heavily sexually dimorphic.", "†Eugeneodontida 140px Eugeneodonts EugeneodontidaZangerl, 1981 4 Members of the holocephali, they are characterized by large tooth whorls in their jaws.", "†Psammodonti-formes Position uncertain †Copodontiformes †Squalorajiformes †Chondrenchelyi-formes 140px †Menaspiformes 140px †Cochliodontiformes Squalomorphsharks †Protospinaci-formes Other †Squatinactiformes 140px Cappetta et al., 1993 1 1 †Protacrodonti-formes †Cladoselachi-formes 140x140px Dean, 1894 1 2 Holocephalans, and potential members of the symmoriida.", "†Xenacanthiformes 147x147px Xenacanths Glikman, 1964 4 Eel-like elasmobranchs that were some of the top freshwater predators of the late Paleozoic.", "†Ctenacanthi-formes 147x147px Ctenacanths Glikman, 1964 2 Shark-like elasmobranchs characterized by their robust heads and large dorsal fin spines.", "†Hybodontiformes 147x147px Hybodonts Patterson, 1966 5 Shark-like elasmobranchs distinguished by their conical tooth shape, and the presence of a spine on each of their two dorsal fins." ], [ "Taxonomy", " Subphylum '''Vertebrata''' └─'''Infraphylum Gnathostomata''' ├─Placodermi — ''extinct'' (armored gnathostomes) └'''Eugnathostomata''' (true jawed vertebrates) ├─Acanthodii (stem cartilaginous fish) └─Chondrichthyes (true cartilaginous fish) ├─Holocephali (chimaeras + several extinct clades) └Elasmobranchii (shark and rays) ├─Selachii (true sharks) └─Batoidea (rays and relatives) *'''Note''': Lines show evolutionary relationships." ], [ "See also", "* List of cartilaginous fish* Cartilaginous versus bony fishes* Largest cartilaginous fishes* Threatened rays* Threatened sharks* Placodermi" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Taxonomy of Chondrichthyes* Images of many sharks, skates and rays on Morphbank" ] ]

[ [ "Carl Linnaeus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carl Linnaeus''' (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as '''Carl von Linné''', was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms.", "He is known as the \"father of modern taxonomy\".", "Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as '''''' and, after his 1761 ennoblement, as ''''''.Linnaeus was the son of a curate and he was born in Råshult, the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden.", "He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730.He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his '''' in the Netherlands.", "He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala.", "In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals.", "In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes.", "By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe.Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: \"Tell him I know no greater man on Earth.\"", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: \"With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.\"", "Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: \"Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.\"", "Linnaeus has been called '''' (Prince of Botanists) and \"The Pliny of the North\".", "He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology.In botany and zoology, the abbreviation '''L.'''", "is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name.", "In older publications, the abbreviation \"Linn.\"", "is found.", "Linnaeus's remains constitute the type specimen for the species ''Homo sapiens'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood===Birthplace at RåshultLinnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707.He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted the family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia.", "His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping), and Emerentia Linnæa.", "His father taught him Latin as a small child.One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister, and the curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland.", "Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius.A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult.", "The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house.Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular.", "Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him.", "Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names.", "Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants.Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname.", "Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson.", "When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund, he had to take on a family name.", "He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree (or lime tree), '''' in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead.", "This name was spelled with the æ ligature.", "When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name.", "The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications.", "Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus.===Early education===Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age.", "When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him.", "The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman.", "Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander \"was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them\".Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717.Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants.", "At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler.", "He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany.", "Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden.He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan (a gymnasium) in Växjö.", "Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine.", "By the age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature.", "He remarks in his journal that he \"read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis\".Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek, Hebrew, theology and mathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood.", "In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar.", "Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine.", "The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany.", "Nils accepted this offer." ], [ "University studies", "=== Lund ===Statue as a university student in Lund, by Ansgar AlmquistRothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject.", "He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system.", "Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant.", "In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Skåne.", "He was registered as '''', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany.", "He also gave the student free admission to his lectures.", "In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.===Uppsala===Pollination depicted in '''' (1729)In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany.", "Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg.", "Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching.", "Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him.", "The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state.", "In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist.", "He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, '''' on plant sexual reproduction.", "This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second-year student.", "His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people.", "In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children.", "His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions.", "Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own.", "His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils.", "He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, '''' and ''''.", "He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''''.Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine.", "Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that.", "Until December, Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine.", "In December, Linnaeus had a \"disagreement\" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer.", "That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years.", "His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University." ], [ "Expedition to Lapland", "Carl Linnaeus in Laponian costume (1737)During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards.", "Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals.", "He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras.", "In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.Wearing the traditional dress of the Sami people of Lapland, holding the twinflower, later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', that became his personal emblem.", "Martin Hoffman, 1737.Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25.He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants.", "Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite.", "He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio.", "He returned from his six-month-long, over expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks.", "Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants.", "These became the basis of his book ''''.", "However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.In '''' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora.", "The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes.", "It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with '''' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing.", "Botanical historian E. L. Greene described '''' as \"the most classic and delightful\" of Linnaeus's works.It was also during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals.", "Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: \"If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.", "\"In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna.", "Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros." ], [ "Years in the Dutch Republic (1735–38)", "The Hamburg Hydra, from the '''' (1734) of Albertus Seba.", "Linnaeus identified the hydra specimen as a fake in 1735.View of Hartekamp, where Carl von Linné lived and studied for three years, from 1735 until 1738Musa Cliffortiana'' (1736), Linnaeus's first botanical monographTitle page of ''Hortus Cliffortianus'' (1737).", "The work was a collaboration between Linnaeus and Georg Dionysius Ehret, financed by George Clifford III, one of the directors of the VOC.===Doctorate===Cities where he worked; those outside Sweden were only visited during 1735–1738.His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary.", "At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra.", "Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes.", "The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation.", "Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum.", "Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week.", "He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils.", "Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications.Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work.", "Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.===Publishing of ''''===One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden.", "The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants.", "When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing.", "With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as '''' (1735).Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there.", "Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat.", "Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman.", "After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter.", "During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''''.", "Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: '''' and ''''.===George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius===In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede.", "Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden.", "Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately.", "However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted.", "On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium.", "He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging.", "Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738.It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as \"the happiest time of my life\".", "(A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named \"Linnaeushof\".", "It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.", ")In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense.", "He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller.", "He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''''.", "Miller was in fact reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray at first.", "Linnaeus, nevertheless, applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary'', the conservative Scot actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists.", "He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768.Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius.", "He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards.", "Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as \"''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''\".", "Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour.", "He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants.", "The next year, 1737, he published '''', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with '''', with another sixty (''sexaginta'') genera.His work at Hartekamp led to another book, '''', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp.", "He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738.It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden.", "Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland.", "In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again.", "On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu.", "After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden." ], [ "Return to Sweden", "Wedding portraitWhen Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa.", "Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family.", "Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty.", "During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa.", "Their wedding was held 26 June 1739.Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl.", "Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old.", "Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.House in UppsalaIn May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters.", "Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead.", "In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.=== Öland and Gotland ===Ten days after he was appointed Professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine.", "First, they travelled to Öland and stayed there until 21 June, when they sailed to Visby in Gotland.", "Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala.", "During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants.", "The observations from the expedition were later published in '''', written in Swedish.", "Like '''', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: '''' and ''''. ''''", "was a strictly botanical book, while '''' was zoological.", "Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742.Celsius's scale was inverted compared to today, the boiling point at 0 °C and freezing point at 100 °C.", "In 1745, Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present standard.===Västergötland===In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland.", "He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August.", "On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey.", "Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book '''', published the next year.", "After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania.", "This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect.", "The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.===Scania===In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania, again commissioned by the Government.", "With him he brought his student, Olof Söderberg.", "On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year.", "The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles.", "While there, they also visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water.", "The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''''.===Rector of Uppsala University===Summer home at his Hammarby estateThe Linnaean Garden in UppsalaIn 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed.", "Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples.", "Linnaeus called the best of these students his \"apostles\".", "His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden.", "He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him.", "Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751.The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works.", "It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===Cover of ''Nutrix Noverca'' (1752)During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies.", "Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers.", "In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences.", "In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student.", "Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''.", "Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk.", "He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses.", "He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk.", "It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753.The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year.", "The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species.", "The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order.", "He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.===Ennoblement===His coat of armsLinnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja.", "The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby.", "He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added.", "In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala.", "He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants.", "A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.Since the initial release of '''' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758.This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''''.The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761.With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as ''''), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement.", "The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius.", "The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg \"to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''.\"", "At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads \"''Famam extendere factis''\": we extend our fame by our deeds.", "Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing.", "His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people.", "For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country.", "He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, \"the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire\", who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia).", "Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus).", "Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work.", "He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met." ], [ "Final years", "Headstone of him and his son Carl Linnaeus the YoungerLinnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after.", "In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work.", "He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness.", "He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén.", "He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him.", "He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby.", "Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children.", "Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala.", "In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son.", "She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection.", "The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books.", "Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married.", "His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3.There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters." ], [ "Apostles", "Carl Peter Thunberg was a VOC physician and an apostle of Linnaeus.Peter Forsskål was among the apostles who met a tragic fate abroad.During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called \"apostles\".", "They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help.", "The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition.", "To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys.", "Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system.", "Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished.", "Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland.", "The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.", "Many of the apostles died during their expeditions.===Early expeditions===Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746.He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China.", "Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year.", "Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström.", "Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America.", "There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada.", "Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds.", "At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.===Cook expeditions and Japan===Apostle Daniel Solander (far left) with Joseph Banks (left, sitting) accompanied James Cook (centre) on his journey to Australia.Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala.", "Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage.", "On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks.", "With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71.Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America.", "Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770.He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan.", "All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora.", "He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima.", "He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death." ], [ "Major publications", "===''Systema Naturae''===10th edition of ''Systema Naturæ'' (1758)The first edition of '''' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735.It was a twelve-page work.", "By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants.", "People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included.", "By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.In ''Systema Naturae'', the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as \"''''\", were supplemented with concise and now familiar \"binomials\", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet—in the case given, ''Physalis angulata''.", "These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species.", "Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner.", "Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community.After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions.", "Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.", "Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin.", "It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).===''Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis''===('Opinion of the learned world on the writings of Carl Linnaeus, Doctor') Published in 1740, this small octavo-sized pamphlet was presented to the State Library of New South Wales by the Linnean Society of NSW in 2018.This is considered among the rarest of all the writings of Linnaeus, and crucial to his career, securing him his appointment to a professorship of medicine at Uppsala University.", "From this position he laid the groundwork for his radical new theory of classifying and naming organisms for which he was considered the founder of modern taxonomy.===''''==='''' (or, more fully, '''') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work.", "Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.====''''===='''' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera.", "Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition.", "In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes.", "One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).====''''===='''' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in '''' (1736) and '''' (1737).", "Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his '''' and '''': all were printed in Holland (as were '''' (1737) and '''' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm." ], [ "Collections", "''Linnaeus'' marble by Léon-Joseph Chavalliaud (1899), outside the Palm House at Sefton Park, LiverpoolAt the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden.", "Next to his own collection he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749).", "The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils were incorporated to the private collection rather than to the museum.", "Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature and he said in 1754 \"the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers\".", "He had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town, and shortly afterwards to a single-room stone building close to his country house at Hammarby near Uppsala.", "This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections; the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university.", "Some material which needed special care (alcohol specimens) or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum.In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects.", "Carl von Linné's son (Carl Linnaeus) inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783.Shortly after Carl von Linné's death his son confirmed that mice had caused \"horrible damage\" to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage.", "He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father's later years, and also added further specimens.", "This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material.In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London.", "Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England.", "Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away.", "Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.Much material which had been intensively studied by Linné in his scientific career belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782) (in the Linnean publications referred to as \"Museum Ludovicae Ulricae\" or \"M. L.", "U.\").", "This collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804.Another important collection in this respect was that of her husband King Adolf Fredrik (1710–1771) (in the Linnean sources known as \"Museum Adolphi Friderici\" or \"Mus.", "Ad.", "Fr.", "\"), the wet parts (alcohol collection) of which were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and is today housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm.", "The dry material was transferred to Uppsala." ], [ "System of taxonomy", "Table of the Animal Kingdom ('''') from the 1st edition of '''' (1735)The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature.", "During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences.", "A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms.", "Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species).", "Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology.", "Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences.", "Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them.", "Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.", "While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid \"observable characteristics\" have changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus's time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their evolutionary relationships), the fundamental principle remains sound.=== Human taxonomy ===Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''.German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 noted this as the \"most important sign of Linnaeus's genius\".Linnaeus classified humans among the primates beginning with the first edition of ''''.", "During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man.", "He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences.", "Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning \"manlike.\"", "This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like.", "In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:File:Antropomorpha12c.png|thumb|left|Detail from the sixth edition of '''' (1748) describing ''Anthropomorpha|Anthropomorpha'' with a division between ''Homo'' and ''Simia''The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well.", "This was something many could not accept.", "The conflict between world views that was caused by asserting man was a type of animal would simmer for a century until the much greater, and still ongoing, creation–evolution controversy began in earnest with the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' by Charles Darwin in 1859.After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly.", "The 10th edition of '''' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter of which would replace ''Anthropomorpha'' as well as giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''.", "The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it.", "Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it.", "In his book '''', he said, \"One should not vent one's wrath on animals, Theology decree that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica,' but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.", "\"''Anthropomorpha'', from the 1760 dissertation by C. E. Hoppius1.Troglodyta Bontii, 2.Lucifer Aldrovandi, 3.Satyrus Tulpii, 4.Pygmaeus EdwardiLinnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in '''' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (\"caveman\") and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''.", "Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus.", "For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence.", "''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.In the first edition of '''', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: \"Europæus albescens\" (whitish European), \"Americanus rubescens\" (reddish American), \"Asiaticus fuscus\" (tawny Asian) and \"Africanus nigriculus\" (blackish African).In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to \"luridus\" (yellow).", "While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism.", "Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon \"monstrosus\" for \"wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people\".In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus to be the lectotype of ''H.", "sapiens''." ], [ "Influences and economic beliefs", "Statue on University of Chicago campusLinnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism.", "Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist.", "He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels." ], [ "Commemoration", "1907 celebration in RåshultAnniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations.", "Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes.", "There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world.", "The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888.Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University.", "Other things named after Linnaeus include the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae), the crater Linné on the Earth's moon, a street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the cobalt sulfide mineral Linnaeite." ], [ "Commentary", "Andrew Dickson White wrote in ''A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom'' (1896):The mathematical PageRank algorithm, applied to 24 multilingual Wikipedia editions in 2014, published in ''PLOS ONE'' in 2015, placed Carl Linnaeus at the top historical figure, above Jesus, Aristotle, Napoleon, and Adolf Hitler (in that order).In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human \"races\" has been problematised and discussed.", "Some critics claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human \"races\" were superior to others." ], [ "Standard author abbreviation" ], [ "Selected publications by Linnaeus", "* * * * Linnaeus, Carl 1846 ''Fauna svecica.", "Sistens Animalia Sveciae Regni: Quadrupedia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes, distributae per classes & ordines, genera & species''.", "C. Wishoff & G.J.", "Wishoff, Lugdnuni Batavorum.", "* * ''see also Species Plantarum''* * * * *" ], [ "See also", "* Linnaeus's flower clock* Johann Bartsch, colleague* ''Centuria Insectorum''* History of botany* History of phycology* Scientific revolution" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Broberg, Gunnar.", "''The Man Who Organized Nature: The Life of Linnaeus'' (Princeton University Press, 2023) online book review* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Biographies'''* Biography at the Department of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala* Biography at The Linnean Society of London* Biography from the University of California Museum of Paleontology* A four-minute biographical video from the London Natural History Museum on YouTube* Biography from Taxonomic Literature, 2nd Edition.", "1976–2009.", "'''Resources'''* * * The Linnean Society of London* The Linnaeus Apostles* The Linnean Collections* The Linnean Correspondence* Linnaeus's Disciples and Apostles* The Linnaean Dissertations* Linnean Herbarium* The Linnaeus Tercentenary* Works by Carl von Linné at the Biodiversity Heritage Library* Digital edition: \"Critica Botanica\" by the University and State Library Düsseldorf* Digital edition: \"Classes plantarum seu systemata plantarum\" by the University and State Library Düsseldorf* ''Oratio de telluris habitabilis incremento'' (1744) – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library'''Other'''* Linnaeus was depicted by Jay Hosler in a parody of ''Peanuts'' titled \" Good ol' Charlie Darwin\".", "* The 15 March 2007 issue of ''Nature'' featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading \"Linnaeus's Legacy\" and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy.", "* A tattoo of Linnaeus's definition of the order Primates mentioned by Carl Zimmer* ''Ginkgo biloba'' tree at the University of Harderwijk, said to have been planted by Linnaeus in 1735*''SL Magazine,'' Spring 2018 features an article by Nicholas Sparks, librarian, Collection Strategy and Development titled ''Origins of Taxonomy,'' describing a generous donation from the Linnean Society of NSW to supplement the State Library of New South Wales's collections on Carl Linnaeus of documents, photographs, prints and drawings as well as a fine portrait of Linnaeus painted about 1800." ] ]

[ [ "Coast" ], [ "Introduction", "Sunrise on the Jersey Shore coastline at Spring Lake, New Jersey, U.S.West Coast Region of New ZealandSoutheast coast of GreenlandEscorca coast, Serra de Tramuntana (Balearic Islands)The '''coast''', also known as the '''coastline''', '''shoreline''' or '''seashore''', is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline.", "Shores are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape, as well as by water induced erosion, such as waves.", "The geological composition of rock and soil dictates the type of shore which is created.", "The Earth has around of coastline.", "Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity.", "On land, they harbor important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands, which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals.", "In wave-protected areas they harbor saltmarshes, mangroves or seagrasses, all of which can provide nursery habitat for finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic species.", "Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of sessile animals (e.g.", "mussels, starfish, barnacles) and various kinds of seaweeds.", "In physical oceanography, a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, while the beach is at the edge of the shore, representing the intertidal zone where there is one.", "Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found between depths of .According to an atlas prepared by the United Nations, 44% of all humans live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.", "Due to its importance in society and its high population concentrations, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to humankind.", "For example, important human activities happen in port cities.", "Coastal fisheries (commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and aquaculture are major economic activities and create jobs, livelihoods, and protein for the majority of coastal human populations.", "Other coastal spaces like beaches and seaside resorts generate large revenues through tourism.", "Marine coastal ecosystems can also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis.", "In many countries, mangroves are the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g.", "charcoal) and building material.", "Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrasses have a much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many terrestrial ecosystems, and as such can play a critical role in the near-future to help mitigate climate change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide.", "However, the economic importance of coasts makes many of these communities vulnerable to climate change, which causes increases in extreme weather and sea level rise, and related issues such as coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion and coastal flooding.", "Other coastal issues, such as marine pollution, marine debris, coastal development, and marine ecosystem destruction, further complicate the human uses of the coast and threaten coastal ecosystems.", "The interactive effects of climate change, habitat destruction, overfishing and water pollution (especially eutrophication) have led to the demise of coastal ecosystem around the globe.", "This has resulted in population collapse of fisheries stocks, loss of biodiversity, increased invasion of alien species, and loss of healthy habitats.", "International attention to these issues has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 \"Life Below Water\" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities.", "Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021-2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention.Because coasts are constantly changing, a coastline's exact perimeter cannot be determined; this measurement challenge is called the coastline paradox.", "The term ''coastal zone'' is used to refer to a region where interactions of sea and land processes occur.", "Both the terms ''coast'' and ''coastal'' are often used to describe a geographic location or region located on a coastline (e.g., New Zealand's West Coast, or the East, West, and Gulf Coast of the United States.)", "Coasts with a narrow continental shelf that are close to the open ocean are called ''pelagic'' ''coast'', while other coasts are more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay.", "A shore, on the other hand, may refer to parts of land adjoining any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore)." ], [ "Size", "Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa.The Earth has approximately of coastline.", "Coastal habitats, which extend to the margins of the continental shelves, make up about 7 percent of the Earth's oceans, but at least 85% of commercially harvested fish depend on coastal environments during at least part of their life cycle.", "about 2.86% of exclusive economic zones were part of marine protected areas.The definition of coasts varies.", "Marine scientists think of the \"wet\" (aquatic or intertidal) vegetated habitats as being coastal ecosystems (including seagrass, salt marsh etc.)", "whilst some terrestrial scientists might only think of coastal ecosystems as purely terrestrial plants that live close to the seashore (see also estuaries and coastal ecosystems).While there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction.", "Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons.", "===Exact length of coastline===" ], [ "Formation {{anchor|Formation of Coasts}}", "Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area.", "Porto Covo, west coast of PortugalTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded.", "Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval.", "The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline.", "Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up the river estuaries from the ocean.Geologists classify coasts on the basis of tidal range into ''macrotidal coasts'' with a tidal range greater than ; ''mesotidal coasts'' with a tidal range of ; and ''microtidal coasts'' with a tidal range of less than .", "The distinction between macrotidal and mesotidal coasts is more important.", "Macrotidal coasts lack barrier islands and lagoons, and are characterized by funnel-shaped estuaries containing sand ridges aligned with tidal currents.", "Wave action is much more important for determining bedforms of sediments deposited along mesotidal and microtidal coasts than in macrotidal coasts.Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves.", "Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed.", "In these areas, the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down.", "Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves.", "This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located in the case of coastlines that have estuaries.", "Today, riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.", "Coral reefs are a provider of sediment for coastlines of tropical islands.Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change.", "The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias)." ], [ "Importance for humans and ecosystems", "=== Human settlements ===The Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal managementMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.", "According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.", "Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities.", "Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.Nations defend their coasts against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants.", "Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations, and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.File:花蓮新社梯田.jpg|Paddy fields by the coast of Fengbin, HualienFile:170209 219 R.jpg|Coastline of Barcelona as viewed from Port Fòrum, with Montjuïc and Port Vell can also be seen.==== Tourism ====Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists often leading to the development of seaside resort communities.", "In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific Ocean and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy.", "Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing.", "Growth management and coastal management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents, and poor management practices of construction often leave these communities and infrastructure vulnerable to processes like coastal erosion and sea level rise.", "In many of these communities, management practices such as beach nourishment or when the coastal infrastructure is no longer financially sustainable, managed retreat to remove communities from the coast.File:Maarianhamina SNV10312 -2B.jpg| A passenger car ferry arrives at the coast of Mariehamn, Åland.File:Tiburon.jpg|Houses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.=== Ecosystem services ===" ], [ "Types", "===Emergent coastline===According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline that has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea-level change, or local uplift.", "Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches.", "In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea-level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound.", "Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \"drowned\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords===Concordant coastline===According to the second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore.", "These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves.", "Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by the ocean waves.", "The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.===Rivieras===''Riviera'' is an Italian word for \"shoreline\", ultimately derived from Latin (\"riverbank\").", "It came to be applied as a proper name to the coast of the Ligurian Sea, in the form ''riviera ligure'', then shortened to ''riviera''.", "Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo (Punta Bianca) south of Genoa, north and west into what is now French territory past Monaco and sometimes as far as Marseilles.", "Today, this coast is divided into the Italian Riviera and the French Riviera, although the French use the term \"Riviera\" to refer to the Italian Riviera and call the French portion the \"Côte d'Azur\".As a result of the fame of the Ligurian rivieras, the term came into English to refer to any shoreline, especially one that is sunny, topographically diverse and popular with tourists.", "Such places using the term include the Australian Riviera in Queensland and the Turkish Riviera along the Aegean Sea.===Other coastal categories===* A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.", "* A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.", "* A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline." ], [ "Landforms", "The following articles describe some coastal landforms:Coastal landforms.", "The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove.", "That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.", "* Barrier island* Bay* Headland* Cove* Peninsula===Cliff erosion===* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff.", "Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves.", "If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate than a cliff made of bedrock.", "* A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.", "* Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness.", "These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.", "* A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.", "* A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.", "* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall.", "The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.", "* A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time.", "Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat.", "Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further offshore.===Coastal features formed by sediment===* Beach* Beach cusps* Cuspate foreland* Dune system* Mudflat* Raised beach* Ria* Shoal* Spit* Strand plain* Surge channel* Tombolo===Coastal features formed by another feature===* Estuary* Lagoon* Salt marsh*Mangrove forests*Kelp forests*Coral reefs*Oyster reefs===Other features on the coast===* Concordant coastline* Discordant coastline* Fjord* Island* Island arc* Machair" ], [ "Coastal waters", "territorial sea, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), continental shelf, high seas (international waters), and deep seabed.", "\"Coastal waters\" (or \"coastal seas\") is a rather general term used differently in different contexts, ranging geographically from the waters within a few kilometers of the coast, through to the entire continental shelf which may stretch for more than a hundred kilometers from land.", "Thus the term coastal waters is used in a slightly different way in discussions of legal and economic boundaries (see territorial waters and international waters) or when considering the geography of coastal landforms or the ecological systems operating through the continental shelf (marine coastal ecosystems).", "The research on coastal waters often divides into these separate areas too.", "The dynamic fluid nature of the ocean means that all components of the whole ocean system are ultimately connected, although certain regional classifications are useful and relevant.", "The waters of the continental shelves represent such a region.", "The term \"coastal waters\" has been used in a wide variety of different ways in different contexts.", "In European Union environmental management it extends from the coast to just a few nautical miles while in the United States the US EPA considers this region to extend much further offshore.", "\"Coastal waters\" has specific meanings in the context of commercial coastal shipping, and somewhat different meanings in the context of naval littoral warfare.", "Oceanographers and marine biologists have yet other takes.", "Coastal waters have a wide range of marine habitats from enclosed estuaries to the open waters of the continental shelf.", "Similarly, the term littoral zone has no single definition.", "It is the part of a sea, lake, or river that is close to the shore.", "In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged.Coastal waters can be threatened by coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms." ], [ "In geology", "The identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshore ''facies'') is extremely important to geologists.", "These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents (''paleogeography'').", "The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past.Sediments deposited in the shoreface are preserved as lenses of sandstone in which the upper part of the sandstone is coarser than the lower part (a ''coarsening upwards sequence'').", "Geologists refer to these are ''parasequences''.", "Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years.", "These often show laminations reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles.Some of the best-studied shoreline deposits in the world are found along the former western shore of the Western Interior Seaway, a shallow sea that flooded central North America during the late Cretaceous Period (about 100 to 66 million years ago).", "These are beautifully exposed along the Book Cliffs of Utah and Colorado.===Geologic processes===The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:* Attrition* Currents* Denudation* Deposition* Erosion* Flooding* Longshore drift* Marine sediments* Saltation* Sea level change** eustatic** isostatic* Sedimentation* Coastal sediment supply** sediment transport** solution** subaerial processes** suspension* Tides* Water waves** diffraction** refraction** wave breaking** wave shoaling* Weathering" ], [ "Wildlife", "===Animals===Larger animals that live in coastal areas include puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins, among many others.", "Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on rocky coasts and scavenge on food deposited by the sea.", "Some coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists.", "Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast, including sessile animals such as corals, sponges, starfish, mussels, seaweeds, fishes, and sea anemones.There are many kinds of seabirds on various coasts.", "These include pelicans and cormorants, who join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish.", "There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.====Coastal fish=======Plants===Many coastal areas are famous for their kelp beds.", "Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that can grow up to half a meter a day in ideal conditions.", "Mangroves, seagrasses, macroalgal beds, and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.", "Restinga is another type of coastal vegetation." ], [ "Threats", "Coasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts and coastal development hazards.", "The most important ones are: * Pollution which can be in the form of water pollution, nutrient pollution (leading to coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms), oil spills or marine debris that is contaminating coasts with plastic and other trash.", "* Sea level rise, and associated issues like coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion.=== Pollution ===A settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts.", "Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating.", "Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.Dead zones occur when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers cause excessive growth of microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna.The pollution of coastlines is connected to marine pollution which can occur from a number of sources: Marine debris (garbage and industrial debris); the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.==== Marine pollution ======== Marine debris ======== Microplastics ======= Sea level rise due to climate change ===" ], [ "Global goals", "International attention to address the threats of coasts has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 \"Life Below Water\" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities.", "Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention." ], [ "See also", "* Bank (geography)* Beach cleaning* Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation* European Atlas of the Seas* Intertidal zone* Land reclamation* List of countries by length of coastline* List of U.S. states by coastline* Offshore or Intertidal zone* Ballantine Scale* Coastal path* Shorezone" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution - organization dedicated to ocean research, exploration, and education" ] ]

[ [ "Catatonia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Catatonia''' is a complex neuropsychiatric behavioral syndrome that is characterized by abnormal movements, immobility, abnormal behaviors, and withdrawal.", "The onset of catatonia can be acute or subtle and symptoms can wax, wane, or change during episodes.", "It has historically been related to schizophrenia (catatonic schizophrenia), but catatonia is most often seen in mood disorders.", "It is now known that catatonic symptoms are nonspecific and may be observed in other mental, neurological, and medical conditions.", "Catatonia is now a stand-alone diagnosis (although some experts disagree), and the term is used to describe a feature of the underlying disorder.There are several subtypes of catatonia: akinetic catatonia, excited catatonia, malignant catatonia, and delirious mania.Failure to recognize and treat catatonia may lead to poor outcomes and can be potentially fatal.", "Treatment with benzodiazepines or ECT can lead to remission of catatonia.", "There is growing evidence of the effectiveness of the NMDA receptor antagonists amantadine and memantine for benzodiazepine-resistant catatonia.", "Antipsychotics are sometimes employed, but they can worsen symptoms and have serious adverse effects." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "The presenting signs of catatonia vary greatly and may be subtle or more markedly pronounced, and symptoms may develop over hours or days to weeks.", "Because most patients with catatonia have an underlying psychiatric illness, the majority will present with worsening depression, mania, or psychosis followed by catatonia symptoms.", "Catatonia presents as a motor disturbance in which patients will display marked reduction in movement, marked agitation, or a mixture of both despite having the physical capacity to move normally.", "These patients may be unable to start an action or stop one.", "Movements and mannerisms may be repetitive, or purposeless.The most common signs of catatonia are immobility, mutism, withdrawal and refusal to eat, staring, negativism, posturing (rigidity), rigidity, waxy flexibility/catalepsy, stereotypy (purposeless, repetitive movements), echolalia or echopraxia, verbigeration (repeat meaningless phrases).", "It should not be assumed that patients presenting with catatonia are unaware of their surroundings as some patients can recall in detail their catatonic state and their actions.There are several subtypes of catatonia and they are characterized by the specific movement disturbance and associated features.", "Although catatonia can be divided into various subtypes, the natural history of catatonia is often fluctuant and different states can exist within the same individual.=== Subtypes ==='''Withdrawn Catatonia''': This form of catatonia is characterized by decreased response to external stimuli, immobility or inhibited movement, mutism, staring, posturing, and negativism.", "Patients may sit or stand in the same position for hours, may hold odd positions, and may resist movement of their extremities.", "'''Excited Catatonia''': Excited catatonia is characterized by odd mannerisms/gestures, performing purposeless or inappropriate actions, excessive motor activity, restlessness, stereotypy, impulsivity, agitation, and combativeness.", "Speech and actions may be repetitive or mimic another person's.", "People in this state are extremely hyperactive and may have delusions and hallucinations.", "Catatonic excitement is commonly cited as one of the most dangerous mental states in psychiatry.", "'''Malignant Catatonia''': Malignant catatonia is a life-threatening condition that may progress rapidly within a few days.", "It is characterized by fever, abnormalities in blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, diaphoresis (sweating), and delirium.", "Certain lab findings are common with this presentation; however, they are nonspecific, which means that they are also present in other conditions and do not diagnose catatonia.", "These lab findings include: leukocytosis, elevated creatine kinase, low serum iron.", "The signs and symptoms of malignant catatonia overlap significantly with neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) and so a careful history, review of medications, and physical exam are critical to properly differentiate these conditions.", "For example, if the patient has waxy flexibility and holds a position against gravity when passively moved into that position, then it is likely catatonia.", "If the patient has a \"lead-pipe rigidity\" then NMS should be the prime suspect.", "'''Other forms''':* ''Periodic catatonia'' is an inconsistently defined entity.", "In the Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard school, it is a distinct form of \"non-system schizophrenia\" characterized by recurrent acute phases with hyperkinetic and akinetic features and often psychotic symptoms, and the build-up of a residual state in between these acute phases, which is characterized by low-level catatonic features and aboulia of varying severity.", "The condition has a strong hereditary component.", "According to modern classifications, this may be diagnosed as a form of bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia.", "Independently, the term ''periodic catatonia'' is sometimes used in modern literature to describe a syndrome of recurrent phases of acute catatonia (excited or inhibited type) with full remission between episodes, which resembles the description of \"motility psychosis\" in the Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard school.", "* ''System catatonias'' or systematic catatonias are only defined in the Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard school.", "These are chronic-progressive conditions characterized by specific disturbances of volition and psychomotricity, leading to a dramatic decline of executive and adaptive functioning and ability to communicate.", "They are considered forms of schizophrenia but distinct from other schizophrenic conditions.", "Affective flattening and apparent loss of interests are common but may be related to reduced emotional expression rather than lack of emotion.", "Heredity is low.", "Of the 21 different forms (6 \"simple\" and 15 \"combined\" forms) that have been described, most overlap only partially - if at all - with current definitions of either catatonia or schizophrenia, and thus are difficult to classify according to modern diagnostic manuals.", "* ''Early childhood catatonias'' are also a diagnosis exclusive to the Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard school, and refers to system catatonias that manifest in young children.", "Clinically, these conditions resemble severe regressive forms of autism.", "* ''Chronic catatonia-like breakdown'' or autistic catatonia refers to a functional decline seen in some patients with pre-existing autism spectrum disorder and/or intellectual disability which usually runs a chronic-progressive course and encompasses attenuated catatonic symptoms as well as mood and anxiety symptoms that increasingly interfere with adaptive functioning.", "Onset is typically insidious and often mistaken for background autistic symptoms.", "Slowing of voluntary movement, reduced speech, aboulia, increased prompt dependency and obsessive-compulsive symptoms are frequently seen; negativism, (auto-)aggressive behaviors and ill-defined hallucinations have also been reported.", "Both the causes of this disorder as well as its prognosis appear to be heterogenous, with most patients showing partial recovery upon treatment.", "It seems to be related to chronic stress as a result of life transitions, loss of external time structuring, sensory sensitivities and/or traumatic experiences, co-morbid mental disorders, or other unknown causes.", "Since clinical catatonia can not always be diagnosed, this condition has also been renamed to the more general term \"late regression\".===Complications===Patients may experience several complications from being in a catatonic state.", "The nature of these complications will depend on the type of catatonia being experienced by the patient.", "For example, patients presenting with withdrawn catatonia may have refusal to eat which will in turn lead to malnutrition and dehydration.", "Furthermore, if immobility is a symptom the patient is presenting with, then they may develop pressure ulcers, muscle contractions, and are at risk of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolus (PE).", "Patients with excited catatonia may be aggressive and violent, and physical trauma may result from this.", "Catatonia may progress to the malignant type which will present with autonomic instability and may be life-threatening.", "Other complications also include the development of pneumonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome." ], [ "Causes", "Catatonia is almost always secondary to another underlying illness, often a psychiatric disorder.", "Mood disorders such as a bipolar disorder and depression are the most common etiologies to progress to catatonia.", "Other psychiatric associations include schizophrenia and other primary psychotic disorders.", "It also is related to autism spectrum disorders and ADHD.", "Psychodynamic theorists have interpreted catatonia as a defense against the potentially destructive consequences of responsibility, and the passivity of the disorder provides relief.Catatonia is also seen in many medical disorders, including infections (such as encephalitis), autoimmune disorders, meningitis, focal neurological lesions (including strokes), alcohol withdrawal, abrupt or overly rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal, cerebrovascular disease, neoplasms, head injury, and some metabolic conditions (homocystinuria, diabetic ketoacidosis, hepatic encephalopathy, and hypercalcaemia)." ], [ "Pathogenesis", "The pathophysiology that leads to catatonia is still poorly understood and a definite mechanism remains unknown.", "Neurologic studies have implicated several pathways; however, it remains unclear whether these findings are the cause or the consequence of the disorder.Abnormalities in GABA, glutamate signaling, serotonin, and dopamine transmission are believed to be implicated in catatonia.Furthermore, it has also been hypothesized that pathways that connect the basal ganglia with the cortex and thalamus is involved in the development of catatonia.thumbthumbthumb" ], [ "Diagnosis", "There is not yet a definitive consensus regarding diagnostic criteria of catatonia.", "In the fifth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM-5, 2013) and the World Health Organization's eleventh edition of the ''International Classification of Diseases (''ICD-11, 2022), the classification is more homogeneous than in earlier editions.", "Prominent researchers in the field have other suggestions for diagnostic criteria.", "'''DSM-5 classification'''The DSM-5 does not classify catatonia as an independent disorder, but rather it classifies it as catatonia associated with another mental disorder, due to another medical condition, or as unspecified catatonia.", "Catatonia is diagnosed by the presence of three or more of the following 12 psychomotor symptoms in association with a mental disorder, medical condition, or unspecified:* stupor: no psycho-motor activity; not actively relating to the environment* catalepsy: passive induction of a posture held against gravity* waxy flexibility: allowing positioning by an examiner and maintaining that position* mutism: no, or very little, verbal response (exclude if known aphasia)* negativism: opposition or no response to instructions or external stimuli* posturing: spontaneous and active maintenance of a posture against gravity* mannerisms that are odd, circumstantial caricatures of normal actions* stereotypy: repetitive, abnormally frequent, non-goal-directed movements* agitation, not influenced by external stimuli* grimacing: keeping a fixed facial expression* echolalia: mimicking another's speech* echopraxia: mimicking another's movements.Other disorders (additional code 293.89 F06.1 to indicate the presence of the co-morbid catatonia):* Catatonia associated with autism spectrum disorder* Catatonia associated with schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders** Catatonia associated with brief psychotic disorder** Catatonia associated with schizophreniform disorder** Catatonia associated with schizoaffective disorder** Catatonia associated with a substance-induced psychotic disorder* Catatonia associated with bipolar and related disorders* Catatonia associated with major depressive disorder* Catatonic disorder due to another medical conditionIf catatonic symptoms are present but do not form the catatonic syndrome, a medication- or substance-induced aetiology should first be considered.", "'''ICD-11 classification'''In ICD-11 catatonia is defined as a syndrome of primarily psychomotor disturbances that is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of several symptoms such as stupor; catalepsy; waxy flexibility; mutism; negativism; posturing; mannerisms; stereotypies; psychomotor agitation; grimacing; echolalia and echopraxia.", "Catatonia may occur in the context of specific mental disorders, including mood disorders, schizophrenia or other primary psychotic disorders, and Neurodevelopmental disorders, and may be induced by psychoactive substances, including medications.", "Catatonia may also be caused by a medical condition not classified under mental, behavioral, or neurodevelopmental disorders.=== Assessment/Physical ===Catatonia is often overlooked and under-diagnosed.", "Patients with catatonia most commonly have an underlying psychiatric disorder, for this reason, physicians may overlook signs of catatonia due to the severity of the psychosis the patient is presenting with.", "Furthermore, the patient may not be presenting with the common signs of catatonia such as mutism and posturing.", "Additionally, the motor abnormalities seen in catatonia are also present in psychiatric disorders.", "For example, a patient with mania will show increased motor activity that may progress to exciting catatonia.", "One way in which physicians can differentiate between the two is to observe the motor abnormality.", "Patients with mania present with increased goal-directed activity.", "On the other hand, the increased activity in catatonia is not goal-directed and often repetitive.Catatonia is a clinical diagnosis and there is no specific laboratory test to diagnose it.", "However, certain testing can help determine what is causing the catatonia.", "An EEG will likely show diffuse slowing.", "If seizure activity is driving the syndrome, then an EEG would also be helpful in detecting this.", "CT or MRI will not show catatonia; however, they might reveal abnormalities that might be leading to the syndrome.", "Metabolic screens, inflammatory markers, or autoantibodies may reveal reversible medical causes of catatonia.Vital signs should be frequently monitored as catatonia can progress to malignant catatonia which is life-threatening.", "Malignant catatonia is characterized by fever, hypertension, tachycardia, and tachypnea.===Rating scale===Various rating scales for catatonia have been developed, however, their utility for clinical care has not been well established.", "The most commonly used scale is the Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale (BFCRS) (external link is provided below).", "The scale is composed of 23 items with the first 14 items being used as the screening tool.", "If 2 of the 14 are positive, this prompts for further evaluation and completion of the remaining 9 items.A diagnosis can be supported by the lorazepam challenge or the zolpidem challenge.", "While proven useful in the past, barbiturates are no longer commonly used in psychiatry; thus the option of either benzodiazepines or ECT.=== Differential diagnosis ===The differential diagnosis of catatonia is extensive as signs and symptoms of catatonia may overlap significantly with those of other conditions.", "Therefore, a careful and detailed history, medication review, and physical exam are key to diagnosing catatonia and differentiating it from other conditions.", "Furthermore, some of these conditions can themselves lead to catatonia.", "The differential diagnosis is as follows:* Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) and catatonia are both life-threatening conditions that share many of the same characteristics including fever, autonomic instability, rigidity, and delirium.", "Lab values of low serum iron, elevated creatine kinase, and white blood cell count are also shared by the two disorders further complicating the diagnosis.", "There are features of malignant catatonia (posturing, impulsivity, etc.)", "that are absent from NMS and the lab results are not as consistent in malignant catatonia as they are in NMS.", "Some experts consider NMS to be a drug-induced condition associated with antipsychotics, particularly, first generation antipsychotics, but it has not been established as a subtype.", "Therefore, discontinuing antipsychotics and starting benzodiazepines is a treatment for this condition, and similarly it is helpful in catatonia as well.", "* Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is an autoimmune disorder characterized by neuropsychiatric features and the presence of IgG antibodies.", "The presentation of anti-NMDAR encephalitis has been categorized into 5 phases: prodromal phase, psychotic phase, unresponsive phase, hyperkinetic phase, and recovery phase.", "The psychotic phase progresses into the unresponsive phase characterized by mutism, decreased motor activity, and catatonia.", "* Both serotonin syndrome and malignant catatonia may present with signs and symptoms of delirium, autonomic instability, hyperthermia, and rigidity.", "Again, similar to the presentation in NMS.", "However, patients with Serotonin syndrome have a history of ingestion of serotonergic drugs (Ex: SSRI).", "These patients will also present with hyperreflexia, myoclonus, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.", "* Malignant hyperthermia and malignant catatonia share features of autonomic instability, hyperthermia, and rigidity.", "However, malignant hyperthermia is a hereditary disorder of skeletal muscle that makes these patients susceptible to exposure to halogenated anesthetics and/or depolarizing muscle relaxants like succinylcholine.", "Malignant hyperthermia most commonly occurs in the intraoperative or postoperative periods.", "Other signs and symptoms of malignant hyperthermia include metabolic and respiratory acidosis, hyperkalemia, and cardiac arrhythmias.", "* Akinetic mutism is a neurological disorder characterized by a decrease in goal-directed behavior and motivation; however, the patient has an intact level of consciousness.", "Patients may present with apathy, and may seem indifferent to pain, hunger, or thirst.", "Akinetic mutism has been associated with structural damage in a variety of brain areas.", "Akinetic mutism and catatonia may both manifest with immobility, mutism, and waxy flexibility.", "Differentiating both disorders is the fact that akinetic mutism does not present with echolalia, echopraxia, or posturing.", "Furthermore, it is not responsive to benzodiazepines as is the case for catatonia.", "* Elective mutism has an anxious etiology but has also been associated with personality disorders.", "Patients with this disorder fail to speak with some individuals but will speak with others.", "Likewise, they may refuse to speak in certain situations; for example, a child who refuses to speak at school but is conversational at home.", "This disorder is distinguished from catatonia by the absence of any other signs/symptoms.", "* Nonconvulsive status epilepticus is seizure activity with no accompanying tonic-clonic movements.", "It can present with stupor, similar to catatonia, and they both respond to benzodiazepines.", "Nonconvulsive status epilepticus is diagnosed by the presence of seizure activity seen on electroencephalogram (EEG).", "Catatonia on the other hand, is associated with normal EEG or diffuse slowing.", "* Delirium is characterized by fluctuating disturbed perception and consciousness in the ill individual.", "It has hypoactive and hyperactive or mixed forms.", "People with hyperactive delirium present similarly to those with excited catatonia and have symptoms of restlessness, agitation, and aggression.", "Those with hypoactive delirium present with similarly to retarded catatonia, withdrawn and quiet.", "However, catatonia also includes other distinguishing features including posturing and rigidity as well as a positive response to benzodiazepines.", "* Patients with locked-in syndrome present with immobility and mutism; however, unlike patients with catatonia who are unmotivated to communicate, patients with locked-in syndrome try to communicate with eye movements and blinking.", "Furthermore, locked-in syndrome is caused by damage to the brainstem.", "* Stiff-person syndrome and catatonia are similar in that they may both present with rigidity, autonomic instability and a positive response to benzodiazepines.", "However, stiff-person syndrome may be associated with anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (anti-GAD) antibodies and other catatonic signs such as mutism and posturing are not part of the syndrome.", "* Untreated late-stage Parkinson's disease may present similarly to retarded catatonia with symptoms of immobility, rigidity, and difficulty speaking.", "Further complicating the diagnosis is the fact that many patients with Parkinson's disease will have major depressive disorder, which may be the underlying cause of catatonia.", "Parkinson's disease can be distinguished from catatonia by a positive response to levodopa.", "Catatonia on the other hand will show a positive response to benzodiazepines.", "* Extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotic medication, especially dystonia and akathisia, can be difficult to distinguish from catatonic symptoms, or may confound them in the psychiatric setting.", "Extrapyramidal motor disorders usually do not involve social symptoms like negativism, while individuals with catatonic excitement typically do not have the physically painful compulsion to move that is seen in akathisia.", "* Certain stimming behaviors and stress responses in individuals with autism spectrum disorders can present similarly to catatonia.", "In autism spectrum disorders, chronic catatonia is distinguished by a lasting deterioration of adaptive skills from the background of pre-existing autistic symptomatology that cannot be easily explained.", "Acute catatonia is usually clearly distinguishable from autistic symptoms.", "* The diagnostic entities of obsessional slowness and psychogenic parkinsonism show overlapping features with catatonia, such as motor slowness, gegenhalten (oppositional paratonia), mannerisms, and reduced or absent speech.", "However, psychogenic parkinsonism involves tremor which is unusual in catatonia.", "Obsessional slowness is a controversial diagnosis, with presentations ranging from severe but common manifestations of obsessive compulsive disorder to catatonia.", "* Down Syndrome Disintegrative Disorder (or Down Syndrome Regression Disorder, DSDD / DSRD) is a chronic condition characterized by loss of previously acquired adaptive, cognitive and social functioning occurring in persons with Down Syndrome, usually during adolescence or early adulthood.", "The clinical picture is variable, but often includes catatonic signs, which is why it was called \"catatonic psychosis\" in initial reports in 1946.DSDD seems to phenotypically overlap with obsessional slowness (see above) and catatonia-like regression occurring in ASD." ], [ "Treatment", "The initial treatment of catatonia is to stop medication that could be potentially leading to the syndrome.", "These may include steroids, stimulants, anticonvulsants, neuroleptics or dopamine blockers.", "A \"lorazepam challenge\", in which patients are given 2 mg of IV lorazepam (or another benzodiazepine) may aid in the diagnosis.", "Most patients with catatonia will respond significantly to this within the first 15–30 minutes.", "If no change is observed during the first dose, then a second dose is given and the patient is re-examined.", "If the patient responds to the lorazepam challenge, then lorazepam can be scheduled at interval doses until the catatonia resolves.", "The lorazepam must be tapered slowly, otherwise, the catatonia symptoms may return.", "The underlying cause of the catatonia should also be treated during this time.", "ECT may also be used to resolve catatonia.", "The success rate of ECT and lorazepam in the treatment of catatonia is estimated to be 60-100%, with earlier treatment being associated with a greater likelihood of treatment success.", "ECT is usually administered as multiple sessions over 1-2 weeks and is usually successful in those in which lorazepam fails.", "ECT in combination with benzodiazepines is used to treat malignant catatonia.", "In France, zolpidem has also been used in diagnosis, and response may occur within the same time period.", "Ultimately the underlying cause needs to be treated.Supportive care is required in those with catatonia.", "This includes monitoring vital signs and fluid status, and in those with chronic symptoms; maintaining nutrition and hydration, medications to prevent a blood clot, and measures to prevent the development of pressure ulcers.", "Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective treatment for catatonia that is well acknowledged.", "ECT has also shown favorable outcomes in patients with chronic catatonia.", "However, it has been pointed out that further high quality randomized controlled trials are needed to evaluate the efficacy, tolerance, and protocols of ECT in catatonia.Antipsychotics are sometimes used in those with a co-existing psychosis, however they should be used with care as they may worsen catatonia and have a risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a dangerous condition that can mimic catatonia and requires immediate discontinuation of the antipsychotic.There is evidence that clozapine works better than other antipsychotics to treat catatonia.Excessive glutamate activity is believed to be involved in catatonia; when first-line treatment options fail, NMDA antagonists such as amantadine or memantine may be used.", "Amantadine may have an increased incidence of tolerance with prolonged use and can cause psychosis, due to its additional effects on the dopamine system.", "Memantine has a more targeted pharmacological profile for the glutamate system, reduced incidence of psychosis and may therefore be preferred for individuals who cannot tolerate amantadine.", "Topiramate is another treatment option for resistant catatonia; it produces its therapeutic effects by producing glutamate antagonism via modulation of AMPA receptors." ], [ "Prognosis", "Twenty-five percent of psychiatric patients with catatonia will have more than one episode throughout their lives.", "Treatment response for patients with catatonia is 50–70%, with treatment failure being associate with a poor prognosis.", "Many of these patients will require long-term and continuous mental health care.", "For patients with catatonia with underlying schizophrenia, the prognosis is much poorer." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Catatonia has been historically studied in psychiatric patients.", "Catatonia is underrecognized and the features may be mistaken for other disorders (such as negative symptoms of schizophrenia), leading to an underestimate of the prevalence.", "The prevalence has been reported to be as high as 10% in those with acute psychiatric illnesses, and 9-30% in the setting of inpatient psychiatric care.", "One large population estimate has suggested that the incidence of catatonia is 10.6 episodes per 100 000 person-years.", "It occurs in males and females in approximately equal numbers.", "21-46% of all catatonia cases can be attributed to a general medical condition." ], [ "History", "Reports of stupor-like and catatonia-like states abound in the history of psychiatry.", "After the middle of the 19th century there was an increase of interest in the motor disorders accompanying madness, culminating in the publication by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum in 1874 of (Catatonia or Tension Insanity)." ], [ "See also", "* Acquiescence* Akinetic mutism* Autistic catatonia* ''Awakenings'' (1990 biopic about catatonic patients, based on Oliver Sacks's book of the same name)* Blank expression* Botulism* Clouding of consciousness* Disorganized schizophrenia* ''Homecoming'' (features catatonia as a main plot point)* Karolina Olsson* Oneiroid syndrome* Paranoid schizophrenia* Persistent vegetative state* Resignation syndrome* Sensory overload* Tonic immobility* Sleep paralysis" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Catatonia in DSM-5* Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders – Catatonic Disorders* \"Schizophrenia: Catatonic Type\" video by Heinz Edgar Lehmann, 1952* Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale" ] ]

[ [ "Cipher" ], [ "Introduction", "Edward Larsson's rune cipher resembling that found on the Kensington Runestone.", "Also includes runically unrelated blackletter writing style and pigpen cipher.In cryptography, a '''cipher''' (or '''cypher''') is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure.", "An alternative, less common term is ''encipherment''.", "To encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code.", "In common parlance, \"cipher\" is synonymous with \"code\", as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography.Codes generally substitute different length strings of characters in the output, while ciphers generally substitute the same number of characters as are input.", "A code maps one meaning with another.", "Words and phrases can be coded as letters or numbers.", "Codes typically have direct meaning from input to key.", "Codes primarily function to save time.", "Ciphers are algorithmic.", "The given input must follow the cipher's process to be solved.", "Ciphers are commonly used to encrypt written information.Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase.", "For example, \"UQJHSE\" could be the code for \"Proceed to the following coordinates.\"", "When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, and the encrypted form as ciphertext.", "The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it.The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key (or, in traditional NSA parlance, a ''cryptovariable'').", "The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm.", "A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message.", "Without knowledge of the key, it should be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext.Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways* By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers).", "* By whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric key algorithms), or if a different key is used for each (asymmetric key algorithms).", "If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender and to no one else.", "If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key.", "If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality." ], [ "Etymology", "Originating from the Arabic word for zero صفر (sifr), the word \"cipher\" spread to Europe as part of the Arabic numeral system during the Middle Ages.", "The Roman numeral system lacked the concept of zero, and this limited advances in mathematics.", "In this transition, the word was adopted into Medieval Latin as cifra, and then into Middle French as cifre.", "This eventually led to the English word cipher (minority spelling cypher).", "One theory for how the term came to refer to encoding is that the concept of zero was confusing to Europeans, and so the term came to refer to a message or communication that was not easily understood.", "The term ''cipher'' was later also used to refer to any Arabic digit, or to calculation using them, so encoding text in the form of Arabic numerals is literally converting the text to \"ciphers\"." ], [ "Versus codes", "In casual contexts, \"code\" and \"cipher\" can typically be used interchangeably; however, the technical usages of the words refer to different concepts.", "Codes contain meaning; words and phrases are assigned to numbers or symbols, creating a shorter message.", "An example of this is the commercial telegraph code which was used to shorten long telegraph messages which resulted from entering into commercial contracts using exchanges of telegrams.Another example is given by whole word ciphers, which allow the user to replace an entire word with a symbol or character, much like the way written Japanese utilizes Kanji (meaning Chinese characters in Japanese) characters to supplement the native Japanese characters representing syllables.", "An example using English language with Kanji could be to replace \"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog\" by \"The quick brown 狐 jumps 上 the lazy 犬\".", "Stenographers sometimes use specific symbols to abbreviate whole words.Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits and blocks of bits.", "Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using superencipherment to increase the security.", "In some cases the terms ''codes'' and ''ciphers'' are used synonymously with ''substitution'' and ''transposition'', respectively.Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, while coding had its own terminology analogous to that of ciphers: \"''encoding'', ''codetext'', ''decoding''\" and so on.However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome codebook.", "Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique." ], [ "Types", "There are a variety of different types of encryption.", "Algorithms used earlier in the history of cryptography are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys.===Historical===Visual representation of how Caesar's Cipher works.The Caesar Cipher is one of the earliest known cryptographic systems.", "Julius Caesar used a cipher that shifts the letters in the alphabet in place by three and wrapping the remaining letters to the front to write to Marcus Tullius Cicero in approximately 50 BC.11Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical ciphers.", "They include simple substitution ciphers (such as ROT13) and transposition ciphers (such as a Rail Fence Cipher).", "For example, \"GOOD DOG\" can be encrypted as \"PLLX XLP\" where \"L\" substitutes for \"O\", \"P\" for \"G\", and \"X\" for \"D\" in the message.", "Transposition of the letters \"GOOD DOG\" can result in \"DGOGDOO\".", "These simple ciphers and examples are easy to crack, even without plaintext-ciphertext pairs.In the 1640s, the Parliamentarian commander, Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, developed ciphers to send coded messages to his allies during the English Civil War.Simple '''ciphers''' were replaced by polyalphabetic substitution ciphers (such as the Vigenère) which changed the substitution alphabet for every letter.", "For example, \"GOOD DOG\" can be encrypted as \"PLSX TWF\" where \"L\", \"S\", and \"W\" substitute for \"O\".", "With even a small amount of known or estimated plaintext, simple polyalphabetic substitution ciphers and letter transposition ciphers designed for pen and paper encryption are easy to crack.", "It is possible to create a secure pen and paper cipher based on a one-time pad, but these have other disadvantages.During the early twentieth century, electro-mechanical machines were invented to do encryption and decryption using transposition, polyalphabetic substitution, and a kind of \"additive\" substitution.", "In rotor machines, several rotor disks provided polyalphabetic substitution, while plug boards provided another substitution.", "Keys were easily changed by changing the rotor disks and the plugboard wires.", "Although these encryption methods were more complex than previous schemes and required machines to encrypt and decrypt, other machines such as the British Bombe were invented to crack these encryption methods.===Modern===Modern encryption methods can be divided by two criteria: by type of key used, and by type of input data.By type of key used ciphers are divided into:* symmetric key algorithms (Private-key cryptography), where one same key is used for encryption and decryption, and* thumbasymmetric key algorithms (Public-key cryptography), where two different keys are used for encryption and decryption.", "In a symmetric key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption.", "The design of AES (Advanced Encryption System) was beneficial because it aimed to overcome the flaws in the design of the DES (Data encryption standard).", "AES's designer's claim that the common means of modern cipher cryptanalytic attacks are ineffective against AES due to its design structure.12 Ciphers can be distinguished into two types by the type of input data:* block ciphers, which encrypt block of data of fixed size, and* stream ciphers, which encrypt continuous streams of data." ], [ "Key size and vulnerability", "In a pure mathematical attack, (i.e., lacking any other information to help break a cipher) two factors above all count:* Computational power available, i.e., the computing power which can be brought to bear on the problem.", "It is important to note that average performance/capacity of a single computer is not the only factor to consider.", "An adversary can use multiple computers at once, for instance, to increase the speed of exhaustive search for a key (i.e., \"brute force\" attack) substantially.", "* Key size, i.e., the size of key used to encrypt a message.", "As the key size increases, so does the complexity of exhaustive search to the point where it becomes impractical to crack encryption directly.Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly.An example of this process can be found at Key Length which uses multiple reports to suggest that a symmetrical cipher with 128 bits, an asymmetric cipher with 3072 bit keys, and an elliptic curve cipher with 256 bits, all have similar difficulty at present.Claude Shannon proved, using information theory considerations, that any theoretically unbreakable cipher must have keys which are at least as long as the plaintext, and used only once: one-time pad." ], [ "See also", "* Autokey cipher* Cover-coding* Encryption software* List of ciphertexts* Steganography* Telegraph code" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Richard J. Aldrich, ''GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency'', HarperCollins July 2010.", "* Helen Fouché Gaines, \"Cryptanalysis\", 1939, Dover.", "* Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, \"The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions\", Cryptologia, 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97–126.", "* David Kahn, ''The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing'' () (1967)* David A.", "King, The ciphers of the monks - A forgotten number notation of the Middle Ages, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2001 ()* Abraham Sinkov, ''Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach'', Mathematical Association of America, 1966.", "* William Stallings, ''Cryptography and Network Security, principles and practices, 4th Edition* * \"Ciphers vs.", "Codes (Article) | Cryptography.\"", "Khan Academy, Khan Academy, .", "* Caldwell, William Casey.", "\"Shakespeare's Henry V and the Ciphers of History.\"", "SEL Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol.", "61, no.", "2, 2021, pp.", "241–68.EBSCOhost, .", "* Luciano, Dennis, and Gordon Prichett.", "\"Cryptology: From Caesar Ciphers to Public-Key Cryptosystems.\"", "The College Mathematics Journal, vol.", "18, no.", "1, 1987, pp.", "2–17.JSTOR, .", "Accessed 19 Feb.", "2023.", "* Ho Yean Li, et al.", "\"Heuristic Cryptanalysis of Classical and Modern Ciphers.\"", "2005 13th IEEE International Conference on Networks Jointly Held with the 2005 IEEE 7th Malaysia International Conf on Communic, Networks, 2005.Jointly Held with the 2005 IEEE 7th Malaysia International Conference on Communication., 2005 13th IEEE International Conference on, Networks and Communications, vol.", "2, Jan. 2005.EBSCOhost, ." ], [ "External links", "* Kish cypher" ] ]

[ [ "Country music" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Country''' (also called '''country and western''') is a music genre originating in the Southern and Southwestern United States.", "First produced in the 1920s, country music primarily focuses on working class Americans and blue-collar American life.Country music is known for its ballads and dance tunes (also known as \"honky-tonk music\") with simple form, folk lyrics, and harmonies generally accompanied by instruments such as banjos, fiddles, harmonicas, and many types of guitar (including acoustic, electric, steel, and resonator guitars).", "Though it is primarily rooted in various forms of American and African-American folk music, such as old-time music and Appalachian music, many other traditions, including, Mexican, Irish, and Hawaiian music, have also had a formative influence on the genre.", "Blues modes have been used extensively throughout its history as well.The term ''country music'' gained popularity in the 1940s in preference to ''hillbilly music''; it came to encompass western music, which evolved parallel to hillbilly music from similar roots, in the mid-20th century.", "Contemporary styles of western music include Texas country, red dirt, and Hispano- and Mexican American-led Tejano and New Mexico music, all extant alongside longstanding indigenous traditions.In 2009, in the United States, country music was the most listened to rush hour radio genre during the evening commute, and second most popular in the morning commute." ], [ "Origins", "The main components of the modern country music style date back to music traditions throughout the Southern United States and Southwestern United States, while its place in American popular music was established in the 1920s during the early days of music recording.", "According to country historian Bill C. Malone, country music was \"introduced to the world as a Southern phenomenon.", "\"Migration into the southern Appalachian Mountains, of the Southeastern United States, brought the folk music and instruments of Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin along with it for nearly 300 years, which developed into Appalachian music.", "As the country expanded westward, the Mississippi River and Louisiana became a crossroads for country music, giving rise to Cajun music.", "In the Southwestern United States, it was the Rocky Mountains, American frontier, and Rio Grande that acted as a similar backdrop for Native American, Mexican, and cowboy ballads, which resulted in New Mexico music and the development of western music, and its directly related Red Dirt, Texas country, and Tejano music styles.", "In the Asia-Pacific, the steel guitar sound of country music has its provenance in the music of Hawaii.===Role of East Tennessee===The U.S. Congress has formally recognized Bristol, Tennessee as the \"Birthplace of Country Music\", based on the historic Bristol recording sessions of 1927.Since 2014, the city has been home to the Birthplace of Country Music Museum.", "Historians have also noted the influence of the less-known Johnson City sessions of 1928 and 1929, and the Knoxville sessions of 1929 and 1930.In addition, the Mountain City Fiddlers Convention, held in 1925, helped to inspire modern country music.", "Before these, pioneer settlers, in the Great Smoky Mountains region, had developed a rich musical heritage." ], [ "Generations", "The first generation emerged in the 1920s, with Atlanta's music scene playing a major role in launching country's earliest recording artists.", "James Gideon \"Gid\" Tanner (1885–1960) was an American old-time fiddler and one of the earliest stars of what would come to be known as country music.", "His band, the Skillet Lickers, was one of the most innovative and influential string bands of the 1920s and 1930s.", "Its most notable members were Clayton McMichen (fiddle and vocal), Dan Hornsby (vocals), Riley Puckett (guitar and vocal) and Robert Lee Sweat (guitar).", "New York City record label Okeh Records began issuing hillbilly music records by Fiddlin' John Carson as early as 1923, followed by Columbia Records (series 15000D \"Old Familiar Tunes\") (Samantha Bumgarner) in 1924, and RCA Victor Records in 1927 with the first famous pioneers of the genre Jimmie Rodgers, who is widely considered the \"Father of Country Music\", and the first family of country music the Carter Family.", "Many \"hillbilly\" musicians recorded blues songs throughout the 1920s.During the second generation (1930s–1940s), radio became a popular source of entertainment, and \"barn dance\" shows featuring country music were started all over the South, as far north as Chicago, and as far west as California.", "The most important was the ''Grand Ole Opry'', aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day.", "During the 1930s and 1940s, cowboy songs, or western music, which had been recorded since the 1920s, were popularized by films made in Hollywood, many featuring Gene Autry, who was known as king of the \"singing cowboys,\" and Hank Williams.", "Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a \"hot string band,\" and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns.", "His mix of country and jazz, which started out as dance hall music, would become known as western swing.", "Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band, in 1938.Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939, shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall, when Johnny Barfield recorded \"Boogie Woogie\".The third generation (1950s–1960s) started at the end of World War II with \"mountaineer\" string band music known as bluegrass, which emerged when Bill Monroe, along with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs were introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry.", "Gospel music remained a popular component of country music.", "The Native American, Hispano, and American frontier music of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico, became popular among poor communities in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas; the basic ensemble consisted of classical guitar, bass guitar, dobro or steel guitar, though some larger ensembles featured electric guitars, trumpets, keyboards (especially the honky-tonk piano, a type of tack piano), banjos, and drums.", "By the early 1950s it blended with rock and roll, becoming the rockabilly sound produced by Sam Phillips, Norman Petty, and Bob Keane.", "Musicians like Elvis Presley, Bo Diddley, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, Ritchie Valens, Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison, and Johnny Cash emerged as enduring representatives of the style.", "Beginning in the mid-1950s, and reaching its peak during the early 1960s, the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville, Tennessee; Patsy Cline and Jim Reeves were two of the most broadly popular Nashville sound artists, and their deaths in separate plane crashes in the early 1960s were a factor in the genre's decline.", "Starting in the 1950s to the mid-1960s, western singer-songwriters such as Michael Martin Murphey and Marty Robbins rose in prominence as did others, throughout western music traditions, like New Mexico music's Al Hurricane.", "The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres.", "In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the \"old values\" of rock n' roll.", "At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music.", "What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock.Fourth generation (1970s–1980s) music included outlaw country with roots in the Bakersfield sound, and country pop with roots in the countrypolitan, folk music and soft rock.", "Between 1972 and 1975 singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles.", "By the mid-1970s, Texas country and Tejano music gained popularity with performers like Freddie Fender.", "During the early 1980s country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts.", "In 1980 a style of \"neocountry disco music\" was popularized.", "During the mid-1980s a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts in favor of more traditional \"back-to-basics\" production.During the fifth generation (the 1990s), neotraditionalists and stadium country acts prospered.The sixth generation (2000s–present) has seen a certain amount of diversification in regard to country music styles.", "It has also, however, seen a shift into patriotism and conservative politics since 9/11, though such themes are less prevalent in more modern trends.", "The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s.", "Most of the best-selling country songs of this era were those by Lady A, Florida Georgia Line, Carrie Underwood, and Taylor Swift.", "Hip hop also made its mark on country music with the emergence of country rap." ], [ "History", "===First generation (1920s)===Vernon Dalhart was the first country star to have a major hit recordThe first commercial recordings of what was considered instrumental music in the traditional country style were \"Arkansas Traveler\" and \"Turkey in the Straw\" by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. (Eck) Robertson on June 30, 1922, for Victor Records and released in April 1923.Columbia Records began issuing records with \"hillbilly\" music (series 15000D \"Old Familiar Tunes\") as early as 1924.The Carter Family are a dynasty of country music and began with (left to right) A.P.", "Carter, wife Sara Carter and Maybelle CarterThe first commercial recording of what is widely considered to be the first country song featuring vocals and lyrics was Fiddlin' John Carson with \"Little Log Cabin in the Lane\" for Okeh Records on June 14, 1923.Vernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with \"Wreck of the Old 97\".", "The flip side of the record was \"Lonesome Road Blues\", which also became very popular.", "In April 1924, \"Aunt\" Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs.", "Many of the early country musicians, such as the yodeler Cliff Carlisle, recorded blues songs into the 1930s.", "Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett, Don Richardson, Fiddlin' John Carson, Uncle Dave Macon, Al Hopkins, Ernest V. Stoneman, Blind Alfred Reed, Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and the Skillet Lickers.", "The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922, when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast.Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians.", "From Scott County, Virginia, the Carters had learned sight reading of hymnals and sheet music using solfege.", "Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol, Tennessee, on August 1, 1927, where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist.", "A scene in the movie ''O Brother, Where Art Thou?''", "depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe.Rodgers fused hillbilly country, gospel, jazz, blues, pop, cowboy, and folk, and many of his best songs were his compositions, including \"Blue Yodel\", which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music.", "Beginning in 1927, and for the next 17 years, the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads, traditional tunes, country songs and gospel hymns, all representative of America's southeastern folklore and heritage.", "Maybelle Carter went on to continue the family tradition with her daughters as The Carter Sisters; her daughter June would marry (in succession) Carl Smith, Rip Nix and Johnny Cash, having children with each who would also become country singers.===Second generation (1930s–1940s)===Roy AcuffRecord sales declined during the Great Depression, but radio became a popular source of entertainment, and \"barn dance\" shows featuring country music were started by radio stations all over the South, as far north as Chicago, and as far west as California.The most important was the ''Grand Ole Opry'', aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day.", "Some of the early stars on the ''Opry'' were Uncle Dave Macon, Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey.", "WSM's 50,000-watt signal (in 1934) could often be heard across the country.", "Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles.", "Moon Mullican, for example, played western swing but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly.", "Between 1947 and 1949, country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10.From 1945 to 1955 Jenny Lou Carson was one of the most prolific songwriters in country music.====Singing cowboys and western swing====Publicity photo of Roy Rogers and Gail Davis, 1948In the 1930s and 1940s, cowboy songs, or western music, which had been recorded since the 1920s, were popularized by films made in Hollywood.", "Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry, the Sons of the Pioneers, and Roy Rogers.", "Country music and western music were frequently played together on the same radio stations, hence the term ''country and western'' music, despite country and western being two distinct genres.Cowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups.", "Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history-making song \"I Want To Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart\".", "This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers.", "Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a \"hot string band,\" and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns.", "His mix of country and jazz, which started out as dance hall music, would become known as western swing.", "Cliff Bruner, Moon Mullican, Milton Brown and Adolph Hofner were other early western swing pioneers.", "Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films.", "At its height, western swing rivaled the popularity of big band swing music.====Changing instrumentation====Drums were scorned by early country musicians as being \"too loud\" and \"not pure\", but by 1935 western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys.", "In the mid-1940s, the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys' drummer to appear on stage.", "Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955, the less-conservative-than-the-Grand-Ole-Opry ''Louisiana Hayride'' kept its infrequently used drummer backstage as late as 1956.By the early 1960s, however, it was rare for a country band not to have a drummer.", "Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band, in 1938.A decade later (1948) Arthur Smith achieved top 10 US country chart success with his MGM Records recording of \"Guitar Boogie\", which crossed over to the US pop chart, introducing many people to the potential of the electric guitar.", "For several decades Nashville session players preferred the warm tones of the Gibson and Gretsch archtop electrics, but a \"hot\" Fender style, using guitars which became available beginning in the early 1950s, eventually prevailed as the signature guitar sound of country.====Hillbilly boogie====Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939, shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall, when Johnny Barfield recorded \"Boogie Woogie\".", "The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie, or okie boogie (later to be renamed country boogie), became a flood beginning in late 1945.One notable release from this period was the Delmore Brothers' \"Freight Train Boogie\", considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly.", "In 1948, Arthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of \"Guitar Boogie\" and \"Banjo Boogie\", with the former crossing over to the US pop charts.", "Other country boogie artists included Moon Mullican, Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford.", "The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century.====Bluegrass, folk and gospel====Bill and Charlie Monroe (1936).", "Bill Monroe (1911–1996) and the Blue Grass Boys created the bluegrass by the end of World War II.By the end of World War II, \"mountaineer\" string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry.", "That was the ordination of bluegrass music and how Bill Monroe came to be known as the \"Father of Bluegrass.\"", "Gospel music, too, remained a popular component of bluegrass and other sorts of country music.", "Red Foley, the biggest country star following World War II, had one of the first million-selling gospel hits (\"Peace in the Valley\") and also sang boogie, blues and rockabilly.", "In the post-war period, country music was called \"folk\" in the trades, and \"hillbilly\" within the industry.", "In 1944, ''Billboard'' replaced the term \"hillbilly\" with \"folk songs and blues,\" and switched to \"country and western\" in 1949.====Honky tonk====Hank WilliamsAnother type of stripped-down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar, bass, dobro or steel guitar (and later) drums became popular, especially among rural residents in the three states of Texhomex, those being ''Tex''as, Okla''ho''ma, and New ''Mex''ico.", "It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states, particularly New Mexico and Texas, together with the blues of the American South.", "Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as \"a little bit of this, and a little bit of that, a little bit of black and a little bit of white ... just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey.\"", "East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with \"Honky Tonk Blues\", and seven years later \"Pistol Packin' Mama\".", "These \"honky tonk\" songs were associated with barrooms, and was performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb, Kitty Wells (the first major female country solo singer), Ted Daffan, Floyd Tillman, the Maddox Brothers and Rose, Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams; the music of these artists would later be called \"traditional\" country.", "Williams' influence in particular would prove to be enormous, inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll, such as Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry and Ike Turner, while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones.", "Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s, with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one.", "He charted 48 singles during the decade; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four.===Third generation (1950s–1960s)===By the early 1950s, a blend of western swing, country boogie, and honky tonk was played by most country bands, a mixture which followed in the footsteps of Gene Autry, Lydia Mendoza, Roy Rogers, and Patsy Montana.", "Western music, influenced by the cowboy ballads, New Mexico, Texas country and Tejano music rhythms of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico, reached its peak in popularity in the late 1950s, most notably with the song \"El Paso\", first recorded by Marty Robbins in September 1959.Western music's influence would continue to grow within the country music sphere, western musicians like Michael Martin Murphey, New Mexico music artists Al Hurricane and Antonia Apodaca, Tejano music performer Little Joe, and even folk revivalist John Denver, all first rose to prominence during this time.", "This western music influence largely kept the music of the folk revival and folk rock from influencing the country music genre much, despite the similarity in instrumentation and origins (see, for instance, the Byrds' negative reception during their appearance on the ''Grand Ole Opry'').", "The main concern was largely political: most folk revival was largely driven by progressive activists, a stark contrast to the culturally conservative audiences of country music.", "John Denver was perhaps the only musician to have major success in both the country and folk revival genres throughout his career, later only a handful of artists like Burl Ives and Canadian musician Gordon Lightfoot successfully made the crossover to country after folk revival fell out of fashion.", "During the mid-1950s a new style of country music became popular, eventually to be referred to as rockabilly.Bill Haley & His Comets in 1956 In 1953, the first all-country radio station was established in Lubbock, Texas.", "The music of the 1960s and 1970s targeted the American working class, and truckers in particular.", "As country radio became more popular, trucking songs like the 1963 hit song ''Six Days on the Road'' by Dave Dudley began to make up their own subgenre of country.", "These revamped songs sought to portray American truckers as a \"new folk hero\", marking a significant shift in sound from earlier country music.", "The song was written by actual truckers and contained numerous references to the trucker culture of the time like \"ICC\" for Interstate Commerce Commission and \"little white pills\" as a reference to amphetamines.", "Starday Records in Nashville followed up on Dudley's initial success with the release of ''Give Me 40 Acres'' by the Willis Brothers.====Rockabilly====Johnny CashRockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s; one of the first rock and roll superstars was former western yodeler Bill Haley, who repurposed his Four Aces of Western Swing into a rockabilly band in the early 1950s and renamed it the Comets.", "Bill Haley & His Comets are credited with two of the first successful rock and roll records, \"Crazy Man, Crazy\" of 1953 and \"Rock Around the Clock\" in 1954.1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music.", "Rockabilly was an early form of rock and roll, an upbeat combination of blues and country music.", "The number two, three and four songs on ''Billboard's'' charts for that year were Elvis Presley, \"Heartbreak Hotel\"; Johnny Cash, \"I Walk the Line\"; and Carl Perkins, \"Blue Suede Shoes\".", "Reflecting this success, George Jones released a rockabilly record that year under the pseudonym \"Thumper Jones\", wanting to capitalize on the popularity of rockabilly without alienating his traditional country base.", "Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No.", "3 \"Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In, Stranger\" by Cash, and No.", "5 by Presley \"Don't/I Beg of You.\"", "Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style, saying \"The colored folk been singin' and playin' it just the way I'm doin' it now, man for more years than I know.\"", "Within a few years, many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style.Country music gained national television exposure through ''Ozark Jubilee'' on ABC-TV and radio from 1955 to 1960 from Springfield, Missouri.", "The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists, some from the Ozarks.", "As Webb Pierce put it in 1956, \"Once upon a time, it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City.", "Nowadays, television takes us everywhere, and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else.\"", "The Country Music Association was founded in 1958, in part because numerous country musicians were appalled by the increased influence of rock and roll on country music.====The Nashville and countrypolitan sounds====Beginning in the mid-1950s, and reaching its peak during the early 1960s, the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville, Tennessee.", "Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins, Bill Porter, Paul Cohen, Owen Bradley, Bob Ferguson, and later Billy Sherrill, the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period.", "This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings: a prominent and smooth vocal, backed by a string section (violins and other orchestral strings) and vocal chorus.", "Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark \"licks\".", "Leading artists in this genre included Jim Reeves, Skeeter Davis, Connie Smith, the Browns, Patsy Cline, and Eddy Arnold.", "The \"slip note\" piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style.", "The Nashville Sound collapsed in mainstream popularity in 1964, a victim of both the British Invasion and the deaths of Reeves and Cline in separate airplane crashes.", "By the mid-1960s, the genre had developed into countrypolitan.", "Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets, and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s.", "Top artists included Tammy Wynette, Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich, as well as such former \"hard country\" artists as Ray Price and Marty Robbins.", "Despite the appeal of the Nashville sound, many traditional country artists emerged during this period and dominated the genre: Loretta Lynn, Merle Haggard, Buck Owens, Porter Wagoner, George Jones, and Sonny James among them.====Country-soul crossover====In 1962, Ray Charles surprised the pop world by turning his attention to country and western music, topping the charts and rating number three for the year on ''Billboard's'' pop chart with the \"I Can't Stop Loving You\" single, and recording the landmark album ''Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music''.====Bakersfield sound====Another subgenre of country music grew out of hardcore honky tonk with elements of western swing and originated north-northwest of Los Angeles in Bakersfield, California, where many \"Okies\" and other Dust Bowl migrants had settled.", "Influenced by one-time West Coast residents Bob Wills and Lefty Frizzell, by 1966 it was known as the Bakersfield sound.", "It relied on electric instruments and amplification, in particular the Telecaster electric guitar, more than other subgenres of the country music of the era, and it can be described as having a sharp, hard, driving, no-frills, edgy flavor—hard guitars and honky-tonk harmonies.", "Leading practitioners of this style were Buck Owens, Merle Haggard, Tommy Collins, Dwight Yoakam, Gary Allan, and Wynn Stewart, each of whom had his own style.Ken Nelson, who had produced Owens and Haggard and Rose Maddox became interested in the trucking song subgenre following the success of ''Six Days on the Road'' and asked Red Simpson to record an album of trucking songs.", "Haggard's ''White Line Fever'' was also part of the trucking subgenre.===Western music merges with country===The country music scene of the 1940s until the 1970s was largely dominated by western music influences, so much so that the genre began to be called \"country and western\".", "Even today, cowboy and frontier values continue to play a role in the larger country music, with western wear, cowboy boots, and cowboy hats continues to be in fashion for country artists.West of the Mississippi river, many of these western genres continue to flourish, including the Red Dirt of Oklahoma, New Mexico music of New Mexico, and both Texas country music and Tejano music of Texas.", "During the 1950s until the early 1970s, the latter part of the western heyday in country music, many of these genres featured popular artists that continue to influence both their distinctive genres and larger country music.", "Red Dirt featured Bob Childers and Steve Ripley; for New Mexico music Al Hurricane, Al Hurricane Jr., and Antonia Apodaca; and within the Texas scenes Willie Nelson, Freddie Fender, Johnny Rodriguez, and Little Joe.As Outlaw country music emerged as subgenre in its own right, Red Dirt, New Mexico, Texas country, and Tejano grew in popularity as a part of the Outlaw country movement.", "Originating in the bars, fiestas, and honky-tonks of Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas, their music supplemented outlaw country's singer-songwriter tradition as well as 21st-century rock-inspired alternative country and hip hop-inspired country rap artists.File:Cowboy-Boots-And-Hat.png|Example of cowboy hat and cowboy boots, two prominent components of country music fashionFile:Atypicalwesternshirt.svg|Western wear shirt design, with snap fastenersFile:Eakins, Cowboy Singing 1890.jpg|Painting of a cowboy singing by Thomas Eakins (1890)File:Freddy Fender singing in 1977.jpg|Freddy Fender performing Tejano music after ''The Johnny Cash Show'' in Nashville, Tennessee (1977)File:Bob&RDR07.jpg|Bob Childers performing Red dirt in Okemah, Oklahoma (2001)File:Al Hurricane and Al Hurricane, Jr. performing at the San Felipe De Neri 2014 fiestas.jpg|Al Hurricane and Al Hurricane Jr. performing New Mexico music at a fiesta in Old Town Albuquerque (2014)===Fourth generation (1970s–1980s)=======Outlaw movement====Willie Nelson (1974)Outlaw country was derived from the traditional western, including Red Dirt, New Mexico, Texas country, Tejano, and honky-tonk musical styles of the late 1950s and 1960s.", "Songs such as the 1963 Johnny Cash popularized \"Ring of Fire\" show clear influences from the likes of Al Hurricane and Little Joe, this influence just happened to culminate with artists such as Ray Price (whose band, the \"Cherokee Cowboys\", included Willie Nelson and Roger Miller) and mixed with the anger of an alienated subculture of the nation during the period, a collection of musicians that came to be known as the outlaw movement revolutionized the genre of country music in the early 1970s.", "\"After I left Nashville (the early 70s), I wanted to relax and play the music that I wanted to play, and just stay around Texas, maybe Oklahoma.", "Waylon and I had that outlaw image going, and when it caught on at colleges and we started selling records, we were O.K.", "The whole outlaw thing, it had nothing to do with the music, it was something that got written in an article, and the young people said, 'Well, that's pretty cool.'", "And started listening.\"", "(Willie Nelson) The term ''outlaw country'' is traditionally associated with Willie Nelson, Jerry Jeff Walker, Hank Williams, Jr., Merle Haggard, Waylon Jennings and Joe Ely.", "It was encapsulated in the 1976 album ''Wanted!", "The Outlaws''.Though the outlaw movement as a cultural fad had died down after the late 1970s (with Jennings noting in 1978 that it had gotten out of hand and led to real-life legal scrutiny), many western and outlaw country music artists maintained their popularity during the 1980s by forming supergroups, such as The Highwaymen, Texas Tornados, and Bandido.====Country pop====John Denver (1975)Country pop or soft pop, with roots in the countrypolitan sound, folk music, and soft rock, is a subgenre that first emerged in the 1970s.", "Although the term first referred to country music songs and artists that crossed over to top 40 radio, country pop acts are now more likely to cross over to adult contemporary music.", "It started with pop music singers like Glen Campbell, Bobbie Gentry, John Denver, Olivia Newton-John, Anne Murray, B. J. Thomas, the Bellamy Brothers, and Linda Ronstadt having hits on the country charts.", "Between 1972 and 1975, singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles (\"Rocky Mountain High\", \"Sunshine on My Shoulders\", \"Annie's Song\", \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\", and \"I'm Sorry\"), and was named Country Music Entertainer of the Year in 1975.The year before, Olivia Newton-John, an Australian pop singer, won the \"Best Female Country Vocal Performance\" as well as the Country Music Association's most coveted award for females, \"Female Vocalist of the Year\".", "In response George Jones, Tammy Wynette, Jean Shepard and other traditional Nashville country artists dissatisfied with the new trend formed the short-lived \"Association of Country Entertainers\" in 1974; the ACE soon unraveled in the wake of Jones and Wynette's bitter divorce and Shepard's realization that most others in the industry lacked her passion for the movement.Dolly PartonDuring the mid-1970s, Dolly Parton, a successful mainstream country artist since the late 1960s, mounted a high-profile campaign to cross over to pop music, culminating in her 1977 hit \"Here You Come Again\", which topped the U.S. country singles chart, and also reached No.", "3 on the pop singles charts.", "Parton's male counterpart, Kenny Rogers, came from the opposite direction, aiming his music at the country charts, after a successful career in pop, rock and folk music with the First Edition, achieving success the same year with \"Lucille\", which topped the country charts and reached No.", "5 on the U.S. pop singles charts, as well as reaching Number 1 on the British all-genre chart.", "Parton and Rogers would both continue to have success on both country and pop charts simultaneously, well into the 1980s.", "Country music propelled Kenny Rogers’ career, making him a three-time Grammy Award winner and six-time Country Music Association Awards winner.", "Having sold more than 50 million albums in the US, one of his Song \"The Gambler,\" inspired several TV films, with Rogers as the main character.", "Artists like Crystal Gayle, Ronnie Milsap and Barbara Mandrell would also find success on the pop charts with their records.", "In 1975, author Paul Hemphill stated in the ''Saturday Evening Post'', \"Country music isn't really country anymore; it is a hybrid of nearly every form of popular music in America.", "\"During the early 1980s, country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts.", "Willie Nelson and Juice Newton each had two songs in the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the early eighties: Nelson charted \"Always on My Mind\" (#5, 1982) and \"To All the Girls I've Loved Before\" (#5, 1984, a duet with Julio Iglesias), and Newton achieved success with \"Queen of Hearts\" (#2, 1981) and \"Angel of the Morning\" (#4, 1981).", "Four country songs topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in the 1980s: \"Lady\" by Kenny Rogers, from the late fall of 1980; \"9 to 5\" by Dolly Parton, \"I Love a Rainy Night\" by Eddie Rabbitt (these two back-to-back at the top in early 1981); and \"Islands in the Stream\", a duet by Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers in 1983, a pop-country crossover hit written by Barry, Robin, and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees.", "Newton's \"Queen of Hearts\" almost reached No.", "1, but was kept out of the spot by the pop ballad juggernaut \"Endless Love\" by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie.", "The move of country music toward neotraditional styles led to a marked decline in country/pop crossovers in the late 1980s, and only one song in that period—Roy Orbison's \"You Got It\", from 1989—made the top 10 of both the ''Billboard'' Hot Country Singles\" and Hot 100 charts, due largely to a revival of interest in Orbison after his sudden death.", "The only song with substantial country airplay to reach number one on the pop charts in the late 1980s was \"At This Moment\" by Billy Vera and the Beaters, an R&B song with slide guitar embellishment that appeared at number 42 on the country charts from minor crossover airplay.", "The record-setting, multi-platinum group Alabama was named Artist of the Decade for the 1980s by the Academy of Country Music.====Country rock====Eagles in 2008Country rock is a genre that started in the 1960s but became prominent in the 1970s.", "The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres.", "In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the \"old values\" of rock n' roll.", "At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music.", "What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock.", "Early innovators in this new style of music in the 1960s and 1970s included Bob Dylan, who was the first to revert to country music with his 1967 album ''John Wesley Harding'' (and even more so with that album's follow-up, ''Nashville Skyline''), followed by Gene Clark, Clark's former band the Byrds (with Gram Parsons on ''Sweetheart of the Rodeo'') and its spin-off the Flying Burrito Brothers (also featuring Gram Parsons), guitarist Clarence White, Michael Nesmith (the Monkees and the First National Band), the Grateful Dead, Neil Young, Commander Cody, the Allman Brothers Band, Charlie Daniels, the Marshall Tucker Band, Poco, Buffalo Springfield, Stephen Stills' band Manassas and Eagles, among many, even the former folk music duo Ian & Sylvia, who formed Great Speckled Bird in 1969.The Eagles would become the most successful of these country rock acts, and their compilation album ''Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)'' remains the second-best-selling album in the US with 29 million copies sold.", "The Rolling Stones also got into the act with songs like \"Dead Flowers\"; the original recording of \"Honky Tonk Women\" was performed in a country style, but it was subsequently re-recorded in a hard rock style for the single version, and the band's preferred country version was later released on the album ''Let It Bleed'', under the title \"Country Honk\".Described by AllMusic as the \"father of country-rock\", Gram Parsons' work in the early 1970s was acclaimed for its purity and for his appreciation for aspects of traditional country music.", "Though his career was cut tragically short by his 1973 death, his legacy was carried on by his protégé and duet partner Emmylou Harris; Harris would release her debut solo in 1975, an amalgamation of country, rock and roll, folk, blues and pop.", "Subsequent to the initial blending of the two polar opposite genres, other offspring soon resulted, including Southern rock, heartland rock and in more recent years, alternative country.", "In the decades that followed, artists such as Juice Newton, Alabama, Hank Williams, Jr. (and, to an even greater extent, Hank Williams III), Gary Allan, Shania Twain, Brooks & Dunn, Faith Hill, Garth Brooks, Dwight Yoakam, Steve Earle, Dolly Parton, Rosanne Cash and Linda Ronstadt moved country further towards rock influence.====Neocountry====In 1980, a style of \"neocountry disco music\" was popularized by the film ''Urban Cowboy''.", "It was during this time that a glut of pop-country crossover artists began appearing on the country charts: former pop stars Bill Medley (of the Righteous Brothers), \"England Dan\" Seals (of England Dan and John Ford Coley), Tom Jones, and Merrill Osmond (both alone and with some of his brothers; his younger sister Marie Osmond was already an established country star) all recorded significant country hits in the early 1980s.", "Sales in record stores rocketed to $250 million in 1981; by 1984, 900 radio stations began programming country or neocountry pop full-time.", "As with most sudden trends, however, by 1984 sales had dropped below 1979 figures.====Truck driving country====Truck driving country music is a genre of country musicand is a fusion of honky-tonk, country rock and the Bakersfield sound.It has the tempo of country rock and the emotion of honky-tonk, and its lyrics focus on a truck driver's lifestyle.", "Truck driving country songs often deal with the profession of trucking and love.", "Well-known artists who sing truck driving country include Dave Dudley, Red Sovine, Dick Curless, Red Simpson, Del Reeves, the Willis Brothers and Jerry Reed, with C. W. McCall and Cledus Maggard (pseudonyms of Bill Fries and Jay Huguely, respectively) being more humorous entries in the subgenre.", "Dudley is known as the father of truck driving country.====Neotraditionalist movement====George Strait, a pioneer of the neotraditionalist movement and dubbed the \"King of Country,\" Strait is one of the best selling musicians of all time.During the mid-1980s, a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts, in favor of more, traditional, \"back-to-basics\" production.", "Many of the artists during the latter half of the 1980s drew on traditional honky-tonk, bluegrass, folk and western swing.", "Artists who typified this sound included Travis Tritt, Reba McEntire, George Strait, Keith Whitley, Alan Jackson, John Anderson, Patty Loveless, Kathy Mattea, Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, Clint Black, Ricky Skaggs, and the Judds.===Fifth generation (1990s)===Garth BrooksCountry music was aided by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Docket 80–90, which led to a significant expansion of FM radio in the 1980s by adding numerous higher-fidelity FM signals to rural and suburban areas.", "At this point, country music was mainly heard on rural AM radio stations; the expansion of FM was particularly helpful to country music, which migrated to FM from the AM band as AM became overcome by talk radio (the country music stations that stayed on AM developed the classic country format for the AM audience).", "At the same time, beautiful music stations already in rural areas began abandoning the format (leading to its effective demise) to adopt country music as well.", "This wider availability of country music led to producers seeking to polish their product for a wider audience.", "In 1990, ''Billboard'', which had published a country music chart since the 1940s, changed the methodology it used to compile the chart: singles sales were removed from the methodology, and only airplay on country radio determined a song's place on the chart.In the 1990s, country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Garth Brooks, who enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, breaking records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the decade.", "The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million U.S. shipments.", "Other artists who experienced success during this time included Clint Black, John Michael Montgomery, Tracy Lawrence, Tim McGraw, Kenny Chesney, Travis Tritt, Alan Jackson and the newly formed duo of Brooks & Dunn; George Strait, whose career began in the 1980s, also continued to have widespread success in this decade and beyond.", "Toby Keith began his career as a more pop-oriented country singer in the 1990s, evolving into an outlaw persona in the early 2000s with ''Pull My Chain'' and its follow-up, ''Unleashed''.====Success of female artists====Female artists such as Reba McEntire, Patty Loveless, Faith Hill, Martina McBride, Deana Carter, LeAnn Rimes, Mindy McCready, Pam Tillis, Lorrie Morgan, Shania Twain, and Mary Chapin Carpenter all released platinum-selling albums in the 1990s.", "The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 1990s and early 2000s.", "Their 1998 debut album ''Wide Open Spaces'' went on to become certified 12× platinum while their 1999 album ''Fly'' went on to become 10× platinum.", "After their third album, ''Home'', was released in 2003, the band made political news in part because of lead singer Natalie Maines's comments disparaging then-President George W. Bush while the band was overseas (Maines stated that she and her bandmates were ashamed to be from the same state as Bush, who had just commenced the Iraq War a few days prior).", "The comments caused a rift between the band and the country music scene, and the band's fourth (and most recent) album, 2006's ''Taking the Long Way'', took a more rock-oriented direction; the album was commercially successful overall among non-country audiences but largely ignored among country audiences.", "After ''Taking the Long Way'', the band broke up for a decade (with two of its members continuing as the Court Yard Hounds) before reuniting in 2016 and releasing new material in 2020.Shania Twain performing during her Up!", "Tour in 2004Canadian artist Shania Twain became the best selling female country artist of the decade.", "This was primarily due to the success of her breakthrough sophomore 1995 album, ''The Woman in Me'', which was certified 12× platinum sold over 20 million copies worldwide and its follow-up, 1997's ''Come On Over'', which was certified 20× platinum and sold over 40 million copies.", "The album became a major worldwide phenomenon and became one of the world's best selling albums for three years (1998, 1999 and 2000); it also went on to become the best selling country album of all time.Unlike the majority of her contemporaries, Twain enjoyed large international success that had been seen by very few country artists, before or after her.", "Critics have noted that Twain enjoyed much of her success due to breaking free of traditional country stereotypes and for incorporating elements of rock and pop into her music.", "In 2002, she released her successful fourth studio album, titled ''Up!", "'', which was certified 11× platinum and sold over 15 million copies worldwide.", "Shania Twain has been nominated eighteen times for Grammy Awards and won five Grammys.", "She was the best-paid country music star in 2016 according to Forbes, with a net worth of $27.5 million.", "Twain has been credited with breaking international boundaries for country music, as well as inspiring many country artists to incorporate different genres into their music in order to attract a wider audience.", "She is also credited with changing the way in which many female country performers would market themselves, as unlike many before her she used fashion and her sex appeal to get rid of the stereotypical 'honky-tonk' image the majority of country singers had in order to distinguish herself from many female country artists of the time.====Line dancing revival====In the early-mid-1990s, country western music was influenced by the popularity of line dancing.", "This influence was so great that Chet Atkins was quoted as saying, \"The music has gotten pretty bad, I think.", "It's all that damn line dancing.\"", "By the end of the decade, however, at least one line dance choreographer complained that good country line dance music was no longer being released.", "In contrast, artists such as Don Williams and George Jones who had more or less had consistent chart success through the 1970s and 1980s suddenly had their fortunes fall rapidly around 1991 when the new chart rules took effect.====Alternative country====Steve Earle performing in Ireland in 2007Country influences combined with Punk rock and alternative rock to forge the \"cowpunk\" scene in Southern California during the 1980s, which included bands such as the Long Ryders, Lone Justice and the Beat Farmers, as well as the established punk group X, whose music had begun to include country and rockabilly influences.", "Simultaneously, a generation of diverse country artists outside of California emerged that rejected the perceived cultural and musical conservatism associated with Nashville's mainstream country musicians in favor of more countercultural outlaw country and the folk singer-songwriter traditions of artists such as Woody Guthrie, Gram Parsons and Bob Dylan.Artists from outside California who were associated with early alternative country included singer-songwriters such as Lucinda Williams, Lyle Lovett and Steve Earle, the Nashville country rock band Jason and the Scorchers, the Providence \"cowboy pop\" band Rubber Rodeo, and the British post-punk band the Mekons.", "Earle, in particular, was noted for his popularity with both country and college rock audiences: He promoted his 1986 debut album ''Guitar Town'' with a tour that saw him open for both country singer Dwight Yoakam and alternative rock band the Replacements.", "Yoakam also cultivated a fanbase spanning multiple genres through his stripped-down honky-tonk influenced sound, association with the cowpunk scene, and performances at Los Angeles punk rock clubs.These early styles had coalesced into a genre by the time the Illinois group Uncle Tupelo released their influential debut album ''No Depression'' in 1990.The album is widely credited as being the first \"alternative country\" album, and inspired the name of ''No Depression'' magazine, which exclusively covered the new genre.", "Following Uncle Tupelo's disbanding in 1994, its members formed two significant bands in genre: Wilco and Son Volt.", "Although Wilco's sound had moved away from country and towards indie rock by the time they released their critically acclaimed album ''Yankee Hotel Foxtrot'' in 2002, they have continued to be an influence on later alt-country artists.Other acts who became prominent in the alt-country genre during the 1990s and 2000s included the Bottle Rockets, the Handsome Family, Blue Mountain, Robbie Fulks, Blood Oranges, Bright Eyes, Drive-By Truckers, Old 97's, Old Crow Medicine Show, Nickel Creek, Neko Case, and Whiskeytown, whose lead singer Ryan Adams later had a successful solo-career.", "Alt-country, in various iterations overlapped with other genres, including Red Dirt country music (Cross Canadian Ragweed), jam bands (My Morning Jacket and the String Cheese Incident), and indie folk (the Avett Brothers).Despite the genre's growing popularity in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, alternative country and neo-traditionalist artists saw minimal support from country radio in those decades, despite strong sales and critical acclaim for albums such as the soundtrack to the 2000 film ''O Brother, Where Art Thou?''.", "In 1987, the Beat Farmers gained airplay on country music stations with their song \"Make It Last\", but the single was pulled from the format when station programmers decreed the band's music was too rock-oriented for their audience.", "However, some alt-country songs have been crossover hits to mainstream country radio in cover versions by established artists on the format; Lucinda Williams' \"Passionate Kisses\" was a hit for Mary Chapin Carpenter in 1993, Ryan Adams' \"When the Stars Go Blue\" was a hit for Tim McGraw in 2007, and Old Crow Medicine Show's \"Wagon Wheel\" was a hit for Darius Rucker (member of Hootie & The Blowfish) in 2013.In the 2010s, the alt-country genre saw an increase in its critical and commercial popularity, owing to the success of artists such as the Civil Wars, Chris Stapleton, Sturgill Simpson, Jason Isbell, Lydia Loveless and Margo Price.", "In 2019, Kacey Musgraves – a country artist who had gained a following with indie rock fans and music critics despite minimal airplay on country radio – won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for her album ''Golden Hour''.===Sixth generation (2000s–present)===The sixth generation of country music continued to be influenced by other genres such as pop, rock, and R&B.", "Richard Marx crossed over with his ''Days in Avalon'' album, which features five country songs and several singers and musicians.", "Alison Krauss sang background vocals to Marx's single \"Straight from My Heart.\"", "Also, Bon Jovi had a hit single, \"Who Says You Can't Go Home\", with Jennifer Nettles of Sugarland.", "Kid Rock's collaboration with Sheryl Crow, \"Picture,\" was a major crossover hit in 2001 and began Kid Rock's transition from hard rock to a country-rock hybrid that would later produce another major crossover hit, 2008's \"All Summer Long.\"", "(Crow, whose music had often incorporated country elements, would also officially cross over into country with her hit \"Easy\" from her debut country album ''Feels like Home'').", "Darius Rucker, frontman for the 1990s pop-rock band Hootie & the Blowfish, began a country solo career in the late 2000s, one that to date has produced five albums and several hits on both the country charts and the Billboard Hot 100.Singer-songwriter Unknown Hinson became famous for his appearance in the Charlotte television show ''Wild, Wild, South'', after which Hinson started his own band and toured in southern states.", "Other rock stars who featured a country song on their albums were Don Henley (who released ''Cass County'' in 2015, an album which featured collaborations with numerous country artists) and Poison.The back half of the 2010-2020 decade saw an increasing number of mainstream country acts collaborate with pop and R&B acts; many of these songs achieved commercial success by appealing to fans across multiple genres; examples include collaborations between Kane Brown and Marshmello and Maren Morris and Zedd.", "There has also been interest from pop singers in country music, including Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, Alicia Keys, Gwen Stefani, Justin Timberlake, Justin Bieber and Pink.", "Supporting this movement is the new generation of contemporary pop-country, including Taylor Swift, Miranda Lambert, Carrie Underwood, Kacey Musgraves, Miley Cyrus, Billy Ray Cyrus, Sam Hunt, Chris Young, who introduced new themes in their works, touching on fundamental rights, feminism, and controversies about racism and religion of the older generations.====Popular culture====Carrie Underwood at the 2019 American Music AwardsIn 2005, country singer Carrie Underwood rose to fame as the winner of the fourth season of ''American Idol'' and has since become one of the most prominent recording artists in the genre, with worldwide sales of more than 65 million records and seven Grammy Awards.", "With her first single, \"Inside Your Heaven\", Underwood became the only solo country artist to have a number 1 hit on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart in the 2000–2009 decade and also broke ''Billboard'' chart history as the first country music artist ever to debut at No.", "1 on the Hot 100.Underwood's debut album, ''Some Hearts'', became the best-selling solo female debut album in country music history, the fastest-selling debut country album in the history of the SoundScan era and the best-selling country album of the last 10 years, being ranked by ''Billboard'' as the number 1 Country Album of the 2000–2009 decade.", "She has also become the female country artist with the most number one hits on the ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart in the Nielsen SoundScan era (1991–present), having 14 #1s and breaking her own ''Guinness Book'' record of ten.", "In 2007, Underwood won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist, becoming only the second Country artist in history (and the first in a decade) to win it.", "She also made history by becoming the seventh woman to win Entertainer of the Year at the Academy of Country Music Awards, and the first woman in history to win the award twice, as well as twice consecutively.", "''Time'' has listed Underwood as one of the 100 most influential people in the world.In 2016, Underwood topped the Country Airplay chart for the 15th time, becoming the female artist with the most number ones on that chart.Miranda Lambert in 2019Carrie Underwood was only one of several country stars produced by a television series in the 2000s.", "In addition to Underwood, ''American Idol'' launched the careers of Kellie Pickler, Josh Gracin, Bucky Covington, Kristy Lee Cook, Danny Gokey, Lauren Alaina and Scotty McCreery (as well as that of occasional country singer Kelly Clarkson) in the decade, and would continue to launch country careers in the 2010s.", "The series ''Nashville Star'', while not nearly as successful as ''Idol'', did manage to bring Miranda Lambert, Kacey Musgraves and Chris Young to mainstream success, also launching the careers of lower-profile musicians such as Buddy Jewell, Sean Patrick McGraw, and Canadian musician George Canyon.", "''Can You Duet?''", "produced the duos Steel Magnolia and Joey + Rory.", "Teen sitcoms also have influenced modern country music; in 2008, actress Jennette McCurdy (best known as the sidekick Sam on the teen sitcom ''iCarly'') released her first single, \"So Close\", following that with the single \"Generation Love\" in 2011.Another teen sitcom star, Miley Cyrus (of Disney Channel's ''Hannah Montana''), also had a crossover hit in the late 2000s with \"The Climb\" and another with a duet with her father, Billy Ray Cyrus, with \"Ready, Set, Don't Go.\"", "Jana Kramer, an actress in the teen drama ''One Tree Hill'', released a country album in 2012 that has produced two hit singles as of 2013.Actresses Hayden Panettiere and Connie Britton began recording country songs as part of their roles in the TV shows ''Nashville'' and ''Pretty Little Liars'' star Lucy Hale released her debut album ''Road Between'' in 2014.In 2010, the group Lady Antebellum won five Grammys, including the coveted Song of the Year and Record of the Year for \"Need You Now\".", "A large number of duos and vocal groups emerged on the charts in the 2010s, many of which feature close harmony in the lead vocals.", "In addition to Lady A, groups such as Little Big Town, the Band Perry, Gloriana, Thompson Square, Eli Young Band, Zac Brown Band and British duo the Shires have emerged to occupy a large share of mainstream success alongside solo singers such as Kacey Musgraves and Miranda Lambert.Taylor Swift at the 2019 American Music AwardsOne of the most commercially successful country artists of the late 2000s and early 2010s has been singer-songwriter Taylor Swift.", "Swift first became widely known in 2006 when her debut single, \"Tim McGraw\", was released when Swift was only 16 years old.", "In 2006, Swift released her self-titled debut studio album, which spent 275 weeks on ''Billboard'' 200, one of the longest runs of any album on that chart.", "In 2008, Taylor Swift released her second studio album, ''Fearless'', which made her the second longest number-one charted on ''Billboard'' 200 and the second best-selling album (just behind Adele's ''21'') within the past 5 years.", "At the 2010 Grammys, Taylor Swift was 20 and won Album of the Year for ''Fearless'', which made her the youngest artist to win this award.", "Swift has received twelve Grammys already.Buoyed by her teen idol status among girls and a change in the methodology of compiling the ''Billboard'' charts to favor pop-crossover songs, Swift's 2012 single \"We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together\" spent the most weeks at the top of Billboard's Hot 100 chart and Hot Country Songs chart of any song in nearly five decades.", "The song's long run at the top of the chart was somewhat controversial, as the song is largely a pop song without much country influence and its success on the charts driven by a change to the chart's criteria to include airplay on non-country radio stations, prompting disputes over what constitutes a country song; many of Swift's later releases, such as album ''1989'' (2014), ''Reputation'' (2017), and ''Lover'' (2019) were released solely to pop audiences.", "Swift returned to country music in her recent folk-inspired releases, ''Folklore'' (2020) and ''Evermore'' (2020), with songs like \"Betty\" and \"No Body, No Crime\".==== Modern variations ========= Influence of rock, pop and hip-hop =====In the mid to late 2010s, country music began to increasingly sound more like the style of modern-day Pop music, with more simple and repetitive lyrics, more electronic-based instrumentation, and experimentation with \"talk-singing\" and rap, pop-country pulled farther away from the traditional sounds of country music and received criticisms from country music purists while gaining in popularity with mainstream audiences.", "The topics addressed have also changed, turning controversial such as acceptance of the LGBT community, safe sex, recreational marijuana use, and questioning religious sentiment.", "Influences also come from some pop artists' interest in the country genre, including Justin Timberlake with the album ''Man of the Woods,'' Beyoncé's song \"Daddy Lessons\" from ''Lemonade'', Gwen Stefani with \"Nobody but You\", Bruno Mars, Lady Gaga, Alicia Keys, Kelly Clarkson, and Pink.The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s as artists like Eric Church, Jason Aldean, and Brantley Gilbert have had success; Aaron Lewis, former frontman for the rock group Staind, had a moderately successful entry into country music in 2011 and 2012, as did Dallas Smith, former frontman of the band Default.Maren Morris success collaboration \"The Middle\" with EDM producer Zedd is considered one of the representations of the fusion of electro-pop with country music.Lil Nas X song \"Old Town Road\" spent 19 weeks atop the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart, becoming the longest-running number-one song since the chart debuted in 1958, winning Billboard Music Awards, MTV Video Music Awards and Grammy Award.", "Sam Hunt \"Leave the Night On\" peaked concurrently on the Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay charts, making Hunt the first country artist in 22 years, since Billy Ray Cyrus, to reach the top of three country charts simultaneously in the Nielsen SoundScan-era.", "With the fusion genre of \"country trap\"—a fusion of country/western themes to a hip hop beat, but usually with fully sung lyrics—emerging in the late 2010s, line dancing country had a minor revival, examples of the phenomenon include \"The Git Up\" by Blanco Brown.", "Blanco Brown has gone on to make more traditional country soul songs such as \"I Need Love\" and a rendition of \"Don't Take the Girl\" with Tim McGraw, and collaborations like \"Just the Way\" with Parmalee.", "Another country trap artist known as Breland has seen success with \"My Truck, \"Throw It Back\" with Keith Urban, and \"Praise the Lord\" featuring Thomas Rhett.Emo rap musician Sueco, released a cowpunk song in collaboration is country musician Warren Zeiders titled \"Ride It Hard\".", "Alex Melton, known for his music covers, blends pop punk with country music.====== Bro country ======Florida Georgia Line whose hit song \"Cruise\" drew attention to the bro-country genreIn the early 2010s, \"bro-country\", a genre noted primarily for its themes on drinking and partying, girls, and pickup trucks became particularly popular.", "Notable artists associated with this genre are Luke Bryan, Jason Aldean, Blake Shelton, Jake Owen and Florida Georgia Line whose song \"Cruise\" became the best-selling country song of all time.", "Research in the mid-2010s suggested that about 45 percent of country's best-selling songs could be considered bro-country, with the top two artists being Luke Bryan and Florida Georgia Line.", "Albums by bro-country singers also sold very well—in 2013, Luke Bryan's ''Crash My Party'' was the third best-selling of all albums in the United States, with Florida Georgia Line's ''Here's to the Good Times'' at sixth, and Blake Shelton's ''Based on a True Story'' at ninth.", "It is also thought that the popularity of bro-country helped country music to surpass classic rock as the most popular genre in the American country in 2012.The genre however is controversial as it has been criticized by other country musicians and commentators over its themes and depiction of women, opening up a divide between the older generation of country singers and the younger bro country singers that was described as \"civil war\" by musicians, critics, and journalists.\"", "In 2014, Maddie & Tae's \"Girl in a Country Song\", addressing many of the controversial bro-country themes, peaked at number one on the ''Billboard'' Country Airplay chart.===== Bluegrass and Americana =====is a genre that contain songs about going through hard times, country loving, and telling stories.", "Newer artists like Billy Strings, the Grascals, Molly Tuttle, Tyler Childers and the Infamous Stringdusters have been increasing the popularity of this genre, alongside some of the genres more established stars who still remain popular including Rhonda Vincent, Alison Krauss and Union Station, Ricky Skaggs and Del McCoury.", "The genre has developed in the Northern Kentucky and Cincinnati area.", "Other artists include New South (band), Doc Watson, Osborne Brothers, and many others.Emmylou Harris in 2008In an effort to combat the over-reliance of mainstream country music on pop-infused artists, the sister genre of Americana began to gain popularity and increase in prominence, receiving eight Grammy categories of its own in 2009.Americana music incorporates elements of country music, bluegrass, folk, blues, gospel, rhythm and blues, roots rock and southern soul and is overseen by the Americana Music Association and the Americana Music Honors & Awards.", "As a result of an increasingly pop-leaning mainstream, many more traditional-sounding artists such as Tyler Childers, Zach Bryan and Old Crow Medicine Show began to associate themselves more with Americana and the alternative country scene where their sound was more celebrated.", "Similarly, many established country acts who no longer received commercial airplay, including Emmylou Harris and Lyle Lovett, began to flourish again.===== Contemporary country and western revival =====Kacey Musgraves became one of the most controversial figures in contemporary country music.During the mid-1980s, a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts, in favor of more, traditional, \"back-to-basics\" production.", "Many of the artists during the latter half of the 1980s drew on traditional honky-tonk, bluegrass, folk and western swing.", "Artists who typified this sound included Travis Tritt, Reba McEntire, George Strait, Keith Whitley, Alan Jackson, John Anderson, Patty Loveless, Kathy Mattea, Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, Clint Black, Ricky Skaggs, and the Judds.Beginning in 1989, a confluence of events brought an unprecedented commercial boom to country music.", "New marketing strategies were used to engage fans, powered by technology that more accurately tracked the popularity of country music, and boosted by a political and economic climate that focused attention on the genre.", "Garth Brooks (\"Friends in Low Places\") in particular attracted fans with his fusion of neotraditionalist country and stadium rock.", "Other artists such as Brooks and Dunn (\"Boot Scootin' Boogie\") also combined conventional country with slick, rock elements, while Lorrie Morgan, Mary Chapin Carpenter, and Kathy Mattea updated neotraditionalist styles.Roots of conservative country was Lee Greenwood's \"God Bless the USA\".", "The September 11 attacks of 2001 and the economic recession helped move country music back into the spotlight.", "Many country artists, such as Alan Jackson with his ballad on terrorist attacks, \"Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning)\", wrote songs that celebrated the military, highlighted the gospel, and emphasized home and family values over wealth.", "Alt-Country singer Ryan Adams song \"New York, New York\" pays tribute to New York City, and its popular music video (which was shot 4 days before the attacks) shows Adams playing in front of the Manhattan skyline, Along with several shots of the city.", "In contrast, more rock-oriented country singers took more direct aim at the attacks' perpetrators; Toby Keith's \"Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)\" threatened to \"a boot in\" the posterior of the enemy, while Charlie Daniels's \"This Ain't No Rag, It's a Flag\" promised to \"hunt\" the perpetrators \"down like a mad dog hound.\"", "These songs gained such recognition that it put country music back into popular culture.", "Darryl Worley recorded \"Have You Forgotten\" also.", "There have been numerous patriotic country songs throughout the years.Some modern artists that primarily or entirely produce country pop music include Kacey Musgraves, Maren Morris, Kelsea Ballerini, Sam Hunt, Kane Brown, Chris Lane, and Dan + Shay.", "The singers who are part of this country movement are also defined as \"Nashville's new generation of country\".Although the changes made by the new generation, it has been recognized by major music awards associations and successes in Billboard and international charts.", "''Golden Hour'' by Kacey Musgraves won album of the year at 61st Annual Grammy Awards, Academy of Country Music Awards, Country Music Association Awards, although it has received widespread criticism from the more traditionalist public.Midland, one of the most popular neotraditional honky-tonk bands" ], [ "International", "===Australia===Olivia Newton-John singing in Sydney in 2008Australian country music has a long tradition.", "Influenced by US country music, it has developed a distinct style, shaped by British and Irish folk ballads and Australian bush balladeers like Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson.", "Country instruments, including the guitar, banjo, fiddle and harmonica, create the distinctive sound of country music in Australia and accompany songs with strong storyline and memorable chorus.Folk songs sung in Australia between the 1780s and 1920s, based around such themes as the struggle against government tyranny, or the lives of bushrangers, swagmen, drovers, stockmen and shearers, continue to influence the genre.", "This strain of Australian country, with lyrics focusing on Australian subjects, is generally known as \"bush music\" or \"bush band music\".", "\"Waltzing Matilda\", often regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem, is a quintessential Australian country song, influenced more by British and Irish folk ballads than by US country and western music.", "The lyrics were composed by the poet Banjo Paterson in 1895.Other popular songs from this tradition include \"The Wild Colonial Boy\", \"Click Go the Shears\", \"The Queensland Drover\" and \"The Dying Stockman\".", "Later themes which endure to the present include the experiences of war, of droughts and flooding rains, of Aboriginality and of the railways and trucking routes which link Australia's vast distances.Pioneers of a more Americanised popular country music in Australia included Tex Morton (known as \"The Father of Australian Country Music\") in the 1930s.", "Author Andrew Smith delivers a through research and engaged view of Tex Morton's life and his impact on the country music scene in Australia in the 1930s and 1940s.", "Other early stars included Buddy Williams, Shirley Thoms and Smoky Dawson.", "Buddy Williams (1918–1986) was the first Australian-born to record country music in Australia in the late 1930s and was the pioneer of a distinctly Australian style of country music called the bush ballad that others such as Slim Dusty would make popular in later years.", "During the Second World War, many of Buddy Williams recording sessions were done whilst on leave from the Army.", "At the end of the war, Williams would go on to operate some of the largest travelling tent rodeo shows Australia has ever seen.In 1952, Dawson began a radio show and went on to national stardom as a singing cowboy of radio, TV and film.", "Slim Dusty (1927–2003) was known as the \"King of Australian Country Music\" and helped to popularise the Australian bush ballad.", "His successful career spanned almost six decades, and his 1957 hit \"A Pub with No Beer\" was the biggest-selling record by an Australian to that time, and with over seven million record sales in Australia he is the most successful artist in Australian musical history.", "Dusty recorded and released his one-hundredth album in the year 2000 and was given the honour of singing \"Waltzing Matilda\" in the closing ceremony of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games.", "Dusty's wife Joy McKean penned several of his most popular songs.Chad Morgan, who began recording in the 1950s, has represented a vaudeville style of comic Australian country; Frank Ifield achieved considerable success in the early 1960s, especially in the UK Singles Charts and Reg Lindsay was one of the first Australians to perform at Nashville's Grand Ole Opry in 1974.Eric Bogle's 1972 folk lament to the Gallipoli Campaign \"And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda\" recalled the British and Irish origins of Australian folk-country.", "Singer-songwriter Paul Kelly, whose music style straddles folk, rock and country, is often described as the poet laureate of Australian music.", "Keith Urban in 2007By the 1990s, country music had attained crossover success in the pop charts, with artists like James Blundell and James Reyne singing \"Way Out West\", and country star Kasey Chambers winning the ARIA Award for Best Female Artist in three years (2000, 2002 and 2004), tying with pop stars Wendy Matthews and Sia for the most wins in that category.", "Furthermore, Chambers has gone on to win nine ARIA Awards for Best Country Album and, in 2018, became the youngest artist to ever be inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.", "The crossover influence of Australian country is also evident in the music of successful contemporary bands the Waifs and the John Butler Trio.", "Nick Cave has been heavily influenced by the country artist Johnny Cash.", "In 2000, Cash, covered Cave's \"The Mercy Seat\" on the album ''American III: Solitary Man'', seemingly repaying Cave for the compliment he paid by covering Cash's \"The Singer\" (originally \"The Folk Singer\") on his ''Kicking Against the Pricks'' album.", "Subsequently, Cave cut a duet with Cash on a version of Hank Williams' \"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry\" for Cash's ''American IV: The Man Comes Around'' album (2002).Popular contemporary performers of Australian country music include John Williamson (who wrote the iconic \"True Blue\"), Lee Kernaghan (whose hits include \"Boys from the Bush\" and \"The Outback Club\"), Gina Jeffreys, Forever Road and Sara Storer.", "In the U.S., Olivia Newton-John, Sherrié Austin and Keith Urban have attained great success.", "During her time as a country singer in the 1970s, Newton-John became the first (and to date only) non-US winner of the Country Music Association Award for Female Vocalist of the Year which many considered a controversial decision by the CMA; after starring in the rock-and-roll musical film ''Grease'' in 1978, Newton-John (mirroring the character she played in the film) shifted to pop music in the 1980s.", "Urban is arguably considered the most successful international Australian country star, winning nine CMA Awards, including three Male Vocalist of the Year wins and two wins of the CMA's top honour Entertainer of the Year.", "Pop star Kylie Minogue found success with her 2018 country pop album ''Golden'' which she recorded in Nashville reaching number one in Scotland, the UK and her native Australia.Country music has been a particularly popular form of musical expression among Indigenous Australians.", "Troy Cassar-Daley is among Australia's successful contemporary indigenous performers, and Kev Carmody and Archie Roach employ a combination of folk-rock and country music to sing about Aboriginal rights issues.The Tamworth Country Music Festival began in 1973 and now attracts up to 100,000 visitors annually.", "Held in Tamworth, New South Wales (country music capital of Australia), it celebrates the culture and heritage of Australian country music.", "During the festival the CMAA holds the Country Music Awards of Australia ceremony awarding the Golden Guitar trophies.", "Other significant country music festivals include the Whittlesea Country Music Festival (near Melbourne) and the Mildura Country Music Festival for \"independent\" performers during October, and the Canberra Country Music Festival held in the national capital during November.", "''Country HQ'' showcases new talent on the rise in the country music scene down under.", "CMC (the Country Music Channel), a 24‑hour music channel dedicated to non-stop country music, can be viewed on pay TV and features once a year the Golden Guitar Awards, CMAs and CCMAs alongside international shows such as ''The Wilkinsons'', ''The Road Hammers'', and ''Country Music Across America''.===Canada===Shania Twain in 2011Outside of the United States, Canada has the largest country music fan and artist base, something that is to be expected given the two countries' proximity and cultural parallels.", "Mainstream country music is culturally ingrained in the prairie provinces, the British Columbia Interior, Northern Ontario, and in Atlantic Canada.", "Celtic traditional music developed in Atlantic Canada in the form of Scottish, Acadian and Irish folk music popular amongst Irish, French and Scottish immigrants to Canada's Atlantic Provinces (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island).", "Like the southern United States and Appalachia, all four regions are of heavy British Isles stock and rural; as such, the development of traditional music in the Maritimes somewhat mirrored the development of country music in the US South and Appalachia.", "Country and western music never really developed separately in Canada; however, after its introduction to Canada, following the spread of radio, it developed quite quickly out of the Atlantic Canadian traditional scene.", "While true Atlantic Canadian traditional music is very Celtic or \"sea shanty\" in nature, even today, the lines have often been blurred.", "Certain areas often are viewed as embracing one strain or the other more openly.", "For example, in Newfoundland the traditional music remains unique and Irish in nature, whereas traditional musicians in other parts of the region may play both genres interchangeably.", "''Don Messer's Jubilee'' was a Halifax, Nova Scotia-based country/folk variety television show that was broadcast nationally from 1957 to 1969.In Canada it out-performed ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' broadcast from the United States and became the top-rated television show throughout much of the 1960s.", "''Don Messer's Jubilee'' followed a consistent format throughout its years, beginning with a tune named \"Goin' to the Barndance Tonight\", followed by fiddle tunes by Messer, songs from some of his \"Islanders\" including singers Marg Osburne and Charlie Chamberlain, the featured guest performance, and a closing hymn.", "It ended with \"Till We Meet Again\".", "The guest performance slot gave national exposure to numerous Canadian folk musicians, including Stompin' Tom Connors and Catherine McKinnon.", "Some Maritime country performers went on to further fame beyond Canada.", "Hank Snow, Wilf Carter (also known as Montana Slim), and Anne Murray are the three most notable.", "The cancellation of the show by the public broadcaster in 1969 caused a nationwide protest, including the raising of questions in the Parliament of Canada.The Prairie provinces, due to their western cowboy and agrarian nature, are the true heartland of Canadian country music.", "While the Prairies never developed a traditional music culture anything like the Maritimes, the folk music of the Prairies often reflected the cultural origins of the settlers, who were a mix of Scottish, Ukrainian, German and others.", "For these reasons polkas and western music were always popular in the region, and with the introduction of the radio, mainstream country music flourished.", "As the culture of the region is western and frontier in nature, the specific genre of country and western is more popular today in the Prairies than in any other part of the country.", "No other area of the country embraces all aspects of the culture, from two-step dancing, to the cowboy dress, to rodeos, to the music itself, like the Prairies do.", "The Atlantic Provinces, on the other hand, produce far more traditional musicians, but they are not usually specifically country in nature, usually bordering more on the folk or Celtic genres.Canadian country pop star Shania Twain is the best-selling female country artist of all time and one of the best-selling artists of all time in any genre.", "Furthermore, she is the only woman to have three consecutive albums be certified Diamond.===Mexico and Latin America===Lorenzo AntonioCountry music artists from the U.S. have seen crossover with Latin American audiences, particularly in Mexico.", "Country music artists from throughout the U.S. have recorded renditions of Mexican folk songs, including \"El Rey\" which was performed on George Strait's ''Twang'' album and during Al Hurricane's tribute concert.", "American Latin pop crossover musicians, like Lorenzo Antonio's \"Ranchera Jam\" have also combined Mexican songs with country songs in a New Mexico music style.While Tejano and New Mexico music is typically thought of as being Spanish language, the genres have also had charting musicians focused on English language music.", "During the 1970s, singer-songwriter Freddy Fender had two #1 country music singles, that were popular throughout North America, with \"Before the Next Teardrop Falls\" and \"Wasted Days and Wasted Nights\".", "Notable songs which have been influenced by Hispanic and Latin culture as performed by US country music artists include Marty Robbins' \"El Paso\" trilogy, Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard covering the Townes Van Zandt song \"Pancho and Lefty\", \"Toes\" by Zac Brown Band, and \"Sangria\" by Blake Shelton.Regional Mexican is a radio format featuring many of Mexico's versions of country music.", "It includes a number of different styles, usually named after their region of origin.", "One specific song style, the Canción Ranchera, or simply Ranchera, literally meaning \"ranch song\", found its origins in the Mexican countryside and was first popularized with Mariachi.", "It has since also become popular with Grupero, Banda, Norteño, Tierra Caliente, Duranguense and other regional Mexican styles.", "The Corrido, a different song style with a similar history, is also performed in many other regional styles, and is most related to the western style of the United States and Canada.", "Other song styles performed in regional Mexican music include Ballads, Cumbias, Boleros, among others.", "Country en Español (Country in Spanish) is also popular in Mexico.", "Some Mexican artists began performing country songs in Spanish during the 1970s, and the genre became prominent mainly in the northern regions of the country during the 1980s.", "A Country en Español popularity boom also reached the central regions of Mexico during the 1990s.", "For most of its history, Country en Español mainly resembled Neotraditional country.", "However, in more modern times, some artists have incorporated influences from other country music subgenres.", "In Brazil, there is Música Sertaneja, the most popular music genre in that country.", "It originated in the countryside of São Paulo state in the 1910s, before the development of U.S. country music.In Argentina, on the last weekend of September, the yearly San Pedro Country Music Festival takes place in the town of San Pedro, Buenos Aires.", "The festival features bands from different places in Argentina, as well as international artists from Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, Peru and the U.S.===United Kingdom===Country music is popular in the United Kingdom, although somewhat less so than in other English-speaking countries.", "There are some British country music acts and publications.", "Although radio stations devoted to country are among the most popular in other Anglophone nations, none of the top ten most-listened-to stations in the UK are country stations, and national broadcaster BBC Radio does not offer a full-time country station (BBC Radio 2 Country, a \"pop-up\" station, operated four days each year between 2015 and 2017).", "The BBC does offer a country show on BBC Radio 2 each week hosted by Bob Harris.The most successful British country music act of the 21st century are Ward Thomas and the Shires.", "In 2015, the Shires' album ''Brave'', became the first UK country act ever to chart in the Top 10 of the UK Albums Chart and they became the first UK country act to receive an award from the American Country Music Association.", "In 2016, Ward Thomas then became the first UK country act to hit number 1 in the UK Albums Chart with their album ''Cartwheels''.There is the C2C: Country to Country festival held every year, and for many years there was a festival at Wembley Arena, which was broadcast on the BBC, the International Festivals of Country Music, promoted by Mervyn Conn, held at the venue between 1969 and 1991.The shows were later taken into Europe, and featured such stars as Johnny Cash, Dolly Parton, Tammy Wynette, David Allan Coe, Emmylou Harris, Boxcar Willie, Johnny Russell and Jerry Lee Lewis.", "A handful of country musicians had even greater success in mainstream British music than they did in the U.S., despite a certain amount of disdain from the music press.", "Britain's largest music festival Glastonbury has featured major US country acts in recent years, such as Kenny Rogers in 2013 and Dolly Parton in 2014.Engelbert Humperdinck had hits with country songsBefore pop stardom, Bonnie Tyler had a country hit with \"It's a Heartache\"From within the UK, few country musicians achieved widespread mainstream success.", "Many British singers who performed the occasional country songs are of other genres.", "Tom Jones, by this point near the end of his peak success as a pop singer, had a string of country hits in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "The Bee Gees had some fleeting success in the genre, with one country hit as artists (\"Rest Your Love on Me\") and a major hit as songwriters (\"Islands in the Stream\"); Barry Gibb, the band's usual lead singer and last surviving member, acknowledged that country music was a major influence on the band's style.", "Singer Engelbert Humperdinck, while charting only once in the U.S. country top 40 with \"After the Lovin'\", achieved widespread success on both the U.S. and British pop charts with his covers of Nashville country ballads such as \"Release Me\", \"Am I That Easy to Forget\" and \"There Goes My Everything\".", "Welsh singer Bonnie Tyler initially started her career making country records, and in 1978 her single \"It's a Heartache\" reached number four on the UK Singles Chart.", "In 2013, Tyler returned to her roots, blending the country elements of her early work with the rock of her successful material on her album ''Rocks and Honey'' which featured a duet with Vince Gill.", "The songwriting tandem of Roger Cook and Roger Greenaway wrote a number of country hits, in addition to their widespread success in pop songwriting; Cook is notable for being the only Briton to be inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame.A niche country subgenre popular in the West Country is Scrumpy and Western, which consists mostly of novelty songs and comedy music recorded there (its name comes from scrumpy, an alcoholic beverage).", "A primarily local interest, the largest Scrumpy and Western hit in the UK and Ireland was \"The Combine Harvester\", which pioneered the genre and reached number one in both the UK and Ireland; Fred Wedlock had a number-six hit in 1981 with \"The Oldest Swinger in Town\".", "In 1975, comedian Billy Connolly topped the UK Singles Chart with \"D.I.V.O.R.C.E.", "\", a parody of the Tammy Wynette song \"D-I-V-O-R-C-E\".", "The British Country Music Festival is an annual three-day festival held in the seaside resort of Blackpool.", "It uniquely promotes artists from the United Kingdom and Ireland to celebrate the impact that Celtic and British settlers to America had on the origins of country music.", "Past headline artists have included Amy Wadge, Ward Thomas, Tom Odell, Nathan Carter, Lisa McHugh, Catherine McGrath, Wildwood Kin, The Wandering Hearts and Henry Priestman.===Ireland===In Ireland, Country and Irish is a music genre that combines traditional Irish folk music with US country music.", "Television channel TG4 began a quest for Ireland's next country star called ''Glór Tíre'', translated as \"Country Voice\".", "It is now in its sixth season and is one of TG4's most-watched TV shows.", "Over the past ten years, country and gospel recording artist James Kilbane has reached multi-platinum success with his mix of Christian and traditional country influenced albums.", "James Kilbane like many other Irish artists is today working closer with Nashville.", "Daniel O'Donnell achieved international success with his brand of music crossing country, Irish folk and European easy listening, earning a strong following among older women both in the British Isles and in North America.", "A recent success in the Irish arena has been Crystal Swing.===Japan and Asia===Charlie Nagatani performing at the ''Grand Ole Opry''In Japan, there are forms of J-country and J-western similar to other J-pop movements, J-hip hop and J-rock.", "One of the first J-western musicians was Biji Kuroda & The Chuck Wagon Boys, other vintage artists included Jimmie Tokita and His Mountain Playboys, The Blue Rangers, Wagon Aces, and Tomi Fujiyama.", "J-country continues to have a dedicated following in Japan, thanks to Charlie Nagatani, Katsuoshi Suga, J.T.", "Kanehira, Dicky Kitano, and Manami Sekiya.", "Country and western venues in Japan include the former annual Country Gold which were put together by Charlie Nagatani, and the modern honky tonks at Little Texas in Tokyo and Armadillo in Nagoya.In India, there is an annual concert festival called \"Blazing Guitars\" held in Chennai brings together Anglo-Indian musicians from all over the country (including some who have emigrated to places like Australia).", "The year 2003 brought home-grown Indian, Bobby Cash to the forefront of the country music culture in India when he became India's first international country music artist to chart singles in Australia.In the Philippines, country music has found their way into Cordilleran way of life, which often compares the Igorot lifestyle to that of US cowboys.", "Baguio City has an FM station that caters to country music, DZWR 99.9 Country, which is part of the Catholic Media Network.", "Bombo Radyo Baguio has a segment on its Sunday slot for Igorot, Ilocano and country music.", "And as of recently, DWUB occasionally plays country music.", "Many country music musicians tour the Philippines.", "Original Pinoy Music has influences from country.===Other international country music===Tom Roland, from the Country Music Association International, explains country music's global popularity: \"In this respect, at least, Country Music listeners around the globe have something in common with those in the United States.", "In Germany, for instance, Rohrbach identifies three general groups that gravitate to the genre: people intrigued with the US cowboy icon, middle-aged fans who seek an alternative to harder rock music and younger listeners drawn to the pop-influenced sound that underscores many current Country hits.\"", "One of the first US people to perform country music abroad was George Hamilton IV.", "He was the first country musician to perform in the Soviet Union; he also toured in Australia and the Middle East.", "He was deemed the \"International Ambassador of Country Music\" for his contributions to the globalization of country music.", "Johnny Cash, Emmylou Harris, Keith Urban, and Dwight Yoakam have also made numerous international tours.", "The Country Music Association undertakes various initiatives to promote country music internationally.====Middle East====In Iran, country music has appeared in recent years.", "According to ''Melody Music Magazine'', the pioneer of country music in Iran is the English-speaking country music band Dream Rovers, whose founder, singer and songwriter is Erfan Rezayatbakhsh (elf).", "The band was formed in 2007 in Tehran, and during this time they have been trying to introduce and popularize country music in Iran by releasing two studio albums and performing live at concerts, despite the difficulties that the Islamic regime in Iran makes for bands that are active in the western music field.Musician Toby Keith performed alongside Saudi Arabian folk musician Rabeh Sager in 2017.This concert was similar to the performances of Jazz ambassadors that performed distinctively American style music internationally.====Continental Europe====Finnish country rock band, performing at the Helsinki Festival's open-air concert in Kaivopuisto in 1974.Seppo Sillanpää (violin) on the left and Olli Haavisto (guitar) on the right.In Sweden, Rednex rose to stardom combining country music with electro-pop in the 1990s.", "In 1994, the group had a worldwide hit with their version of the traditional Southern tune \"Cotton-Eyed Joe\".", "Artists popularizing more traditional country music in Sweden have been Ann-Louise Hanson, Hasse Andersson, Kikki Danielsson, Elisabeth Andreassen and Jill Johnson.", "In Poland an international country music festival, known as Piknik Country, has been organised in Mrągowo in Masuria since 1983.The number of country music artists in France has increased.", "Some of the most important are Liane Edwards, Annabel, Rockie Mountains, Tahiana, and Lili West.", "French rock and roll singer Eddy Mitchell is also inspired by Americana and country music.In the Netherlands there are many artists producing popular country and Americana music, which is mostly in the English language, as well as Dutch country and country-like music in the Dutch language.", "The latter is mainly popular on the countrysides in the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands and is less associated with its US brethren, although it sounds sometimes very similar.", "Well-known popular artists mainly performing in English are Waylon, Danny Vera, Ilse DeLange, Douwe Bob and Henk Wijngaard.Norway had a significant country scene from the late 1970s to the late 2000s, with bands and artists including Hellbillies, Bjøro Håland, Terje Tysland, Vassendgutane, Øystein Sunde, and Rotlaus.", "The scene and its concerts were considered mostly a rural scene, such that most bands sang in dialects, but occasional songs made it to national fame even in the larger cities.", "The songs occasionally used inspirations from rock music, Norwegian folk music, and polka, but remained recognisable as country music." ], [ "Performers and shows", "===US cable television===Several US television networks are at least partly devoted to the genre: Country Music Television (CMT) (the first channel devoted to country music) and CMT Music (both owned by Paramount Global), RFD-TV and The Cowboy Channel (both owned by Rural Media Group), Heartland (owned by Get After It Media), Circle Country (a joint venture of the ''Grand Ole Opry'' and Gray Television), The Country Network (owned by TCN Country, LLC), and Country Music Channel (the country-oriented sister channel of California Music Channel).The Nashville Network (TNN) was launched in 1983 as a channel devoted to country music, and later added sports and outdoor lifestyle programming.", "It actually launched just two days after CMT.", "In 2000, after TNN and CMT fell under the same corporate ownership, TNN was stripped of its country format and rebranded as ''The National Network'', then ''Spike TV'' in 2003, ''Spike'' in 2006, and finally Paramount Network in 2018.TNN was later revived from 2012 to 2013 after Jim Owens Entertainment (the company responsible for prominent TNN hosts Crook & Chase) acquired the trademark and licensed it to Luken Communications; that channel renamed itself Heartland after Luken was embroiled in an unrelated dispute that left the company bankrupt.Great American Country (GAC) was launched in 1995, also as a country music-oriented channel that would later add lifestyle programming pertaining to the American Heartland and South.", "In Spring 2021, GAC's then-owner, Discovery, Inc. divested the network to GAC Media, which also acquired the equestrian network Ride TV.", "Later, in the summer of that year, GAC Media relaunched Great American Country as GAC Family, a family-oriented general entertainment network, while Ride TV was relaunched as GAC Living, a network devoted to programming pertaining to lifestyles of the American South.", "The GAC acronym which once stood for \"Great American Country\" now stands for \"Great American Channels\".===Canadian television===Only one television channel was dedicated to country music in Canada: CMT owned by Corus Entertainment (90%) and Viacom (10%).", "However, the lifting of strict genre licensing restrictions saw the network remove the last of its music programming at the end of August 2017 for a schedule of generic off-network family sitcoms, Cancom-compliant lifestyle programming, and reality programming.", "In the past, the current-day Cottage Life network saw some country focus as Country Canada and later, CBC Country Canada before that network drifted into an alternate network for overflow CBC content as Bold.", "Stingray Music continues to maintain several country music audio-only channels on cable radio.In the past, country music had an extensive presence, especially on the Canadian national broadcaster, CBC Television.", "The show ''Don Messer's Jubilee'' significantly affected country music in Canada; for instance, it was the program that launched Anne Murray's career.", "Gordie Tapp's ''Country Hoedown'' and its successor, ''The Tommy Hunter Show'', ran for a combined 36 years on the CBC, from 1956 to 1992; in its last nine years on air, the U.S. cable network TNN carried Hunter's show.===Australian cable television===The only network dedicated to country music in Australia was the Country Music Channel owned by Foxtel.", "It ceased operations in June 2020 and was replaced by CMT (owned by Network 10 parent company Paramount Networks UK & Australia).===British digital television===One music video channel is now dedicated to country music in the United Kingdom: Spotlight TV, owned by Canis Media.===Festivals===" ], [ "Culture", "=== Race in modern country music ===The history of country music is complex, and the genre draws from influences from both African and European musical traditions.", "Despite this multicutlural origin, country music is today largely associated with white Americans.", "This has been attributed to the efforts to segregate the music industry by record labels, beginning in the 1920s.", "However, because country music is a wide genre, subgenres including Indian and Hispanic country, have existed since the early 1970s.", "Furthermore, one of the first artists to perform at the Grand Ole Opry, a famous country music show, was DeFord Bailey, who was African-American.", "African-American rapper Lil Nas X, whose breakout song Old Town Road, a mixture of country and rap, has achieved widespread success.", "His aforementioned song topped the Billboard Hot Country Songs list, before controversially being removed, sparking a debate around whether the removal was racially motivated.", "Billboard denied these allegations, stating that the decision was purely based on musical composition.The close association of conservative values and contemporary country music began as a counter-reaction to the anti-war movement of the 1960s.", "Prior to this, virtually all country music, up until that point referred to as ''hillbilly music'', lacked specific political alignment, and was instead focused on everyday problems and angst of the working class.", "Merle Haggard's 1969 album Okie from Muskogee brought a staunchly political, conservative take on country music, which proved popular.", "Republican president Richard Nixon further cemented this conservative musical association during his years in office, by frequently hosting country musicians, declaring October 1970 to be country music month, and by politically pandering to audiences where country music was popular.The Country Music Association has awarded the New Artist award to a black American only twice in 63 years, and never to a Hispanic musician.", "The broader modern Nashville-based Country music industry has underrepresented significant black and Latino contributions within Country music, including popular subgenres such as Cajun, Creole, Tejano, and New Mexico music.Black country-music artist Mickey Guyton had been included among the nominees for the 2021 award, effectively creating a litmus-test for the genre.", "Guyton has expressed bewilderment that, despite substantial coverage by online platforms like Spotify and Apple Music, her music, like that of Valerie June, another black musician who embraces aspects of country in her Appalachian- and Gospel-tinged work and who has been embraced by international music audiences, is still effectively ignored by American broadcast country-music radio.", "Guyton's 2021 album ''Remember Her Name'' in part references the case of black health-care professional Breonna Taylor, who was killed in her home by police.In 2023, \"Try That in a Small Town\" by Jason Aldean became the subject of widespread controversy and media attention following the release of its music video.", "Tennessee state representative Justin Jones referred to the song as a \"heinous vile racist song\" which attempts to normalize \"racist, violence, vigilantism and white nationalism\".", "Others understood the lyrics to be supportive of lynchings and sundown towns.", "Aldean himself responded to the criticism by stating that the song at no point made any references to race, nor did he believe that such interpretations were accurate." ], [ "See also", "* American Country Countdown Awards* Canadian Country Music Association* CMT Music Awards* Country (identity)* Country and Irish* Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum* Country-western dance* Culture of the Southern United States* Music genre* List of country music performers* List of RPM number-one country singles* Music of the United States* Pop music* Western Music Association* 2021 in country music" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * ** * Thomas S. Johnson (1981) \"That Ain't Country: The Distinctiveness of Commercial Western Music\" JEMF Quarterly.", "Vol.", "17, No.", "62.Summer, 1981.pp 75–84.", "* * * Bill Legere (1977).", "''Record Collectors Guide of Country LPs''.", "Limited ed.", "Mississauga, Ont.", ": W.J.", "Legere.", "269, 25, 29, 2 p., thrice perforated and looseleaf.", "Without ISBN* Bill Legere (1977).", "''Electrical Tanscriptions: Transcription Library of Bill Legere''.", "Mississauga, Ont.", ": B. Legere.", "3 vols., each of which is thrice perforated and looseleaf.", "N.B.", ": Vol.", "1–2, Country Artists—vol.", "2, Pop Artists.", "Without ISBN* * * Diane Pecknold (ed.)", "''Hidden in the Mix: The African American Presence in Country Music.''", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* The Country Music Association – Nashville, Tennessee(CMA)* Western Music Association (WMA) * Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum – Nashville, Tennessee* Grand Ole Opry – Nashville, Tennessee* Irish country music * Country Music Festivals Ontario Website* Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame Foundation* TIME Archive of country music's progression* Xroad.virginia.edu, alt country from American Studies at the University of Virginia* Largest collection of online Country music radio stations* Kingwood Kowboy's History Of Country Music* A Treasure Trove for Country Music Collectors.", "The British Archive of Country Music Records, BACM, is dedicated to the preservation of traditional country music" ] ]

[ [ "Cold War (1948–1953)" ], [ "Introduction", "1953 World Map of alignments.The '''Cold War (1948–1953)''' is the period within the Cold War from the incapacitation of the Allied Control Council in 1948 to the conclusion of the Korean War in 1953.The list of world leaders in these years is as follows:* 1948–49: Clement Attlee (UK); Harry Truman (US); Vincent Auriol (France); Joseph Stalin (USSR); Chiang Kai-shek (China)* 1950–51: Clement Attlee (UK); Harry Truman (US); Vincent Auriol (France); Joseph Stalin (USSR); Mao Zedong (Communist China)* 1952–53: Winston Churchill (UK); Harry Truman (US); Vincent Auriol (France); Joseph Stalin (USSR); Mao Zedong (Communist China)" ], [ "Europe", "===Berlin Blockade===Berliners watching a C-54 land at Tempelhof Airport (1948)After the Marshall Plan, the introduction of a new currency to Western Germany to replace the debased Reichsmark and massive electoral losses for communist parties in 1946, in June 1948, the Soviet Union cut off surface road access to Berlin.On the day of the Berlin Blockade, a Soviet representative told the other occupying powers \"We are warning both you and the population of Berlin that we shall apply economic and administrative sanctions that will lead to circulation in Berlin exclusively of the currency of the Soviet occupation zone.", "\"Thereafter, street and water communications were severed, rail and barge traffic was stopped and the Soviets initially stopped supplying food to the civilian population in the non-Soviet sectors of Berlin.", "Because Berlin was located within the Soviet-occupied zone of Germany and the other occupying powers had previously relied on Soviet good will for access to Berlin, the only available methods of supplying the city were three limited air corridors.By February 1948, because of massive post-war military cuts, the entire United States army had been reduced to 552,000 men.", "Military forces in non-Soviet Berlin sectors totaled only 8,973 Americans, 7,606 British and 6,100 French.", "Soviet military forces in the Soviet sector that surrounded Berlin totaled one and a half million men.", "The two United States regiments in Berlin would have provided little resistance against a Soviet attack.", "Believing that Britain, France and the United States had little option other than to acquiesce, the Soviet Military Administration in Germany celebrated the beginning of the blockade.", "Thereafter, a massive aerial supply campaign of food, water and other goods was initiated by the United States, Britain, France and other countries.", "The Soviets derided \"the futile attempts of the Americans to save face and to maintain their untenable position in Berlin.\"", "The success of the airlift eventually caused the Soviets to lift their blockade in May 1949.However, the Soviet Army was still capable of conquering Western Europe without much difficulty.", "In September 1948, US military intelligence experts estimated that the Soviets had about 485,000 troops in their German occupation zone and in Poland, and some 1.785 million troops in Europe in total.", "At the same time, the number of US troops in 1948 was about 140,000.===Tito–Stalin Split===After disagreements between Yugoslavian leader Josip Broz Tito and the Soviet Union regarding Greece and the People's Republic of Albania, a Tito–Stalin Split occurred, followed by Yugoslavia being expelled from the Cominform in June 1948 and a brief failed Soviet putsch in Belgrade.", "The split created two separate communist forces in Europe.", "A vehement campaign against \"Titoism\" was immediately started in the Eastern Bloc, describing agents of both the West and Tito in all places engaging in subversive activity.", "This resulted in the persecution of many major party cadres, including those in East Germany.was split up and dissolved in 1954 and 1975, also because of the détente between the West and Tito.===NATO===NATO v. the Warsaw PactThe United States joined Britain, France, Canada, Denmark, Portugal, Norway, Belgium, Iceland, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands in 1949 to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the United States' first \"entangling\" European alliance in 170 years.", "West Germany, Spain, Greece, and Turkey would later join this alliance.", "The Eastern leaders retaliated against these steps by integrating the economies of their nations in Comecon, their version of the Marshall Plan; exploding the first Soviet atomic device in 1949; signing an alliance with People's Republic of China in February 1950; and forming the Warsaw Pact, Eastern Europe's counterpart to NATO, in 1955.The Soviet Union, Albania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, and Poland founded this military alliance.===NSC 68===U.S.", "officials quickly moved to escalate and expand \"containment.\"", "In a secret 1950 document, NSC 68, they proposed to strengthen their alliance systems, quadruple defense spending, and embark on an elaborate propaganda campaign to convince the U.S. public to fight this costly cold war.", "Truman ordered the development of a hydrogen bomb.", "In early 1950, the U.S. took its first efforts to oppose communist forces in Vietnam; planned to form a West German army, and prepared proposals for a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term U.S. military bases there." ], [ "Outside Europe", "The Cold War took place worldwide, but it had a partially different timing and trajectory outside Europe.In Africa, decolonization took place first; it was largely accomplished in the 1950s.", "The main rivals then sought bases of support in the new national political alignments.", "In Latin America, the first major confrontation took place in Guatemala in 1954.When the new Castro government of Cuba turned to Soviets support in 1960, Cuba became the center of the anti-American Cold War forces, supported by the Soviet Union.===Chinese Civil War===As Japan's empire collapsed in 1945 the civil war resumed in China between the Kuomintang (KMT) led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong.", "The USSR had signed a Treaty of Friendship with the Kuomintang in 1945 and disavowed support for the Chinese Communists.", "The outcome was closely fought, with the Communists finally prevailing with superior military tactics.", "Although the Nationalists had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, initially controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the long war with Japan and the attendant internal responsibilities.", "In addition, the Chinese Communists were able to fill the political vacuum left in Manchuria after Soviet forces withdrew from the area and thus gained China's prime industrial base.", "The Chinese Communists were able to fight their way from the north and northeast, and virtually all of mainland China was taken by the end of 1949.On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC).", "Chiang Kai-shek and 600,000 Nationalist troops and 2 million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from the mainland to the island of Taiwan.", "In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China (ROC) and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.The continued hostility between the Communists on the mainland and the Nationalists on Taiwan continued throughout the Cold War.", "Though the United States refused to aide Chiang Kai-shek in his hope to \"recover the mainland,\" it continued supporting the Republic of China with military supplies and expertise to prevent Taiwan from falling into PRC hands.", "Through the support of the Western bloc (most Western countries continued to recognize the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China), the Republic of China on Taiwan retained China's seat in the United Nations until 1971.===Madiun Affair===Madiun Affair took place on September 18, 1948 in the city of Madiun, East Java.", "This rebellion was carried out by the Front Demokrasi Rakyat (FDR, People's Democratic Front) which united all socialist and communist groups in Indonesia.", "This rebellion ended 3 months later after its leaders were arrested and executed by the TNI.This revolt began with the fall of the Amir Syarifuddin Cabinet due to the signing of the Renville Agreement which benefited the Dutch and was eventually replaced by the Hatta Cabinet which did not belong to the left wing.", "This led Amir Syarifuddin to declare opposition to the Hatta Cabinet government and to declare the formation of the People's Democratic Front.Before it, In the PKI Politburo session on August 13–14, 1948, Musso, an Indonesian communist figure, introduced a political concept called \"Jalan Baru\".", "He also wanted a single Marxism party called the PKI (Communist Party of Indonesia) consisting of illegal communists, the Labour Party of Indonesia, and Partai Sosialis(Socialist Party).On September 18, 1948, the FDR declared the formation of the Republic of Soviet-Indonesia.", "In addition, the communists also carried out a rebellion in the Pati Residency and the kidnapping of groups who were considered to be against communists.", "Even this rebellion resulted in the murder of the Governor of East Java at the time, Raden Mas Tumenggung Ario Soerjo.The crackdown operation against this movement began.", "This operation was led by A.H. Nasution.", "The Indonesian government also applied Commander General Sudirman to the Military Operations Movement I where General Sudirman ordered Colonel Gatot Soebroto and Colonel Sungkono to mobilize the TNI and police to crush the rebellion.On September 30, 1948, Madiun was captured again by the Republic of Indonesia.", "Musso was shot dead on his escape in Sumoroto and Amir Syarifuddin was executed after being captured in Central Java.", "In early December 1948, the Madiun Affair crackdown was declared complete." ], [ "Korean War", "President Truman signing a proclamation declaring a national emergency that initiates U.S. involvement in the Korean War.In early 1950, the United States made its first commitment to form a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term U.S. military bases.", "Some observers (including George Kennan) believed that the Japanese treaty led Stalin to approve a plan to invade U.S.-supported South Korea on June 25, 1950.Korea had been divided at the end of World War II along the 38th parallel into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones, in which a communist government was installed in the North by the Soviets, and an elected government in the South came to power after UN-supervised elections in 1948.In June 1950, Kim Il Sung's North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea.", "Fearing that communist Korea under a Kim Il Sung dictatorship could threaten Japan and foster other communist movements in Asia, Truman committed U.S. forces and obtained help from the United Nations to counter the North Korean invasion.", "The Soviets boycotted UN Security Council meetings while protesting the Council's failure to seat the People's Republic of China and, thus, did not veto the Council's approval of UN action to oppose the North Korean invasion.", "A joint UN force of personnel from South Korea, the United States, Britain, Turkey, Canada, Australia, France, the Philippines, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand and other countries joined to stop the invasion.", "After a Chinese invasion to assist the North Koreans, fighting stabilized along the 38th parallel, which had separated the Koreas.", "Truman faced a hostile China, a Sino-Soviet partnership, and a defense budget that had quadrupled in eighteen months.The Korean Armistice Agreement was signed in July 1953 after the death of Stalin, who had been insisting that the North Koreans continue fighting.", "In North Korea, Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized and brutal dictatorship, according himself unlimited power and generating a formidable cult of personality." ], [ "Hydrogen bomb", "A hydrogen bomb—which produced nuclear fusion instead of nuclear fission—was first tested by the United States in November 1952 and the Soviet Union in August 1953.Such bombs were first deployed in the 1960s." ], [ "Culture and media", "The title screen from ''Duck and Cover''.Fear of a nuclear war spurred the production of public safety films by the United States federal government's Civil Defense branch that demonstrated ways on protecting oneself from a Soviet nuclear attack.", "The 1951 children's film ''Duck and Cover'' is a prime example.George Orwell's classic dystopia Nineteen Eighty-Four was published in 1949.The novel explores life in an imagined future world where a totalitarian government has achieved terrifying levels of power and control.", "With Nineteen Eighty-Four, Orwell taps into the anti-communist fears that would continue to haunt so many in the West for decades to come.", "In a Cold War setting his descriptions could hardly fail to evoke comparison to Soviet communism and the seeming willingness of Stalin and his successors to control those within the Soviet bloc by whatever means necessary.", "Orwell's famous allegory of totalitarian rule, Animal Farm, published in 1945, provoked similar anti-communist sentiments." ], [ "See also", "* Western Union* History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)* History of the United States (1945–1964)* Timeline of events in the Cold War* Animal Farm" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Ball, S. J.", "''The Cold War: An International History, 1947–1991'' (1998).", "British perspective* * Brzezinski, Zbigniew.", "''The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1989);* Brune, Lester Brune and Richard Dean Burns.", "''Chronology of the Cold War: 1917–1992'' (2005) 700pp; highly detailed month-by-month summary for many countries* * * * * Gaddis, John Lewis.", "''The Cold War: A New History'' (2005)* Gaddis, John Lewis.", "''Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War'' (1987)* Gaddis, John Lewis.", "''Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy'' (1982)* * * * LaFeber, Walter.", "''America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992'' 7th ed.", "(1993)* Lewkowicz, Nicolas (2018) ''The United States, the Soviet Union and the Geopolitical Implications of the Origins of the Cold War'', Anthem Press, London* * * * Mitchell, George.", "''The Iron Curtain: The Cold War in Europe'' (2004)* * * Ninkovich, Frank.", "''Germany and the United States: The Transformation of the German Question since 1945'' (1988)* Paterson, Thomas G. ''Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan'' (1988)* * * * Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, ''Russia and the United States'' (1979), by Soviet historians* * * Ulam, Adam B.", "''Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1973'', 2nd ed.", "(1974)* Walker, J. Samuel.", "\"Historians and Cold War Origins: The New Consensus\", in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., ''American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review'' (1981), 207–236.", "* * Cumings, Bruce ''The Origins of the Korean War'' (2 vols., 1981–90), friendly to North Korea and hostile to U.S.* Holloway, David.", "''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1959-1956'' (1994)* Goncharov, Sergei, John Lewis and Xue Litai, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (1993)* Leffler, Melvyn.", "''A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War'' (1992).", "* Mastny, Vojtech.", "''Russia's Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941–1945'' (1979)* Zhang, Shu Guang.", "''Beijing's Economic Statecraft during the Cold War, 1949-1991'' (2014).", "online review" ], [ "External links", "* Draft, Report on Communist Expansion, February 28, 1947 * The division of Europe on CVCE website* James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly The division of Germany.", "From BYRNES, James F. Speaking Frankly.", "New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1947.324 p, Available on the CVCE website.", "* The beginning of the Cold War on CVCE website* The Sinews of Peace Winston Churchill speech in 5, March, 1946, warning about the advance of communism in central Europe.", "Sound extract on the CVCE website.", "* Dividing up Europe The 1944 division of Europe between the Soviet Union and Britain into zones of influence.", "On CVCE website* James Francis Byrnes and U.S. Policy towards Germany 1945–1947 Deutsch-Amerikanische Zentrum / James-F.-Byrnes-Institut e.V* UK Policy towards Germany National Archives excerpts of Cabinet meetings.", "* Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and the Cold War* Cold War overview" ] ]

[ [ "Crony capitalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Crony capitalism''', sometimes also called simply '''cronyism''', is a pejorative term used in political discourse to describe a situation in which businesses profit from a close relationship with state power, either through an anti-competitive regulatory environment, direct government largesse, and/or corruption.", "Examples given for crony capitalism include obtainment of permits, government grants, tax breaks, or other undue influence from businesses over the state's deployment of public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works.", "In other words, it is used to describe a situation where businesses thrive not as a result of free enterprise, but rather collusion between a business class and the political class.Wealth is then accumulated not merely by making a profit in the market, but through profiteering by rent seeking using this monopoly or oligopoly.", "Entrepreneurship and innovative practices which seek to reward risk are stifled since the value-added is little by crony businesses, as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of trading.", "Crony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics, and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political, and social ideals." ], [ "Historical usage", "The first extensive use of the term \"crony capitalism\" came about in the 1980s, to characterize the Philippine economy under the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.", "Early uses of this term to describe the economic practices of the Marcos regime included that of Ricardo Manapat, who introduced it in his 1979 pamphlet \"Some are Smarter than Others\", which was later published in 1991; former ''Time'' magazine business editor George M. Taber, who used the term in a ''Time'' magazine article in 1980, and activist (and later Finance Minister) Jaime Ongpin, who used the term extensively in his writing and is sometimes credited for having coined it.The term crony capitalism made a significant impact in the public as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis.", "It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring cronies of governmental officials.", "The term is used largely interchangeably with the related term corporate welfare, although the latter is by definition specific to corporations." ], [ "In practice", "South Korean President Park Geun-hye at a breakfast meeting with business magnates Lee Kun-hee and Chung Mong-koo.", "A group of massive, mostly family-run business conglomerates, called chaebol, dominates South Korea's economy.Crony capitalism exists along a continuum.", "In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government.", "While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation.", "For instance, newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant barriers to entry in seeking loans, acquiring shelf space, or receiving official sanction.", "Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limiting potential competition.", "In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other.", "In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light.", "The term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices either come to dominate the economy as a whole, or come to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy.", "Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems.", "Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business activity, but in practice they are only erratically enforced.", "The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides an incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials.", "Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have these laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time.", "Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is generally associated with increased political corruption.The term crony capitalism was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand.", "In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification.", "Southeast Asian nations, such as Hong Kong and Malaysia, still score very poorly in rankings measuring this.", "It was also used in this context as part of a broader liberal critique of economic dirigisme.", "The term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.", "Other states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular the system after the 1990s liberalization, whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.Similar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece.", "Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures, namely a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.", "A dozen years later, prominent political scientist Pei Minxin had concluded that the latter course had become deeply embedded in China.", "The anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping (2012–) has seen more than 100,000 high- and low-ranking Chinese officials indicted and jailed.Many prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history, including the United Kingdom especially in the 1600s and 1700s, the United States and Japan.=== Crony capitalism index ===''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a crony-capitalism index calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism.", "Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top three spots." ], [ "In finance", "Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States.", "It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%.", "It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass–Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks.", "After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts.", "Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005." ], [ "In sections of an economy", "corporate interests as giant money bags looming over U.S. senatorsMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive.", "This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry.", "Governments will often establish in good faith government agencies to regulate an industry.", "However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected.", "As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the watchdog and to use it against competitors.", "This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.", "An 1824 landmark United States Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\"a veritable model of state munificence\" facilitated by Robert R. Livingston, one of the Founding Fathers) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats.", "Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad robber barons.", "President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.The defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry.", "Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts.", "In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts.", "Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq War and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.Gerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism as government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting, saying.", "\"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \"contributions\" to favored constituents\"." ], [ "In developing economies", "In its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with, bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common.", "This is seen in many parts of Africa and is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).", "Kenyan economist David Ndii has repeatedly brought to light how this system has manifested over time, occasioned by the reign of Uhuru Kenyatta as president.Corrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others.", "This may also be done with, religious, or ethnic favoritism.", "For instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there (President Assad himself is an Alawite).", "This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network.", "As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors.", "These people form hubs in the network.", "In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.Normally, this will be untenable to maintain in business as new entrants will affect the market.", "However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.Raymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs, wrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations, writing: \"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself.", "In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries.", "This power was typically bestowed upon them by government.\"", "For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace.", "Vermon further stated that \"a steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\"", "James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769 and began commercial production in 1775.Raghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said: \"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth.", "If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today\".", "Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'', has disagreed.", "According to Singh, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism." ], [ "Political viewpoints", "While the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions.", "Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique.", "The socialist position is that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of any strictly capitalist system and thus broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests to restrict monopoly.", "The capitalist position is that natural monopolies are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.=== Socialist critique ===Critics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that so-called crony capitalism is simply the inevitable result of any strictly capitalist system.", "Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word crony is superfluous when describing capitalism.", "Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments.", "Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.Ravi Batra argues that \"all official economic measures adopted since 1981 ... have devastated the middle class\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.Socialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities.", "Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and more fundamentally their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.=== Capitalist critique ===Supporters of capitalism also generally oppose crony capitalism.", "Further, supporters such as classical liberals, neoliberals and right-libertarians consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market..", "In the capitalist view, cronyism is the result of an excess of interference in the market which inevitably will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running sectors of the economy.", "For instance, the ''Financial Times'' observed that, in Vietnam during the 2010s, the primary beneficiaries of cronyism were Communist party officials, noting also the \"common practice of employing only party members and their family members and associates to government jobs or to jobs in state-owned enterprises.", "\"Conservative commentator Ben Shapiro prefers to equate this problem with terms such as corporatocracy or corporatism, considered \"a modern form of mercantilism\", to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.", "Likewise, Hernando de Soto said that mercantilism \"is also known as 'crony' or 'noninclusive' capitalism\".Even if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses) and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifles competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture.", "Burton W. Folsom Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him political entrepreneurs—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls market entrepreneurs.", "The market entrepreneurs such as James J. Hill, Cornelius Vanderbilt and John D. Rockefeller succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price.", "For example, the political entrepreneurs such as Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads were men who used the power of government to succeed.", "They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors." ], [ "See also", "* Corporatocracy* Cronies of Ferdinand Marcos* Economic History of the Philippines under Ferdinand Marcos* Government failure* Government-owned corporation* Inverted totalitarianism* Iron triangle (US politics)* Licence Raj (concept in Indian political-economics)* Mercantilism* Patrimonialism* Political family* Political machine* Regulatory capture* Rent-seeking* Stamocap* State capture* Supercapitalism* Zhao family" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Khatri, Naresh (2013).", "Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism.", "https://ssrn.com/abstract=2335201.", "* * http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf" ] ]

[ [ "Lists of universities and colleges" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of '''lists of universities and colleges'''." ], [ "Subject of study", "* Aerospace engineering* Agriculture* Art schools* Business* Chiropractic* Engineering* Forestry* Law* Maritime studies* Medicine* Music* Nanotechnology* Osteopathy* Pharmaceuticals* Social Work" ], [ "Institution type", "* Community colleges* For-profit universities and colleges* Land-grant universities* Liberal arts universities* National universities* Postgraduate-only institutions* Private universities* Public universities* Research universities* Technical universities* Sea-grant universities* Space-grant universities* State universities and colleges* Unaccredited universities" ], [ "Location", "* Lists of universities and colleges by country* List of largest universities" ], [ "Religious affiliation", "* Assemblies of God* Baptist colleges and universities in the United States* Catholic universities:* Ecclesiastical universities:* Benedictine colleges and universities:* Jesuit institutions:* Opus Dei universities:* Pontifical universities:* International Council of Universities of Saint Thomas Aquinas:* International Federation of Catholic Universities* Christian churches and churches of Christ* Churches of Christ* Church of the Nazarene* Islamic seminaries* Lutheran colleges and universities* International Association of Methodist-related Schools, Colleges, and Universities* Muslim educational institutions* Association of Presbyterian Colleges and Universities" ], [ "Extremities", "* Endowment* Largest universities by enrollment* Oldest madrasahs in continuous operation* Oldest universities in continuous operation" ], [ "Other", "* Colleges and universities named after people" ], [ "History", "* Medieval universities* Ancient universities in Britain and Ireland" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * Lists of schools* Distance education" ] ]

[ [ "Constitution" ], [ "Introduction", "Constitution of the Year XII (First French Republic)Constitution of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1848A '''constitution''' is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed.When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a ''written constitution''; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a ''codified constitution''.", "The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a notable example of an ''uncodified constitution''; it is instead written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases, or treaties.Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign countries to companies and unincorporated associations.", "A treaty that establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted.", "Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom.", "Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights.The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, with 146,385 words in its English-language version, while the Constitution of Monaco is the shortest written constitution with 3,814 words.", "The Constitution of San Marino might be the world's oldest active written constitution, since some of its core documents have been in operation since 1600, while the Constitution of the United States is the oldest active codified constitution.", "The historical life expectancy of a constitution since 1789 is approximately 19 years." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''constitution'' comes through French from the Latin word , used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments (''constitutiones principis'': edicta, mandata, decreta, rescripta).", "Later, the term was widely used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope, now referred to as an ''apostolic constitution''.William Blackstone used the term for significant and egregious violations of public trust, of a nature and extent that the transgression would justify a revolutionary response.", "The term as used by Blackstone was not for a legal text, nor did he intend to include the later American concept of judicial review: \"for that were to set the judicial power above that of the legislature, which would be subversive of all government\"." ], [ "General features", "Generally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers on an organization or institutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abides by the constitution's limitations.", "According to Scott Gordon, a political organization is constitutional to the extent that it \"contains institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority\".Activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall within the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials are termed \"within power\" (or, in Latin, ''intra vires''); if they do not, they are termed \"beyond power\" (or, in Latin, ''ultra vires'').", "For example, a students' union may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities, these activities are considered to be ''ultra vires'' of the union's charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them.", "An example from the constitutional law of sovereign states would be a provincial parliament in a federal state trying to legislate in an area that the constitution allocates exclusively to the federal parliament, such as ratifying a treaty.", "Action that appears to be beyond power may be judicially reviewed and, if found to be beyond power, must cease.", "Legislation that is found to be beyond power will be \"invalid\" and of no force; this applies to primary legislation, requiring constitutional authorization, and secondary legislation, ordinarily requiring statutory authorization.", "In this context, \"within power\", ''intra vires'', \"authorized\" and \"valid\" have the same meaning; as do \"beyond power\", ''ultra vires'', \"not authorized\" and \"invalid\".In most but not all modern states the constitution has supremacy over ordinary statutory law (see Uncodified constitution below); in such states when an official act is unconstitutional, i.e.", "it is not a power granted to the government by the constitution, that act is ''null and void'', and the nullification is ''ab initio'', that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding.", "It was never \"law\", even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adopted according to the procedures for adopting legislation.", "Sometimes the problem is not that a statute is unconstitutional, but that the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decide that while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowed or legitimate.", "In such a case, only that application may be ruled unconstitutional.", "Historically, the remedies for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, such as ''quo warranto''.Scholars debate whether a constitution must necessarily be autochthonous, resulting from the nations \"spirit\".", "Hegel said \"A constitution...is the work of centuries; it is the idea, the consciousness of rationality so far as that consciousness is developed in a particular nation.\"" ], [ "History and development", "Since 1789, along with the Constitution of the United States of America (U.S. Constitution), which is the oldest and shortest written constitution still in force, close to 800 constitutions have been adopted and subsequently amended around the world by independent states.In the late 18th century, Thomas Jefferson predicted that a period of 20 years would be the optimal time for any constitution to be still in force, since \"the earth belongs to the living, and not to the dead\".", "Indeed, according to recent studies, the average life of any new written constitution is around 19 years.", "However, a great number of constitutions do not last more than 10 years, and around 10% do not last more than one year, as was the case of the French Constitution of 1791.By contrast, some constitutions, notably that of the United States, have remained in force for several centuries, often without major revision for long periods of time.The most common reasons for these frequent changes are the political desire for an immediate outcome and the short time devoted to the constitutional drafting process.", "A study in 2009 showed that the average time taken to draft a constitution is around 16 months, however there were also some extreme cases registered.", "For example, the Myanmar 2008 Constitution was being secretly drafted for more than 17 years, whereas at the other extreme, during the drafting of Japan's 1946 Constitution, the bureaucrats drafted everything in no more than a week.", "Japan has the oldest unamended constitution in the world.", "The record for the shortest overall process of drafting, adoption, and ratification of a national constitution belongs to the Romania's 1938 constitution, which installed a royal dictatorship in less than a month.", "Studies showed that typically extreme cases where the constitution-making process either takes too long or is extremely short were non-democracies.", "In principle, constitutional rights are not a specific characteristic of democratic countries.", "Autocratic states have constitutions, such as that of North Korea, which officially grants every citizen, among other things, the freedom of expression.", "However, the extent to which governments abide by their own constitutional provisions varies.", "In North Korea, for example, the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System are said to have eclipsed the constitution in importance as a frame of government in practice.", "Developing a legal and political tradition of strict adherence to constitutional provisions is considered foundational to the rule of law.===Pre-modern constitutions=======Ancient====Detail from Hammurabi's stele shows him receiving the laws of Babylon from the seated sun deity.Excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash .", "Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens.", "For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich.After that, many governments ruled by special codes of written laws.", "The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur (c. 2050 BC).", "Some of the better-known ancient law codes are the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code, and Mosaic law.In 621 BC, a scribe named Draco codified the oral laws of the city-state of Athens; this code prescribed the death penalty for many offenses (thus creating the modern term \"draconian\" for very strict rules).", "In 594 BC, Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new ''Solonian Constitution''.", "It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the ruling class was to be based on wealth (plutocracy), rather than on birth (aristocracy).", "Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in 508 BC.Diagram illustrating the classification of constitutions by AristotleAristotle (c. 350 BC) was the first to make a formal distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and constitutionalism, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government.", "The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was \"the arrangement of the offices in a state\".", "In his works ''Constitution of Athens'', ''Politics'', and ''Nicomachean Ethics'', he explores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens, Sparta, and Carthage.", "He classified both what he regarded as good and what he regarded as bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements.", "He also distinguished between citizens, who had the right to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves, who did not.The Romans initially codified their constitution in 450 BC as the ''Twelve Tables''.", "They operated under a series of laws that were added from time to time, but Roman law was not reorganized into a single code until the ''Codex Theodosianus'' (438 AD); later, in the Eastern Empire, the ''Codex repetitæ prælectionis'' (534) was highly influential throughout Europe.", "This was followed in the east by the ''Ecloga'' of Leo III the Isaurian (740) and the ''Basilica'' of Basil I (878).The ''Edicts of Ashoka'' established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC Maurya king's rule in India.", "For constitutional principles almost lost to antiquity, see the code of Manu.====Early Middle Ages====Many of the Germanic peoples that filled the power vacuum left by the Western Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages codified their laws.", "One of the first of these Germanic law codes to be written was the Visigothic ''Code of Euric'' (471 AD).", "This was followed by the ''Lex Burgundionum'', applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the ''Pactus Alamannorum''; and the Salic Law of the Franks, all written soon after 500.In 506, the ''Breviarum'' or ''\"Lex Romana\"'' of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the ''Codex Theodosianus'' together with assorted earlier Roman laws.", "Systems that appeared somewhat later include the ''Edictum Rothari'' of the Lombards (643), the ''Lex Visigothorum'' (654), the ''Lex Alamannorum'' (730), and the ''Lex Frisionum'' (c. 785).", "These continental codes were all composed in Latin, while Anglo-Saxon was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of Æthelberht of Kent (602).", "Around 893, Alfred the Great combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the ''Doom book'' code of laws for England.Japan's ''Seventeen-article constitution'' written in 604, reportedly by Prince Shōtoku, is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history.", "Influenced by Buddhist teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than on institutions of government, and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution.The Constitution of Medina (, Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna), also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his flight (hijra) to Yathrib where he became political leader.", "It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans.", "The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (Aus) and Khazraj within Medina.", "To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community – the Ummah.", "The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated, but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the Hijra (622).In Wales, the ''Cyfraith Hywel'' (Law of Hywel) was codified by Hywel Dda c. 942–950.====Middle Ages after 1000====The ''Pravda Yaroslava'', originally combined by Yaroslav the Wise the Grand Prince of Kiev, was granted to Great Novgorod around 1017, and in 1054 was incorporated into the ''Russkaya Pravda''; it became the law for all of Kievan Rus'.", "It survived only in later editions of the 15th century.In England, Henry I's proclamation of the Charter of Liberties in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility.", "This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced King John to sign ''Magna Carta'' in 1215.The most important single article of the ''Magna Carta'', related to \"''habeas corpus''\", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim – there must be due process of law first.", "This article, Article 39, of the ''Magna Carta'' read:This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point.", "The social contract in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people.", "It led to the system of Constitutional Monarchy, with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the House of Commons.The Nomocanon of Saint Sava () was the first Serbian constitution from 1219.St.", "Sava's Nomocanon was the compilation of civil law, based on Roman Law, and canon law, based on Ecumenical Councils.", "Its basic purpose was to organize the functioning of the young Serbian kingdom and the Serbian church.", "Saint Sava began the work on the Serbian Nomocanon in 1208 while he was at Mount Athos, using ''The Nomocanon in Fourteen Titles'', ''Synopsis of Stefan the Efesian'', ''Nomocanon of John Scholasticus'', and Ecumenical Council documents, which he modified with the canonical commentaries of Aristinos and Joannes Zonaras, local church meetings, rules of the Holy Fathers, the law of Moses, the translation of Prohiron, and the Byzantine emperors' Novellae (most were taken from Justinian's Novellae).", "The Nomocanon was a completely new compilation of civil and canonical regulations, taken from Byzantine sources but completed and reformed by St. Sava to function properly in Serbia.", "Besides decrees that organized the life of church, there are various norms regarding civil life; most of these were taken from Prohiron.", "Legal transplants of Roman-Byzantine law became the basis of the Serbian medieval law.", "The essence of Zakonopravilo was based on Corpus Iuris Civilis.Stefan Dušan, emperor of Serbs and Greeks, enacted Dušan's Code () in Serbia, in two state congresses: in 1349 in Skopje and in 1354 in Serres.", "It regulated all social spheres, so it was the second Serbian constitution, after St. Sava's Nomocanon (Zakonopravilo).", "The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law.", "The legal transplanting within articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated the juridical independence, is notable.", "They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16–17).In 1222, Hungarian King Andrew II issued the Golden Bull of 1222.Between 1220 and 1230, a Saxon administrator, Eike von Repgow, composed the ''Sachsenspiegel'', which became the supreme law used in parts of Germany as late as 1900.Around 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the ''Fetha Negest'' in Arabic.", "'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law and partly from the former Byzantine codes.", "There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into Ge'ez and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of Zara Yaqob.", "Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with Sarsa Dengel beginning in 1563.The ''Fetha Negest'' remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor Haile Selassie I.Third volume of the compilation of Catalan Constitutions of 1585In the Principality of Catalonia, the Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the Court from 1283 (or even two centuries before, if Usatges of Barcelona is considered part of the compilation of Constitutions) until 1716, when Philip V of Spain gave the Nueva Planta decrees, finishing with the historical laws of Catalonia.", "These Constitutions were usually made formally as a royal initiative, but required for its approval or repeal the favorable vote of the Catalan Courts, the medieval antecedent of the modern Parliaments.", "These laws, like other modern constitutions, had preeminence over other laws, and they could not be contradicted by mere decrees or edicts of the king.The Kouroukan Founga was a 13th-century charter of the Mali Empire, reconstructed from oral tradition in 1988 by Siriman Kouyaté.The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a ''Reichstag'' in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV that fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, an important aspect of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire.In China, the Hongwu Emperor created and refined a document he called ''Ancestral Injunctions'' (first published in 1375, revised twice more before his death in 1398).", "These rules served as a constitution for the Ming Dynasty for the next 250 years.The oldest written document still governing a sovereign nation today is that of San Marino.", "The ''Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini'' was written in Latin and consists of six books.", "The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers, and the powers assigned to them.", "The remaining books cover criminal and civil law and judicial procedures and remedies.", "Written in 1600, the document was based upon the ''Statuti Comunali'' (Town Statute) of 1300, itself influenced by the ''Codex Justinianus'', and it remains in force today.In 1392 the ''Carta de Logu'' was legal code of the Giudicato of Arborea promulgated by the ''giudicessa'' Eleanor.", "It was in force in Sardinia until it was superseded by the code of Charles Felix in April 1827.The Carta was a work of great importance in Sardinian history.", "It was an organic, coherent, and systematic work of legislation encompassing the civil and penal law.The ''Gayanashagowa'', the oral constitution of the Haudenosaunee nation also known as the Great Law of Peace, established a system of governance as far back as 1190 AD (though perhaps more recently at 1451) in which the Sachems, or tribal chiefs, of the Iroquois League's member nations made decisions on the basis of universal consensus of all chiefs following discussions that were initiated by a single nation.", "The position of Sachem descends through families and are allocated by the senior female clan heads, though, prior to the filling of the position, candidacy is ultimately democratically decided by the community itself.===Modern constitutions===The Cossack Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, 1710Constitutional Convention of 1787 signing of the U.S. ConstitutionIn 1634 the Kingdom of Sweden adopted the 1634 Instrument of Government, drawn up under the Lord High Chancellor of Sweden Axel Oxenstierna after the death of king Gustavus Adolphus, it can be seen as the first written constitution adopted by a modern state.In 1639, the Colony of Connecticut adopted the Fundamental Orders, which was the first North American constitution, and is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for Connecticut's nickname, \"the Constitution State\".The English Protectorate that was set up by Oliver Cromwell after the English Civil War promulgated the first detailed written constitution adopted by a modern state; it was called the Instrument of Government.", "This formed the basis of government for the short-lived republic from 1653 to 1657 by providing a legal rationale for the increasing power of Cromwell after Parliament consistently failed to govern effectively.", "Most of the concepts and ideas embedded into modern constitutional theory, especially bicameralism, separation of powers, the written constitution, and judicial review, can be traced back to the experiments of that period.Drafted by Major-General John Lambert in 1653, the ''Instrument of Government'' included elements incorporated from an earlier document \"Heads of Proposals\", which had been agreed to by the Army Council in 1647, as a set of propositions intended to be a basis for a constitutional settlement after King Charles I was defeated in the First English Civil War.", "Charles had rejected the propositions, but before the start of the Second Civil War, the Grandees of the New Model Army had presented the ''Heads of Proposals'' as their alternative to the more radical Agreement of the People presented by the Agitators and their civilian supporters at the Putney Debates.On 4 January 1649, the Rump Parliament declared \"that the people are, under God, the original of all just power; that the Commons of England, being chosen by and representing the people, have the supreme power in this nation\".The ''Instrument of Government'' was adopted by Parliament on 15 December 1653, and Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector on the following day.", "The constitution set up a state council consisting of 21 members while executive authority was vested in the office of \"Lord Protector of the Commonwealth.\"", "This position was designated as a non-hereditary life appointment.", "The ''Instrument'' also required the calling of triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months.The ''Instrument of Government'' was replaced in May 1657 by England's second, and last, codified constitution, the Humble Petition and Advice, proposed by Sir Christopher Packe.", "The Petition offered hereditary monarchy to Oliver Cromwell, asserted Parliament's control over issuing new taxation, provided an independent council to advise the king and safeguarded \"Triennial\" meetings of Parliament.", "A modified version of the Humble Petition with the clause on kingship removed was ratified on 25 May.", "This finally met its demise in conjunction with the death of Cromwell and the Restoration of the monarchy.Other examples of European constitutions of this era were the Corsican Constitution of 1755 and the Swedish Constitution of 1772.All of the British colonies in North America that were to become the 13 original United States, adopted their own constitutions in 1776 and 1777, during the American Revolution (and before the later Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution), with the exceptions of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island.", "The Commonwealth of Massachusetts adopted its Constitution in 1780, the oldest still-functioning constitution of any U.S. state; while Connecticut and Rhode Island officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until they adopted their first state constitutions in 1818 and 1843, respectively.====Democratic constitutions====Constitution of 3 May 1791'' (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891).", "Polish King Stanisław August (left, in regal ermine-trimmed cloak), enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm deputies will swear to uphold the new Constitution; in background, Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the Constitution has just been adopted.What is sometimes called the \"enlightened constitution\" model was developed by philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment such as Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke.", "The model proposed that constitutional governments should be stable, adaptable, accountable, open and should represent the people (i.e., support democracy).", "''Agreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host'' was written in 1710 by Pylyp Orlyk, ''hetman'' of the Zaporozhian Host.", "It was written to establish a free Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic, with the support of Charles XII of Sweden.", "It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's ''Spirit of the Laws''.", "This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the ''hetman'', and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council.", "However, Orlyk's project for an independent Ukrainian State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect.Corsican Constitutions of 1755 and 1794 were inspired by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.", "The latter introduced universal suffrage for property owners.The Swedish constitution of 1772 was enacted under King Gustavus III and was inspired by the separation of powers by Montesquieu.", "The king also cherished other enlightenment ideas (as an enlighted despot) and repealed torture, liberated agricultural trade, diminished the use of the death penalty and instituted a form of religious freedom.", "The constitution was commended by Voltaire.The United States Constitution, ratified 21 June 1788, was influenced by the writings of Polybius, Locke, Montesquieu, and others.", "The document became a benchmark for republicanism and codified constitutions written thereafter.The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution was passed on 3 May 1791.Its draft was developed by the leading minds of the Enlightenment in Poland such as King Stanislaw August Poniatowski, Stanisław Staszic, Scipione Piattoli, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj.", "It was adopted by the Great Sejm and is considered the first constitution of its kind in Europe and the world's second oldest one after the American Constitution.Another landmark document was the French Constitution of 1791.The 1811 Constitution of Venezuela was the first Constitution of Venezuela and Latin America, promulgated and drafted by Cristóbal Mendoza and Juan Germán Roscio and in Caracas.", "It established a federal government but was repealed one year later.On 19 March 1812, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was ratified by a parliament gathered in Cadiz, the only Spanish continental city which was safe from French occupation.", "The Spanish Constitution served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several South European and Latin American nations, for example, the Portuguese Constitution of 1822, constitutions of various Italian states during Carbonari revolts (i.e., in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), the Norwegian constitution of 1814, or the Mexican Constitution of 1824.In Brazil, the Constitution of 1824 expressed the option for the monarchy as political system after Brazilian Independence.", "The leader of the national emancipation process was the Portuguese prince Pedro I, elder son of the king of Portugal.", "Pedro was crowned in 1822 as first emperor of Brazil.", "The country was ruled by Constitutional monarchy until 1889, when it adopted the Republican model.In Denmark, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the absolute monarchy lost its personal possession of Norway to Sweden.", "Sweden had already enacted its 1809 Instrument of Government, which saw the division of power between the Riksdag, the king and the judiciary.", "However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones, but maintaining a hereditary monarch limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one.The first Swiss Federal Constitution was put in force in September 1848 (with official revisions in 1878, 1891, 1949, 1971, 1982 and 1999).The Serbian revolution initially led to a proclamation of a proto-constitution in 1811; the full-fledged Constitution of Serbia followed few decades later, in 1835.The first Serbian constitution (Sretenjski ustav) was adopted at the national assembly in Kragujevac on 15 February 1835.The Constitution of Canada came into force on 1 July 1867, as the British North America Act, an act of the British Parliament.", "Over a century later, the BNA Act was patriated to the Canadian Parliament and augmented with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.", "Apart from the ''Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982'', Canada's constitution also has unwritten elements based in common law and convention." ], [ "Principles of constitutional design", "After tribal people first began to live in cities and establish nations, many of these functioned according to unwritten customs, while some developed autocratic, even tyrannical monarchs, who ruled by decree, or mere personal whim.", "Such rule led some thinkers to take the position that what mattered was not the design of governmental institutions and operations, as much as the character of the rulers.", "This view can be seen in Plato, who called for rule by \"philosopher-kings\".", "Later writers, such as Aristotle, Cicero and Plutarch, would examine designs for government from a legal and historical standpoint.The Renaissance brought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of the practices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would be likely to yield more effective and just governance from their viewpoints.", "This began with revival of the Roman law of nations concept and its application to the relations among nations, and they sought to establish customary \"laws of war and peace\" to ameliorate wars and make them less likely.", "This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don't have, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for the abuse of such authority.A seminal juncture in this line of discourse arose in England from the Civil War, the Cromwellian Protectorate, the writings of Thomas Hobbes, Samuel Rutherford, the Levellers, John Milton, and James Harrington, leading to the debate between Robert Filmer, arguing for the divine right of monarchs, on the one side, and on the other, Henry Neville, James Tyrrell, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke.", "What arose from the latter was a concept of government being erected on the foundations of first, a state of nature governed by natural laws, then a state of society, established by a social contract or compact, which bring underlying natural or social laws, before governments are formally established on them as foundations.Along the way several writers examined how the design of government was important, even if the government were headed by a monarch.", "They also classified various historical examples of governmental designs, typically into democracies, aristocracies, or monarchies, and considered how just and effective each tended to be and why, and how the advantages of each might be obtained by combining elements of each into a more complex design that balanced competing tendencies.", "Some, such as Montesquieu, also examined how the functions of government, such as legislative, executive, and judicial, might appropriately be separated into branches.", "The prevailing theme among these writers was that the design of constitutions is not completely arbitrary or a matter of taste.", "They generally held that there are underlying principles of design that constrain all constitutions for every polity or organization.", "Each built on the ideas of those before concerning what those principles might be.The later writings of Orestes Brownson would try to explain what constitutional designers were trying to do.", "According to Brownson there are, in a sense, three \"constitutions\" involved: The first the ''constitution of nature'' that includes all of what was called \"natural law\".", "The second is the ''constitution of society'', an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it establishes the third, a ''constitution of government''.", "The second would include such elements as the making of decisions by public conventions called by public notice and conducted by established rules of procedure.", "Each constitution must be consistent with, and derive its authority from, the ones before it, as well as from a historical act of society formation or constitutional ratification.", "Brownson argued that a state is a society with effective dominion over a well-defined territory, that consent to a well-designed constitution of government arises from presence on that territory, and that it is possible for provisions of a written constitution of government to be \"unconstitutional\" if they are inconsistent with the constitutions of nature or society.", "Brownson argued that it is not ratification alone that makes a written constitution of government legitimate, but that it must also be competently designed and applied.Other writers have argued that such considerations apply not only to all national constitutions of government, but also to the constitutions of private organizations, that it is not an accident that the constitutions that tend to satisfy their members contain certain elements, as a minimum, or that their provisions tend to become very similar as they are amended after experience with their use.", "Provisions that give rise to certain kinds of questions are seen to need additional provisions for how to resolve those questions, and provisions that offer no course of action may best be omitted and left to policy decisions.", "Provisions that conflict with what Brownson and others can discern are the underlying \"constitutions\" of nature and society tend to be difficult or impossible to execute, or to lead to unresolvable disputes.Constitutional design has been treated as a kind of metagame in which play consists of finding the best design and provisions for a written constitution that will be the rules for the game of government, and that will be most likely to optimize a balance of the utilities of justice, liberty, and security.", "An example is the metagame Nomic.Political economy theory regards constitutions as coordination devices that help citizens to prevent rulers from abusing power.", "If the citizenry can coordinate a response to police government officials in the face of a constitutional fault, then the government have the incentives to honor the rights that the constitution guarantees.", "An alternative view considers that constitutions are not enforced by the citizens at-large, but rather by the administrative powers of the state.", "Because rulers cannot themselves implement their policies, they need to rely on a set of organizations (armies, courts, police agencies, tax collectors) to implement it.", "In this position, they can directly sanction the government by refusing to cooperate, disabling the authority of the rulers.", "Therefore, constitutions could be characterized by a self-enforcing equilibria between the rulers and powerful administrators." ], [ "Key features", "Presidential copy of the Russian ConstitutionMost commonly, the term ''constitution'' refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government.", "Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches.", "For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a civil service/administration.", "Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens.", "It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called \"Basic Law\".===Classification=======Classification==== Type Form Example Codified In single act (document) Most of the world (first: United States) Uncodified Fully written (in few documents) San Marino, Israel, Saudi Arabia Partially unwritten (see constitutional convention) Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom====Codification====A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification.", "A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state.", "An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten; see constitutional convention.=====Codified constitution=====Most states in the world have codified constitutions.Codified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a revolution.", "The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change.", "The legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adopted and some scholars have pointed out that high constitutional turnover within a given country may itself be detrimental to separation of powers and the rule of law.States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary statute law.", "That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ''ultra vires'' by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional.", "In addition, exceptional procedures are often required to amend a constitution.", "These procedures may include: convocation of a special constituent assembly or constitutional convention, requiring a supermajority of legislators' votes, approval in two terms of parliament, the consent of regional legislatures, a referendum process, and/or other procedures that make amending a constitution more difficult than passing a simple law.Constitutions may also provide that their most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment.", "In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called ''unconstitutional constitutional law''.Codified constitutions normally consist of a ceremonial preamble, which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions.", "The preamble, which is omitted in some constitutions, may contain a reference to God and/or to fundamental values of the state such as liberty, democracy or human rights.", "In ethnic nation-states such as Estonia, the mission of the state can be defined as preserving a specific nation, language and culture.=====Uncodified constitution=====Magna Carta only two sovereign states, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, have wholly uncodified constitutions.", "The Basic Laws of Israel have since 1950 been intended to be the basis for a constitution, but as of 2017 it had not been drafted.", "The various Laws are considered to have precedence over other laws, and give the procedure by which they can be amended, typically by a simple majority of members of the Knesset (parliament).Uncodified constitutions are the product of an \"evolution\" of laws and conventions over centuries (such as in the Westminster System that developed in Britain).", "By contrast to codified constitutions, uncodified constitutions include both written sources – e.g.", "constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament – and unwritten sources – constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, customs and traditions, such as holding general elections on Thursdays; together these constitute British constitutional law.=====Mixed constitutions=====Some constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified.", "For example, in the Constitution of Australia, most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia.", "However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986 means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document.", "It means the Constitution of Australia is uncodified, it also contains constitutional conventions, thus is partially unwritten.The Constitution of Canada resulted from the passage of several British North America Acts from 1867 to the Canada Act 1982, the act that formally severed British Parliament's ability to amend the Canadian constitution.", "The Canadian constitution includes specific legislative acts as mentioned in section 52(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982.However, some documents not explicitly listed in section 52(2) are also considered constitutional documents in Canada, entrenched via reference; such as the Proclamation of 1763.Although Canada's constitution includes a number of different statutes, amendments, and references, some constitutional rules that exist in Canada is derived from unwritten sources and constitutional conventions.The terms ''written constitution'' and ''codified constitution'' are often used interchangeably, as are ''unwritten constitution'' and ''uncodified constitution'', although this usage is technically inaccurate.", "A codified constitution is a single document; states that do not have such a document have uncodified, but not entirely unwritten, constitutions, since much of an uncodified constitution is usually written in laws such as the Basic Laws of Israel and the Parliament Acts of the United Kingdom.", "Uncodified constitutions largely lack protection against amendment by the government of the time.", "For example, the U.K. Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 legislated by simple majority for strictly fixed-term parliaments; until then the ruling party could call a general election at any convenient time up to the maximum term of five years.", "This change would require a constitutional amendment in most nations.=== Amendments ===United States ConstitutionA constitutional amendment is a modification of the constitution of a polity, organization or other type of entity.", "Amendments are often interwoven into the relevant sections of an existing constitution, directly altering the text.", "Conversely, they can be appended to the constitution as supplemental additions (codicils), thus changing the frame of government without altering the existing text of the document.Most constitutions require that amendments cannot be enacted unless they have passed a special procedure that is more stringent than that required of ordinary legislation.==== Methods of amending ====+Procedures for amending national constitutionsApproval byMajority neededCountriesLegislature (unicameral, joint session or lower house only)>50% + >50% after an electionIceland, Sweden>50% + 3/5 after an electionEstonia, Greece3/5 + >50% after an electionGreece3/5France, Senegal, Slovakia2/3Afghanistan, Angola, Armenia, Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Djibouti, Ecuador, Honduras, Laos, Libya, Malawi, North Korea, North Macedonia, Norway, Palestine, Portugal, Qatar, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam, Yemen>50% + 2/3 after an electionUkraine2/3 + 2/3 after an electionBelgium3/4Bulgaria, Solomon Islands (in some cases)4/5Estonia, Portugal (in the five years following the last amendment)Legislature + referendum>50% + >50%Djibouti, Ecuador, Venezuela>50% before and after an election + >50%Denmark3/5 + >50%Russia, Turkey2/3 + >50%Albania, Andorra, Armenia (some amendments), Egypt, Slovenia, Tunisia, Uganda, Yemen (some amendments), Zambia2/3 + >60%Seychelles3/4 + >50%Romania3/4 + >50% of eligible votersTaiwan2/3 + 2/3Namibia, Sierra Leone3/4 + 3/4FijiLegislature + sub-national legislatures2/3 + >50%Mexico2/3 + 2/3EthiopiaLower house + upper house2/3 + >50%Poland, Bosnia and Herzegovina2/3 + 2/3Bahrain, Germany, India, Italy, Jordan, Namibia, Netherlands, Pakistan, Somalia, Zimbabwe3/5 + 3/5Brazil, Czech Republic3/4 + 3/4KazakhstanLower house + upper house + joint session>50% + >50% + 2/3GabonEither house of legislature + joint session2/3 + 2/3HaitiLower house + upper house + referendum>50% + >50% + >50%Algeria, France, Ireland, Italy>50% + >50% + >50% (electors in majority of states/cantons)+ >50% (electors)Australia, Switzerland2/3 + 2/3 + >50%Japan, Romania, Zimbabwe (some cases)2/3 + >50% + 2/3Antigua and Barbuda2/3 + >50% + >50%Poland (some cases)3/4 + 3/4 >50%MadagascarLower house + upper house + sub-national legislatures12/12Canada (in some cases)>50% + >50% + 2/3Canada (in most cases)2/3 + 2/3 + >50%India (in some cases)2/3 + 2/3 + 3/4United States2/3 + 2/3 + 50%EthiopiaReferendum>50%Estonia, Gabon, Kazakhstan, Malawi, Palau, Philippines, Senegal, Serbia (in some cases), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, UzbekistanSub-national legislatures2/3Russia3/4United StatesConstitutional conventionArgentina2/3Bulgaria (some amendments)''Some countries are listed under more than one method because alternative procedures may be used.", "''==== Entrenched clauses ====An entrenched clause or entrenchment clause of a basic law or constitution is a provision that makes certain amendments either more difficult or impossible to pass, making such amendments inadmissible.", "Overriding an entrenched clause may require a supermajority, a referendum, or the consent of the minority party.", "For example, the U.S. Constitution has an entrenched clause that prohibits abolishing equal suffrage of the States within the Senate without their consent.", "The term eternity clause is used in a similar manner in the constitutions of the Czech Republic, Germany, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Morocco, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Brazil and Norway.", "India's constitution does not contain specific provisions on entrenched clauses but the basic structure doctrine makes it impossible for certain basic features of the Constitution to be altered or destroyed by the Parliament of India through an amendment.", "The Constitution of Colombia also lacks explicit entrenched clauses, but has a similar substantive limit on amending its fundamental principles through judicial interpretations.=== Constitutional rights and duties ===Constitutions include various rights and duties.", "These include the following:* Duty to pay taxes* Duty to serve in the military* Duty to work* Right to vote* Freedom of assembly* Freedom of association* Freedom of expression* Freedom of movement* Freedom of thought* Freedom of the press* Freedom of religion* Right to dignity* Right to civil marriage* Right to petition* Right to academic freedom* Right to bear arms* Right to conscientious objection* Right to a fair trial* Right to personal development* Right to start a family* Right to information* Right to marriage* Right of revolution* Right to privacy* Right to protect one's reputation* Right to renounce citizenship* Rights of children* Rights of debtors=== Separation of powers ===Constitutions usually explicitly divide power between various branches of government.", "The standard model, described by the Baron de Montesquieu, involves three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial.", "Some constitutions include additional branches, such as an auditory branch.", "Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of separation of powers between these branches.====Accountability====In presidential and semi-presidential systems of government, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the president, who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers.", "The president is accountable to the people in an election.In parliamentary systems, Cabinet Ministers are accountable to Parliament, but it is the prime minister who appoints and dismisses them.", "In the case of the United Kingdom and other countries with a monarchy, it is the monarch who appoints and dismisses ministers, on the advice of the prime minister.", "In turn the prime minister will resign if the government loses the confidence of the parliament (or a part of it).", "Confidence can be lost if the government loses a vote of no confidence or, depending on the country, loses a particularly important vote in parliament, such as vote on the budget.", "When a government loses confidence, it stays in office until a new government is formed; something which normally but not necessarily required the holding of a general election.==== Other independent institutions ====Other independent institutions which some constitutions have set out include a central bank, an anti-corruption commission, an electoral commission, a judicial oversight body, a human rights commission, a media commission, an ombudsman, and a truth and reconciliation commission.=== Power structure ===Constitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state.", "There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty according to the degree of centralisation of power: unitary, federal, and confederal.", "The distinction is not absolute.In a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the state itself, and the constitution determines this.", "The territory of the state may be divided into regions, but they are not sovereign and are subordinate to the state.", "In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty dictates that sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre.", "Some powers have been devolved to Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales (but not England).", "Some unitary states (Spain is an example) devolve more and more power to sub-national governments until the state functions in practice much like a federal state.A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called ''states'', ''provinces'', etc.)", "which compose the territory of the whole state.", "Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions.", "The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states.", "Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).A confederal state comprises again several regions, but the central structure has only limited coordinating power, and sovereignty is located in the regions.", "Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called \"confederal\" states are actually federal.To some extent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by treaties and accords give up parts of their sovereignty to a supranational entity.", "For example, the countries constituting the European Union have agreed to abide by some Union-wide measures which restrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the metric system of measurement instead of national units previously used.=== State of emergency ===Many constitutions allow the declaration under exceptional circumstances of some form of state of emergency during which some rights and guarantees are suspended.", "This provision can be and has been abused to allow a government to suppress dissent without regard for human rights – see the article on state of emergency.===Facade constitutions===Italian political theorist Giovanni Sartori noted the existence of national constitutions which are a facade for authoritarian sources of power.", "While such documents may express respect for human rights or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened, or never put into practice.", "An extreme example was the Constitution of the Soviet Union that on paper supported freedom of assembly and freedom of speech; however, citizens who transgressed unwritten limits were summarily imprisoned.", "The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are ultimately provided not through its written terms but through deference by government and society to its principles.", "A constitution may change from being real to a facade and back again as democratic and autocratic governments succeed each other." ], [ "Constitutional courts", "Constitutions are often, but by no means always, protected by a legal body whose job it is to interpret those constitutions and, where applicable, declare void executive and legislative acts which infringe the constitution.", "In some countries, such as Germany, this function is carried out by a dedicated constitutional court which performs this (and only this) function.", "In other countries, such as Ireland, the ordinary courts may perform this function in addition to their other responsibilities.", "While elsewhere, like in the United Kingdom, the concept of declaring an act to be unconstitutional does not exist.A constitutional violation is an action or legislative act that is judged by a constitutional court to be contrary to the constitution, that is, unconstitutional.", "An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a public office holder who acts outside the powers granted to that office by a constitution.", "An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper constitutional amendment process.Some countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all.", "For example, the United Kingdom has traditionally operated under the principle of parliamentary sovereignty under which the laws passed by United Kingdom Parliament could not be questioned by the courts." ], [ "See also", "* Basic law, equivalent in some countries, often for a temporary constitution* Apostolic constitution (a class of Catholic Church documents)* Consent of the governed* Constitution of the Roman Republic* Constitutional amendment* Constitutional court* Constitutional crisis* Constitutional economics* Constitutionalism* Corporate constitutional documents* International constitutional law* Judicial activism* Judicial restraint* Judicial review* Philosophy of law* Rule of law* Rule according to higher law''Judicial philosophies of constitutional interpretation (note: generally specific to United States constitutional law)''* List of national constitutions* Originalism* Strict constructionism* Textualism* Proposed European Union constitution** Treaty of Lisbon (adopts same changes, but without constitutional name)* United Nations Charter" ], [ "Further reading", "* Zachary Elkins and Tom Ginsburg.", "2021.", "\"What Can We Learn from Written Constitutions?\"", "''Annual Review of Political Science''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Constitute, an indexed and searchable database of all constitutions in force* Amendments Project* Dictionary of the History of Ideas Constitutionalism* ''Constitutional Law'', \"Constitutions, bibliography, links\"* ''International Constitutional Law'': English translations of various national constitutions* United Nations Rule of Law: Constitution-making, on the relationship between constitution-making, the rule of law and the United Nations.", "* * constitution | Theories, Features, Practices, & Facts | Britannica* Constitutionalism | Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Constitutions and Constitutionalism | Encyclopedia.com" ] ]

[ [ "Common law" ], [ "Introduction", "File:Map of the Legal systems of the world (en).png|thumb|Legal systems of the world.", "Common law countries are in several shades of pink, corresponding to variations in common law systems.", "Civil law countries, the most prevalent system in the world, are in shades of blue.|325x325pxIn law, '''common law''' (also known as judicial '''precedent''', judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions.The defining characteristic of common law is that it arises as precedent.", "Common law courts look to the past decisions of courts to synthesize the legal principles of past cases.", "''Stare decisis'', the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems.", "If a court finds that a similar dispute to the present one has been resolved in the past, the court is generally bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision.", "If, however, the court finds that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases (a \"matter of first impression\"), and legislative statutes (also called \"positive law\") are either silent or ambiguous on the question, judges have the authority and duty to resolve the issue.", "The opinion that a common law judge gives agglomerates with past decisions as precedent to bind future judges and litigants, unless overturned by further developments in the law or by subsequent statutory law.The common law, so named because it was \"common\" to all the king's courts across England, originated in the practices of the courts of the English kings in the centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066.The British Empire later spread the English legal system to its colonies, many of which retain the common law system today.", "These common law systems are legal systems that give great weight to judicial precedent, and to the style of reasoning inherited from the English legal system.The term \"common law\", referring to the body of law made by the judiciary, is often distinguished from statutory law and regulations, which are laws adopted by the legislature and executive respectively.", "In legal systems that follow the common law, judicial precedent stands in contrast to and on equal footing with statutes.", "The other major legal system used by countries is the civil law, which codifies its legal principles into legal codes and does not treat judicial opinions as binding.Today, one-third of the world's population lives in common law jurisdictions or in mixed legal systems that combine the common law with the civil law, including Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Burma, Cameroon, Canada (both the federal system and all its provinces except Quebec), Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Malaysia, Malta, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom (including its overseas territories such as Gibraltar), the United States (both the federal system and 49 of its 50 states), and Zimbabwe." ], [ "Definitions", "The term ''common law'' has several connotations.=== Source of law ===The first definition of \"common law\" given in ''Black's Law Dictionary'', 10th edition, 2014, is \"The body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions\".", "''Black's'' lists \"case law\" as a synonym, and \"statute\" as a contrast.", "Common law is sometimes explained by contrasting it with other terms; in modern usage, most commonly with statutory law.", "This definition of \"common law\" distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law, or the source of the law.=== Jurisdictional ===The is the second definition from ''Black's Law Dictionary'', 10th ed, contrasts the \"common law\" jurisdictions from \"civil law\" or \"code\" jurisdictions.", "This connotation of common law is \"the body of law based on the English legal system...together with the techniques of applying them, that form the basis of the law\" that has developed under different circumstances from country to country so that the judge-made common law of different countries may have variations based on local usages.", "=== Law as opposed to equity ===''Black's Law Dictionary'', 10th ed., definition 4, differentiates \"common law\" (or just \"law\") from \"equity\".", "Before 1873, England had two complementary court systems: courts of \"law\" which could only award money damages and recognized only the legal owner of property, and courts of \"equity\" (courts of chancery) that could issue injunctive relief (that is, a court order to a party to do something, give something to someone, or stop doing something) and recognized trusts of property.", "This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States.", "The states of Delaware, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Tennessee continue to have divided Courts of Law and Courts of Chancery.", "In New Jersey, the appellate courts are unified, but the trial courts are organized into a Chancery Division and a Law Division.", "There is a difference of opinion in Commonwealth countries as to whether equity and common law have been fused or are merely administered by the same court, with the orthodox view that they have not (expressed as rejecting the \"fusion fallacy\") prevailing in Australia, while support for fusion has been expressed by the New Zealand Court of Appeal.For most purposes, the U.S. federal system and most states have merged the two courts.=== Archaic or obsolete definitions ===In addition, there are several historical (but now archaic) uses of the term that, while no longer current, provide background context that assists in understanding the meaning of \"common law\" today.", "In one usage that is now archaic, but that gives insight into the history of the common law, \"common law\" referred to the pre-Christian system of law, imported by the pre-literate Saxons to England and upheld into their historical times until 1066, when the Norman conquest overthrew the last Saxon king—i.e., before (it was supposed) there was any consistent, written law to be applied.The term \"judge-made law\" was first coined by Jeremy Bentham as a rebuttal of the dominant declaratory theory of common law.", "According to writers like William Blackstone, and through the late 19th century, the dominant theory was that the authority of the common law was derived from the customs of the people that had existed since antiquity.", "The common law was pre-existing; judge's weren't making new laws, but only expounding and applying the old.", "This definition of common law as an ancient, unwritten law was included in some 18th and 19th century dictionaries including ''Bouvier's Law Dictionary'' and ''Black's Law Dictionary''.", "By the early 20th century, largely at the urging of Oliver Wendell Holmes, this view had fallen into the minority view: Holmes pointed out that the older view worked undesirable and unjust results, and hampered a proper development of the law.", "Modern versions of Black's Law Dictionary no longer include this definition.", "In the century since Holmes, the dominant understanding has been that common law \"decisions are themselves law, or rather the rules which the courts lay down in making the decisions constitute law\".", "Holmes wrote in a 1917 opinion, \"The common law is not a brooding omnipresence in the sky, but the articulate voice of some sovereign or quasi-sovereign that can be identified.\"", "\"Common law\" as the term is used today in common law countries contrasts with .", "While historically the became a secure point of reference in continental European legal systems, in England it was not a point of reference at all.The English Court of Common Pleas dealt with lawsuits in which the monarch had no interest, i.e., between commoners.", "''Black's Law Dictionary'', 10th ed., definition 3 is \"General law common to a country as a whole, as opposed to special law that has only local application.\"", "From at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the king's justice in \"assizes\".", "The term \"common law\" was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit.", "The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions." ], [ "Basic principles of common law", "=== Common law adjudication ===In a common law jurisdiction several stages of research and analysis are required to determine \"what the law is\" in a given situation.", "First, one must ascertain the facts.", "Then, one must locate any relevant statutes and cases.", "Then one must extract the principles, analogies and statements by various courts of what they consider important to determine how the next court is likely to rule on the facts of the present case.", "More recent decisions, and decisions of higher courts or legislatures carry more weight than earlier cases and those of lower courts.", "Finally, one integrates all the lines drawn and reasons given, and determines \"what the law is\".", "Then, one applies that law to the facts.In practice, common law systems are considerably more complicated than the simplified system described above.", "The decisions of a court are binding only in a particular jurisdiction, and even within a given jurisdiction, some courts have more power than others.", "For example, in most jurisdictions, decisions by appellate courts are binding on lower courts in the same jurisdiction, and on future decisions of the same appellate court, but decisions of lower courts are only non-binding persuasive authority.", "Interactions between common law, constitutional law, statutory law and regulatory law also give rise to considerable complexity.=== Common law evolves to meet changing social needs and improved understanding ===Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. cautioned that \"the proper derivation of general principles in both common and constitutional law ... arise gradually, in the emergence of a consensus from a multitude of particularized prior decisions\".", "Justice Cardozo noted the \"common law does not work from pre-established truths of universal and inflexible validity to conclusions derived from them deductively\", but \"its method is inductive, and it draws its generalizations from particulars\".The common law is more malleable than statutory law.", "First, common law courts are not absolutely bound by precedent, but can (when extraordinarily good reason is shown) reinterpret and revise the law, without legislative intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and social philosophy.", "Second, the common law evolves through a series of gradual steps, that gradually works out all the details, so that over a decade or more, the law can change substantially but without a sharp break, thereby reducing disruptive effects.", "In contrast to common law incrementalism, the legislative process is very difficult to get started, as legislatures tend to delay action until a situation is intolerable.", "For these reasons, legislative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive (sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and sometimes with unintended consequences).One example of the gradual change that typifies evolution of the common law is the gradual change in liability for negligence.", "The traditional common law rule through most of the 19th century was that a plaintiff could not recover for a defendant's negligent production or distribution of a harmful instrumentality unless the two were parties to a contract (privity of contract).", "Thus, only the immediate purchaser could recover for a product defect, and if a part was built up out of parts from parts manufacturers, the ultimate buyer could not recover for injury caused by a defect in the part.", "In an 1842 English case, ''Winterbottom v Wright'', the postal service had contracted with Wright to maintain its coaches.", "Winterbottom was a driver for the post.", "When the coach failed and injured Winterbottom, he sued Wright.", "The ''Winterbottom'' court recognized that there would be \"absurd and outrageous consequences\" if an injured person could sue any person peripherally involved, and knew it had to draw a line somewhere, a limit on the causal connection between the negligent conduct and the injury.", "The court looked to the contractual relationships, and held that liability would only flow as far as the person in immediate contract (\"privity\") with the negligent party.A first exception to this rule arose in 1852, in the case of ''Thomas v. Winchester'', when New York's highest court held that mislabeling a poison as an innocuous herb, and then selling the mislabeled poison through a dealer who would be expected to resell it, put \"human life in imminent danger\".", "''Thomas'' relied on this reason to create an exception to the \"privity\" rule.", "In 1909, New York held in ''Statler v. Ray Mfg.", "Co.'' that a coffee urn manufacturer was liable to a person injured when the urn exploded, because the urn \"was of such a character inherently that, when applied to the purposes for which it was designed, it was liable to become a source of great danger to many people if not carefully and properly constructed\".Yet the privity rule survived.", "In ''Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson'' (decided in 1915 by the federal appeals court for New York and several neighboring states), the court held that a car owner could not recover for injuries from a defective wheel, when the automobile owner had a contract only with the automobile dealer and not with the manufacturer, even though there was \"no question that the wheel was made of dead and 'dozy' wood, quite insufficient for its purposes\".", "The ''Cadillac'' court was willing to acknowledge that the case law supported exceptions for \"an article dangerous in its nature or likely to become so in the course of the ordinary usage to be contemplated by the vendor\".", "However, held the ''Cadillac'' court, \"one who manufactures articles dangerous only if defectively made, or installed, e.g., tables, chairs, pictures or mirrors hung on the walls, carriages, automobiles, and so on, is not liable to third parties for injuries caused by them, except in case of willful injury or fraud\".Finally, in the famous case of ''MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.'', in 1916, Judge Benjamin Cardozo for New York's highest court pulled a broader principle out of these predecessor cases.", "The facts were almost identical to ''Cadillac'' a year earlier: a wheel from a wheel manufacturer was sold to Buick, to a dealer, to MacPherson, and the wheel failed, injuring MacPherson.", "Judge Cardozo held:Cardozo's new \"rule\" exists in no prior case, but is inferrable as a synthesis of the \"thing of danger\" principle stated in them, merely extending it to \"foreseeable danger\" even if \"the purposes for which it was designed\" were not themselves \"a source of great danger\".", "''MacPherson'' takes some care to present itself as foreseeable progression, not a wild departure.", "Cardozo continues to adhere to the original principle of ''Winterbottom'', that \"absurd and outrageous consequences\" must be avoided, and he does so by drawing a new line in the last sentence quoted above: \"There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable.\"", "But while adhering to the underlying principle that ''some'' boundary is necessary, ''MacPherson'' overruled the prior common law by rendering the formerly dominant factor in the boundary, that is, the privity formality arising out of a contractual relationship between persons, totally irrelevant.", "Rather, the most important factor in the boundary would be the nature of the thing sold and the foreseeable uses that downstream purchasers would make of the thing.The example of the evolution of the law of negligence in the preceding paragraphs illustrates two crucial principles: (a) The common law evolves, this evolution is in the hands of judges, and judges have \"made law\" for hundreds of years.", "(b) The reasons given for a decision are often more important in the long run than the outcome in a particular case.", "This is the reason that judicial opinions are usually quite long, and give rationales and policies that can be balanced with judgment in future cases, rather than the bright-line rules usually embodied in statutes.=== Publication of decisions ===All law systems rely on written publication of the law, so that it is accessible to all.", "Common law decisions are published in law reports for use by lawyers, courts and the general public.After the American Revolution, Massachusetts became the first state to establish an official Reporter of Decisions.", "As newer states needed law, they often looked first to the Massachusetts Reports for authoritative precedents as a basis for their own common law.", "The United States federal courts relied on private publishers until after the Civil War, and only began publishing as a government function in 1874.West Publishing in Minnesota is the largest private-sector publisher of law reports in the United States.", "Government publishers typically issue only decisions \"in the raw\", while private sector publishers often add indexing, including references to the key principles of the common law involved, editorial analysis, and similar finding aids.=== Comparison with statutory law ===Statutes are generally understood to supersede common law.", "They may codify existing common law, create new causes of action that did not exist in the common law, or legislatively overrule the common law.", "Common law still has practical applications in some areas of law.", "Examples are contract law and the law of torts.", "====\"Legislating from the bench\"====At earlier stages in the development of modern legal systems and government, courts exercised their authority in performing what Roscoe Pound described as an essentially legislative function.", "As legislation became more comprehensive, courts began to operate within narrower limits of statutory interpretation.Jeremy Bentham famously criticized judicial lawmaking when he argued in favor of codification and narrow judicial decisions.", "Pound comments that critics of judicial lawmaking are not always consistent - sometimes siding with Bentham and decrying judicial overreach, at other times unsatisfied with judicial reluctance to sweep broadly and employ case law as a means to redress certain challenges to established law.", "Oliver Wendell Holmes once dissented: \"judges do and must legislate\".====Statutory construction====There is a controversial legal maxim in American law that \"Statutes in derogation of the common law ought to be narrowly construed\".", "Henry Campbell Black once wrote that the canon \"no longer has any foundation in reason\".", "It is generally associated with the Lochner era.", "The presumption is that legislatures may take away common law rights, but modern jurisprudence will look for the statutory purpose or legislative intent and apply rules of statutory construction like the plain meaning rule to reach decisions.", "As the United States Supreme Court explained in ''United States v Texas'', 507 U.S. 529 (1993):As another example, the Supreme Court of the United States in 1877, held that a Michigan statute that established rules for solemnization of marriages did not abolish pre-existing common-law marriage, because the statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was silent as to preexisting common law.Court decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries and distinctions in law promulgated by other bodies are sometimes called \"interstitial common law,\" which includes judicial interpretation of fundamental laws, such as the US Constitution, of legislative statutes, and of agency regulations, and the application of law to specific facts.=== Overruling precedent—the limits of ''stare decisis'' ===The United States federal courts are divided into twelve regional circuits, each with a circuit court of appeals (plus a thirteenth, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and cases against the federal government, without geographic limitation).", "Decisions of one circuit court are binding on the district courts within the circuit and on the circuit court itself, but are only persuasive authority on sister circuits.", "District court decisions are not binding precedent at all, only persuasive.Most of the U.S. federal courts of appeal have adopted a rule under which, in the event of any conflict in decisions of panels (most of the courts of appeal almost always sit in panels of three), the earlier panel decision is controlling, and a panel decision may only be overruled by the court of appeals sitting ''en banc'' (that is, all active judges of the court) or by a higher court.", "In these courts, the older decision remains controlling when an issue comes up the third time.Other courts, for example, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the Supreme Court, always sit ''en banc'', and thus the ''later'' decision controls.", "These courts essentially overrule all previous cases in each new case, and older cases survive only to the extent they do not conflict with newer cases.", "The interpretations of these courts—for example, Supreme Court interpretations of the constitution or federal statutes—are stable only so long as the older interpretation maintains the support of a majority of the court.", "Older decisions persist through some combination of belief that the old decision is right, and that it is not sufficiently wrong to be overruled.In the jurisdictions of England and Wales and of Northern Ireland, since 2009, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has the authority to overrule and unify criminal law decisions of lower courts; it is the final court of appeal for civil law cases in all three of the UK jurisdictions, but not for criminal law cases in Scotland, where the High Court of Justiciary has this power instead (except on questions of law relating to reserved matters such as devolution and human rights).", "From 1966 to 2009, this power lay with the House of Lords, granted by the Practice Statement of 1966.Canada's federal system, described below, avoids regional variability of federal law by giving national jurisdiction to both layers of appellate courts.=== Common law as a foundation for commercial economies ===The reliance on judicial opinion is a strength of common law systems, and is a significant contributor to the robust commercial systems in the United Kingdom and United States.", "Because there is reasonably precise guidance on almost every issue, parties (especially commercial parties) can predict whether a proposed course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful, and have some assurance of consistency.", "As Justice Brandeis famously expressed it, \"in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right.\"", "This ability to predict gives more freedom to come close to the boundaries of the law.", "For example, many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and create greater wealth, because the parties know ahead of time that the proposed arrangement, though perhaps close to the line, is almost certainly legal.", "Newspapers, taxpayer-funded entities with some religious affiliation, and political parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries within which their freedom of expression rights apply.In contrast, in jurisdictions with very weak respect for precedent, fine questions of law are redetermined anew each time they arise, making consistency and prediction more difficult, and procedures far more protracted than necessary because parties cannot rely on written statements of law as reliable guides.", "In jurisdictions that do not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, parties have less ''a priori'' guidance (unless the written law is very clear and kept updated) and must often leave a bigger \"safety margin\" of unexploited opportunities, and final determinations are reached only after far larger expenditures on legal fees by the parties.This is the reason for the frequent choice of the law of the State of New York in commercial contracts, even when neither entity has extensive contacts with New York—and remarkably often even when neither party has contacts with the United States.", "Commercial contracts almost always include a \"choice of law clause\" to reduce uncertainty.", "Somewhat surprisingly, contracts throughout the world (for example, contracts involving parties in Japan, France and Germany, and from most of the other states of the United States) often choose the law of New York, even where the relationship of the parties and transaction to New York is quite attenuated.", "Because of its history as the United States' commercial center, New York common law has a depth and predictability not (yet) available in any other jurisdictions of the United States.", "Similarly, American corporations are often formed under Delaware corporate law, and American contracts relating to corporate law issues (merger and acquisitions of companies, rights of shareholders, and so on) include a Delaware choice of law clause, because of the deep body of law in Delaware on these issues.", "On the other hand, some other jurisdictions have sufficiently developed bodies of law so that parties have no real motivation to choose the law of a foreign jurisdiction (for example, England and Wales, and the state of California), but not yet so fully developed that parties with no relationship to the jurisdiction choose that law.", "Outside the United States, parties that are in different jurisdictions from each other often choose the law of England and Wales, particularly when the parties are each in former British colonies and members of the Commonwealth.", "The common theme in all cases is that commercial parties seek predictability and simplicity in their contractual relations, and frequently choose the law of a common law jurisdiction with a well-developed body of common law to achieve that result.Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising out of unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective choice of law clauses in contracts discussed in the previous paragraph), certain jurisdictions attract an unusually high fraction of cases, because of the predictability afforded by the depth of decided cases.", "For example, London is considered the pre-eminent centre for litigation of admiralty cases.This is not to say that common law is better in every situation.", "For example, civil law can be clearer than case law when the legislature has had the foresight and diligence to address the precise set of facts applicable to a particular situation.", "For that reason, civil law statutes tend to be somewhat more detailed than statutes written by common law legislatures—but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult to read (the United States tax code is an example)." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===The common lawso named because it was \"common\" to all the king's courts across Englandoriginated in the practices of the courts of the English kings in the centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066.Prior to the Norman Conquest, much of England's legal business took place in the local folk courts of its various shires and hundreds.", "A variety of other individual courts also existed across the land: urban boroughs and merchant fairs held their own courts, and large landholders also held their own manorial and seigniorial courts as needed.", "The degree to which common law drew from earlier Anglo-Saxon traditions such as the jury, ordeals, the penalty of outlawry, and writs all of which were incorporated into the Norman common law is still a subject of much discussion.", "Additionally, the Catholic Church operated its own court system that adjudicated issues of canon law.The main sources for the history of the common law in the Middle Ages are the plea rolls and the Year Books.", "The plea rolls, which were the official court records for the Courts of Common Pleas and King's Bench, were written in Latin.", "The rolls were made up in bundles by law term: Hilary, Easter, Trinity, and Michaelmas, or winter, spring, summer, and autumn.", "They are currently deposited in the UK National Archives, by whose permission images of the rolls for the Courts of Common Pleas, King's Bench, and Exchequer of Pleas, from the 13th century to the 17th, can be viewed online at the Anglo-American Legal Tradition site (The O'Quinn Law Library of the University of Houston Law Center).The doctrine of precedent developed during the 12th and 13th centuries, as the collective judicial decisions that were based in tradition, custom and precedent.The form of reasoning used in common law is known as casuistry or case-based reasoning.", "The common law, as applied in civil cases (as distinct from criminal cases), was devised as a means of compensating someone for wrongful acts known as torts, including both intentional torts and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating contracts.", "The type of procedure practiced in common law courts is known as the adversarial system; this is also a development of the common law.=== Medieval English common law ===A view of Westminster Hall in the Palace of Westminster, London, early 19th centuryIn 1154, Henry II became the first Plantagenet king.", "Among many achievements, Henry institutionalized common law by creating a unified system of law \"common\" to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, eliminating arbitrary remedies and reinstating a jury system—citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims.", "The jury reached its verdict through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of evidence, a distinguishing factor from today's civil and criminal court systems.At the time, royal government centered on the ''Curia Regis'' (king's court), the body of aristocrats and prelates who assisted in the administration of the realm and the ancestor of Parliament, the Star Chamber, and Privy Council.", "Henry II developed the practice of sending judges (numbering around 20 to 30 in the 1180s) from his Curia Regis to hear the various disputes throughout the country, and return to the court thereafter.", "The king's itinerant justices would generally receive a writ or commission under the great seal.", "They would then resolve disputes on an ad hoc basis according to what they interpreted the customs to be.", "The king's judges would then return to London and often discuss their cases and the decisions they made with the other judges.", "These decisions would be recorded and filed.", "In time, a rule, known as ''stare decisis'' (also commonly known as precedent) developed, whereby a judge would be bound to follow the decision of an earlier judge; he was required to adopt the earlier judge's interpretation of the law and apply the same principles promulgated by that earlier judge if the two cases had similar facts to one another.", "Once judges began to regard each other's decisions to be binding precedent, the pre-Norman system of local customs and law varying in each locality was replaced by a system that was (at least in theory, though not always in practice) common throughout the whole country, hence the name \"common law\".The king's object was to preserve public order, but providing law and order was also extremely profitable–cases on forest use as well as fines and forfeitures can generate \"great treasure\" for the government.", "Eyres (a Norman French word for judicial circuit, originating from Latin ''iter'') are more than just courts; they would supervise local government, raise revenue, investigate crimes, and enforce feudal rights of the king.", "There were complaints of the ''eyre'' of 1198 reducing the kingdom to poverty and Cornishmen fleeing to escape the eyre of 1233.Henry II's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of canonical (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "The murder of the archbishop gave rise to a wave of popular outrage against the King.", "International pressure on Henry grew, and in May 1172 he negotiated a settlement with the papacy in which the King swore to go on crusade as well as effectively overturned the more controversial clauses of the Constitutions of Clarendon.", "Henry nevertheless continued to exert influence in any ecclesiastical case which interested him and royal power was exercised more subtly with considerable success.The English Court of Common Pleas was established after Magna Carta to try lawsuits between commoners in which the monarch had no interest.", "Its judges sat in open court in the Great Hall of the king's Palace of Westminster, permanently except in the vacations between the four terms of the Legal year.Judge-made common law operated as the primary source of law for several hundred years, before Parliament acquired legislative powers to create statutory law.", "In England, judges have devised a number of rules as to how to deal with precedent decisions.", "The early development of case-law in the thirteenth century has been traced to Bracton's ''On the Laws and Customs of England'' and led to the yearly compilations of court cases known as Year Books, of which the first extant was published in 1268, the same year that Bracton died.", "The Year Books are known as the law reports of medieval England, and are a principal source for knowledge of the developing legal doctrines, concepts, and methods in the period from the 13th to the 16th centuries, when the common law developed into recognizable form.=== Influence of Roman law ===The term \"common law\" is often used as a contrast to Roman-derived \"civil law\", and the fundamental processes and forms of reasoning in the two are quite different.", "Nonetheless, there has been considerable cross-fertilization of ideas, while the two traditions and sets of foundational principles remain distinct.By the time of the rediscovery of the Roman law in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, the common law had already developed far enough to prevent a Roman law reception as it occurred on the continent.", "However, the first common law scholars, most notably Glanvill and Bracton, as well as the early royal common law judges, had been well accustomed with Roman law.", "Often, they were clerics trained in the Roman canon law.", "One of the first and throughout its history one of the most significant treatises of the common law, Bracton's ''De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae'' (On the Laws and Customs of England), was heavily influenced by the division of the law in Justinian's ''Institutes''.", "The impact of Roman law had decreased sharply after the age of Bracton, but the Roman divisions of actions into ''in rem'' (typically, actions against a ''thing'' or property for the purpose of gaining title to that property; must be filed in a court where the property is located) and ''in personam'' (typically, actions directed against a person; these can affect a person's rights and, since a person often owns things, his property too) used by Bracton had a lasting effect and laid the groundwork for a return of Roman law structural concepts in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "Signs of this can be found in Blackstone's ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'', and Roman law ideas regained importance with the revival of academic law schools in the 19th century.", "As a result, today, the main systematic divisions of the law into property, contract, and tort (and to some extent unjust enrichment) can be found in the civil law as well as in the common law.===Early modern era===The \"ancient unwritten universal custom\" view was the foundation of the first treatises by Blackstone and Coke, and was universal among lawyers and judges from the earliest times to the mid-19th century.", "However, for 100 years, lawyers and judges have recognized that the \"ancient unwritten universal custom\" view does not accord with the facts of the origin and growth of the law.", "West's encyclopedia of American law, defines common law as \"The ancient law of England based upon societal customs and recognized and enforced by the judgments and decrees of the courts.", "\"=== Coke ===The first attempt at a comprehensive compilation of centuries of common law was by Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, in his treatise, ''Institutes of the Lawes of England'' in the 17th century.As Sir Edward Coke (1552–1634) put it in the preface to the eighth volume of his ''Reports'' (1600–1615), 'the grounds of our common laws' were 'beyond the memorie or register of any beginning.=== Blackstone ===According to William Blackstone the unwritten law derived its authority from immemorial usage and 'universal reception throughout the kingdom' While it's precise meaning may have changed since Blackstone's time, in modern usage it is generally understood to mean law that is independent of statutes.", "This was repeated by the United States Supreme Court in ''Levy v. McCartee'': \"It is too plain for argument that the common law is here spoken of, in its appropriate sense, as the unwritten law of the land, independent of statutory enactments\".", "More specifically, in modern usage, this is understood to mean law that is made by judges, not the declaratory statutes of Blackstone's era.", "=== Jeremy Bentham ===The term \"judge made law\" comes from Jeremy Bentham and the modern practice of adjudication as application of precedent derived from case law begins with Jeremy Bentham's attack on the legitimacy of the common law.", "The modern legal practice of applying case law as precedent obsoleted the declaratory theory of common law that prevailed in Blackstone's time.=== Propagation of the common law to the colonies and Commonwealth by reception statutes ===A reception statute is a statutory law adopted as a former British colony becomes independent, by which the new nation adopts (i.e.", "receives) pre-independence common law, to the extent not explicitly rejected by the legislative body or constitution of the new nation.", "Reception statutes generally consider the English common law dating prior to independence, and the precedent originating from it, as the default law, because of the importance of using an extensive and predictable body of law to govern the conduct of citizens and businesses in a new state.", "All U.S. states, with the partial exception of Louisiana, have either implemented reception statutes or adopted the common law by judicial opinion.Other examples of reception statutes in the United States, the states of the U.S., Canada and its provinces, and Hong Kong, are discussed in the reception statute article.Yet, adoption of the common law in the newly independent nation was not a foregone conclusion, and was controversial.", "Immediately after the American Revolution, there was widespread distrust and hostility to anything British, and the common law was no exception.", "Jeffersonians decried lawyers and their common law tradition as threats to the new republic.", "The Jeffersonians preferred a legislatively enacted civil law under the control of the political process, rather than the common law developed by judges that—by design—were insulated from the political process.", "The Federalists believed that the common law was the birthright of Independence: after all, the natural rights to \"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness\" were the rights protected by common law.", "Even advocates for the common law approach noted that it was not an ideal fit for the newly independent colonies: judges and lawyers alike were severely hindered by a lack of printed legal materials.", "Before Independence, the most comprehensive law libraries had been maintained by Tory lawyers, and those libraries vanished with the loyalist expatriation, and the ability to print books was limited.", "Lawyer (later President) John Adams complained that he \"suffered very much for the want of books\".", "To bootstrap this most basic need of a common law system—knowable, written law—in 1803, lawyers in Massachusetts donated their books to found a law library.", "A Jeffersonian newspaper criticized the library, as it would carry forward \"all the old authorities practiced in England for centuries back ... whereby a new system of jurisprudence will be founded on the high monarchical system to become the Common Law of this Commonwealth...", "The library may hereafter have a very unsocial purpose.", "\"For several decades after independence, English law still exerted influence over American common law—for example, with ''Byrne v Boadle'' (1863), which first applied the res ipsa loquitur doctrine.=== Decline of Latin maxims and \"blind imitation of the past\", and adding flexibility to ''stare decisis'' ===Well into the 19th century, ancient maxims played a large role in common law adjudication.", "Many of these maxims had originated in Roman Law, migrated to England before the introduction of Christianity to the British Isles, and were typically stated in Latin even in English decisions.", "Many examples are familiar in everyday speech even today, \"One cannot be a judge in one's own cause\" (see Dr. Bonham's Case), rights are reciprocal to obligations, and the like.", "Judicial decisions and treatises of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as those of Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, presented the common law as a collection of such maxims.Reliance on old maxims and rigid adherence to precedent, no matter how old or ill-considered, came under critical discussion in the late 19th century, starting in the United States.", "Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. in his famous article, \"The Path of the Law\", commented, \"It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV.", "It is still more revolting if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long since, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past.\"", "Justice Holmes noted that study of maxims might be sufficient for \"the man of the present\", but \"the man of the future is the man of statistics and the master of economics\".", "In an 1880 lecture at Harvard, he wrote:In the early 20th century, Louis Brandeis, later appointed to the United States Supreme Court, became noted for his use of policy-driving facts and economics in his briefs, and extensive appendices presenting facts that lead a judge to the advocate's conclusion.", "By this time, briefs relied more on facts than on Latin maxims.Reliance on old maxims is now deprecated.", "Common law decisions today reflect both precedent and policy judgment drawn from economics, the social sciences, business, decisions of foreign courts, and the like.", "The degree to which these external factors ''should'' influence adjudication is the subject of active debate, but it is indisputable that judges ''do'' draw on experience and learning from everyday life, from other fields, and from other jurisdictions.=== 1870 through 20th century, and the procedural merger of law and equity ===As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common law system would petition the King in person.", "For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law (as opposed to equity)) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted.", "From this developed the system of equity, administered by the Lord Chancellor, in the courts of chancery.", "By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the 17th century that equity should prevail.In England, courts of law (as opposed to equity) were merged with courts of equity by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, with equity prevailing in case of conflict.In the United States, parallel systems of law (providing money damages, with cases heard by a jury upon either party's request) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief, heard by a judge) survived well into the 20th century.", "The United States federal courts procedurally separated law and equity: the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, and the two kinds of cases proceeded under different procedural rules.", "This became problematic when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief.", "In 1937, the new Federal Rules of Civil Procedure combined law and equity into one form of action, the \"civil action\".", "Fed.R.Civ.P.", ".", "The distinction survives to the extent that issues that were \"common law (as opposed to equity)\" as of 1791 (the date of adoption of the Seventh Amendment) are still subject to the right of either party to request a jury, and \"equity\" issues are decided by a judge.The states of Delaware, Illinois, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Tennessee continue to have divided courts of law and courts of chancery, for example, the Delaware Court of Chancery.", "In New Jersey, the appellate courts are unified, but the trial courts are organized into a Chancery Division and a Law Division.=== Common law pleading and its abolition in the early 20th century ===For centuries, through to the 19th century, the common law acknowledged only specific forms of action, and required very careful drafting of the opening pleading (called a writ) to slot into exactly one of them: debt, detinue, covenant, special assumpsit, general assumpsit, trespass, trover, replevin, case (or trespass on the case), and ejectment.", "To initiate a lawsuit, a pleading had to be drafted to meet myriad technical requirements: correctly categorizing the case into the correct legal pigeonhole (pleading in the alternative was not permitted), and using specific legal terms and phrases that had been traditional for centuries.", "Under the old common law pleading standards, a suit by a ''pro se'' (\"for oneself\", without a lawyer) party was all but impossible, and there was often considerable procedural jousting at the outset of a case over minor wording issues.One of the major reforms of the late 19th century and early 20th century was the abolition of common law pleading requirements.", "A plaintiff can initiate a case by giving the defendant \"a short and plain statement\" of facts that constitute an alleged wrong.", "This reform moved the attention of courts from technical scrutiny of words to a more rational consideration of the facts, and opened access to justice far more broadly." ], [ "Alternatives to common law systems", "=== Civil law systems ===A 16th century edition of ''Corpus Juris Civilis Romani'' (1583)The main alternative to the common law system is the civil law system, which is used in Continental Europe, and most of Central and South America.", "Common law systems trace their history to England, while civil law systems trace their history through the Napoleonic Code back to the of Roman law.", "A few Western countries use other legal traditions, such as Roman-Dutch law or Scots law, for example.==== Role of precedent ====The primary contrast between the two systems is the role of written decisions and precedent.While Common law systems place great weight on precedent, civil law judges tend to give less weight to judicial precedent.", "For example, the Napoleonic Code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law.", "In common law jurisdictions, the legal reasoning for the decision, known as ''ratio decidendi'', not only determines the court's judgment between the parties, but also stands as precedent for resolving future disputes.", "In contrast, civil law decisions typically do not include explanatory opinions, and thus no precedent flows from one decision to the next.", "In civil law jurisdictions is filled by giving greater weight to scholarly literature, as explained below.In civil law jurisdictions courts lack authority to act if there is no statute.", "For that reason, statutes in civil law systems are more comprehensive, detailed, and continuously updated, covering all matters capable of being brought before a court.==== Adversarial system vs. inquisitorial system ====Common law systems tend to give more weight to separation of powers between the judicial branch and the executive branch.", "In contrast, civil law systems are typically more tolerant of allowing individual officials to exercise both powers.", "One example of this contrast is the difference between the two systems in allocation of responsibility between prosecutor and adjudicator.Common law courts usually use an adversarial system, in which two sides present their cases to a neutral judge.", "For example, in criminal cases, in adversarial systems, the prosecutor and adjudicator are two separate people.", "The prosecutor is lodged in the executive branch, and conducts the investigation to locate evidence.", "That prosecutor presents the evidence to a neutral adjudicator, who makes a decision.In contrast, in civil law systems, criminal proceedings proceed under an inquisitorial system in which an examining magistrate serves two roles by first developing the evidence and arguments for one side and then the other during the investigation phase.", "The examining magistrate then presents the dossier detailing his or her findings to the president of the bench that will adjudicate on the case where it has been decided that a trial shall be conducted.", "Therefore, the president of the bench's view of the case is not neutral and may be biased while conducting the trial after the reading of the dossier.", "Unlike the common law proceedings, the president of the bench in the inquisitorial system is not merely an umpire and is entitled to directly interview the witnesses or express comments during the trial, as long as he or she does not express his or her view on the guilt of the accused.The proceeding in the inquisitorial system is essentially by writing.", "Most of the witnesses would have given evidence in the investigation phase and such evidence will be contained in the dossier under the form of police reports.", "In the same way, the accused would have already put his or her case at the investigation phase but he or she will be free to change his or her evidence at trial.", "Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial will be conducted.", "Unlike the adversarial system, the conviction and sentence to be served (if any) will be released by the trial jury together with the president of the trial bench, following their common deliberation.In contrast, in an adversarial system, on issues of fact, the onus of framing the case rests on the parties, and judges generally decide the case presented to them, rather than acting as active investigators, or actively reframing the issues presented.", "\"In our adversary system, in both civil and criminal cases, in the first instance and on appeal, we follow the principle of party presentation.", "That is, we rely on the parties to frame the issues for decision and assign to courts the role of neutral arbiter of matters the parties present.\"", "This principle applies with force in all issues in criminal matters, and to factual issues: courts seldom engage in fact gathering on their own initiative, but decide facts on the evidence presented (even here, there are exceptions, for \"legislative facts\" as opposed to \"adjudicative facts\").On the other hand, on issues of law, common law courts regularly raise new issues (such as matters of jurisdiction or standing), perform independent research, and reformulate the legal grounds on which to analyze the facts presented to them.", "The United States Supreme Court regularly decides based on issues raised only in amicus briefs from non-parties.", "One of the most notable such cases was ''Erie Railroad v. Tompkins'', a 1938 case in which neither party questioned the ruling from the 1842 case ''Swift v. Tyson'' that served as the foundation for their arguments, but which led the Supreme Court to overturn ''Swift'' during their deliberations.", "To avoid lack of notice, courts may invite briefing on an issue to ensure adequate notice.", "However, there are limits—an appeals court may not introduce a theory that contradicts the party's own contentions.There are many exceptions in both directions.", "For example, most proceedings before U.S. federal and state agencies are inquisitorial in nature, at least the initial stages (''e.g.", "'', a patent examiner, a social security hearing officer, and so on), even though the law to be applied is developed through common law processes.==== Contrasting role of treatises and academic writings in common law and civil law systems ====The role of the legal academy presents a significant \"cultural\" difference between common law (connotation 2) and civil law jurisdictions.", "In both systems, treatises compile decisions and state overarching principles that (in the author's opinion) explain the results of the cases.", "In neither system are treatises considered \"law\", but the weight given them is nonetheless quite different.In common law jurisdictions, lawyers and judges tend to use these treatises as only \"finding aids\" to locate the relevant cases.", "In common law jurisdictions, scholarly work is seldom cited as authority for what the law is.", "Chief Justice Roberts noted the \"great disconnect between the academy and the profession.\"", "When common law courts rely on scholarly work, it is almost always only for factual findings, policy justification, or the history and evolution of the law, but the court's legal conclusion is reached through analysis of relevant statutes and common law, seldom scholarly commentary.In contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts give the writings of law professors significant weight, partly because civil law decisions traditionally were very brief, sometimes no more than a paragraph stating who wins and who loses.", "The rationale had to come from somewhere else: the academy often filled that role.==== Narrowing of differences between common law and civil law ====The contrast between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of jurisprudence (similar to case law but not binding) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries.Examples of common law being replaced by statute or codified rule in the United States include criminal law (since 1812, U.S. federal courts and most but not all of the states have held that criminal law must be embodied in statute if the public is to have fair notice), commercial law (the Uniform Commercial Code in the early 1960s) and procedure (the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the 1930s and the Federal Rules of Evidence in the 1970s).", "But in each case, the statute sets the general principles, but the interstitial common law process determines the scope and application of the statute.An example of convergence from the other direction is shown in the 1982 decision ''Srl CILFIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health'' (), in which the European Court of Justice held that questions it has already answered need not be resubmitted.", "This showed how a historically distinctly common law principle is used by a court composed of judges (at that time) of essentially civil law jurisdiction.=== Other alternatives ===The former Soviet Bloc and other socialist countries used a socialist law system, although there is controversy as to whether socialist law ever constituted a separate legal system or not.Much of the Muslim world uses legal systems based on Sharia (also called Islamic law).Many churches use a system of canon law.", "The canon law of the Catholic Church influenced the common law during the medieval period through its preservation of Roman law doctrine such as the presumption of innocence.", "\"In one of his elaborate orations in the United States Senate Mr. Charles Sumner spoke of \"the generous presumption of the common law in favor of the innocence of an accused person;\" yet it must be admitted that such a presumption cannot be found in Anglo-Saxon law, where sometimes the presumption seems to have been the other way.", "And in a very recent case in the Supreme Court of the United States, the case of Coffin, 156 U. S. 432, it is pointed out that this presumption was fully established in the Roman law, and was preserved in the canon law.\"" ], [ "Common law legal systems in the present day", "=== In jurisdictions around the world ===The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of:* Australia (both federally and in each of the states and territories)* Bangladesh* Belize* Brunei* Canada (both federal and the individual provinces, with the exception of Quebec)* the Caribbean jurisdictions of Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago* Cyprus* Ghana* Hong Kong* India* Ireland* Israel* Kenya* Nigeria* Malaysia* Malta* Myanmar* New Zealand* Pakistan* Philippines* Singapore* South Africa* United Kingdom (in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland)* United States (both the federal system and the individual states and Territories, with the partial exception of Louisiana and Puerto Rico)and many other generally English-speaking countries or Commonwealth countries (except Scotland, which is bijuridicial, and Malta).", "Essentially, every country that was colonised at some time by England, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom uses common law except those that were formerly colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows the bijuridicial law or civil code of France in part), South Africa and Sri Lanka (which follow Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists.", "Guyana and Saint Lucia have mixed common law and civil law systems.The remainder of this section discusses jurisdiction-specific variants, arranged chronologically.=== Scotland ===Scotland is often said to use the civil law system, but it has a unique system that combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the with an element of its own common law long predating the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 (see Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages), founded on the customary laws of the tribes residing there.", "Historically, Scottish common law differed in that the use of ''precedent'' was subject to the courts' seeking to discover the principle that justifies a law rather than searching for an example as a ''precedent'', and principles of natural justice and fairness have always played a role in Scots Law.", "From the 19th century, the Scottish approach to precedent developed into a ''stare decisis'' akin to that already established in England thereby reflecting a narrower, more modern approach to the application of case law in subsequent instances.", "This is not to say that the substantive rules of the common laws of both countries are the same, but in many matters (particularly those of UK-wide interest), they are similar.Scotland shares the Supreme Court with England, Wales and Northern Ireland for civil cases; the court's decisions are binding on the jurisdiction from which a case arises but only influential on similar cases arising in Scotland.", "This has had the effect of converging the law in certain areas.", "For instance, the modern UK law of negligence is based on ''Donoghue v Stevenson'', a case originating in Paisley, Scotland.Scotland maintains a separate criminal law system from the rest of the UK, with the High Court of Justiciary being the final court for criminal appeals.", "The highest court of appeal in civil cases brought in Scotland is now the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (before October 2009, final appellate jurisdiction lay with the House of Lords).=== The United States – its states, federal courts, and executive branch agencies (17th century on) ======= New York (17th century)====The original colony of New Netherland was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch.", "When the English captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law.", "However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was recaptured by the Dutch.", "In 1664, the colony of New York had two distinct legal systems: on Manhattan Island and along the Hudson River, sophisticated courts modeled on those of the Netherlands were resolving disputes learnedly in accordance with Dutch customary law.", "On Long Island, Staten Island, and in Westchester, on the other hand, English courts were administering a crude, untechnical variant of the common law carried from Puritan New England and practiced without the intercession of lawyers.", "When the English finally regained control of New Netherland they imposed common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch.", "This was problematic, as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-19th century.", "New York began a codification of its law in the 19th century.", "The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the Field Code applying to civil procedure.", "The influence of Roman-Dutch law continued in the colony well into the late 19th century.", "The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in New York continued on from the Dutch days.==== Louisiana (1700s) ====Under Louisiana's codified system, the Louisiana Civil Code, private law—that is, substantive law between private sector parties—is based on principles of law from continental Europe, with some common law influences.", "These principles derive ultimately from Roman law, transmitted through French law and Spanish law, as the state's current territory intersects the area of North America colonized by Spain and by France.", "Contrary to popular belief, the Louisiana code does not directly derive from the Napoleonic Code, as the latter was enacted in 1804, one year after the Louisiana Purchase.", "However, the two codes are similar in many respects due to common roots.Louisiana's criminal law largely rests on English common law.", "Louisiana's administrative law is generally similar to the administrative law of the U.S. federal government and other U.S. states.", "Louisiana's procedural law is generally in line with that of other U.S. states, which in turn is generally based on the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.Historically notable among the Louisiana code's differences from common law is the role of property rights among women, particularly in inheritance gained by widows.==== California (1850s) ====The U.S. state of California has a system based on common law, but it has codified the law in the manner of civil law jurisdictions.", "The reason for the enactment of the California Codes in the 19th century was to replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states.", "California and a number of other Western states, however, have retained the concept of community property derived from civil law.", "The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common-law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge-made common law.", "(Most notably, in the case ''Li v. Yellow Cab Co.'', 13 Cal.3d 804 (1975), the California Supreme Court adopted the principle of comparative negligence in the face of a California Civil Code provision codifying the traditional common-law doctrine of contributory negligence.", ")==== United States federal courts (1789 and 1938) ====official compilation and codification of federal statutes.After ''Erie v. Tompkins'', 304 U.S. 64, 78 (1938) overruled Joseph Storey's decision in ''Swift v. Tyson'', the federal common law was limited to some jurisdictions stated in the Constitution, such as admiralty, and possibly some areas that may not be the traditional jurisdiction of state law.", "Later courts have limited ''Erie'' slightly, to create a few situations where United States federal courts are permitted to create federal common law rules without express statutory authority, for example, where a federal rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal interests, such as foreign affairs, or financial instruments issued by the federal government.", "Except on Constitutional issues, and some procedural issues, Congress is free to legislatively overrule federal courts' common law.In ''Swift'', the United States Supreme Court had held that federal courts hearing cases brought under their diversity jurisdiction (allowing them to hear cases between parties from different states) had to apply the statutory law of the states, but not the common law developed by state courts.", "Instead, the Supreme Court permitted the federal courts to make their own common law based on general principles of law.", "''Erie'' overruled ''Swift v. Tyson'', and instead held that federal courts exercising diversity jurisdiction had to use all of the same substantive law as the courts of the states in which they were located.", "As the ''Erie'' Court put it, there is no \"general federal common law\".", "Post-1938, federal courts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to defer to state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason what a state's highest court would rule if presented with the issue, or to certify the question to the state's highest court for resolution.", "Outside diversity jurisdiction and when there is no federal statute, post-Erie federal courts have continued to create causes of action.", "Justice Lewis Powell strongly objected to this practice in an influential dissent for the case ''Cannon v. University of Chicago''.==== United States executive branch agencies (1946) ====Most executive branch agencies in the United States federal government have some adjudicatory authority.", "To greater or lesser extent, agencies honor their own precedent to ensure consistent results.", "Agency decision making is governed by the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946.For example, the National Labor Relations Board issues relatively few regulations, but instead promulgates most of its substantive rules through common law (connotation 1).=== India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (19th century and 1948) ===The law of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are largely based on English common law because of the long period of British colonial influence during the period of the British Raj.Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had a historically independent school of legal theory and practice.", "The ''Arthashastra'', dating from 400 BCE and the ''Manusmriti'', from 100 CE, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance.", "Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia.", "Early in this period, which finally culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent.", "The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition.", "Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character.When India became part of the British Empire, there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by the common law.", "After the failed rebellion against the British in 1857, the British Parliament took over control of India from the British East India Company, and British India came under the direct rule of the Crown.", "The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1858 to this effect, which set up the structure of British government in India.", "It established in Britain the office of the Secretary of State for India through whom the Parliament would exercise its rule, along with a Council of India to aid him.", "It also established the office of the Governor-General of India along with an Executive Council in India, which consisted of high officials of the British Government.", "As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has little correlation to the institutions of the pre-British era.==== Post-partition India (1948) ====The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 395 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.Post-partition, India retained its common law system.", "Much of contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence.", "Legislation first introduced by the British is still in effect in modified form today.", "During the drafting of the Indian Constitution, laws from Ireland, the United States, Britain, and France were all synthesized to produce a refined set of Indian laws.", "Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and environmental law.", "Certain international trade laws, such as those on intellectual property, are also enforced in India.==== Post-partition Pakistan (1948) ====Post-partition, Pakistan retained its common law system.==== Post-partition Bangladesh (1968) ====Post-partition, Bangladesh retained its common law system.=== Canada (1867) ===Canada has separate federal and provincial legal systems.==== Canadian provincial legal systems ====Each province and territory is considered a separate jurisdiction with respect to case law.", "Each has its own procedural law in civil matters, statutorily created provincial courts and superior trial courts with inherent jurisdiction culminating in the Court of Appeal of the province.", "These Courts of Appeal are then subject to the Supreme Court of Canada in terms of appeal of their decisions.All but one of the provinces of Canada use a common law system for civil matters (the exception being Quebec, which uses a French-heritage civil law system for issues arising within provincial jurisdiction, such as property ownership and contracts).==== Canadian federal legal system====Canadian Federal Courts operate under a separate system throughout Canada and deal with narrower range of subject matter than superior courts in each province and territory.", "They only hear cases on subjects assigned to them by federal statutes, such as immigration, intellectual property, judicial review of federal government decisions, and admiralty.", "The Federal Court of Appeal is the appellate court for federal courts and hears cases in multiple cities; unlike the United States, the Canadian Federal Court of Appeal is not divided into appellate circuits.Canadian federal statutes must use the terminology of both the common law and civil law for civil matters; this is referred to as legislative bijuralism.==== Canadian criminal law ====Criminal law is uniform throughout Canada.", "It is based on the federal statutory Criminal Code, which in addition to substance also details procedural law.", "The administration of justice are the responsibilities of the provinces.", "Canadian criminal law uses a common law system no matter which province a case proceeds.=== Nicaragua ===Nicaragua's legal system is also a mixture of the English Common Law and Civil Law.", "This situation was brought through the influence of British administration of the Eastern half of the Mosquito Coast from the mid-17th century until about 1894, the William Walker period from about 1855 through 1857, US interventions/occupations during the period from 1909 to 1933, the influence of US institutions during the Somoza family administrations (1933 through 1979) and the considerable importation between 1979 and the present of US culture and institutions.=== Israel (1948) ===Israel has no formal written constitution.", "Its basic principles are inherited from the law of the British Mandate of Palestine and thus resemble those of British and American law, namely: the role of courts in creating the body of law and the authority of the supreme court in reviewing and if necessary overturning legislative and executive decisions, as well as employing the adversarial system.", "However, because Israel has no written constitution, basic laws can be changed by a vote of 61 out of 120 votes in the parliament.", "One of the primary reasons that the Israeli constitution remains unwritten is the fear by whatever party holds power that creating a written constitution, combined with the common-law elements, would severely limit the powers of the Knesset (which, following the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, holds near-unlimited power).=== Roman Dutch common law ===Roman Dutch common law is a bijuridical or mixed system of law similar to the common law system in Scotland and Louisiana.", "Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions include South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe.", "Many of these jurisdictions recognise customary law, and in some, such as South Africa the Constitution requires that the common law be developed in accordance with the Bill of Rights.", "Roman Dutch common law is a development of Roman Dutch law by courts in the Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions.", "During the Napoleonic wars the Kingdom of the Netherlands adopted the French ''code civil'' in 1809, however the Dutch colonies in the Cape of Good Hope and Sri Lanka, at the time called Ceylon, were seized by the British to prevent them being used as bases by the French Navy.", "The system was developed by the courts and spread with the expansion of British colonies in Southern Africa.", "Roman Dutch common law relies on legal principles set out in Roman law sources such as Justinian's Institutes and Digest, and also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the 17th century such as Grotius and Voet.", "In practice, the majority of decisions rely on recent precedent.=== Ghana ===Ghana follows the English common law tradition which was inherited from the British during her colonisation.", "Consequently, the laws of Ghana are, for the most part, a modified version of imported law that is continuously adapting to changing socio-economic and political realities of the country.", "The Bond of 1844 marked the period when the people of Ghana (then Gold Coast) ceded their independence to the British and gave the British judicial authority.", "Later, the Supreme Court Ordinance of 1876 formally introduced British law, be it the common law or statutory law, in the Gold Coast.", "Section 14 of the Ordinance formalised the application of the common-law tradition in the country.Ghana, after independence, did not do away with the common law system inherited from the British, and today it has been enshrined in the 1992 Constitution of the country.", "Chapter four of Ghana's Constitution, entitled \"The Laws of Ghana\", has in Article 11(1) the list of laws applicable in the state.", "This comprises (a) the Constitution; (b) enactments made by or under the authority of the Parliament established by the Constitution; (c) any Orders, Rules and Regulations made by any person or authority under a power conferred by the Constitution; (d) the existing law; and (e) the common law.", "Thus, the modern-day Constitution of Ghana, like those before it, embraced the English common law by entrenching it in its provisions.", "The doctrine of judicial precedence which is based on the principle of ''stare decisis'' as applied in England and other pure common law countries also applies in Ghana." ], [ "Scholarly works", "Sir William Blackstone as illustrated in his ''Commentaries on the Laws of England''Edward Coke, a 17th-century Lord Chief Justice of the English Court of Common Pleas and a Member of Parliament (MP), wrote several legal texts that collected and integrated centuries of case law.", "Lawyers in both England and America learned the law from his ''Institutes'' and ''Reports'' until the end of the 18th century.", "His works are still cited by common law courts around the world.The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'', written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765–1769.Since 1979, a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper-bound volumes.", "Today it has been superseded in the English part of the United Kingdom by Halsbury's Laws of England that covers both common and statutory English law.While he was still on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and before being named to the U.S. Supreme Court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. published a short volume called ''The Common Law'', which remains a classic in the field.", "Unlike Blackstone and the Restatements, Holmes' book only briefly discusses what the law ''is''; rather, Holmes describes the common law ''process''.", "Law professor John Chipman Gray's ''The Nature and Sources of the Law'', an examination and survey of the common law, is also still commonly read in U.S. law schools.In the United States, Restatements of various subject matter areas (Contracts, Torts, Judgments, and so on.", "), edited by the American Law Institute, collect the common law for the area.", "The ALI Restatements are often cited by American courts and lawyers for propositions of uncodified common law, and are considered highly persuasive authority, just below binding precedential decisions.", "The Corpus Juris Secundum is an encyclopedia whose main content is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.Scots ''common law'' covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and previous court decisions.", "The legal writings used are called ''Institutional Texts'' and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.", "Examples include Craig, ''Jus Feudale'' (1655) and Stair, ''The Institutions of the Law of Scotland'' (1681)." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of law* List of common law national legal systems* Books of authority* Lists of case law* Doom book, or Code of Alfred the Great* Time immemorial* Slavery at common law* Rule against perpetuities* Rule in Shelley's Case* Fee simple* Life estate" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notelist" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chapters 1–6.", "* * * * * * * * * * Milsom, S.F.C., ''A Natural History of the Common Law''.", "Columbia University Press (2003) * Milsom, S.F.C., ''Historical Foundations of the Common Law'' (2nd ed.).", "Lexis Law Publishing (Va), (1981) * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''The History of the Common Law of England, and An analysis of the civil part of the law'', Matthew Hale* ''The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I'', Pollock and Maitland* Select Writs.", "(F.W.Maitland)* ''Common-law Pleading: its history and principles'', R.Ross Perry, (Boston, 1897)* ; also available at The Climate Change and Public Health Law Site* ''The Principle of stare decisis'' American Law Register* The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems * The International Institute for Law and Strategic Studies (IILSS) * ''New South Wales Legislation''* Historical Laws of Hong Kong Online – University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives* Maxims of Common Law from Bouvier's 1856 Law Dictionary" ] ]

[ [ "Civil law" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Civil law''' may refer to:* Civil law (common law), the part of law that concerns private citizens and legal persons* Civil law (legal system), or continental law, a legal system originating in continental Europe and based on Roman law** Private law, the branch of law in a civil law legal system that concerns relations among private individuals* Municipal law, the domestic law of a state, as opposed to international law" ], [ "See also", "* Civil code* Civil (disambiguation)* ''Ius civile'', Latin for \"civil law\"* Common law (disambiguation)* Criminal law" ] ]

[ [ "Court of appeals (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''court of appeals''' is generally an appellate court.", "'''Court of Appeals''' may refer to:*Israeli Military Court of Appeals* (Italy)*Court of Appeals of the Philippines*High Court of Appeals of Turkey*Court of Appeals (Vatican City)" ], [ "United States", "*Courts of appeals*Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces*Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims*Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit*Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit*Court of Appeals for the First Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit*Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit*Emergency Court of Appeals*Temporary Emergency Court of Appeals (defunct)*Alabama Court of Appeals (existed until 1969)*Alaska Court of Appeals*Arizona Court of Appeals*Arkansas Court of Appeals*Colorado Court of Appeals*District of Columbia Court of Appeals*Georgia Court of Appeals*Hawaii Intermediate Court of Appeals*Idaho Court of Appeals*Illinois Court of Appeals*Indiana Court of Appeals*Iowa Court of Appeals*Kansas Court of Appeals*Kentucky Court of Appeals*Louisiana Court of Appeals*Maryland Court of Appeals*Michigan Court of Appeals*Minnesota Court of Appeals*Mississippi Court of Appeals*Missouri Court of Appeals*Nebraska Court of Appeals*New Mexico Court of Appeals*New York Court of Appeals*North Carolina Court of Appeals*North Dakota Court of Appeals*Ohio Seventh District Court of Appeals*Ohio Eleventh District Court of Appeals*Oregon Court of Appeals*South Carolina Court of Appeals*Tennessee Court of Appeals*Texas Courts of Appeals**Fifth Court of Appeals*Utah Court of Appeals*Court of Appeals of Virginia*Washington Court of Appeals*Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia*Wisconsin Court of Appeals" ], [ "See also", "**Court of Appeal (disambiguation)*Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)*Appeal*State court (United States)#Nomenclature*List of legal topics*Federal Court of Appeals (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Common descent" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Common descent''' is a concept in evolutionary biology applicable when one species is the ancestor of two or more species later in time.", "According to modern evolutionary biology, all living beings could be descendants of a unique ancestor commonly referred to as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all life on Earth.Common descent is an effect of speciation, in which multiple species derive from a single ancestral population.", "The more recent the ancestral population two species have in common, the more closely are they related.", "The most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms is the last universal ancestor, which lived about 3.9 billion years ago.", "The two earliest pieces of evidence for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.", "All currently living organisms on Earth share a common genetic heritage, though the suggestion of substantial horizontal gene transfer during early evolution has led to questions about the monophyly (single ancestry) of life.", "6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.Universal common descent through an evolutionary process was first proposed by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in the concluding sentence of his 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species'':" ], [ "History", "The idea that all living things (including things considered non-living by science) are related is a recurring theme in many indigenous worldviews across the world.", "Later on, in the 1740s, the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis arrived at the idea that all organisms had a common ancestor, and had diverged through random variation and natural selection.In 1790, the philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote in ''Kritik der Urteilskraft'' (''Critique of Judgment'') that the similarity of animal forms implies a common original type, and thus a common parent.In 1794, Charles Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin asked:Would it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end?Charles Darwin's views about common descent, as expressed in ''On the Origin of Species'', were that it was probable that there was only one progenitor for all life forms:Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed.But he precedes that remark by, \"Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype.", "But analogy may be a deceitful guide.\"", "And in the subsequent edition, he asserts rather, \"We do not know all the possible transitional gradations between the simplest and the most perfect organs; it cannot be pretended that we know all the varied means of Distribution during the long lapse of years, or that we know how imperfect the Geological Record is.", "Grave as these several difficulties are, in my judgment they do not overthrow the theory of descent from a few created forms with subsequent modification\".", "Common descent was widely accepted amongst the scientific community after Darwin's publication.", "In 1907, Vernon Kellogg commented that \"practically no naturalists of position and recognized attainment doubt the theory of descent.", "\"In 2008, biologist T. Ryan Gregory noted that:No reliable observation has ever been found to contradict the general notion of common descent.", "It should come as no surprise, then, that the scientific community at large has accepted evolutionary descent as a historical reality since Darwin’s time and considers it among the most reliably established and fundamentally important facts in all of science." ], [ "Evidence", "===Common biochemistry===All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organization: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein- and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by (highly similar) ribosomes, with ATP, NADPH and others as energy sources.", "Analysis of small sequence differences in widely shared substances such as cytochrome c further supports universal common descent.", "Some 23 proteins are found in all organisms, serving as enzymes carrying out core functions like DNA replication.", "The fact that only one such set of enzymes exists is convincing evidence of a single ancestry.", "6,331 genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.===Common genetic code=== '''Amino acids''' nonpolar polar basic acidic Stop codon+ Standard genetic code 1stbase 2nd base C A G Phenyl-alanine C Serine A Tyrosine G Cysteine C CC AC GC A Leucine CA AA Stop GA Stop G CG AG Stop GG Tryptophan  C C CC Proline CA HistidineCG ArginineCCCCCCACCGCCACCACAA GlutamineCGACGCCGCAGCGG AA IsoleucineAC Threonine AA AsparagineAG SerineACACCAACAGCAAACAAAA LysineAGA ArginineAG MethionineACGAAGAGG GG ValineGC AlanineGA AsparticacidGG GlycineGCGCCGACGGCGAGCAGAA GlutamicacidGGAGGGCGGAGGGGThe genetic code (the \"translation table\" according to which DNA information is translated into amino acids, and hence proteins) is nearly identical for all known lifeforms, from bacteria and archaea to animals and plants.", "The universality of this code is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of universal common descent.The way that codons (DNA triplets) are mapped to amino acids seems to be strongly optimised.", "Richard Egel argues that in particular the hydrophobic (non-polar) side-chains are well organised, suggesting that these enabled the earliest organisms to create peptides with water-repelling regions able to support the essential electron exchange (redox) reactions for energy transfer.===Selectively neutral similarities===Similarities which have no adaptive relevance cannot be explained by convergent evolution, and therefore they provide compelling support for universal common descent.", "Such evidence has come from two areas: amino acid sequences and DNA sequences.", "Proteins with the same three-dimensional structure need not have identical amino acid sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent.", "In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code redundantly for the same amino acid.", "Since many species use the same codon at the same place to specify an amino acid that can be represented by more than one codon, that is evidence for their sharing a recent common ancestor.", "Had the amino acid sequences come from different ancestors, they would have been coded for by any of the redundant codons, and since the correct amino acids would already have been in place, natural selection would not have driven any change in the codons, however much time was available.", "Genetic drift could change the codons, but it would be extremely unlikely to make all the redundant codons in a whole sequence match exactly across multiple lineages.", "Similarly, shared nucleotide sequences, especially where these are apparently neutral such as the positioning of introns and pseudogenes, provide strong evidence of common ancestry.===Other similarities===Biologists often point to the universality of many aspects of cellular life as supportive evidence to the more compelling evidence listed above.", "These similarities include the energy carrier adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the fact that all amino acids found in proteins are left-handed.", "It is, however, possible that these similarities resulted because of the laws of physics and chemistry - rather than through universal common descent - and therefore resulted in convergent evolution.", "In contrast, there is evidence for homology of the central subunits of transmembrane ATPases throughout all living organisms, especially how the rotating elements are bound to the membrane.", "This supports the assumption of a LUCA as a cellular organism, although primordial membranes may have been semipermeable and evolved later to the membranes of modern bacteria, and on a second path to those of modern archaea also.===Phylogenetic trees===Another important piece of evidence is from detailed phylogenetic trees (i.e., \"genealogic trees\" of species) mapping out the proposed divisions and common ancestors of all living species.", "In 2010, Douglas L. Theobald published a statistical analysis of available genetic data, mapping them to phylogenetic trees, that gave \"strong quantitative support, by a formal test, for the unity of life.", "\"Traditionally, these trees have been built using morphological methods, such as appearance, embryology, etc.", "Recently, it has been possible to construct these trees using molecular data, based on similarities and differences between genetic and protein sequences.", "All these methods produce essentially similar results, even though most genetic variation has no influence over external morphology.", "That phylogenetic trees based on different types of information agree with each other is strong evidence of a real underlying common descent." ], [ "Objections", "tree of life shows many horizontal gene transfers, implying multiple possible origins.===Gene exchange clouds phylogenetic analysis===Theobald noted that substantial horizontal gene transfer could have occurred during early evolution.", "Bacteria today remain capable of gene exchange between distantly-related lineages.", "This weakens the basic assumption of phylogenetic analysis, that similarity of genomes implies common ancestry, because sufficient gene exchange would allow lineages to share much of their genome whether or not they shared an ancestor (monophyly).", "This has led to questions about the single ancestry of life.", "However, biologists consider it very unlikely that completely unrelated proto-organisms could have exchanged genes, as their different coding mechanisms would have resulted only in garble rather than functioning systems.", "Later, however, many organisms all derived from a single ancestor could readily have shared genes that all worked in the same way, and it appears that they have.===Convergent evolution===If early organisms had been driven by the same environmental conditions to evolve similar biochemistry convergently, they might independently have acquired similar genetic sequences.", "Theobald's \"formal test\" was accordingly criticised by Takahiro Yonezawa and colleagues for not including consideration of convergence.", "They argued that Theobald's test was insufficient to distinguish between the competing hypotheses.", "Theobald has defended his method against this claim, arguing that his tests distinguish between phylogenetic structure and mere sequence similarity.", "Therefore, Theobald argued, his results show that \"real universally conserved proteins are homologous.", "\"===RNA world===The possibility is mentioned, above, that all living organisms may be descended from an original single-celled organism with a DNA genome, and that this implies a single origin for life.", "Although such a universal common ancestor may have existed, such a complex entity is unlikely to have arisen spontaneously from non-life and thus a cell with a DNA genome cannot reasonably be regarded as the “origin” of life.", "To understand the “origin” of life, it has been proposed that DNA based cellular life descended from relatively simple pre-cellular self-replicating RNA molecules able to undergo natural selection.", "During the course of evolution, this RNA world was replaced by the evolutionary emergence of the DNA world.", "A world of independently self-replicating RNA genomes apparently no longer exists (RNA viruses are dependent on host cells with DNA genomes).", "Because the RNA world is apparently gone, it is not clear how scientific evidence could be brought to bear on the question of whether there was a single “origin” of life event from which all life descended." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Ancestor's Tale''* Urmetazoan" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * The book is available from The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online.", "Retrieved 2015-11-23.", "* Retrieved 2015-11-23.", "* * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: The Scientific Case for Common Descent from the TalkOrigins Archive.", "* The Tree of Life Web Project" ] ]

[ [ "Celtic music" ], [ "Introduction", "Rapalje performing in 2010'''Celtic music''' is a broad grouping of music genres that evolved out of the folk music traditions of the Celtic people of Northwestern Europe (the modern Celtic nations).", "It refers to both orally-transmitted traditional music and recorded music and the styles vary considerably to include everything from traditional music to a wide range of hybrids." ], [ "Description and definition", "An 18th century depiction of an ancient Druid playing the harp''Celtic music'' means two things mainly.", "First, it is the music of the people that identify themselves as Celts.", "Secondly, it refers to whatever qualities may be unique to the music of the Celtic nations.", "Many notable Celtic musicians such as Alan Stivell and Paddy Moloney claim that the different Celtic music genres have a lot in common.These following melodic practices may be used widely across the different variants of Celtic Music:Celtic harp performed at a modern Celtic festival*It is common for the melodic line to move up and down the primary chords in many Celtic songs.", "There are a number of possible reasons for this:**''Melodic variation'' can be easily introduced.", "Melodic variation is widely used in Celtic music, especially by the pipes and harp.", "**It is easier to anticipate the direction that the melody will take, so that harmony either composed or improvised can be introduced: clichéd cadences that are essential for impromptu harmony are also more easily formed.", "**The relatively wider tonal intervals in some songs make it possible for stress accents within the poetic line to be more in keeping with the local Celtic accent.", "*Across just one Celtic group.", "*By more than one Celtic language population belonging to different Celtic groups.These two latter usage patterns may simply be remnants of formerly widespread melodic practices.Often, the term ''Celtic music'' is applied to the music of Ireland and Scotland because both lands have produced well-known distinctive styles which actually have genuine commonality and clear mutual influences.", "The definition is further complicated by the fact that Irish independence has allowed Ireland to promote 'Celtic' music as a specifically Irish product.", "However, these are modern geographical references to a people who share a common Celtic ancestry and consequently, a common musical heritage.These styles are known because of the importance of Irish and Scottish people in the English speaking world, especially in the United States, where they had a profound impact on American music, particularly bluegrass and country music.", "The music of Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, Galician traditional music (Spain) and music of Portugal are also considered Celtic music, the tradition being particularly strong in Brittany, where Celtic festivals large and small take place throughout the year, and in Wales, where the ancient eisteddfod tradition has been revived and flourishes.", "Additionally, the musics of ethnically Celtic peoples abroad are vibrant, especially in Canada and the United States.", "In Canada the provinces of Atlantic Canada are known for being a home of Celtic music, most notably on the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island.", "The traditional music of Atlantic Canada is heavily influenced by the Irish, Scottish and Acadian ethnic makeup of much of the region's communities.", "In some parts of Atlantic Canada, such as Newfoundland, Celtic music is as or more popular than in the old country.", "Further, some older forms of Celtic music that are rare in Scotland and Ireland today, such as the practice of accompanying a fiddle with a piano, or the Gaelic spinning songs of Cape Breton remain common in the Maritimes.", "Much of the music of this region is Celtic in nature, but originates in the local area and celebrates the sea, seafaring, fishing and other primary industries.Instruments associated with Celtic Music include the Celtic harp, uilleann pipes or Great Highland bagpipe, fiddle, tin whistle, flute, bodhrán, bones, concertina, accordion and a recent addition, the Irish bouzouki." ], [ "Divisions", "Alan Stivell at Nuremberg, Germany, 2007In ''Celtic Music: A Complete Guide'', June Skinner Sawyers acknowledges six Celtic nationalities divided into two groups according to their linguistic heritage.", "The Q-Celtic nationalities are the Irish, Scottish and Manx peoples, while the P-Celtic groups are the Cornish, Bretons and Welsh peoples.", "Musician Alan Stivell uses a similar dichotomy, between the Gaelic (Irish/Scottish/Manx) and the Brythonic (Breton/Welsh/Cornish) branches, which differentiate \"mostly by the extended range (sometimes more than two octaves) of Irish and Scottish melodies and the closed range of Breton and Welsh melodies (often reduced to a half-octave), and by the frequent use of the pure pentatonic scale in Gaelic music.", "\"There is also tremendous variation between ''Celtic'' regions.", "Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany have living traditions of language and music, and there has been a recent major revival of interest in Celtic heritage in the Isle of Man.", "Galicia has a Celtic language revival movement to revive the Q-Celtic ''Gallaic language'' used into Roman times., which is not an attested language unlike Celtiberian.", "A Brythonic language may have been spoken in parts of Galicia and Asturias into early Medieval times brought by Britons fleeing the Anglo-Saxon invasions via Brittany., but here again there are several hypotheses and very little traces of it : lack of archeological, linguistic evidence and documents.", "The Romance language currently spoken in Galicia, Galician (''Galego'') is closely related to the Portuguese language used mainly in Brazil and Portugal and in many ways closer to Latin than other Romance languages.", "Galician music is claimed to be ''Celtic''.", "The same is true of the music of Asturias, Cantabria, and that of Northern Portugal (some say even traditional music from Central Portugal can be labeled Celtic).Breton artist Alan Stivell was one of the earliest musicians to use the word ''Celtic'' and ''Keltia'' in his marketing materials, starting in the early 1960s as part of the worldwide folk music revival of that era with the term quickly catching on with other artists worldwide.", "Today, the genre is well established and incredibly diverse." ], [ "Forms", "There are musical genres and styles specific to each Celtic country, due in part to the influence of individual song traditions and the characteristics of specific languages:* Celtic traditional music* Music of Ireland* Music of Scotland* Music of Wales* Strathspeys are specific to Highland Scotland, for example, and it has been hypothesized that they mimic the rhythms of the Scottish Gaelic language.", "* Reels* Pibroch* Cerdd Dant (string music) or ''Canu Penillion'' (verse singing) is the art of vocal improvisation over a given melody in Welsh musical tradition.", "It is an important competition in eisteddfodau.", "The singer or (small) choir sings a counter melody over a harp melody.", "* Waulking song* Puirt à beul* Kan ha diskan* Sean-nós singing* Celtic hip hop* Celtic rock* Celtic metal* Celtic punk* Celtic fusion* Progressive music* Folk music" ], [ "Festivals", ":''See '''list of Celtic festivals''' for a more complete list of Celtic festivals by country, including music festivals.", "Festivals focused largely or partly on Celtic music can be found at ''':Category:Celtic music festivals'''.", "''The modern Celtic music scene involves a large number of music festivals, as it has traditionally.", "Some of the most prominent festivals focused solely on music include:*Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira (Ortigueira, Galicia, Spain)*Festival Intercéltico de Avilés (Avilés, Asturies, Spain)*Folixa na Primavera (Mieres, Asturies, Spain)*Festival Celta Internacional Reino de León, (León, Spain)*Festival Internacional de Música Celta de Collado Villalba (Collado Villalba, Spain)*Yn Chruinnaght (Isle of Man)*Celtic Connections (Glasgow, Scotland)*Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway, Scotland)Massed pipers at the Lorient festival*Fleadh ceol na hÉireann (Tullamore, Ireland)*Festival Intercéltico de Sendim (Sendim, Portugal)*Galaicofolia (Esposende, Portugal)*Festival Folk Celta Ponte da Barca (Ponte da Barca, Portugal)*Douro Celtic Fest (Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal)*Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Lorient, France)*Festival del Kan ar Bobl (Lorient, France)*Festival de Cornouaille (Quimper, France)*Les Nuits Celtiques du Stade de France (Paris, France)*Montelago Celtic Night (Colfiorito, Macerata, Italy)*Triskell International Celtic Festival (Trieste, Italy)* Festival celtique de Québec or Québec city celtic festival, (Quebec city, Quebec, Canada)*Festival Mémoire et Racines (Saint-Charles-Borromée, Quebec, Canada)*Celtic Colours (Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada)*Paganfest (Tour through Europe)" ], [ "Celtic fusion", "The oldest musical tradition which fits under the label of Celtic fusion originated in the rural American south in the early colonial period and incorporated English, Scottish, Irish, Welsh, German, and African influences.", "Variously referred to as roots music, American folk music, or old-time music, this tradition has exerted a strong influence on all forms of American music, including country, blues, and rock and roll.", "In addition to its lasting effects on other genres, it marked the first modern large-scale mixing of musical traditions from multiple ethnic and religious communities within the Celtic diaspora.In the 1960s several bands put forward modern adaptations of Celtic music pulling influences from several of the Celtic nations at once to create a modern pan-celtic sound.", "A few of those include bagadoù (Breton pipe bands), Fairport Convention, Pentangle, Steeleye Span and Horslips.In the 1970s Clannad made their mark initially in the folk and traditional scene, and then subsequently went on to bridge the gap between traditional Celtic and pop music in the 1980s and 1990s, incorporating elements from new-age, smooth jazz, and folk rock.", "Traces of Clannad's legacy can be heard in the music of many artists, including Altan, Anúna, Capercaillie, the Corrs, Dexys Midnight Runners, Enya, Loreena McKennitt, Riverdance, Donna Taggart, and U2.The solo music of Clannad's lead singer, Moya Brennan (often referred to as the First Lady of Celtic Music) has further enhanced this influence.Later, beginning in 1982 with the Pogues' invention of Celtic folk-punk and Stockton's Wing blend of Irish traditional and Pop, Rock and Reggae, there has been a movement to incorporate Celtic influences into other genres of music.", "Bands like Flogging Molly, Black 47, Dropkick Murphys, the Young Dubliners, the Tossers introduced a hybrid of Celtic rock, punk, reggae, hardcore and other elements in the 1990s that has become popular with Irish-American youth.Today there are Celtic-influenced subgenres of virtually every type of popular music including electronica, rock, metal, punk, hip hop, reggae, new-age, Latin, Andean and pop.", "Collectively these modern interpretations of Celtic music are sometimes referred to as Celtic fusion." ], [ "Other modern adaptations", "Outside of America, the first deliberate attempts to create a \"Pan-Celtic music\" were made by the Breton Taldir Jaffrennou, having translated songs from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales into Breton between the two world wars.", "One of his major works was to bring \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" (the Welsh national anthem) back in Brittany and create lyrics in Breton.", "Eventually this song became \"''Bro goz va zadoù''\" (\"Old land of my fathers\") and is the most widely accepted Breton anthem.", "In the 70s, the Breton Alan Cochevelou (future Alan Stivell) began playing a mixed repertoire from the main Celtic countries on the Celtic harp his father created.", "Probably the most successful all-inclusive Celtic music composition in recent years is Shaun Daveys composition ''The Pilgrim''.", "This suite depicts the journey of St. Colum Cille through the Celtic nations of Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and Galicia.", "The suite which includes a Scottish pipe band, Irish and Welsh harpists, Galician gaitas, Irish uilleann pipes, the bombardes of Brittany, two vocal soloists and a narrator is set against a background of a classical orchestra and a large choir.Modern music may also be termed \"Celtic\" because it is written and recorded in a Celtic language, regardless of musical style.", "Many of the Celtic languages have experienced resurgences in modern years, spurred on partly by the action of artists and musicians who have embraced them as hallmarks of identity and distinctness.", "In 1971, the Irish band ''Skara Brae'' recorded its only LP (simply called ''Skara Brae''), all songs in Irish.", "In 1978 Runrig recorded an album in Scottish Gaelic.", "In 1992 Capercaillie recorded \"A Prince Among Islands\", the first Scottish Gaelic language record to reach the UK top 40.In 1996, a song in Breton represented France in the 41st Eurovision Song Contest, the first time in history that France had a song without a word in French.", "Since about 2005, Oi Polloi (from Scotland) have recorded in Scottish Gaelic.", "Mill a h-Uile Rud (a Scottish Gaelic punk band from Seattle) recorded in the language in 2004.Several contemporary bands have Welsh language songs, such as Ceredwen, which fuses traditional instruments with trip hop beats, the Super Furry Animals, Fernhill, and so on (see the Music of Wales article for more Welsh and Welsh-language bands).", "The same phenomenon occurs in Brittany, where many singers record songs in Breton, traditional or modern (hip hop, rap, and so on.", ")." ], [ "See also", "*Folk music of Ireland*Music of Brittany*Music of Cornwall*Galician traditional music*Music of the Isle of Man*Music of Scotland*Music of Wales*Music of Portugal*Traditional Gaelic music" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Celtic melody library* Free sheet music on CelticScores.com* Free sheet music, chords, midis at Vashon Celtic Tunes" ] ]

[ [ "Constellation" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''constellation''' is an area on the celestial sphere in which a group of visible stars forms a perceived pattern or outline, typically representing an animal, mythological subject, or inanimate object.The origins of the earliest constellations likely go back to prehistory.", "People used them to relate stories of their beliefs, experiences, creation, or mythology.", "Different cultures and countries invented their own constellations, some of which lasted into the early 20th century before today's constellations were internationally recognized.", "The recognition of constellations has changed significantly over time.", "Many changed in size or shape.", "Some became popular, only to drop into obscurity.", "Some were limited to a single culture or nation.", "Naming constellations also helped astronomers and navigators identify stars more easily.Twelve (or thirteen) ancient constellations belong to the zodiac (straddling the ecliptic, which the Sun, Moon, and planets all traverse).", "The origins of the zodiac remain historically uncertain; its astrological divisions became prominent 400 BC in Babylonian or Chaldean astronomy.", "Constellations appear in Western culture via Greece and are mentioned in the works of Hesiod, Eudoxus and Aratus.", "The traditional 48 constellations, consisting of the Zodiac and 36 more (now 38, following the division of Argo Navis into three constellations) are listed by Ptolemy, a Greco-Roman astronomer from Alexandria, Egypt, in his ''Almagest''.", "The formation of constellations was the subject of extensive mythology, most notably in the ''Metamorphoses'' of the Latin poet Ovid.", "Constellations in the far southern sky were added from the 15th century until the mid-18th century when European explorers began traveling to the Southern Hemisphere.", "Due to Roman and European transmission, each constellation has a Latin name.In 1922, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally accepted the modern list of 88 constellations, and in 1928 adopted official constellation boundaries that together cover the entire celestial sphere.", "Any given point in a celestial coordinate system lies in one of the modern constellations.", "Some astronomical naming systems include the constellation where a given celestial object is found to convey its approximate location in the sky.", "The Flamsteed designation of a star, for example, consists of a number and the genitive form of the constellation's name.Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations under the formal definition, but are also used by observers to navigate the night sky.", "Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation.", "Examples of asterisms include the teapot within the constellation Sagittarius, or the big dipper in the constellation of Ursa Major." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''constellation'' comes from the Late Latin term , which can be translated as \"set of stars\"; it came into use in Middle English during the 14th century.", "The Ancient Greek word for constellation is ἄστρον (''astron'').", "These terms historically referred to any recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance was associated with mythological characters or creatures, earthbound animals, or objects.", "Over time, among European astronomers, the constellations became clearly defined and widely recognised.", "Today, there are 88 IAU designated constellations.A constellation or star that never sets below the horizon when viewed from a particular latitude on Earth is termed circumpolar.", "From the North Pole or South Pole, all constellations south or north of the celestial equator are circumpolar.", "Depending on the definition, equatorial constellations may include those that lie between declinations 45° north and 45° south, or those that pass through the declination range of the ecliptic or zodiac ranging between 23½° north, the celestial equator, and 23½° south.Stars in constellations can appear near each other in the sky, but they usually lie at a variety of distances away from the Earth.", "Since each star has its own independent motion, all constellations will change slowly over time.", "After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, familiar outlines will become unrecognizable.", "Astronomers can predict the past or future constellation outlines by measuring individual stars' common proper motions or cpm by accurate astrometry and their radial velocities by astronomical spectroscopy." ], [ "Identification", "The 88 constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union as well as those that cultures have recognized throughout history are imagined figures and shapes derived from the patterns of stars in the observable sky.", "Many officially recognized constellations are based on the imaginations of ancient, Near Eastern and Mediterranean mythologies.", "H.A.", "Rey, who wrote popular books on astronomy, pointed out the imaginative nature of the constellations and their mythological and artistic basis, and the practical use of identifying them through definite images, according to the classical names they were given." ], [ "History of the early constellations", "=== Lascaux Caves, southern France ===It has been suggested that the 17,000-year-old cave paintings in Lascaux, southern France, depict star constellations such as Taurus, Orion's Belt, and the Pleiades.", "However, this view is not generally accepted among scientists.=== Mesopotamia ===Inscribed stones and clay writing tablets from Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq) dating to 3000 BC provide the earliest generally accepted evidence for humankind's identification of constellations.", "It seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a relatively short interval from around 1300 to 1000 BC.", "Mesopotamian constellations appeared later in many of the classical Greek constellations.=== Ancient Near East === Babylonian tablet recording Halley's Comet in 164 BCThe oldest Babylonian catalogues of stars and constellations date back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, most notably the ''Three Stars Each'' texts and the ''MUL.APIN'', an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000 BC.", "However, the numerous Sumerian names in these catalogues suggest that they built on older, but otherwise unattested, Sumerian traditions of the Early Bronze Age.The classical Zodiac is a revision of Neo-Babylonian constellations from the 6th century BC.", "The Greeks adopted the Babylonian constellations in the 4th century BC.", "Twenty Ptolemaic constellations are from the Ancient Near East.", "Another ten have the same stars but different names.Biblical scholar E. W. Bullinger interpreted some of the creatures mentioned in the books of Ezekiel and Revelation as the middle signs of the four-quarters of the Zodiac, with the Lion as Leo, the Bull as Taurus, the Man representing Aquarius, and the Eagle standing in for Scorpio.", "The biblical Book of Job also makes reference to a number of constellations, including \"bier\", \"fool\" and \"heap\" (Job 9:9, 38:31–32), rendered as \"Arcturus, Orion and Pleiades\" by the KJV, but ''‘Ayish'' \"the bier\" actually corresponding to Ursa Major.", "The term ''Mazzaroth'' , translated as ''a garland of crowns'', is a ''hapax legomenon'' in Job 38:32, and it might refer to the zodiacal constellations.=== Classical antiquity ===Senenmut's tomb, There is only limited information on ancient Greek constellations, with some fragmentary evidence being found in the ''Works and Days'' of the Greek poet Hesiod, who mentioned the \"heavenly bodies\".", "Greek astronomy essentially adopted the older Babylonian system in the Hellenistic era, first introduced to Greece by Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century BC.", "The original work of Eudoxus is lost, but it survives as a versification by Aratus, dating to the 3rd century BC.", "The most complete existing works dealing with the mythical origins of the constellations are by the Hellenistic writer termed pseudo-Eratosthenes and an early Roman writer styled pseudo-Hyginus.", "The basis of Western astronomy as taught during Late Antiquity and until the Early Modern period is the ''Almagest'' by Ptolemy, written in the 2nd century.In the Ptolemaic Kingdom, native Egyptian tradition of anthropomorphic figures represented the planets, stars, and various constellations.", "Some of these were combined with Greek and Babylonian astronomical systems culminating in the Zodiac of Dendera; it remains unclear when this occurred, but most were placed during the Roman period between 2nd to 4th centuries AD.", "The oldest known depiction of the zodiac showing all the now familiar constellations, along with some original Egyptian constellations, decans, and planets.", "Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' remained the standard definition of constellations in the medieval period both in Europe and in Islamic astronomy.=== Ancient China ===Chinese star map with a cylindrical projection (Su Song)Ancient China had a long tradition of observing celestial phenomena.", "Nonspecific Chinese star names, later categorized in the twenty-eight mansions, have been found on oracle bones from Anyang, dating back to the middle Shang dynasty.", "These constellations are some of the most important observations of Chinese sky, attested from the 5th century BC.", "Parallels to the earliest Babylonian (Sumerian) star catalogues suggest that the ancient Chinese system did not arise independently.Three schools of classical Chinese astronomy in the Han period are attributed to astronomers of the earlier Warring States period.", "The constellations of the three schools were conflated into a single system by Chen Zhuo, an astronomer of the 3rd century (Three Kingdoms period).", "Chen Zhuo's work has been lost, but information on his system of constellations survives in Tang period records, notably by Qutan Xida.", "The oldest extant Chinese star chart dates to that period and was preserved as part of the Dunhuang Manuscripts.", "Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the Song dynasty, and during the Yuan dynasty became increasingly influenced by medieval Islamic astronomy (see Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era).", "As maps were prepared during this period on more scientific lines, they were considered as more reliable.A well-known map from the Song period is the Suzhou Astronomical Chart, which was prepared with carvings of stars on the planisphere of the Chinese sky on a stone plate; it is done accurately based on observations, and it shows the supernova of the year of 1054 in Taurus.Influenced by European astronomy during the late Ming dynasty, charts depicted more stars but retained the traditional constellations.", "Newly observed stars were incorporated as supplementary to old constellations in the southern sky, which did not depict the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers.", "Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming dynasty by Xu Guangqi and Johann Adam Schall von Bell, the German Jesuit and was recorded in Chongzhen Lishu (Calendrical Treatise of Chongzhen period, 1628).", "Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of Western star charts; with this improvement, the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy." ], [ "Early modern astronomy", "Historically, the origins of the constellations of the northern and southern skies are distinctly different.", "Most northern constellations date to antiquity, with names based mostly on Classical Greek legends.", "Evidence of these constellations has survived in the form of star charts, whose oldest representation appears on the statue known as the Farnese Atlas, based perhaps on the star catalogue of the Greek astronomer Hipparchus.", "Southern constellations are more modern inventions, sometimes as substitutes for ancient constellations (e.g.", "Argo Navis).", "Some southern constellations had long names that were shortened to more usable forms; e.g.", "Musca Australis became simply Musca.Some of the early constellations were never universally adopted.", "Stars were often grouped into constellations differently by different observers, and the arbitrary constellation boundaries often led to confusion as to which constellation a celestial object belonged.", "Before astronomers delineated precise boundaries (starting in the 19th century), constellations generally appeared as ill-defined regions of the sky.", "Today they now follow officially accepted designated lines of right ascension and declination based on those defined by Benjamin Gould in epoch 1875.0 in his star catalogue ''Uranometria Argentina''.The 1603 star atlas \"Uranometria\" of Johann Bayer assigned stars to individual constellations and formalized the division by assigning a series of Greek and Latin letters to the stars within each constellation.", "These are known today as Bayer designations.", "Subsequent star atlases led to the development of today's accepted modern constellations.===Origin of the southern constellations===Sketch of the southern celestial sky by Portuguese astronomer João Faras (1 May 1500)celestial map from the Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de WitThe southern sky, below about −65° declination, was only partially catalogued by ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese, and Persian astronomers of the north.", "The knowledge that northern and southern star patterns differed goes back to Classical writers, who describe, for example, the African circumnavigation expedition commissioned by Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II in c. 600 BC and those of Hanno the Navigator in c. 500 BC.The history of southern constellations is not straightforward.", "Different groupings and different names were proposed by various observers, some reflecting national traditions or designed to promote various sponsors.", "Southern constellations were important from the 14th to 16th centuries, when sailors used the stars for celestial navigation.", "Italian explorers who recorded new southern constellations include Andrea Corsali, Antonio Pigafetta, and Amerigo Vespucci.Many of the 88 IAU-recognized constellations in this region first appeared on celestial globes developed in the late 16th century by Petrus Plancius, based mainly on observations of the Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman.", "These became widely known through Johann Bayer's star atlas ''Uranometria'' of 1603.Fourteen more were created in 1763 by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, who also split the ancient constellation Argo Navis into three; these new figures appeared in his star catalogue, published in 1756.Several modern proposals have not survived.", "The French astronomers Pierre Lemonnier and Joseph Lalande, for example, proposed constellations that were once popular but have since been dropped.", "The northern constellation Quadrans Muralis survived into the 19th century (when its name was attached to the Quadrantid meteor shower), but is now divided between Boötes and Draco.===88 modern constellations===A list of 88 constellations was produced for the International Astronomical Union in 1922.It is roughly based on the traditional Greek constellations listed by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'' in the 2nd century and Aratus' work ''Phenomena'', with early modern modifications and additions (most importantly introducing constellations covering the parts of the southern sky unknown to Ptolemy) by Petrus Plancius (1592, 1597/98 and 1613), Johannes Hevelius (1690) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1763), who introduced fourteen new constellations.", "Lacaille studied the stars of the southern hemisphere from 1751 until 1752 from the Cape of Good Hope, when he was said to have observed more than 10,000 stars using a refracting telescope with an aperture of .In 1922, Henry Norris Russell produced a list of 88 constellations with three-letter abbreviations for them.", "However, these constellations did not have clear borders between them.", "In 1928, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally accepted 88 modern constellations, with contiguous boundaries along vertical and horizontal lines of right ascension and declination developed by Eugene Delporte that, together, cover the entire celestial sphere; this list was finally published in 1930.Where possible, these modern constellations usually share the names of their Graeco-Roman predecessors, such as Orion, Leo or Scorpius.", "The aim of this system is area-mapping, i.e.", "the division of the celestial sphere into contiguous fields.", "Out of the 88 modern constellations, 36 lie predominantly in the northern sky, and the other 52 predominantly in the southern.File:Hipparcos Catalogue equirectangular plot.svg|Equirectangular plot of declination vs right ascension of stars brighter than apparent magnitude 5 on the Hipparcos Catalogue, coded by spectral type and apparent magnitude, relative to the modern constellations and the eclipticThe boundaries developed by Delporte used data that originated back to epoch B1875.0, which was when Benjamin A. Gould first made his proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere, a suggestion on which Delporte based his work.", "The consequence of this early date is that because of the precession of the equinoxes, the borders on a modern star map, such as epoch J2000, are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal.", "This effect will increase over the years and centuries to come.===Symbols===The constellations have no official symbols, though those of the ecliptic may take the signs of the zodiac.", "Symbols for the other modern constellations, as well as older ones that still occur in modern nomenclature, have occasionally been published." ], [ "Dark cloud constellations", "The Milky Way as seen by Gaia, with prominent dark features labeled in white, as well as prominent star clouds labeled in black.The Great Rift, a series of dark patches in the Milky Way, is more visible and striking in the southern hemisphere than in the northern.", "It vividly stands out when conditions are otherwise so dark that the Milky Way's central region casts shadows on the ground.", "Some cultures have discerned shapes in these patches and have given names to these \"dark cloud constellations\".", "Members of the Inca civilization identified various dark areas or dark nebulae in the Milky Way as animals and associated their appearance with the seasonal rains.", "Australian Aboriginal astronomy also describes dark cloud constellations, the most famous being the \"emu in the sky\" whose head is formed by the Coalsack, a dark nebula, instead of the stars.File:Emu public.jpg|The ''Emu in the sky'' – a constellation defined by dark clouds rather than by stars.", "The head of the emu is the Coalsack with the Southern Cross directly above.", "Scorpius is to the left.File:Coricancha museum marker graphically explaining the Inca astronomical system.jpg|Inca dark cloud constellations in the Mayu (Celestial River), also known as the Milky Way.", "The Southern Cross is above Yutu, while the eyes of the Llama are Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri.===List of dark cloud constellations===* Great Rift (astronomy)** Cygnus Rift** Serpens–Aquila Rift** Dark Horse (astronomy)** Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex** Emu in the sky" ], [ "See also", "* Celestial cartography* Constellation family* Former constellations* IAU designated constellations* Lists of stars by constellation* Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius* Constellations listed by Lacaille* Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius* Constellations listed by Ptolemy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Mythology, lore, history, and archaeoastronomy ===* Allen, Richard Hinckley.", "(1899) ''Star-Names And Their Meanings'', G. E. Stechert, New York, hardcover; reprint 1963 as ''Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning'', Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, NY, softcover.", "* Olcott, William Tyler.", "(1911); ''Star Lore of All Ages'', G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, hardcover; reprint 2004 as ''Star Lore: Myths, Legends, and Facts'', Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, NY, softcover.", "* Kelley, David H. and Milone, Eugene F. (2004) ''Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy'', Springer, hardcover.", "* Ridpath, Ian.", "(2018) ''Star Tales'' 2nd ed., Lutterworth Press, softcover.", "* Staal, Julius D. W. (1988) ''The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars'', McDonald & Woodward Publishing Co., hardcover, softcover.", "* * === Atlases and celestial maps ===Ottoman period celestial map, signs of the Zodiac and lunar mansions (''Zubdat al-Tawarikh'')====General and nonspecialized – entire celestial heavens====* Becvar, Antonin.", "''Atlas Coeli''.", "Published as ''Atlas of the Heavens'', Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, with coordinate grid transparency overlay.", "* Norton, Arthur Philip.", "(1910) ''Norton's Star Atlas'', 20th Edition 2003 as ''Norton's Star Atlas and Reference Handbook'', edited by Ridpath, Ian, Pi Press, , hardcover.", "* National Geographic Society.", "(1957, 1970, 2001, 2007) ''The Heavens'' (1970), Cartographic Division of the National Geographic Society (NGS), Washington, DC, two-sided large map chart depicting the constellations of the heavens; as a special supplement to the August 1970 issue of ''National Geographic''.", "Forerunner map as ''A Map of The Heavens'', as a special supplement to the December 1957 issue.", "Current version 2001 (Tirion), with 2007 reprint.", "* Sinnott, Roger W. and Perryman, Michael A.C. (1997) ''Millennium Star Atlas'', Epoch 2000.0, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, and European Space Agency (ESA), ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.", "Subtitle: \"An All-Sky Atlas Comprising One Million Stars to Visual Magnitude Eleven from the Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues and Ten Thousand Nonstellar Objects\".", "3 volumes, hardcover, .", "Vol.", "1, 0–8 Hours (Right Ascension), hardcover; Vol.", "2, 8–16 Hours, hardcover; Vol.", "3, 16–24 Hours, hardcover.", "Softcover version available.", "Supplemental separate purchasable coordinate grid transparent overlays.", "* Tirion, Wil; et al.", "(1987) ''Uranometria 2000.0'', Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, VA, 3 volumes, hardcover.", "Vol.", "1 (1987): \"The Northern Hemisphere to −6°\", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and George Lovi, hardcover, printed boards.", "Vol.", "2 (1988): \"The Southern Hemisphere to +6°\", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport and George Lovi, hardcover, printed boards.", "Vol.", "3 (1993) as a separate added work: ''The Deep Sky Field Guide to Uranometria 2000.0'', by Murray Cragin, James Lucyk, and Barry Rappaport, hardcover, printed boards.", "2nd Edition 2001 as collective set of 3 volumes – Vol.", "1: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas'', by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, hardcover, printed boards; Vol.", "2: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas'', by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, hardcover, printed boards; Vol.", "3: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Field Guide'' by Murray Cragin and Emil Bonanno, , hardcover, printed boards.", "* Tirion, Wil and Sinnott, Roger W. (1998) ''Sky Atlas 2000.0'', various editions.", "2nd Deluxe Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.====Northern celestial hemisphere and north circumpolar region====* Becvar, Antonin.", "(1962) ''Atlas Borealis 1950.0'', Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czechoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler.", "2nd Edition 1972 and 1978 reprint, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czechoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, oversize folio softcover spiral-bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler.====Equatorial, ecliptic, and zodiacal celestial sky====* Becvar, Antonin.", "(1958) ''Atlas Eclipticalis 1950.0'', Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czechoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler.", "2nd Edition 1974, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czechoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, oversize folio softcover spiral-bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler.====Southern celestial hemisphere and south circumpolar region====* Becvar, Antonin.", "''Atlas Australis 1950.0'', Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czechoslovakia, 1st Edition, hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler.", "2nd Edition, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czechoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, oversize folio softcover spiral-bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler.=== Catalogs ===* Becvar, Antonin.", "(1959) ''Atlas Coeli II Katalog 1950.0'', Praha, 1960 Prague.", "Published 1964 as ''Atlas of the Heavens – II Catalogue 1950.0'', Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA* Hirshfeld, Alan and Sinnott, Roger W. (1982) ''Sky Catalogue 2000.0'', Cambridge University Press and Sky Publishing Corporation, 1st Edition, 2 volumes.", "both vols., and vol.", "1.", "\"Volume 1: Stars to Magnitude 8.0\", (Cambridge) and hardcover, softcover.", "Vol.", "2 (1985) – \"Volume 2: Double Stars, Variable Stars, and Nonstellar Objects\", (Cambridge) hardcover, (Cambridge) softcover.", "2nd Edition (1991) with additional third author François Ochsenbein, 2 volumes, .", "Vol.", "1: (Cambridge) hardcover; (Cambridge) softcover .", "Vol.", "2 (1999): (Cambridge) softcover and 0-933346-38-7 softcover – reprint of 1985 edition.", "* Yale University Observatory.", "(1908, et al.)", "''Catalogue of Bright Stars'', New Haven, CN.", "Referred to commonly as \"Bright Star Catalogue\".", "Various editions with various authors historically, the longest term revising author as (Ellen) Dorrit Hoffleit.", "1st Edition 1908.2nd Edition 1940 by Frank Schlesinger and Louise F. Jenkins.", "3rd Edition (1964), 4th Edition, 5th Edition (1991), and 6th Edition (pending posthumous) by Hoffleit." ], [ "External links", "* IAU: The Constellations, including high quality maps.", "* Atlascoelestis, di Felice Stoppa.", "* Celestia free 3D realtime space-simulation (OpenGL)* Stellarium realtime sky rendering program (OpenGL)* Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center Files on official IAU constellation boundaries* Studies of Occidental Constellations and Star Names to the Classical Period: An Annotated Bibliography* Table of Constellations* Online Text: Hyginus, Astronomica translated by Mary Grant Greco-Roman constellation myths* Neave Planetarium Adobe Flash interactive web browser planetarium and stardome with realistic movement of stars and the planets.", "* Audio – Cain/Gay (2009) Astronomy Cast Constellations* The Greek Star-Map short essay by Gavin White* Bucur D. The network signature of constellation line figures.", "PLOS ONE 17(7): e0272270 (2022).", "A comparative analysis on the structure of constellation line figures across 56 sky cultures." ] ]

[ [ "Character" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Character''' or '''Characters''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Literature===* ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk* ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to Theophrastus===Music===* ''Characters'' (John Abercrombie album), 1977* ''Character'' (Dark Tranquillity album), 2005* ''Character'' (Julia Kent album), 2013* ''Character'' (Rachael Sage album), 2020* ''Characters'' (Stevie Wonder album), 1987===Types of entity===* Character (arts), an agent within a work of art, including literature, drama, cinema, opera, etc.", "* Character sketch or character, a literary description of a character type* Game character (disambiguation), various types of characters in a video game or role playing game** Player character, as above but who is controlled or whose actions are directly chosen by a player** Non-player character, as above but not player-controlled, frequently abbreviated as NPC===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Character'' (film), a 1997 Dutch film based on Bordewijk's novel* ''Charaktery'', a monthly magazine in Poland* ''Netflix Presents: The Characters'', an improvised sketch comedy show on Netflix" ], [ "Mathematics", "* Character (mathematics), a homomorphism from a group to a field* Characterization (mathematics), the logical equivalency between objects of two different domains.", "* Character theory, the mathematical theory of special kinds of characters associated to group representations* Dirichlet character, a type of character in number theory* Multiplicative character, a homomorphism from a group to the multiplicative subgroup of a field" ], [ "Morality and social science", "* Character education, a US term for values education* Character structure, a person's traits* Moral character, an evaluation of a particular individual's durable moral qualities" ], [ "Symbols", "* Character (symbol), a sign or symbol** Character (computing), a unit of information roughly corresponding to a grapheme" ], [ "Other uses", "* Character (biology), the abstraction of an observable physical or biochemical trait of an organism* Character (income tax), a type of income for tax purposes in the US* Sacramental character, a Catholic teaching* Neighbourhood character, the look and feel of a built environment" ], [ "See also", "* (character) (disambiguation)* Virtual character (disambiguation)* *" ] ]

[ [ "Car (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.", "'''Car'''('''s'''), '''CAR'''('''s'''), or '''The Car'''('''s''') may also refer to:" ], [ "Computing", "* C.a.R.", "(Z.u.L.", "), geometry software* CAR and CDR, commands in LISP computer programming* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm* Computer-assisted reporting* Computer-assisted reviewing" ], [ "Economics", "* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk* Cost accrual ratio, an accounting formula* Cumulative abnormal return* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer-animated film from Disney and Pixar* ''The Car'' (1977 film), an American horror film* ''Car'', a BBC Two television ident first aired in 1993 (see BBC Two '1991–2001' idents)* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film* \"The Car\" (''The Assistants'' episode)" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication* ''The Car'' (novel), a novel by Gary Paulsen" ], [ "Military", "* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System, a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army* Conflict Armament Research, a UK-based investigative organization that tracks the supply of armaments into conflict-affected areas" ], [ "Music", "* The Cars, an American band===Albums===* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album) or ''Car''* ''The Cars'' (album), a 1978 album by The Cars* ''Cars'' (soundtrack), the soundtrack to the 2006 film* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), 2009* ''Cars'', a 2011 album by Kris Delmhorst* ''C.A.R.''", "(album), a 2012 album by Serengeti* ''The Car'' (album), a 2022 album by Arctic Monkeys===Songs===* \"The Car\" (song), a song by Jeff Carson* \"Cars\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan* \"Car\", a 1994 song by Built to Spill from ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''" ], [ "Paintings", "* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack" ], [ "People", "* Car (surname)* Cars (surname)" ], [ "Places", "* Car, Azerbaijan, a village* Čar, a village in Serbia* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune* Central African Republic* Central Asian Republics* Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines* County Carlow, Ireland, Chapman code" ], [ "Science", "* Canonical anticommutation relation* Carina (constellation)* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy* Constitutive androstane receptor* Cortisol awakening response, on waking from sleep* Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor, a protein" ], [ "Sports", "* Carolina Hurricanes, a National Hockey League team* Carolina Panthers, a National Football League team* Club Always Ready, a Bolivian football club from La Paz* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby" ], [ "Transportation", "* Railroad car* Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914* Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994* Carlisle railway station's station code* Car, the cab of an elevator* Car, a tram, streetcar, or trolley car" ], [ "Other uses", "===Car===* Car (Greek myth), one or two figures in Greek mythology* Car language, an Austroasiatic language of the Nicobar Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean* car, ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 codes of the Carib language, spoken by the Kalina people of South America* ''Cars'' (video game), a 2006 video game based on the film* Chimeric antigen receptor, a type of protein engineered to give T cells the ability to target a specific protein===CAR===* Canadian Aviation Regulations* Avis Budget Group (Nasdaq: CAR)* CAR Group (Australian Stock Exchange: CAR)* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society* or Action Committee for Renewal, a political party of Togo* Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, body founded by the Australian Government in 1991 as part of its Reconciliation in Australia policy* Council for Aboriginal Rights (1951–1980s), Victoria, Australia* Criminal Appeal Reports, law reports in the United Kingdom" ], [ "See also", "* Carr (disambiguation)* CARS (disambiguation)* Le Car (disambiguation)* iCar* *" ] ]

[ [ "Printer (computing)" ], [ "Introduction", "HP LaserJet 5 printerGame Boy Pocket Printer, a thermal printer released as a peripheral for the Nintendo Game BoyThis is an example of a wide-carriage dot matrix printer, designed for wide paper, shown with legal paper.", "Wide carriage printers were often used in the field of businesses, to print accounting records on tractor-feed paper.", "They were also called \"132-column printers\".", "inkjet printer while printing a page.", "In the field of computing, a printer is considered a peripheral device that serves the purpose of creating a permanent representation of text or graphics, usually on paper.", "While the majority of outputs produced by printers are readable by humans, there are instances where barcode printers have found a utility beyond this traditional use.", "Different types of printers are available for use, including inkjet printers, thermal printers, laser printers, and 3D printers." ], [ "History", "The first computer printer designed was a mechanically driven apparatus by Charles Babbage for his difference engine in the 19th century; however, his mechanical printer design was not built until 2000.The first patented printing mechanism for applying a marking medium to a recording medium or more particularly an electrostatic inking apparatus and a method for electrostatically depositing ink on controlled areas of a receiving medium, was in 1962 by C. R. Winston, Teletype Corporation, using continuous inkjet printing.", "The ink was a red stamp-pad ink manufactured by Phillips Process Company of Rochester, NY under the name Clear Print.", "This patent (US3060429) led to the Teletype Inktronic Printer product delivered to customers in late 1966.The first compact, lightweight digital printer was the EP-101, invented by Japanese company Epson and released in 1968, according to Epson.The first commercial printers generally used mechanisms from electric typewriters and Teletype machines.", "The demand for higher speed led to the development of new systems specifically for computer use.", "In the 1980s there were daisy wheel systems similar to typewriters, line printers that produced similar output but at much higher speed, and dot-matrix systems that could mix text and graphics but produced relatively low-quality output.", "The plotter was used for those requiring high-quality line art like blueprints.The introduction of the low-cost laser printer in 1984, with the first HP LaserJet, and the addition of PostScript in next year's Apple LaserWriter set off a revolution in printing known as desktop publishing.", "Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, but at quality levels formerly available only from commercial typesetting systems.", "By 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed; expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap.", "The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as a laser printer in terms of flexibility, but produced somewhat lower-quality output (depending on the paper) from much less-expensive mechanisms.", "Inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot-matrix and daisy-wheel printers from the market.", "By the 2000s, high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the $100 price point and became commonplace.The rapid improvement of internet email through the 1990s and into the 2000s has largely displaced the need for printing as a means of moving documents, and a wide variety of reliable storage systems means that a \"physical backup\" is of little benefit today.Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest, allowing the creation of physical objects with the same sort of effort as an early laser printer required to produce a brochure.", "As of the 2020s, 3D printing has become a widespread hobby due to the abundance of cheap 3D printer kits, with the most common process being Fused deposition modeling." ], [ "Types", "''Personal'' printers are mainly designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer.", "These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a hard copy of a given document.", "However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute (ppm), and the cost per page is relatively high.", "However, this is offset by the on-demand convenience.", "Some printers can print documents stored on memory cards or from digital cameras and scanners.", "''Networked'' or ''shared'' printers are \"designed for high-volume, high-speed printing\".", "They are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm.", "The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm.An ''ID Card printer'' is used for printing plastic ID cards.", "These can now be customised with important features such as holographic overlays, HoloKotes and watermarks.", "This is either a direct to card printer (the more feasible option, or a retransfer printer.A ''virtual printer'' is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer.", "A virtual printer can be used to create a file which is an image of the data which would be printed, for archival purposes or as input to another program, for example to create a PDF or to transmit to another system or user.A ''barcode printer'' is a computer peripheral for printing barcode labels or tags that can be attached to, or printed directly on, physical objects.", "Barcode printers are commonly used to label cartons before shipment, or to label retail items with UPCs or EANs.A ''3D printer'' is a device for making a three-dimensional object from a 3D model or other electronic data source through additive processes in which successive layers of material (including plastics, metals, food, cement, wood, and other materials) are laid down under computer control.", "It is called a printer by analogy with an inkjet printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper.===ID Card printers===A '''card printer''' is an electronic desktop printer with single card feeders which print and personalize plastic cards.", "In this respect they differ from, for example, label printers which have a continuous supply feed.", "Card dimensions are usually 85.60 × 53.98 mm, standardized under ISO/IEC 7810 as ID-1.This format is also used in EC-cards, telephone cards, credit cards, driver's licenses and health insurance cards.", "This is commonly known as the bank card format.", "Card printers are controlled by corresponding printer drivers or by means of a specific programming language.", "Generally card printers are designed with laminating, striping, and punching functions, and use desktop or web-based software.", "The hardware features of a card printer differentiate a card printer from the more traditional printers, as ID cards are usually made of PVC plastic and require laminating and punching.", "Different card printers can accept different card thickness and dimensions.The principle is the same for practically all card printers: the plastic card is passed through a thermal print head at the same time as a color ribbon.", "The color from the ribbon is transferred onto the card through the heat given out from the print head.", "The standard performance for card printing is 300 dpi (300 dots per inch, equivalent to 11.8 dots per mm).", "There are different printing processes, which vary in their detail:; Thermal transfer: Mainly used to personalize pre-printed plastic cards in monochrome.", "The color is \"transferred\" from the (monochrome) color ribbon onto the card.", "; Dye sublimation: This process uses four panels of color according to the CMYK color ribbon.", "The card to be printed passes under the print head several times each time with the corresponding ribbon panel.", "Each color in turn is diffused (sublimated) directly onto the card.", "Thus it is possible to produce a high depth of color (up to 16 million shades) on the card.", "Afterwards a transparent overlay (O) also known as a topcoat (T) is placed over the card to protect it from mechanical wear and tear and to render the printed image UV resistant.", "; Reverse image technology: The standard for high-security card applications that use contact and contactless smart chip cards.", "The technology prints images onto the underside of a special film that fuses to the surface of a card through heat and pressure.", "Since this process transfers dyes and resins directly onto a smooth, flexible film, the print-head never comes in contact with the card surface itself.", "As such, card surface interruptions such as smart chips, ridges caused by internal RFID antennae and debris do not affect print quality.", "Even printing over the edge is possible.", "; Thermal rewrite print process: In contrast to the majority of other card printers, in the thermal rewrite process the card is not personalized through the use of a color ribbon, but by activating a thermal sensitive foil within the card itself.", "These cards can be repeatedly personalized, erased and rewritten.", "The most frequent use of these are in chip-based student identity cards, whose validity changes every semester.", "* Common printing problems: Many printing problems are caused by physical defects in the card material itself, such as deformation or warping of the card that is fed into the machine in the first place.", "Printing irregularities can also result from chip or antenna embedding that alters the thickness of the plastic and interferes with the printer's effectiveness.", "Other issues are often caused by operator errors, such as users attempting to feed non-compatible cards into the card printer, while other printing defects may result from environmental abnormalities such as dirt or contaminants on the card or in the printer.", "Reverse transfer printers are less vulnerable to common printing problems than direct-to-card printers, since with these printers the card does not come into direct contact with the printhead.", "* Variations in card printers:** Broadly speaking there are three main types of card printers, differing mainly by the method used to print onto the card.", "They are:*** '''Near to Edge.'''", "This term designates the cheapest type of printing by card printers.", "These printers print up to 5 mm from the edge of the card stock.", "*** '''Direct to Card''', also known as \"Edge to Edge Printing\".", "The print-head comes in direct contact with the card.", "This printing type is the most popular nowadays, mostly due to cost factor.", "The majority of identification card printers today are of this type.", "*** '''Reverse Transfer''', also known as \"High Definition Printing\" or \"Over the Edge Printing\".", "The print-head prints to a transfer film backwards (hence the reverse) and then the printed film is rolled onto the card with intense heat (hence the transfer).", "The term \"over the edge\" is due to the fact that when the printer prints onto the film it has a \"bleed\", and when rolled onto the card the bleed extends to completely over the edge of the card, leaving no border.", "** Different ID Card Printers use different encoding techniques to facilitate disparate business environments and to support security initiatives.", "Known encoding techniques are:*** Contact Smart Card – The Contact Smart Cards use RFID technology and require direct contact to a conductive plate to register admission or transfer of information.", "The transmission of commands, data, and card status held between the two physical contact points.", "*** Contactless Smart Card – Contactless Smart Cards exhibit integrated circuit that can store and process data while communicating with the terminal via Radio Frequency.", "Unlike Contact Smart Card, contact less cards feature intelligent re-writable microchip that can be transcribed through radio waves.", "*** HiD Proximity – HID's proximity technology allows fast, accurate reading while offering card or key tag read ranges from 4” to 24” inches (10 cm to 60.96 cm), dependent on the type of proximity reader being used.", "Since these cards and key tags do not require physical contact with the reader, they are virtually maintenance and wear-free.", "*** ISO Magnetic Stripe - A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the card.", "The magnetic stripe, sometimes called swipe card or magstripe, is read by physical contact and swiping past a magnetic reading head.====Software====There are basically two categories of card printer software: desktop-based, and web-based (online).", "The biggest difference between the two is whether or not a customer has a printer on their network that is capable of printing identification cards.", "If a business already owns an ID card printer, then a desktop-based badge maker is probably suitable for their needs.", "Typically, large organizations who have high employee turnover will have their own printer.", "A desktop-based badge maker is also required if a company needs their IDs make instantly.", "An example of this is the private construction site that has restricted access.", "However, if a company does not already have a local (or network) printer that has the features they need, then the web-based option is a perhaps a more affordable solution.", "The web-based solution is good for small businesses that do not anticipate a lot of rapid growth, or organizations who either can not afford a card printer, or do not have the resources to learn how to set up and use one.", "Generally speaking, desktop-based solutions involve software, a database (or spreadsheet) and can be installed on a single computer or network.=====Other options=====Alongside the basic function of printing cards, card printers can also read and encode magnetic stripes as well as contact and contact free RFID chip cards (smart cards).", "Thus card printers enable the encoding of plastic cards both visually and logically.", "Plastic cards can also be laminated after printing.", "Plastic cards are laminated after printing to achieve a considerable increase in durability and a greater degree of counterfeit prevention.", "Some card printers come with an option to print both sides at the same time, which cuts down the time taken to print and less margin of error.", "In such printers one side of id card is printed and then the card is flipped in the flip station and other side is printed.=====Applications=====Alongside the traditional uses in time attendance and access control (in particular with photo personalization), countless other applications have been found for plastic cards, e.g.", "for personalized customer and members' cards, for sports ticketing and in local public transport systems for the production of season tickets, for the production of school and college identity cards as well as for the production of national ID cards." ], [ "Technology", "The choice of print technology has a great effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents, and noise.", "Some printer technologies do not work with certain types of physical media, such as carbon paper or transparencies.A second aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink, such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon, becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with liquid ink are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface.Cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected.", "The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink.", "Banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly.===Modern print technology===The following printing technologies are routinely found in modern printers:====Laser printers and other toner-based printers====A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.", "As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), laser printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.Another toner-based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum.====Liquid inkjet printers====Liquid ink cartridge from Hewlett-Packard HP 845C inkjet printerHP Deskjet, an inkjet printerInkjet printers operate by propelling variably sized droplets of liquid ink onto almost any sized page.", "They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers.====Solid ink printers====Solid ink printers, also known as phase-change ink or hot-melt ink printers, are a type of thermal transfer printer, graphics sheet printer or 3D printer .", "They use solid sticks, crayons, pearls or granular ink materials.", "Common inks are CMYK-colored ink, similar in consistency to candle wax, which are melted and fed into a piezo crystal operated print-head.", "A Thermal transfer printhead jets the liquid ink on a rotating, oil coated drum.", "The paper then passes over the print drum, at which time the image is immediately transferred, or transfixed, to the page.", "Solid ink printers are most commonly used as color office printers and are excellent at printing on transparencies and other non-porous media.", "Solid ink is also called phase-change or hot-melt ink was first used by Data Products and Howtek, Inc., in 1984.Solid ink printers can produce excellent results with text and images.", "Some solid ink printers have evolved to print 3D models, for example, Visual Impact Corporation of Windham, NH was started by retired Howtek employee, Richard Helinski whose 3D patents US4721635 and then US5136515 was licensed to Sanders Prototype, Inc., later named Solidscape, Inc. Acquisition and operating costs are similar to laser printers.", "Drawbacks of the technology include high energy consumption and long warm-up times from a cold state.", "Also, some users complain that the resulting prints are difficult to write on, as the wax tends to repel inks from pens, and are difficult to feed through automatic document feeders, but these traits have been significantly reduced in later models.", "This type of thermal transfer printer is only available from one manufacturer, Xerox, manufactured as part of their Xerox Phaser office printer line.", "Previously, solid ink printers were manufactured by Tektronix, but Tektronix sold the printing business to Xerox in 2001.====Dye-sublimation printers====A disassembled dye sublimation cartridgeA dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a printer that employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, paper, or canvas.", "The process is usually to lay one color at a time using a ribbon that has color panels.", "Dye-sub printers are intended primarily for high-quality color applications, including color photography; and are less well-suited for text.", "While once the province of high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printers are now increasingly used as dedicated consumer photo printers.====Thermal printers====Receipt printer printing a Twitter timelineThermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper.", "Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some older inexpensive fax machines.", "Colors can be achieved with special papers and different temperatures and heating rates for different colors; these colored sheets are not required in black-and-white output.", "One example is Zink (a portmanteau of \"zero ink\").=== Obsolete and special-purpose printing technologies ===Epson MX-80, a popular model of dot-matrix printer in use for many yearsThe following technologies are either obsolete, or limited to special applications though most were, at one time, in widespread use.====Impact printers==== Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media.", "The impact printer uses a print head that either hits the surface of the ink ribbon, pressing the ink ribbon against the paper (similar to the action of a typewriter), or, less commonly, hits the back of the paper, pressing the paper against the ink ribbon (the IBM 1403 for example).", "All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of ''fully formed characters'', letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing.", "In addition, most of these printers were limited to monochrome, or sometimes two-color, printing in a single typeface at one time, although bolding and underlining of text could be done by \"overstriking\", that is, printing two or more impressions either in the same character position or slightly offset.", "Impact printers varieties include typewriter-derived printers, teletypewriter-derived printers, daisywheel printers, dot matrix printers, and line printers.", "Dot-matrix printers remain in common use in businesses where multi-part forms are printed.", "''An overview of impact printing'' contains a detailed description of many of the technologies used.=====Typewriter-derived printers=====Typeball print element from IBM Selectric-type printerSeveral different computer printers were simply computer-controllable versions of existing electric typewriters.", "The Friden Flexowriter and IBM Selectric-based printers were the most-common examples.", "The Flexowriter printed with a conventional typebar mechanism while the Selectric used IBM's well-known \"golf ball\" printing mechanism.", "In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon which was pressed against the paper, printing one character at a time.", "The maximum speed of the Selectric printer (the faster of the two) was 15.5 characters per second.=====Teletypewriter-derived printers=====The common teleprinter could easily be interfaced with the computer and became very popular except for those computers manufactured by IBM.", "Some models used a \"typebox\" that was positioned, in the X- and Y-axes, by a mechanism, and the selected letter form was struck by a hammer.", "Others used a type cylinder in a similar way as the Selectric typewriters used their type ball.", "In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon to print the letterform.", "Most teleprinters operated at ten characters per second although a few achieved 15 CPS.=====Daisy wheel printers=====\"daisy wheel\" print elementDaisy wheel printers operate in much the same fashion as a typewriter.", "A hammer strikes a wheel with petals, the \"daisy wheel\", each petal containing a letter form at its tip.", "The letter form strikes a ribbon of ink, depositing the ink on the page and thus printing a character.", "By rotating the daisy wheel, different characters are selected for printing.", "These printers were also referred to as ''letter-quality printers'' because they could produce text which was as clear and crisp as a typewriter.", "The fastest letter-quality printers printed at 30 characters per second.=====Dot-matrix printers=====Sample output from 9-pin dot matrix printer (one character expanded to show detail)The term dot matrix printer is used for impact printers that use a matrix of small pins to transfer ink to the page.", "The advantage of dot matrix over other impact printers is that they can produce graphical images in addition to text; however the text is generally of poorer quality than impact printers that use letterforms (''type'').Dot-matrix printers can be broadly divided into two major classes:* Ballistic wire printers* Stored energy printersDot matrix printers can either be character-based or line-based (that is, a single horizontal series of pixels across the page), referring to the configuration of the print head.In the 1970s and '80s, dot matrix printers were one of the more common types of printers used for general use, such as for home and small office use.", "Such printers normally had either 9 or 24 pins on the print head (early 7 pin printers also existed, which did not print descenders).", "There was a period during the early home computer era when a range of printers were manufactured under many brands such as the Commodore VIC-1525 using the Seikosha '''Uni-Hammer''' system.", "This used a single solenoid with an oblique striker that would be actuated 7 times for each column of 7 vertical pixels while the head was moving at a constant speed.", "The angle of the striker would align the dots vertically even though the head had moved one dot spacing in the time.", "The vertical dot position was controlled by a synchronized longitudinally ribbed platen behind the paper that rotated rapidly with a rib moving vertically seven dot spacings in the time it took to print one pixel column.", "24-pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality and started to offer additional type styles and were marketed as Near Letter Quality by some vendors.", "Once the price of inkjet printers dropped to the point where they were competitive with dot matrix printers, dot matrix printers began to fall out of favour for general use.Some dot matrix printers, such as the NEC P6300, can be upgraded to print in color.", "This is achieved through the use of a four-color ribbon mounted on a mechanism (provided in an upgrade kit that replaces the standard black ribbon mechanism after installation) that raises and lowers the ribbons as needed.", "Color graphics are generally printed in four passes at standard resolution, thus slowing down printing considerably.", "As a result, color graphics can take up to four times longer to print than standard monochrome graphics, or up to 8-16 times as long at high resolution mode.Dot matrix printers are still commonly used in low-cost, low-quality applications such as cash registers, or in demanding, very high volume applications like invoice printing.", "Impact printing, unlike laser printing, allows the pressure of the print head to be applied to a stack of two or more forms to print multi-part documents such as sales invoices and credit card receipts using continuous stationery with carbonless copy paper.", "It also has security advantages as ink impressed into a paper matrix by force is harder to erase invisibly.", "Dot-matrix printers were being superseded even as receipt printers after the end of the twentieth century.=====Line printers=====Line printers print an entire line of text at a time.", "Four principal designs exist.Print drum from drum printer*'' Drum printers'', where a horizontally mounted rotating drum carries the entire character set of the printer repeated in each printable character position.", "The IBM 1132 printer is an example of a drum printer.", "Drum printers are also found in adding machines and other numeric printers (POS), the dimensions are compact as only a dozen characters need to be supported.IBM 1403 line printer*''Chain or train printers'', where the character set is arranged multiple times around a linked chain or a set of character slugs in a track traveling horizontally past the print line.", "The IBM 1403 is perhaps the most popular and comes in both chain and train varieties.", "The ''band printer'' is a later variant where the characters are embossed on a flexible steel band.", "The LP27 from Digital Equipment Corporation is a band printer.", "*''Bar printers'', where the character set is attached to a solid bar that moves horizontally along the print line, such as the IBM 1443.", "*A fourth design, used mainly on very early printers such as the IBM 402, features independent type bars, one for each printable position.", "Each bar contains the character set to be printed.", "The bars move vertically to position the character to be printed in front of the print hammer.In each case, to print a line, precisely timed hammers strike against the back of the paper at the exact moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in front of the paper.", "The paper presses forward against a ribbon which then presses against the character form and the impression of the character form is printed onto the paper.", "Each system could have slight timing issues, which could cause minor misalignment of the resulting printed characters.", "For drum or typebar printers, this appeared as vertical misalignment, with characters being printed slightly above or below the rest of the line.", "In chain or bar printers, the misalignment was horizontal, with printed characters being crowded closer together or farther apart.", "This was much less noticeable to human vision than vertical misalignment, where characters seemed to bounce up and down in the line, so they were considered as higher quality print.", "*''Comb printers'', also called ''line matrix printers'', represent the fifth major design.", "These printers are a hybrid of dot matrix printing and line printing.", "In these printers, a comb of hammers prints a portion of a row of pixels at one time, such as every eighth pixel.", "By shifting the comb back and forth slightly, the entire pixel row can be printed, continuing the example, in just eight cycles.", "The paper then advances, and the next pixel row is printed.", "Because far less motion is involved than in a conventional dot matrix printer, these printers are very fast compared to dot matrix printers and are competitive in speed with formed-character line printers while also being able to print dot matrix graphics.", "The Printronix P7000 series of line matrix printers are still manufactured as of 2013.Line printers are the fastest of all impact printers and are used for bulk printing in large computer centres.", "A line printer can print at 1100 lines per minute or faster, frequently printing pages more rapidly than many current laser printers.", "On the other hand, the mechanical components of line printers operate with tight tolerances and require regular preventive maintenance (PM) to produce a top quality print.", "They are virtually never used with personal computers and have now been replaced by high-speed laser printers.", "The legacy of line printers lives on in many operating systems, which use the abbreviations \"lp\", \"lpr\", or \"LPT\" to refer to printers.==== Liquid ink electrostatic printers ====Liquid ink electrostatic printers use a chemical coated paper, which is charged by the print head according to the image of the document.", "The paper is passed near a pool of liquid ink with the opposite charge.", "The charged areas of the paper attract the ink and thus form the image.", "This process was developed from the process of electrostatic copying.", "Color reproduction is very accurate, and because there is no heating the scale distortion is less than ±0.1%.", "(All laser printers have an accuracy of ±1%.", ")Worldwide, most survey offices used this printer before color inkjet plotters become popular.", "Liquid ink electrostatic printers were mostly available in width and also 6 color printing.", "These were also used to print large billboards.", "It was first introduced by Versatec, which was later bought by Xerox.", "3M also used to make these printers.==== Plotters ====A Calcomp 565 drum plotterPen-based plotters were an alternate printing technology once common in engineering and architectural firms.", "Pen-based plotters rely on contact with the paper (but not impact, per se) and special purpose pens that are mechanically run over the paper to create text and images.", "Since the pens output continuous lines, they were able to produce technical drawings of higher resolution than was achievable with dot-matrix technology.", "Some plotters used roll-fed paper, and therefore had a minimal restriction on the size of the output in one dimension.", "These plotters were capable of producing quite sizable drawings.=== Other printers ===A number of other sorts of printers are important for historical reasons, or for special purpose uses.", "* Digital minilab (photographic paper)* Electrolytic printers* Spark printer* Barcode printer multiple technologies, including: thermal printing, inkjet printing, and laser printing barcodes* Billboard / sign paint spray printers* Laser etching (product packaging) industrial printers* Microsphere (special paper)" ], [ "Attributes", "=== Connectivity ===Printers can be connected to computers in many ways: directly by a dedicated data cable such as the USB, through a short-range radio like Bluetooth, a local area network using cables (such as the Ethernet) or radio (such as WiFi), or on a standalone basis without a computer, using a memory card or other portable data storage device.=== Printer control languages ===Most printers other than line printers accept control characters or unique character sequences to control various printer functions.", "These may range from shifting from lower to upper case or from black to red ribbon on typewriter printers to switching fonts and changing character sizes and colors on raster printers.", "Early printer controls were not standardized, with each manufacturer's equipment having its own set.", "The IBM Personal Printer Data Stream (PPDS) became a commonly used command set for dot-matrix printers.Today, most printers accept one or more page description languages (PDLs).", "Laser printers with greater processing power frequently offer support for variants of Hewlett-Packard's Printer Command Language (PCL), PostScript or XML Paper Specification.", "Most inkjet devices support manufacturer proprietary PDLs such as ESC/P.", "The diversity in mobile platforms have led to various standardization efforts around device PDLs such as the Printer Working Group (PWG's) PWG Raster.=== Printing speed ===The speed of early printers was measured in units of ''characters per minute'' (cpm) for character printers, or ''lines per minute'' (lpm) for line printers.", "Modern printers are measured in ''pages per minute'' (ppm).", "These measures are used primarily as a marketing tool, and are not as well standardised as toner yields.", "Usually pages per minute refers to sparse monochrome office documents, rather than dense pictures which usually print much more slowly, especially color images.", "Speeds in ppm usually apply to A4 paper in most countries in the world, and letter paper size, about 6% shorter, in North America.=== Printing mode ===The data received by a printer may be:* A string of characters* A bitmapped image* A vector image* A computer program written in a page description language, such as PCL or PostScriptSome printers can process all four types of data, others not.", "* Character printers, such as daisy wheel printers, can handle only plain text data or rather simple point plots.", "* Pen plotters typically process vector images.", "Inkjet based plotters can adequately reproduce all four.", "* Modern printing technology, such as laser printers and inkjet printers, can adequately reproduce all four.", "This is especially true of printers equipped with support for PCL or PostScript, which includes the vast majority of printers produced today.Today it is possible to print everything (even plain text) by sending ready bitmapped images to the printer.", "This allows better control over formatting, especially among machines from different vendors.", "Many printer drivers do not use the text mode at all, even if the printer is capable of it.===Monochrome, color and photo printers===A monochrome printer can only produce monochrome images, with only shades of a single color.", "Most printers can produce only two colors, black (ink) and white (no ink).", "With half-tonning techniques, however, such a printer can produce acceptable grey-scale images tooA color printer can produce images of multiple colors.", "A photo printer is a color printer that can produce images that mimic the color range (gamut) and resolution of prints made from photographic film.===Page yield===The page yield is the number of pages that can be printed from a toner cartridge or ink cartridge—before the cartridge needs to be refilled or replaced.The actual number of pages yielded by a specific cartridge depends on a number of factors.For a fair comparison, many laser printer manufacturers use the ISO/IEC 19752 process to measure the toner cartridge yield.===Economics===In order to fairly compare operating expenses of printers with a relatively small ink cartridge to printers with a larger, more expensive toner cartridge that typically holds more toner and so prints more pages before the cartridge needs to be replaced, many people prefer to estimate operating expenses in terms of cost per page (CPP).Retailers often apply the \"razor and blades\" model: a company may sell a printer at cost and make profits on the ink cartridge, paper, or some other replacement part.", "This has caused legal disputes regarding the right of companies other than the printer manufacturer to sell compatible ink cartridges.", "To protect their business model, several manufacturers invest heavily in developing new cartridge technology and patenting it.Other manufacturers, in reaction to the challenges from using this business model, choose to make more money on printers and less on ink, promoting the latter through their advertising campaigns.", "Finally, this generates two clearly different proposals: \"cheap printer – expensive ink\" or \"expensive printer – cheap ink\".", "Ultimately, the consumer decision depends on their reference interest rate or their time preference.", "From an economics viewpoint, there is a clear trade-off between cost per copy and cost of the printer.=== Printer steganography ===An illustration showing small yellow tracking dots on white paper, generated by a color laser printerPrinter steganography is a type of steganography – \"hiding data within data\" – produced by color printers, including Brother, Canon, Dell, Epson, HP, IBM, Konica Minolta, Kyocera, Lanier, Lexmark, Ricoh, Toshiba and Xerox brand color laser printers, where tiny yellow dots are added to each page.", "The dots are barely visible and contain encoded printer serial numbers, as well as date and time stamps." ], [ "Manufacturers and market share", "As of 2020-2021, the largest worldwide vendor of printers is Hewlett-Packard, followed by Canon, Brother, Seiko Epson and Kyocera.", "Other known vendors include NEC, Ricoh, Xerox, Lexmark, OKI, Sharp, Konica Minolta, Samsung, Kodak, Dell, Toshiba, Star Micronics, Citizen and Panasonic." ], [ "See also", "* Campus card* Cardboard modeling* Dye-sublimation printer* History of printing* Label printer* List of printer companies* Print (command)* Printer driver* Print screen* Print server* Printer friendly (also known as a printable version)* Printer point* Printer (publishing)* Printmaking* Smart card* Typewriter ribbon* 3D printing" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Copyright" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''copyright''' is a type of intellectual property that gives the creator of an original work, or another right holder, the exclusive and legally secured right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time.", "The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form.", "Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.", "A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations, such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.Some jurisdictions require \"fixing\" copyrighted works in a tangible form.", "It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.", "These rights normally include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution.Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered \"territorial rights\".", "This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction.", "Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works \"cross\" national borders or national rights are inconsistent.Typically, the public law duration of a copyright expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, depending on the jurisdiction.", "Some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration.", "When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the public domain." ], [ "History", "European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century.", "Blue shows printed books.", "Log-lin plot; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.=== Background ===The concept of copyright developed after the printing press came into use in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries.", "It was associated with a common law and rooted in the civil law system.", "The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text.", "Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material.", "Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.Printing brought profound social changes.", "The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter.", "Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.", "In German language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.", "After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England and Scotland, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published; distribution of scientific and technical information was greatly reduced.=== Conception ===The concept of copyright first developed in England.", "In reaction to the printing of \"scandalous books and pamphlets\", the English Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662, which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved Stationers' Company, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.The Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland, provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights).", "The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US.", "The Berne International Copyright Convention of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws.", "Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the Copyright Act of 1790, modeling it after the Statute of Anne.", "While the national law protected authors' published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors' unpublished works.", "The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the 1976 Copyright Act, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and \"fixed\", without requiring publication or registration.", "State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.", "This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to \"life of the author plus 50 years\".", "These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized.", "Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia.", "In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society.", "The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property.", "However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights.", "The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified.", "This parallels the ways in which capitalism led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architecture.=== National copyrights ===The Statute of Anne (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave authors and the publishers to whom they did chose to license their works, the right to publish the author's creations for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.", "It was \"An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or the Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned.\"", "The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist.", "It began, \"Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:\".A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved.", "An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.The Copyright Clause of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: \"To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.\"", "That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole.", "A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs.The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for.", "If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the public domain, so it could be used and built upon by others.=== Continental law ===In many jurisdictions of the European continent, comparable legal concepts to copyright did exist from the 16th century on but did change under Napoleonic rule into another legal concept: ''authors' rights'' or ''creator's right'' laws, from French: ''droits d'auteur'' and German ''Urheberrecht''.", "In many modern day publications the terms copyright and authors' rights are being mixed, or used as translations, but in a juridical sense the legal concepts do essentially differ.", "Authors' rights are, generally speaking, from the start absolute property rights of an author of original work that one does not have to apply for.", "The law is automatically connecting an original work as intellectual property to its creator.", "Although the concepts throughout the years have been mingled globally, due to international treaties and contracts, distinct differences between jurisdictions continue to exist.Creator's law was enacted rather late in German speaking states and the economic historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of possibilities to maintain copyright laws in all these states in the early 19th century, encouraged the publishing of low-priced paperbacks for the masses.", "This was profitable for authors and led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.", "After the introduction of creator's rights, German publishers started to follow English customs, in issuing only expensive book editions for wealthy customers.Empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of author's right (Italian: ''diritto d’autore'') in Napoleonic Italy shows that \"basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability\".=== International copyright treaties ===Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record'', from ''Puck'', 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of authors' rights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally.", "Under the Berne Convention, protective rights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not \"register\" or \"apply for\" these protective rights in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.", "As soon as a work is \"fixed\", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all intellectual property rights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the rights expires.", "The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the convention.", "The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the convention.", "This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries.", "The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.The United States and most Latin American countries instead entered into the Buenos Aires Convention in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as ''all rights reserved''), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.", "The Universal Copyright Convention was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the Soviet Union and developing nations.The regulations of the Berne Convention are incorporated into the World Trade Organization's TRIPS agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.In 1961, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property signed the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations.", "In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the World Intellectual Property Organization, which launched the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty and the 2002 WIPO Copyright Treaty, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it.", "The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes intellectual property provisions relating to copyright.Copyright laws and authors' right laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention.", "These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union require their member states to comply with them.", "All member states of the World Trade Organization are obliged to establish minimum levels of copyright protection.", "Nevertheless, important differences between the national regimes continue to exist." ], [ "Obtaining protection", "=== Ownership ===The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a \"work for hire\".", "For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a \"Work for Hire\".", "Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e.", "the author.", "But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.=== Eligible works ===Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or \"works\".", "Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems, theses, fictional characters, plays and other literary works, motion pictures, choreography, musical compositions, sound recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and industrial designs.", "Graphic designs and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.", "For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough to not be judged copies of Disney's.=== Originality ===Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended).", "Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some \"skill, labour, and judgment\" that has gone into it.", "In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work.", "However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other.=== Registration ===In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office.", "Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.", "However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as ''prima facie'' evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees.", "(In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.", ")A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the poor man's copyright.", "It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the postmark to establish the date.", "This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts.", "The United States Copyright Office says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.", "The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.", "=== Fixing ===The Berne Convention allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be \"fixed\" to enjoy copyright.", "Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: \"It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form.\"", "Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection.", "For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection.", "The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be \"fixed in a tangible medium of expression\" to obtain copyright protection.", "US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be \"perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration\".", "Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be \"expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance\".Note this provision of US law: ''c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.", "Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.", "''=== Copyright notice ===A copyright symbol used in copyright noticeA copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paperBefore 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the copyright symbol (©, the letter '''C''' inside a circle), the abbreviation \"Copr.", "\", or the word \"Copyright\", followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.", "Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions.", "The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a sound recording copyright symbol (℗, the letter '''P''' inside a circle), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter '''P''' indicating a \"phonorecord\".", "In addition, the phrase ''All rights reserved'' which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete.", "Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it.", "Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.In 1989 the United States enacted the Berne Convention Implementation Act, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention.", "As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.", "However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of \"innocent infringement\" being successful." ], [ "Enforcement", "Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a civil law court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions.", "While central registries are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily prove that copyright was infringed.", "Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the RIAA are increasingly targeting the file sharing home Internet user.", "Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court.", "(''See Legal aspects of file sharing'')In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright.", "This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs.", "In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court.\"...", "by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required.", "\"=== Copyright infringement ===For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the Berne Convention or WIPO Copyright Treaty.", "Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed \"unauthorized edition\", not copyright infringement.Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine.", "Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.", "Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.", "In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of intellectual property theft to the US economy \"continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion.\"", "A 2019 study sponsored by the US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center (GIPC), in partnership with NERA Economic Consulting \"estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year.\"", "An August 2021 report by the Digital Citizens Alliance states that \"online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues.\"", "This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud." ], [ "Rights granted", "According to World Intellectual Property Organisation, copyright protects two types of rights.", "Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others.", "Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work.", "The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners.", "Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.=== Economic rights ===With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license.", "The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society.", "So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission.", "National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.", "Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work.", "Right owners can authorise or prohibit:* reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;* distribution of copies of the work;* public performance of the work;* broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;* translation of the work into other languages; and* adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.=== Moral rights ===Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator.", "They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work.", "Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights.", "In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely.", "In the UK, however, moral rights are finite.", "That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright.", "When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work.", "This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.", "The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights:# the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and# the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors.", "The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors' economic rights.", "Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights.", "This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.", "Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the US Copyright Office on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the Copyright Law in United States, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed.", "Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time.", "However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.The Copyright Law in the United States, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below:* protection of the work;* to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.", "* to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)* to import or export the work;* to create derivative works; (works that adapt the original work)* to perform or display the work publicly;* to sell or cede these rights to others;* to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others.", "This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free.", "This part of copyright is often overseen.", "The phrase \"exclusive right\" means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission.", "Copyright is sometimes called a \"negative right\", as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do.", "In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in English law and European law.", "The rights of the copyright holder also permit him/her to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term.", "There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law that is not universally shared.", "There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a property right or a moral right.UK copyright law gives creators both economic rights and moral rights.", "While 'copying' someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, 'mutilating' it might infringe the creator's moral rights.", "In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to 'derogatory treatment', that is the right of integrity.Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS.", "The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party.", "India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).", "The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.===Duration===Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions.", "The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g.", "musical composition, novel), whether the work has been published, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation.", "In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years.", "In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication.", "Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States and the United Kingdom), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult.", "For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage.", "In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France.", "Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively).", "International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1928 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain.", "The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain.", "Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.", "Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country.But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered.", "If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries.In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the Copyright Term Extension Act.", "This legislation was the subject of substantial criticism following allegations that the bill was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired." ], [ "Limitations and exceptions", "In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses.", "United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).", "However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as trademarks and patents.=== Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine ===The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves.", "This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of ''Baker v. Selden'', has since been codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 at 17 U.S.C.", "§ 102(b).=== The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights ===Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder.", "It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or CD.", "In the United States this is known as the first-sale doctrine, and was established by the courts to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand bookstores.Some countries may have parallel importation restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the aftermarket.", "This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing.", "The first-sale doctrine is known as exhaustion of rights in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to patent and trademark rights.", "While this doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved, it does not permit making or distributing additional copies.In ''Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.'', in 2013, the United States Supreme Court held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission.", "The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission.", "The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on eBay.", "The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation.In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved.", "However, in countries that implement moral rights, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.=== Fair use and fair dealing ===Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication.", "In the United States, the fair use doctrine, codified by the Copyright Act of 1976 as 17 U.S.C.", "Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same.", "The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis.", "Those factors are:# the purpose and character of one's use;# the nature of the copyrighted work;# what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;# the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.In the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the courts or through legislation.", "The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in Canada, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999.In ''Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)'', 2012 SCC 37, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption.", "In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent.", "Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e.", "legal advice).", "Under current Australian law, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to \"format shift\" that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to \"time shift\" a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening.", "Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer.In the United States the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying.", "Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use.", "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.", "An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.EU copyright laws recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright.", "Examples of those exceptions are:* photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;* reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;* archival reproductions of broadcasts;* uses for the benefit of people with a disability;* for demonstration or repair of equipment;* for non-commercial research or private study;* when used in parody.=== Accessible copies ===It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.=== Religious Service Exemption ===In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 1103), namely \"performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly\" shall not constitute infringement of copyright.=== Useful articles ===In Canada, items deemed ''useful articles'' such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the ''Copyright Act'' if reproduced more than 50 times.", "Fast fashion brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections." ], [ "{{Anchor |Transfer and licensing, and assignment }} Transfer, assignment and licensing", "Generic DVD: ''All rights reserved''A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g.", "reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.", "For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations.", "The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author.", "In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the Internet; however, the record industry attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience.", "A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist.", "Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective, for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing.", "Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor.", "For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights.", "Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor.", "No special form of transfer or grant is required.", "A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient.", "Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under US law.", "They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties.", "Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S.", "Copyright Office.", "(Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.)", "While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a real estate transaction.Copyright may also be licensed.", "Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed statutory license (e.g.", "musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance).", "This is also called a compulsory license, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.", "Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit.", "Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, copyright collectives or collecting societies and performing rights organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once.", "Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.=== Free licenses ===Copyright licenses known as ''open'' or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not.", "''Free'' in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom.", "What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the Free Software Definition, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, the Open Source Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works.", "Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as copyleft and permissive.", "Common examples of free licences are the GNU General Public License, BSD licenses and some Creative Commons licenses.Founded in 2001 by James Boyle, Lawrence Lessig, and Hal Abelson, the Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works.", "To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, gratis.", "These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee.", "Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely.", "Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice).", "These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.", "approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses." ], [ "Criticism", "Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system.", "This is known as a debate over copynorms.", "Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the copyright aspects of downloading and streaming, the copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing.Concerns are often couched in the language of digital rights, digital freedom, database rights, open data or censorship.", "Discussions include ''Free Culture'', a 2004 book by Lawrence Lessig.", "Lessig coined the term permission culture to describe a worst-case system.", "''Good Copy Bad Copy'' (documentary) and RiP!", ": A Remix Manifesto, discuss copyright.", "Some suggest an alternative compensation system.", "In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result Pirate Parties have been created.", "Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an anti-copyright stance.", "The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate ignoring legal statutes when on the web." ], [ "Public domain", "Copyright, like other intellectual property rights, is subject to a statutorily determined term.", "Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment.", "However, in paying public domain regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association.", "Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a common law copyright.", "Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available.", "Works posted in the internet, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain.", "Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright." ], [ "See also", "* Adelphi Charter* Artificial scarcity* Authors' rights and related rights, roughly equivalent concepts in civil law countries* Conflict of laws* Copyfraud* Copyleft* Copyright abolition* Copyright Alliance* Copyright alternatives* Copyright for Creativity* Copyright in architecture in the United States* Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution* Criticism of copyright* Criticism of intellectual property* Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (European Union)* Copyright infringement* Copyright Remedy Clarification Act (CRCA)* Digital rights management* Digital watermarking* Entertainment law* Freedom of panorama* Information literacies* Intellectual property protection of typefaces* List of Copyright Acts* List of copyright case law* Literary property* Model release* Paracopyright* Philosophy of copyright* Photography and the law* Pirate Party* Printing patent, a precursor to copyright* Private copying levy* Production music* Rent-seeking* Reproduction fees* Samizdat* Software copyright* Threshold pledge system* World Book and Copyright Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Atkinson, Juliette.(2012).", "Alexander the Great': Dumas's Conquest of Early-Victorian England\".", "''Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America'' 106 (4): 417–47.", "* * Ellis, Sara R. ''Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic'', 78 Tenn. L. Rev.", "163 (2010), ''available at'' Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic.", "* Ghosemajumder, Shuman. ''", "Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models''.", "MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002.", "* Lehman, Bruce: '' Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure'' (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)* Lindsey, Marc: ''Copyright Law on Campus.''", "Washington State University Press, 2003..* Mazzone, Jason.", "''Copyfraud''.", "SSRN* McDonagh, Luke.", "''Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright?''", "International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at SSRN* * * Rife, by Martine Courant.", "''Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing'' (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.", "* * Shipley, David E. \" Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works\" UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No.", "08-001; ''Journal of Intellectual Property Law'', Vol.", "15, No.", "1, 2007.", "* Silverthorne, Sean. ''", "Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?", "''.", "Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.", "* Sorce Keller, Marcello.", "\"Originality, Authenticity and Copyright\", ''Sonus'', VII(2007), no.", "2, pp. 77–85.", "* * * *Rose, M. (1993), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, London: Harvard University Press*Loewenstein, J.", "(2002), The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, London: University of Chicago Press.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* A simplified guide.", "* * WIPOLex from WIPO; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property* Copyright Berne Convention: Country List List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works*\" Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity\", August 2021, U.S.", "Copyright Office*\" The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance\", August 27, 2021 by David Newhoff, ''The Illusion of More'' podcast* Education** Copyright Cortex** A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur** MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)* US** Copyright Law of the United States Documents, US Government** Compendium of Copyright Practices (3rd ed.)", "United States Copyright Office** Copyright from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''** Early Copyright Records From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress* UK** Copyright: Detailed information at the UK Intellectual Property Office** Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service" ] ]

[ [ "Catalan language" ], [ "Introduction", "A speaker of Catalan (Majorcan dialect).Artur Mas, former president of Catalonia, discussing individual identity, collective identity and language.", "'''Catalan''' ( or ; autonym: , ), known in the Valencian Community and Carche as ''Valencian'' (autonym: ), is a Western Romance language.", "It is the official language of Andorra, and an official language of two autonomous communities in eastern Spain: Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.", "It is also an official language in Valencia, where it is called Valencian.", "It has semi-official status in the Italian ''comune'' of Alghero, and it is spoken in the Pyrénées-Orientales department of France and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the eastern strip of Aragon and the Carche area in the Region of Murcia.", "The Catalan-speaking territories are often called the or \"Catalan Countries\".The language evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees.", "Nineteenth-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, culminating in the early 1900s." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "'''Catalan Countries''' (): (In orange, strict Catalan-speaking area) NE modern Spain (Catalonia, Valencian Community and Balearic Islands), SE.", "France (Roussillon, touching the Pyrenees) and Comune of Alghero (NW coast of Sardinia, an island belonging to Italy)James the Conqueror 1208–1276 dictated his autobiographical chronicles entirely in Catalan.", "Some of this territory nowadays makes up the ''Catalan Countries''The word ''Catalan'' is derived from the territorial name of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology.", "The main theory suggests that (Latin ''Gathia Launia'') derives from the name ''Gothia'' or ''Gauthia'' (\"Land of the Goths\"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence ''Gothland'' > ''Gothlandia'' > ''Gothalania'' > ''Catalonia'' theoretically derived.In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as ''Catelaner'', followed in the 15th century as ''Catellain'' (from French).", "It is attested a language name since at least 1652.The word ''Catalan'' can be pronounced in English as , or .The endonym is pronounced in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and in the Western dialects.", "In the Valencian Community and Carche, the term is frequently used instead.", "Thus, the name \"Valencian\", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole, synonymous with \"Catalan\".", "Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua and the Institut d'Estudis Catalans.", "See also status of Valencian below." ], [ "History", "''Homilies d'Organyà'' (12th century)Fragment of the ''Greuges de Guitard Isarn'' (–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan, predating the famous ''Homilies d'Organyà'' by a centuryLinguistic map of Southwestern Europe=== Middle Ages ===By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south.", "From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the Muslims, bringing their language with them.", "This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the County of Barcelona from the Carolingian Empire in 988.In the 11th century, documents written in macaronic Latin begin to show Catalan elements, with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.Old Catalan shared many features with Gallo-Romance, diverging from Old Occitan between the 11th and 14th centuries.During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the Ebro river, and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands.", "The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century.", "The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.", "Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausiàs March (1397–1459).", "By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world.", "During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.", "Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.", "During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms \"one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe\".Martorell's outstanding novel of chivalry ''Tirant lo Blanc'' (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in Metge's work.", "The first book produced with movable type in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan.=== Start of the modern era ======= Spain ====With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the laws of each territory before the respective parliaments.", "But after the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain became an absolute monarchy under Philip V, which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Crown of Castile through the Nueva Planta decrees, as a first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.", "Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.School map of Spain from 1850 regarding the administrative structure.", "On it, the State is shown divided into four parts:- \"Fully constitutional Spain\", which includes Castile and Andalusia, but also the Galician-speaking territories.", "- \"Annexed or assimilated Spain\": the territories of the Crown of Aragon, the larger part of which, with the exception of Aragon proper, are Catalan-speaking-, \"Foral Spain\", which includes Basque-speaking territories-, and \"Colonial Spain\", with the last overseas colonial territories.The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they \"will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed.\"", "From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to \"represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish.\"", "The use of Spanish gradually became more prestigious and marked the start of the decline of Catalan.", "Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became bilingual.==== France ====With the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Spain ceded the northern part of Catalonia to France, and soon thereafter the local Catalan varieties came under the influence of French, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.Shortly after the French Revolution (1789), the French First Republic prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, Alsatian, Breton, Occitan, Flemish, and Basque.=== France: 19th to 20th century ===Official decree prohibiting the Catalan language in France\"Speak French, be clean\", school wall in Ayguatébia-Talau (Northern Catalonia), 2010After the French colony of Algeria was established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there.", "People from the Spanish province of Alicante settled around Oran, while those from French Catalonia and Menorca migrated to Algiers.By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers of ''Patuet'', as their speech was called.", "After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all the ''Pied-Noir'' Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia or Alicante.The French government only recognizes French as an official language.", "Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the then General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized Catalan as one of the départment's languages and seeks to further promote it in public life and education.=== Spain: 18th to 20th century ===In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the prefects for an official survey on the limits of the French language.", "The survey found that in Roussillon, almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the consul in Barcelona was also asked.", "He declared that Catalan \"is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses\", indicating that it was spoken everywhere \"with the exception of the royal courts\".", "He also indicated that Catalan was spoken \"in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d \"Aran and Cerdaña\".The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) initiated a series of laws which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of Spanish in legal documentation all over Spain.", "Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century.However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (), which has continued up to the present day.", "This period starts with Aribau's ''Ode to the Homeland'' (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of Verdaguer (poetry), Oller (realist novel), and Guimerà (drama).", "In the 19th century, the region of Carche, in the province of Murcia was repopulated with Valencian speakers.", "Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939).", "The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.", "The Generalitat (the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at social level, including in schools and the University of Barcelona.", "The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due to Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of Spain, while banning the use of Catalan in them.", "Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.", "Francisco Franco's desire for a homogenous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan.", "Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco's dictatorship.", "At the end of World War II, however, some of the harsh mesures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated.", "Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.", "Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among them ''Joan Martorell'' prize (1947), ''Víctor Català'' prize (1953) ''Carles Riba'' award (1950), or the Honor Award of Catalan Letters (1969).", "The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into Catalonia from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language.", "These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it.", "Catalonia was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country.", "Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not bilingual.", "Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco's death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War, Avui, began to be published in 1976.=== Present day ===Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.", "In Catalonia, there is an unparalleled large bilingual European non-state linguistic community.", "The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools, but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations – if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.", "There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.", "As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.According to the Statistical Institute of Catalonia, in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after Spanish, as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.", "In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.", "To promote use of Catalan, the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as (''Consortium for Linguistic Normalization'')In Andorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language.", "Since the promulgation of the 1993 constitution, several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, like Catalan medium education.On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place.", "In the Northern Catalonia area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).", "Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.", "The cultural association promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.In Alicante province, Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in Alghero by Italian.", "There is also well ingrained diglossia in the Valencian Community, Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the Balearic islands.During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to Venezuela, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, and other South American countries.", "They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.", "They also founded many Catalan casals (associations)." ], [ "Classification and relationship with other Romance languages", "Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones.", "FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.One classification of Catalan is given by Pèire Bèc:* Romance languages** Italo-Western languages*** Western Romance languages**** Gallo-Iberian languages***** Gallo-Romance languages****** Occitano-Romance languages******* Catalan languageHowever, the ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal.Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term ''Occitan language'' (see also differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages).", "Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages.=== Relationship with other Romance languages ===Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the linguistic distance between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the Gascon language) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects.", "Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century and still today remains its closest relative.Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, French, Italian, Sardinian as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).", "However, despite being spoken mostly on the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with the Iberian Romance group (Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly Occitan and to a lesser extent Gallo-Romance (Franco-Provençal, French, Gallo-Italian).According to Ethnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with Ladin and Romansh; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.+ Lexical comparison of 24 words among Romance languages:17 cognates with Gallo-Romance, 5 isoglosses with Iberian Romance, 3 isoglosses with Occitan, and 1 unique word.", "Gloss Catalan Occitan (Campidanese) Sardinian Italian French Spanish Portuguese Romanian cousin , ''coirmão'' brother nephew summer '''''' , , evening , , morning , frying pan bed , , , bird , dog , , , plum butter piece , , , , gray , , , , hot '''''' '''''' '''''' too much to want to take , , to pray to ask / , to search / , to arrive , to speak , , to eat ( in lunfardo; in slang) ( in slang), + Catalan and Spanish cognates with different meanings Latin Catalan Spanish \"to bring closer\" '''' \"to put to bed\" \"to remove;wake up\" '''' \"to take\" \"to remove\" '''' \"to bring\" \"to search\" '''' \"to fence\" \"to bury\" '''' \"to hang\" \"wife\" '''' \"woman or wife\"During much of its history, and especially during the Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish.", "This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.", "Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and French).There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century , the vocabulary and phonology of Roman Tarraconensis was different from the rest of Roman Hispania.", "Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, Asturian, and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish , Asturian and Portuguese vs. Catalan , Occitan \"to boil\") and innovatory regionalisms (Sp , Ast vs. Cat , Oc \"bullock\"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere.", "These include:* verbs: 'to fasten; transfix' > 'to compose, write up', > 'to combine, conjugate', > 'to wake; awaken', 'to thicken; crowd together' > 'to save, keep', > 'to miss, yearn, pine for', 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan ''enagar'' 'to incite, induce', > OCat ''ujar'' 'to exhaust, fatigue', > 'to appease, mollify', > 'to reject, refuse';* nouns: > 'pomace', > 'reedmace', > 'catarrh', > 'snowdrift', > 'ardor, passion', > 'brake', > 'avalanche', > 'edge, border', 'sawfish' > ''pestriu'' > 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', 'live coal' > 'spark', > ''tardaó'' > 'autumn'.The Gothic superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan.", "For example, Catalan \"mud\" and \"to roast\", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish and , of Latin origin; whereas Catalan \"spinning wheel\" and \"temple\", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish and , of Germanic origin.The same happens with Arabic loanwords.", "Thus, Catalan \"large earthenware jar\" and \"tile\", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish and , of Latin origin; whereas Catalan \"oil\" and \"olive\", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish and .", "However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as \"to miss somebody\", \"to calm somebody down\", and \"reject\"." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "=== Catalan-speaking territories ===+ Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories in dark gray; non-Catalan-speaking territories belonging to traditionally Catalan-speaking regions in light gray Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the (Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status.", "Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions.+ Territories where Catalan is spoken State Territory Catalan name Notes Andorra Andorra A sovereign state where Catalan is the national and the sole official language.", "The Andorrans speak a Western Catalan variety.", "France Northern Catalonia Roughly corresponding to the of Pyrénées-Orientales.", "Spain Catalonia In the Aran Valley (northwest corner of Catalonia), in addition to Occitan, which is the local language, Catalan, Spanish and French are also spoken.", "Valencian Community Excepting some regions in the west and south which have been Aragonese/Spanish-speaking since at least the 18th century.", "The Western Catalan variety spoken there is known as \"Valencian\".", "La Franja A part of the Autonomous Community of Aragon, specifically a strip bordering Western Catalonia.", "It comprises the of Ribagorça, Llitera, Baix Cinca, and Matarranya.", "Balearic Islands Comprising the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza and Formentera.", "Carche A small area of the Autonomous Community of Murcia, settled in the 19th century.", "Italy Alghero A city in the Province of Sassari, on the island of Sardinia, where the Algherese dialect is spoken.=== Number of speakers ===The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used.", "A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5 million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.", "The web site of the Generalitat de Catalunya estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.", "These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.", "According to ''Ethnologue'', Catalan had 4.1 million native speakers and 5.1 million second-language speakers in 2021.Geographical distribution of Catalan language by official statusAccording to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8 million, with 5.9 million residing in Catalonia.", "More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4 million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).", "Very few Catalan monoglots exist; basically, virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are bilingual speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with a sizable population of Spanish-only speakers of immigrant origin (typically born outside Catalonia or whose parents were both born outside Catalonia) existing in the major Catalan urban areas as well.In Roussillon, only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of language shift.", "According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.Spanish was the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally.", "According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).", "The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%) was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language.", "Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system.", "An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories.", "Territory State Understand Can speak Catalonia Spain 6,502,880 5,698,400 Valencian Community Spain 3,448,780 2,407,951 Balearic Islands Spain 852,780 706,065 Roussillon France 203,121 125,621 Andorra Andorra 75,407 61,975 La Franja (Aragon) Spain 47,250 45,000 Alghero (Sardinia) Italy 20,000 17,625 Carche (Murcia) Spain ~600 600 Total Catalan-speaking territories 11,150,218 9,062,637 Rest of World No data 350,000 Total 11,150,218 9,412,637:1.The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it.", ":2.Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers.==== Level of knowledge ==== Area Speak Understand Read Write Catalonia 81.2 94.4 85.5 65.3 Valencian Community 57.5 78.1 54.9 32.5 Balearic Islands 74.6 93.1 79.6 46.9 Roussillon 37.1 65.3 31.4 10.6 Andorra 78.9 96.0 89.7 61.1 Franja Oriental of Aragón 88.8 98.5 72.9 30.3 Alghero 67.6 89.9 50.9 28.4(% of the population 15 years old and older).==== Social use ==== Area At home Outside home Catalonia 45 51 Valencian Community 37 32 Balearic Islands 44 41 Roussillon 1 1 Andorra 38 51 Franja Oriental of Aragón 70 61 Alghero 8 4(% of the population 15 years old and older).==== Native language ==== Area People Percentage Catalonia 2,813,000 38.5% Valencian Community 1,047,000 21.1% Balearic Islands 392,000 36.1% Andorra 26,000 33.8% Franja Oriental of Aragon 33,000 70.2% Roussillon 35,000 8.5% Alghero 8,000 20% '''TOTAL''' '''4,353,000''' '''31.2%'''" ], [ "Phonology", "Catalan phonology varies by dialect.", "Notable features include:* Marked contrast of the vowel pairs and , as in other Western Romance languages, other than Spanish.", "* Lack of diphthongization of Latin short , , as in Galician and Portuguese, but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian.", "* Abundance of diphthongs containing , as in Galician and Portuguese.In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some consonant clusters.", "Additionally, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as (\"male friend\") vs. (\"female friend\").Central Catalan pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language.", "The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety.", "For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on pronunciation of dialects in this article.=== Vowels ===Vowels of Standard Eastern CatalanCatalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: , a common feature in Western Romance, with the exception of Spanish.", "Balearic also has instances of stressed .", "Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair .In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: ; ; remains distinct.", "The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article).+ Examples of vowel reduction processes in Central CatalanThe root is stressed in the first word and unstressed in the second Front vowels Back vowels Wordpair (\"ice\") (\"ice cream\") (\"stone\") (\"quarry\") (\"he bathes\") (\"we bathe\") (\"thing\") (\"little thing\") (\"everything\") (\"total\") IPAtranscription === Consonants ===+ Catalan consonants Bilabial Alveolar/ Dental Palatal Velar Nasal Plosive voiceless ~ voiced ~ Affricate voiceless voiced Fricative voiceless voiced () Approximant central lateral Tap Trill The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative.", "* has a velarized allophone in syllable coda position in most dialects.", "However, is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan and standard Eastern Catalan.", "* occurs in Balearic, Algherese, standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia.", "It has merged with elsewhere.", "* Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing: .", "* Voiced stops become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: > , > , > .", "Exceptions include after lateral consonants, and after .", "In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops, except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited.", "* There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of , , , .", "Some sources describe them as \"postalveolar\".", "Others as \"back alveolo-palatal\", implying that the characters would be more accurate.", "However, in all literature only the characters for palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use for other languages like Polish and Chinese.", "* The distribution of the two rhotics and closely parallels that of Spanish.", "Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, appears unless preceded by a consonant.", "Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case appears.", "* In careful speech, , , may be geminated.", "Geminated may also occur.", "Some analyze intervocalic as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme.", "This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics.=== Phonological evolution ===" ], [ "Sociolinguistics", "Catalan sociolinguistics studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents.", "It is a subdiscipline of Catalan philology and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).=== Preferential subjects of study ===* Dialects of Catalan* Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies* Process of linguistic normalization* Relations between Catalan and Spanish or French* Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers* Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors=== Dialects ======= Overview ====Main dialects of CatalanThe dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages; both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology.", "Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high, estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.", "The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Algherese dialect.Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.", "The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed and ; which have merged to in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as and in Western dialects.", "There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of Northwestern Catalan and Valencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: Central Catalan, Balearic, Rossellonese, and Algherese.", "Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects.", "The terms \"Catalan\" and \"Valencian\" (respectively used in Catalonia and the Valencian Community) refer to two varieties of the same language.", "There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community.Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.", "It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the Barcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.Catalan has an inflectional grammar.", "Nouns have two genders (masculine, feminine), and two numbers (singular, plural).", "Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways.", "Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and gender.", "In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.+ Main dialectal divisions of Catalan Block '''Western Catalan''' '''Eastern Catalan''' Dialect '''Northwestern''' '''Valencian''' '''Central''' '''Balearic''' '''Northern/Rossellonese''' '''Algherese''' Area Spain, Andorra Spain France Italy Andorra, Provinces of Lleida, western half of Tarragona, La Franja Autonomous community of Valencia, Carche Provinces of Barcelona, eastern half of Tarragona, most of Girona Balearic islands Roussillon/Northern Catalonia City of Alghero in Sardinia=== Pronunciation ======= Vowels ====Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: , a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish.", "Balearic has also instances of stressed .", "Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair .In Eastern Catalan (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: ; ; remains distinct.", "There are a few instances of unreduced , in some words.", "Algherese has lowered to .In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however reduce to , with remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: ; ; remain distinct.", "This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese.", "Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed and .", "Usually, words with in Central Catalan correspond to in Balearic and in Western Catalan.", "Words with in Balearic almost always have in Central and Western Catalan as well.", "As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of .+ Different incidence of stressed , , Word Western Eastern Majorcan Central Northern ''set'' (\"thirst\") ''ven'' (\"he sells\") + General differences in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in different dialects Word Western Eastern Northwestern Valencian Majorcan Central Northern (\"mother\") (\"song\") (\"to put\") (\"iron\") + Detailed examples of vowel reduction processes in different dialects Word pairs:the first with stressed root,the second with unstressed root Western Eastern Majorcan Central Northern Frontvowels (\"ice\") (\"ice cream\") (\"pear\") (\"pear tree\") (\"stone\") (\"quarry\") (\"he bathes\") (\"we bathe\")Majorcan: (\"we bathe\") Backvowels (\"thing\") (\"little thing\") (\"everything\") (\"total\") ==== Consonants ======= Morphology ===Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.E.g.", ", , (Valencian); , , (Northwestern Catalan).Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is , , or -∅ in all conjugations.", "E.g.", "(Central), (Balearic), and (Northern), all meaning ('I speak').+ 1st-person singular present indicative forms Conjugation Eastern Catalan Western Catalan Gloss Central Northern Balearic Valencian Northwestern 1st 'I speak' 2nd 'I fear' 3rd 'I feel', 'I hear' or or 'I polish'Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are /, , , /.Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are , , , .Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.E.g.", "'men', 'youth'.Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.E.g.", "'men', 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case).=== Vocabulary ===Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.", "Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism.", "Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.+ Selection of different words between Western and Eastern Catalan Gloss \"mirror\" \"boy\" \"broom\" \"navel\" \"to exit\" Eastern Catalan Western Catalan" ], [ "Standards", "Casa de Convalescència, Headquarters of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans+ Written varieties Catalan (IEC) Valencian (AVL) gloss English to know take out to be born pitcher round my, mine almond star hit lobster men serviceStandard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers, is mostly based on Eastern Catalan, which is the most widely used dialect.", "Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic accentuation, for instance: (IEC) – (AVL).", "Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent , while pronouncing it as rather than , in some words like: ('what'), or .", "Other divergences include the use of (AVL) in some words instead of like in / ('almond'), / ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives ( 'this', 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones () or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, like subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in at the same level as or the priority use of morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative ( verbs): instead of ('I buy').In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the University of the Balearic Islands's philological section.", "In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing as much as ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be in all fields.", "Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: ('I buy'), ('I fear'), ('I sleep').In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the Algherese dialect.", "In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article instead of , special possessive pronouns and determinants ('mine'), ('his/her'), ('yours'), and so on, the use of in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: , , ; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: instead of ('less'), instead of ('someone'), instead of ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of weak pronouns.", "In 1999, Catalan (Algherese dialect) was among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's \"historical linguistic minorities\" by the Italian State under Law No.", "482/1999.In 2011, the Aragonese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in La Franja (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009.The new entity, designated as , shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in La Franja." ], [ "{{anchor|About Valencian}} Status of Valencian", "Subdialects of ValencianValencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the northwestern varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of Lleida and the western half of Tarragona).", "Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language.", "The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'', AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (''Normes de Castelló'').", "Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian.Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004 showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan.", "This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.", "Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views.", "A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy.", "For example, during the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical." ], [ "Vocabulary", "=== Word choices ===Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.", "Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism.", "Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.", "However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others, === Latin and Greek loanwords ===Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin.", "This process started very early, and one can find such examples in Ramon Llull's work.", "In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in Roís de Corella's writings.", "The incorporation of learned, or \"bookish\" words from its own ancestor language, Latin, into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church.", "Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan.=== Word formation ===The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages, where agglutination is common.", "Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example (\"electrical\") vs. .", "Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, as in (\"foresee\").There is greater regularity in the process of word-compounding, where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.+ Common types of word compounds in Catalan Type Example Gloss two nouns, the second assimilated to the first \"banknote paper\" noun delimited by an adjective \"military staff\" noun delimited by another noun and a preposition \"typewriter\" verb radical with a nominal object \"parachute\" noun delimited by an adjective, with adjectival value \"robin\" (bird)" ], [ "Writing system", "The word (\"novel\") in a dictionary.", "The geminated L () is a distinctive character used in Catalan.Billboard in Barcelona (detail), showing the word (\"illusion\") Main forms Modified forms Catalan uses the Latin script, with some added symbols and digraphs.", "The Catalan orthography is systematic and largely phonologically based.", "Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906.Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC, founded in 1911) published the ''Normes ortogràfiques'' in 1913 under the direction of Antoni Maria Alcover and Pompeu Fabra.", "In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in Castelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-called ''Normes de Castelló'', a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.+ Pronunciation of Catalan special characters and digraphs (Central Catalan) Pronunciation Examples (\"happy\") () before and (\"war\") elsewhere (\"glove\") in final position (\"trickle\") ( in some dialects) (\"box\") (\"place\") Normatively , but usually (\"novel\") (\"Catalonia\") before and (\"who\") before other vowels (\"four\") Intervocalic is pronounced (\"big-)\" (\"house\") , (\"liver\"), (\"sock\") (\"office\") (\"twelve\")+ Letters and digraphs with contextually conditioned pronunciations (Central Catalan) Notes Examples before and corresponds to in other contexts (\"happy-\") - (\"happy-\") (\"I hunt\") - (\"you hunt\") before and corresponds to in other positions (\"to envy\") - (\"they envy\") final + stressed , and final before other vowels,are pronounced corresponds to ~ or ~ in other positions (\"mad-\") - (\"mad-\") - (\"mad-\") (\"wish\") - (\"to wish\") - (\"we wish\") before and corresponds to in other positions (\"shop\") - (\"shops\") before and corresponds to in other positions (\"language\") - (\"languages\") before and corresponds to in other positions (\"cow\") - (\"cows\") before and corresponds to in other positions (\"oblique-\") - (\"oblique-\") initially and in onsets after a consonant after otherwise, before stress, after (\"net\") (\"chalk\") (\"exact\"), (\"fax\")" ], [ "Grammar", "The grammar of Catalan is similar to other Romance languages.", "Features include:* Use of definite and indefinite articles.", "* Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are inflected for gender (masculine and feminine), and number (singular and plural).", "There is no case inflexion, except in pronouns.", "* Verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood (including a subjunctive).", "* There are no modal auxiliaries.", "* Word order is freer than in English.=== Gender and number inflection ===Gender and number inflection of the word (\"cat\")+ Regular noun with definite article: (\"the cat\") masculine feminine singular plural + Adjective with 4 forms: (\"green\") masculine feminine singular plural + Adjective with 3 forms: (\"happy\") masculine feminine singular plural + Adjective with 2 forms: (\"indifferent\") masculine feminine singular plural In gender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared to Portuguese, Spanish or Italian), the loss of the typical masculine suffix .", "Thus, the alternance of /, has been replaced by ''ø''/.", "There are only a few exceptions, like / (\"scarce\").", "Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:* Affrication: / (\"insane\") vs. / (\"ugly\")* Loss of : / (\"flat\") vs. / (\"second\")* Final obstruent devoicing: / (\"felt\") vs. / (\"said\")Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French.", "Thus, Catalan has / (\"boy\"/\"girl\") and / (\"cock\"/\"hen\"), whereas French has / and /.There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in Occitan and French.", "Thus, one can find / (\"boiling\") in contrast with traditional /.As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix , which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely.", "The most important one is the addition of before certain consonant groups, a phonetic phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: / (\"the pulse\"/\"the pulses\") vs. / (\"the dust\"/\"the dusts\").=== Determiners ===Begur, Catalonia, Spain.", "In (literally \"square of the town\"), since the noun (\"town\") is feminine singular, the definite article carries the corresponding form, (\"the\").+ Definite article in Standard Catalan (elided forms in brackets) masculine feminine singular () () plural + Contractions of the definite article preposition a de per article el () () () els + Indefinite article masculine feminine singular plural The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages.", "Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like (\"of + the plural\"), but not as many as Italian (which has , , , etc.", ").Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (, etc.)", "in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms (, etc.", "), a feature shared with Italian.=== Personal pronouns ===+ Catalan stressed pronouns   singular plural 1st person , 2nd person informal formal respectful () 3rd person masculine feminine The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).", "Features include the gender-neutral and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).Catalan pronouns exhibit T–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English).", "This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality.This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish.", "Thus, Catalan can have (\"they recommended me to him\"), whereas in French one must say , and Spanish .", "This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish).=== Verbs ===+ Simple forms of a regular verb of the first conjugation: (\"to bring\")Non-finite Form Infinitive Gerund Past participle (, , , )Indicative Present Imperfect Preterite (archaic) Future Conditional Subjunctive Present Imperfect Imperative — — Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal.", "Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.", "Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion.", "However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of (\"to go\") + infinitive.Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes , , , the last two being split into two subtypes.", "However, this division is mostly theoretical.", "Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of , with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive.", "The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.=== Syntax ===The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages.", "The primary word order is subject–verb–object.", "However, word order is very flexible.", "Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect.", "The sentence \"The train has arrived\" could be translated as or .", "Both sentences mean \"the train has arrived\", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival.", "This subtle distinction is described as \"what you might say while waiting in the station\" versus \"what you might say on the train.\"" ], [ "Catalan names", "In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname.", "The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction ''i'' (\"and\")." ], [ "Sample text", "Selected text from Manuel de Pedrolo's 1970 novel (\"A love affair outside the city\").", "Original Word-for-word translation Free translation I was having close to eighteen years, when I go know (=I met) I was about eighteen years old when I met the Raül, at the station of (=in) Manresa.", "Raül, at Manresa railway station.", "The my father had died, unexpectedly and still young, My father had died, unexpectedly and still young, a couple of years before, and of those times a couple of years before; and from that time I keep a memory of acute loneliness I still harbor memories of great loneliness.", "The my relations with the mother My relationship with my mother not had at all improved, all the contrary, had not improved; quite the contrary, perhaps even they were worsening and arguably it was getting even worse at step that (=in proportion as) myself I was making big (=I was growing up).", "as I grew up.", "Not it was existing, not it existed never between us, There did not exist, at no point had there ever existed between us a community of interests, of affections.", "shared interests or affection.", "It is necessary to believe that I was seeking... a person I guess I was seeking... a person in whom to center the my life affective.", "in whom I could center my emotional life." ], [ "See also", ";Organizations* Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Catalan Studies Institute)* Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (Valencian Academy of the Language)* Òmnium Cultural* Plataforma per la Llengua;Scholars* Marina Abràmova* Germà Colón* Dominique de Courcelles* Martí de Riquer* Arthur Terry* Lawrence Venuti;Other* Languages of Catalonia** Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers* Languages of France* Languages of Italy* Languages of Spain* Normes de Castelló* Pompeu Fabra" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*'''Institutions'''* Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística* Institut d'Estudis Catalans* Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'''About the Catalan language'''* llengua.gencat.cat, by the Government of Catalonia* Gramàtica de la Llengua Catalana (Catalan grammar), from the Institute for Catalan Studies* Gramàtica Normativa Valenciana (2006, Valencian grammar) , from the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua* verbs.cat (Catalan verb conjugations with online trainers)* Catalan and its dialects* LEXDIALGRAM – online portal of 19th-century dialectal lexicographical and grammatical works of Catalan hosted by the University of Barcelona'''Monolingual dictionaries'''* DIEC2, from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans* Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana , from Enciclopèdia Catalana* Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear d'Alcover i Moll , from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans* Diccionari Normatiu Valencià (AVL), from the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua* diccionarivalencia.com (online Valencian dictionary)* Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana (dictionary of Catalan words spelled backwards)'''Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries'''* Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe (Catalan ↔ English, French, German and Spanish), from Enciclopèdia Catalana* DACCO – open source, collaborative dictionary (Catalan–English)'''Automated translation systems'''* Traductor automated, online translations of text and web pages (Catalan ↔ English, French and Spanish), from gencat.cat by the Government of Catalonia'''Phrasebooks'''* Catalan phrasebook on Wikivoyage'''Learning resources'''* Catalan Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words, from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix'''Catalan-language online encyclopedia'''* Enciclopèdia Catalana" ] ]

[ [ "STS-51-F" ], [ "Introduction", "'''STS-51-F''' (also known as '''Spacelab 2''') was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.", "It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on July 29, 1985, and landed eight days later on August 6, 1985.While STS-51-F's primary payload was the Spacelab 2 laboratory module, the payload that received the most publicity was the Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation, which was an experiment in which both Coca-Cola and Pepsi tried to make their carbonated drinks available to astronauts.", "A helium-cooled infrared telescope (IRT) was also flown on this mission, and while it did have some problems, it observed 60% of the galactic plane in infrared light.During launch, ''Challenger'' experienced multiple sensor failures in its Engine 1 Center SSME engine, which led to it shutting down and the shuttle had to perform an \"Abort to Orbit\" (ATO) emergency procedure.", "It is the only Shuttle mission to have carried out an abort after launching.", "As a result of the ATO, the mission was carried out at a slightly lower orbital altitude." ], [ "Crew", "=== Backup crew ====== Crew seating arrangements === Seat Launch Landing 150pxSeats 1–4 are on the Flight Deck.", "Seats 5–7 are on the Middeck.", "S1 Fullerton Fullerton S2 Bridges Bridges S3 Henize Henize S4 Musgrave Musgrave S5 England England S6 Acton Acton S7 Bartoe Bartoe=== Crew notes ===As with previous Spacelab missions, the crew was divided between two 12-hour shifts.", "Acton, Bridges and Henize made up the \"Red Team\" while Bartoe, England and Musgrave comprised the \"Blue Team\"; commander Fullerton could take either shift when needed.", "''Challenger'' carried two Extravehicular Mobility Units (EMU) in the event of an emergency spacewalk, which would have been performed by England and Musgrave." ], [ "Launch", "Aborted launch attempt at T-3 seconds on July 12, 1985.The control panel of the Shuttle on the STS-51-F mission, showing the selection of the Abort-to-Orbit (ATO) option.STS-51-F's first launch attempt on July 12, 1985, was halted with the countdown at T−3 seconds after main engine ignition, when a malfunction of the number two RS-25 coolant valve caused an automatic launch abort.", "''Challenger'' launched successfully on its second attempt on July 29, 1985, at 17:00 p.m. EDT, after a delay of 1 hour 37 minutes due to a problem with the table maintenance block update uplink.At 3 minutes 31 seconds into the ascent, one of the center engine's two high-pressure fuel turbopump turbine discharge temperature sensors failed.", "Two minutes and twelve seconds later, the second sensor failed, causing the shutdown of the center engine.", "This was the only in-flight RS-25 failure of the Space Shuttle program.", "Approximately 8 minutes into the flight, one of the same temperature sensors in the right engine failed, and the remaining right-engine temperature sensor displayed readings near the redline for engine shutdown.", "Booster Systems Engineer Jenny M. Howard acted quickly to recommend that the crew inhibit any further automatic RS-25 shutdowns based on readings from the remaining sensors, preventing the potential shutdown of a second engine and a possible abort mode that may have resulted in the loss of crew and vehicle (LOCV).The failed RS-25 resulted in an Abort to Orbit (ATO) trajectory, whereby the shuttle achieved a lower-than-planned orbital altitude.", "The plan had been for a by orbit, but the mission was carried out at by ." ], [ "Mission summary", "The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) grappled by the Canadarm.Space art for the Spacelab 2 mission, showing some of the various experiments in the payload bay.Tony England drinks soda in space.A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit, taken on the STS-51-F mission.STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2.A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the \"igloo\", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets.", "The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft.", "Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research.", "Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit.", "This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond.", "Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected.", "In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.=== Spacelab Infrared Telescope ===The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.", "The IRT was a aperture helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.", "It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle would corrupt long-wavelength data, however it still returned useful astronomical data.", "Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.", "IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.", "(see also List of largest infrared telescopes) A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.=== Other payloads ===The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere.", "During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.", "During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise.", "The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.In a heavily publicized marketing experiment, astronauts aboard STS-51-F drank carbonated beverages from specially designed cans from Cola Wars competitors Coca-Cola and Pepsi.", "According to Acton, after Coke developed its experimental dispenser for an earlier shuttle flight, Pepsi insisted to American president Ronald Reagan that Coke should not be the first cola in space.", "The experiment was delayed until Pepsi could develop its own system, and the two companies' products were assigned to STS-51-F.Blue Team tested Coke, and Red Team tested Pepsi.", "As part of the experiment, each team was photographed with the cola logo.", "Acton said that while the sophisticated Coke system \"dispensed soda kind of like what we're used to drinking on Earth\", the Pepsi can was a shaving cream can with the Pepsi logo on a paper wrapper, which \"dispensed soda filled with bubbles\" that was \"not very drinkable\".", "Acton said that when he gives speeches in schools, audiences are much more interested in hearing about the cola experiment than in solar physics.", "Post-flight, the astronauts revealed that they preferred Tang, in part because it could be mixed on-orbit with existing chilled-water supplies, whereas there was no dedicated refrigeration equipment on board to chill the cans, which also fizzed excessively in microgravity.In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two \"holes\" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere.", "A worldwide group of geophysicists collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2." ], [ "Landing", "''Challenger'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on August 6, 1985, at 12:45:26 p.m. PDT.", "Its rollout distance was .", "The mission had been extended by 17 orbits for additional payload activities due to the Abort to Orbit.", "The orbiter arrived back at Kennedy Space Center on August 11, 1985." ], [ "Mission insignia", "The mission insignia was designed by Houston, Texas artist Skip Bradley.", "is depicted ascending toward the heavens in search of new knowledge in the field of solar and stellar astronomy, with its Spacelab 2 payload.", "The constellations Leo and Orion are shown in the positions they were in relative to the Sun during the flight.", "The nineteen stars indicate that the mission is the 19th shuttle flight." ], [ "Legacy", "One of the purposes of the mission was to test how suitable the Shuttle was for conducting infrared observations, and the IRT was operated on this mission.", "However, the orbiter was found to have some draw-backs for infrared astronomy, and this led to later infrared telescopes being free-flying from the Shuttle orbiter." ], [ "See also", "* List of human spaceflights* List of Space Shuttle missions* Salyut 7 (a space station of the Soviet Union also in orbit at this time)** Soyuz T-13 (a mission to salvage that space station in the summer of 1985)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* NASA mission summary * Press Kit * STS-51F Video Highlights * Space Coke can * Carbonated Drinks in Space* YouTube: STS-51F launch, abort and landing* July 12 launch attempt* Space Shuttle Missions Summary" ] ]

[ [ "Classical period (music)" ], [ "Introduction", "A young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, a representative composer of the Classical period, seated at a keyboard.The '''Classical period''' was an era of classical music between roughly 1750 and 1820.The Classical period falls between the Baroque and the Romantic periods.", "Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music, but a more varying use of musical form, which is, in simpler terms, the rhythm and organization of any given piece of music.", "It is mainly homophonic, using a clear melody line over a subordinate chordal accompaniment, but counterpoint was by no means forgotten, especially in liturgical vocal music and, later in the period, secular instrumental music.", "It also makes use of ''style galant'' which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroque's dignified seriousness and impressive grandeur.", "Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before and the orchestra increased in size, range, and power.The harpsichord was replaced as the main keyboard instrument by the piano (or fortepiano).", "Unlike the harpsichord, which plucks strings with quills, pianos strike the strings with leather-covered hammers when the keys are pressed, which enables the performer to play louder or softer (hence the original name \"fortepiano,\" literally \"loud soft\") and play with more expression; in contrast, the force with which a performer plays the harpsichord keys does not change the sound.", "Instrumental music was considered important by Classical period composers.", "The main kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio, string quartet, quintet, symphony (performed by an orchestra) and the solo concerto, which featured a virtuoso solo performer playing a solo work for violin, piano, flute, or another instrument, accompanied by an orchestra.", "Vocal music, such as songs for a singer and piano (notably the work of Schubert), choral works, and opera (a staged dramatic work for singers and orchestra) were also important during this period.The best-known composers from this period are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Franz Schubert; other names in this period include: Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Johann Christian Bach, Luigi Boccherini, Domenico Cimarosa, Joseph Martin Kraus, Muzio Clementi, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, André Grétry, Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny, Leopold Mozart, Michael Haydn, Giovanni Paisiello, Johann Baptist Wanhal, François-André Danican Philidor, Niccolò Piccinni, Antonio Salieri, Etienne Nicolas Mehul, Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Georg Matthias Monn, Johann Gottlieb Graun, Carl Heinrich Graun, Franz Benda, Georg Anton Benda, Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Mauro Giuliani, Christian Cannabich and the Chevalier de Saint-Georges.", "Beethoven is regarded either as a Romantic composer or a Classical period composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic era.", "Schubert is also a transitional figure, as were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Luigi Cherubini, Gaspare Spontini, Gioachino Rossini, Carl Maria von Weber, Jan Ladislav Dussek and Niccolò Paganini.", "The period is sometimes referred to as the era of ''Viennese Classicism'' (), since Gluck, Haydn, Salieri, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert all worked in Vienna." ], [ "Classicism", "In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and the arts, generally known as Neoclassicism.", "This style sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity, especially those of Classical Greece.", "Classical music used formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, and a \"clearer\", \"cleaner\" style that used clearer divisions between parts (notably a clear, single melody accompanied by chords), brighter contrasts and \"tone colors\" (achieved by the use of dynamic changes and modulations to more keys).", "In contrast with the richly layered music of the Baroque era, Classical music moved towards simplicity rather than complexity.", "In addition, the typical size of orchestras began to increase, giving orchestras a more powerful sound.The remarkable development of ideas in \"natural philosophy\" had already established itself in the public consciousness.", "In particular, Newton's physics was taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in axioms and be both well-articulated and orderly.", "This taste for structural clarity began to affect music, which moved away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period toward a style known as homophony, in which the melody is played over a subordinate harmony.", "This move meant that chords became a much more prevalent feature of music, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part.", "As a result, the tonal structure of a piece of music became more audible.The new style was also encouraged by changes in the economic order and social structure.", "As the 18th century progressed well, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred lighter, funny comic operas.", "This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups and the reduction in the importance of the ''continuo''—the rhythmic and harmonic groundwork of a piece of music, typically played by a keyboard (harpsichord or organ) and usually accompanied by a varied group of bass instruments, including cello, double bass, bass viol, and theorbo.", "One way to trace the decline of the continuo and its figured chords is to examine the disappearance of the term ''obbligato'', meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of chamber music.", "In Baroque compositions, additional instruments could be added to the continuo group according to the group or leader's preference; in Classical compositions, all parts were specifically noted, though not always ''notated'', so the term \"obbligato\" became redundant.", "By 1800, basso continuo was practically extinct, except for the occasional use of a pipe organ continuo part in a religious Mass in the early 1800s.Economic changes also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians.", "While in the late Baroque, a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the musical forces available at an aristocratic hunting lodge or small court were smaller and more fixed in their level of ability.", "This was a spur to having simpler parts for ensemble musicians to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the Mannheim orchestra, or virtuoso solo parts for particularly skilled violinists or flutists.", "In addition, the appetite by audiences for a continual supply of new music carried over from the Baroque.", "This meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one or two rehearsals.", "Even after 1790 Mozart writes about \"the rehearsal\", with the implication that his concerts would have only one rehearsal.Since there was a greater emphasis on a single melodic line, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for dynamics and phrasing.", "This contrasts with the Baroque era, when melodies were typically written with no dynamics, phrasing marks or ornaments, as it was assumed that the performer would improvise these elements on the spot.", "In the Classical era, it became more common for composers to indicate where they wanted performers to play ornaments such as trills or turns.", "The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.The Classical period also saw the gradual development of sonata form, a set of structural principles for music that reconciled the Classical preference for melodic material with harmonic development, which could be applied across musical genres.", "The sonata itself continued to be the principal form for solo and chamber music, while later in the Classical period the string quartet became a prominent genre.", "The symphony form for orchestra was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn).", "The ''concerto grosso'' (a concerto for more than one musician), a very popular form in the Baroque era, began to be replaced by the ''solo concerto'', featuring only one soloist.", "Composers began to place more importance on the particular soloist's ability to show off virtuoso skills, with challenging, fast scale and arpeggio runs.", "Nonetheless, some ''concerti grossi'' remained, the most famous of which being Mozart's Sinfonia Concertante for Violin and Viola in E-flat major.A modern string quartet.", "In the 2000s, string quartets from the Classical era are the core of the chamber music literature.", "From left to right: violin 1, violin 2, cello, viola" ], [ "Main characteristics", "In the classical period, the theme consists of phrases with contrasting melodic figures and rhythms.", "These phrases are relatively brief, typically four bars in length, and can occasionally seem sparse or terse.", "The texture is mainly homophonic, with a clear melody above a subordinate chordal accompaniment, for instance an Alberti bass.", "This contrasts with the practice in Baroque music, where a piece or movement would typically have only one musical subject, which would then be worked out in a number of voices according to the principles of counterpoint, while maintaining a consistent rhythm or metre throughout.", "As a result, Classical music tends to have a lighter, clearer texture than the Baroque.", "The classical style draws on the ''style galant'', a musical style which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroque's dignified seriousness and impressive grandeur.Structurally, Classical music generally has a clear musical form, with a well-defined contrast between tonic and dominant, introduced by clear cadences.", "Dynamics are used to highlight the structural characteristics of the piece.", "In particular, sonata form and its variants were developed during the early classical period and was frequently used.", "The Classical approach to structure again contrasts with the Baroque, where a composition would normally move between tonic and dominant and back again, but through a continual progress of chord changes and without a sense of \"arrival\" at the new key.", "While counterpoint was less emphasised in the classical period, it was by no means forgotten, especially later in the period, and composers still used counterpoint in \"serious\" works such as symphonies and string quartets, as well as religious pieces, such as Masses.The classical musical style was supported by technical developments in instruments.", "The widespread adoption of equal temperament made classical musical structure possible, by ensuring that cadences in all keys sounded similar.", "The fortepiano and then the pianoforte replaced the harpsichord, enabling more dynamic contrast and more sustained melodies.", "Over the Classical period, keyboard instruments became richer, more sonorous and more powerful.The orchestra increased in size and range, and became more standardised.", "The harpsichord or pipe organ basso continuo role in orchestra fell out of use between 1750 and 1775, leaving the string section.", "Woodwinds became a self-contained section, consisting of clarinets, oboes, flutes and bassoons.While vocal music such as comic opera was popular, great importance was given to instrumental music.", "The main kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio, string quartet, quintet, symphony, concerto (usually for a virtuoso solo instrument accompanied by orchestra), and light pieces such as serenades and divertimentos.", "Sonata form developed and became the most important form.", "It was used to build up the first movement of most large-scale works in symphonies and string quartets.", "Sonata form was also used in other movements and in single, standalone pieces such as overtures." ], [ "History", "=== Baroque/Classical transition c. 1750–1760 ===Gluck, detail of a portrait by Joseph Duplessis, dated 1775 (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)In his book ''The Classical Style'', author and pianist Charles Rosen claims that from 1755 to 1775, composers groped for a new style that was more effectively dramatic.", "In the High Baroque period, dramatic expression was limited to the representation of individual ''affects'' (the \"doctrine of affections\", or what Rosen terms \"dramatic sentiment\").", "For example, in Handel's oratorio ''Jephtha'', the composer renders four emotions separately, one for each character, in the quartet \"O, spare your daughter\".", "Eventually this depiction of individual emotions came to be seen as simplistic and unrealistic; composers sought to portray multiple emotions, simultaneously or progressively, within a single character or movement (\"dramatic action\").", "Thus in the finale of act 2 of Mozart's ''Die Entführung aus dem Serail'', the lovers move \"from joy through suspicion and outrage to final reconciliation.", "\"Musically speaking, this \"dramatic action\" required more musical variety.", "Whereas Baroque music was characterized by seamless flow within individual movements and largely uniform textures, composers after the High Baroque sought to interrupt this flow with abrupt changes in texture, dynamic, harmony, or tempo.", "Among the stylistic developments which followed the High Baroque, the most dramatic came to be called ''Empfindsamkeit'', (roughly \"sensitive style\"), and its best-known practitioner was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach.", "Composers of this style employed the above-discussed interruptions in the most abrupt manner, and the music can sound illogical at times.", "The Italian composer Domenico Scarlatti took these developments further.", "His more than five hundred single-movement keyboard sonatas also contain abrupt changes of texture, but these changes are organized into periods, balanced phrases that became a hallmark of the classical style.", "However, Scarlatti's changes in texture still sound sudden and unprepared.", "The outstanding achievement of the great classical composers (Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven) was their ability to make these dramatic surprises sound logically motivated, so that \"the expressive and the elegant could join hands.", "\"Between the death of J. S. Bach and the maturity of Haydn and Mozart (roughly 1750–1770), composers experimented with these new ideas, which can be seen in the music of Bach's sons.", "Johann Christian developed a style which we now call ''Roccoco'', comprising simpler textures and harmonies, and which was \"charming, undramatic, and a little empty.\"", "As mentioned previously, Carl Philipp Emmanuel sought to increase drama, and his music was \"violent, expressive, brilliant, continuously surprising, and often incoherent.\"", "And finally Wilhelm Friedemann, J.S.", "Bach's eldest son, extended Baroque traditions in an idiomatic, unconventional way.At first the new style took over Baroque forms—the ternary ''da capo aria'', the ''sinfonia'' and the ''concerto''—but composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation, rather than the improvised ornaments that were common in the Baroque era, and more emphatic division of pieces into sections.", "However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic formal layouts changed.", "Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures.", "One of the big textural changes was a shift away from the complex, dense polyphonic style of the Baroque, in which multiple interweaving melodic lines were played simultaneously, and towards homophony, a lighter texture which uses a clear single melody line accompanied by chords.Baroque music generally uses many harmonic fantasies and polyphonic sections that focus less on the structure of the musical piece, and there was less emphasis on clear musical phrases.", "In the classical period, the harmonies became simpler.", "However, the structure of the piece, the phrases and small melodic or rhythmic motives, became much more important than in the Baroque period.Muzio Clementi's Sonata in G minor, No.", "3, Op.", "50, \"Didone abbandonata\", adagio movementAnother important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck, who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornaments and focused on the points of modulation and transition.", "By making these moments where the harmony changes more of a focus, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music.", "To highlight these transitions, he used changes in instrumentation (orchestration), melody, and mode.", "Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, including Antonio Salieri.", "Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and in other vocal music such as songs, oratorios, and choruses.", "These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest public success.The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical (around 1730), was home to various competing musical styles.", "The diversity of artistic paths are represented in the sons of Johann Sebastian Bach: Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, who continued the Baroque tradition in a personal way; Johann Christian Bach, who simplified textures of the Baroque and most clearly influenced Mozart; and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who composed passionate and sometimes violently eccentric music of the ''Empfindsamkeit'' movement.", "Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new.", "This is one of the reasons C. P. E. Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form.=== 1750–1775 ===Thomas Hardy, 1792By the late 1750s there were flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies were composed and there were bands of players associated with musical theatres.", "Opera or other vocal music accompanied by orchestra was the feature of most musical events, with concertos and symphonies (arising from the overture) serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services.", "Over the course of the Classical period, symphonies and concertos developed and were presented independently of vocal music.Mozart wrote a number of divertimentos, light instrumental pieces designed for entertainment.", "This is the 2nd movement of his Divertimento in E-flat major, K. 113.The \"normal\" orchestra ensemble—a body of strings supplemented by winds—and movements of particular rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in Vienna.", "However, the length and weight of pieces was still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focused on one \"affect\" (musical mood) or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length was not significantly greater than Baroque movements.", "There was not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style.", "It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.The first great master of the style was the composer Joseph Haydn.", "In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych (''Morning'', ''Noon'', and ''Evening'') solidly in the contemporary mode.", "As a vice-Kapellmeister and later Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone.", "And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.While some scholars suggest that Haydn was later overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole.", "At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps the Baroque era's George Frideric Handel.", "Haydn took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned—earning him the titles \"father of the symphony\" and \"father of the string quartet\".One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called Romanticism—the ''Sturm und Drang'', or \"storm and stress\" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious and dramatic emotionalism was a stylistic preference.", "Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality in his pieces.", "This period faded away in music and literature: however, it influenced what came afterward and would eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in later decades.The ''Farewell Symphony'', No.", "45 in F minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns and a long slow adagio to end the work.", "In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous Baroque era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas.", "For some, this marks the beginning of the \"mature\" Classical style, a transitional period in which reaction against late Baroque complexity yielded to integration of Baroque and Classical elements.=== 1775–1790 ===Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, posthumous painting by Barbara Krafft in 1819Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most other composers.", "His position also gave him the ability to shape the forces that would play his music, as he could select skilled musicians.", "This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, sought to press forward the technique of building and developing ideas in his music.", "His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), in which the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony.", "This changes the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption.", "He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.The opening bars of the Commendatore's aria in Mozart's opera ''Don Giovanni''.", "The orchestra starts with a dissonant diminished seventh chord (G# dim7 with a B in the bass) moving to a dominant seventh chord (A7 with a C# in the bass) before resolving to the tonic chord (D minor) at the singer's entrance.Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style.", "However, a younger contemporary, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, brought his genius to Haydn's ideas and applied them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto.", "Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities, playing for the general public.", "This meant he needed to write operas and write and perform virtuoso pieces.", "Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience.", "Mozart wanted to achieve both.", "Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole.", "He found, in Haydn's music and later in his study of the polyphony of J.S.", "Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his artistic gifts.The Mozart family c. 1780.The portrait on the wall is of Mozart's mother.Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music.", "In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource.", "The learning relationship moved in both directions.", "Mozart also had a great respect for the older, more experienced composer, and sought to learn from him.Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style.", "There, Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness that had been brewing for the previous 20 years.", "His own taste for flashy brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness.", "It is at this point that war and economic inflation halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theater orchestras.", "This pressed the Classical style inwards: toward seeking greater ensemble and technical challenges—for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using a melody harmonized in thirds.", "This process placed a premium on small ensemble music, called chamber music.", "It also led to a trend for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a high standard of composition.", "By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style.", "By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn.", "During this decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six late symphonies that helped to redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti that still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is Muzio Clementi, a gifted virtuoso pianist who tied with Mozart in a musical \"duel\" before the emperor in which they each improvised on the piano and performed their compositions.", "Clementi's sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in London during the 1780s.", "Also in London at this time was Jan Ladislav Dussek, who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened up possibilities.", "The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to the Broadwood's factory for piano manufacturing and as the base for composers who, while less notable than the \"Vienna School\", had a decisive influence on what came later.", "They were composers of many fine works, notable in their own right.", "London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.=== Around 1790–1820 ===When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements—before, between, or as interludes within other works—and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central part of music-making.In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes.", "International publication and touring had grown explosively, and concert societies formed.", "Notation became more specific, more descriptive—and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out).", "In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and London symphonies.", "Composers in Paris, Rome, and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.Portrait of Beethoven by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820In the 1790s, a new generation of composers, born around 1770, emerged.", "While they had grown up with the earlier styles, they heard in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression.", "In 1788 Luigi Cherubini settled in Paris and in 1791 composed ''Lodoiska'', an opera that raised him to fame.", "Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the grand opera.", "His contemporary Étienne Méhul extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera ''Euphrosine et Coradin'', from which followed a series of successes.", "The final push towards change came from Gaspare Spontini, who was deeply admired by future romantic composers such as Weber, Berlioz and Wagner.", "The innovative harmonic language of his operas, their refined instrumentation and their \"enchained\" closed numbers (a structural pattern which was later adopted by Weber in Euryanthe and from him handed down, through Marschner, to Wagner), formed the basis from which French and German romantic opera had its beginnings.Hummel in 1814The most fateful of the new generation was Ludwig van Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire.", "Somewhat younger than the others, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was Johann Nepomuk Hummel.", "Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and Franz Schubert.", "He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration.", "Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of music.", "They studied one another's works, copied one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals.The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from \"vocal\" writing to \"pianistic\" writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring \"texture\" forward as an element in music.", "In short, the late Classical was seeking music that was internally more complex.", "The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as exemplars.", "Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising.The direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the figured bass grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid-18th century continued to die out.", "However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive use of brass.", "Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present.", "This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer \"optional\" parts that stood separately from the main score.The force of these shifts became apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name ''Eroica'', which is Italian for \"heroic\", by the composer.", "As with Stravinsky's ''The Rite of Spring'', it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources as well making it the first symphony of the Romantic era." ], [ "First Viennese School", "View of Vienna in 1758, by Bernardo BellottoThe First Viennese School is a name mostly used to refer to three composers of the Classical period in late-18th-century Vienna: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.", "Franz Schubert is occasionally added to the list.In German-speaking countries, the term ''Wiener Klassik'' (lit.", "''Viennese classical era/art'') is used.", "That term is often more broadly applied to the Classical era in music as a whole, as a means to distinguish it from other periods that are colloquially referred to as ''classical'', namely Baroque and Romantic music.The term \"Viennese School\" was first used by Austrian musicologist Raphael Georg Kiesewetter in 1834, although he only counted Haydn and Mozart as members of the school.", "Other writers followed suit, and eventually Beethoven was added to the list.", "The designation \"first\" is added today to avoid confusion with the Second Viennese School.Whilst, Schubert apart, these composers certainly knew each other (with Haydn and Mozart even being occasional chamber-music partners), there is no sense in which they were engaged in a collaborative effort in the sense that one would associate with 20th-century schools such as the Second Viennese School, or Les Six.", "Nor is there any significant sense in which one composer was \"schooled\" by another (in the way that Berg and Webern were taught by Schoenberg), though it is true that Beethoven for a time received lessons from Haydn.Attempts to extend the First Viennese School to include such later figures as Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, and Gustav Mahler are merely journalistic, and never encountered in academic musicology." ], [ "Classical influence on later composers", "1875 oil painting of Franz Schubert by Wilhelm August Rieder, after his own 1825 watercolor portraitMusical eras and their prevalent styles, forms and instruments seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old approach is simply felt as \"old-fashioned\".", "The Classical style did not \"die\" suddenly; rather, it gradually got phased out under the weight of changes.", "To give just one example, while it is generally stated that the Classical era stopped using the harpsichord in orchestras, this did not happen all of a sudden at the start of the Classical era in 1750.Rather, orchestras slowly stopped using the harpsichord to play basso continuo until the practice was discontinued by the end of the 1700s.Portrait of Mendelssohn by James Warren Childe, 1839One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering on \"flatward\" keys: shifts in the subdominant direction .", "In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of \"sharpward\" modulation (e.g., a piece in C major modulating to G major, D major, or A major, all of which are keys with more sharps).", "As well, sections in the minor mode were often used for contrast.", "Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region (the ii or IV chord, which in the key of C major would be the keys of d minor or F major).", "With Schubert, subdominant modulations flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts (modulations to the dominant chord, e.g., in the key of C major, modulating to G major).", "This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain.", "Beethoven contributed to this by his increasing use of the fourth as a consonance, and modal ambiguity—for example, the opening of the Symphony No.", "9 in D minor.Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Carl Maria von Weber, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, and John Field are among the most prominent in this generation of \"Proto-Romantics\", along with the young Felix Mendelssohn.", "Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style.", "While they were not yet \"learned\" composers (imitating rules which were codified by others), they directly responded to works by Haydn, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them.", "The instrumental forces at their disposal in orchestras were also quite \"Classical\" in number and variety, permitting similarity with Classical works.Bernhard Crusell, a Swedish-Finnish composer and clarinetist, in 1826However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gathered strength in the works of many of the above composers, particularly Beethoven.", "The most commonly cited one is harmonic innovation.", "Also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration: Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata was the model for hundreds of later pieces—where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it.", "Greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the increasingly more powerful piano (which was given a bolder, louder tone by technological developments such as the use of steel strings, heavy cast-iron frames and sympathetically vibrating strings) all created a huge audience for sophisticated music.", "All of these trends contributed to the shift to the \"Romantic\" style.Drawing the line between these two styles is very difficult: some sections of Mozart's later works, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later—and some composers continued to write in normative Classical styles into the early 20th century.", "Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as Louis Spohr were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more extravagant chromaticism in their works (e.g., using chromatic harmonies in a piece's chord progression).", "Conversely, works such as Schubert's Symphony No.", "5, written during the chronological end of the Classical era and dawn of the Romantic era, exhibit a deliberately anachronistic artistic paradigm, harking back to the compositional style of several decades before.However, Vienna's fall as the most important musical center for orchestral composition during the late 1820s, precipitated by the deaths of Beethoven and Schubert, marked the Classical style's final eclipse—and the end of its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others.", "Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin visited Vienna when they were young, but they then moved on to other cities.", "Composers such as Carl Czerny, while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.Renewed interest in the formal balance and restraint of 18th century classical music led in the early 20th century to the development of so-called Neoclassical style, which numbered Stravinsky and Prokofiev among its proponents, at least at certain times in their careers." ], [ "Classical period instruments", "Fortepiano by Paul McNulty after Walter & Sohn, c. 1805===Guitar===The Baroque guitar, with four or five sets of double strings or \"courses\" and elaborately decorated soundhole, was a very different instrument from the early classical guitar which more closely resembles the modern instrument with the standard six strings.", "Judging by the number of instructional manuals published for the instrument – over three hundred texts were published by over two hundred authors between 1760 and 1860 – the classical period marked a golden age for guitar.===Strings===In the Baroque era, there was more variety in the bowed stringed instruments used in ensembles, with instruments such as the viola d'amore and a range of fretted viols being used, ranging from small viols to large bass viols.", "In the Classical period, the string section of the orchestra was standardized as just four instruments:* Violin (in orchestras and chamber music, typically there are first violins and second violins, with the former playing the melody and/or a higher line and the latter playing either a countermelody, a harmony part, a part below the first violin line in pitch, or an accompaniment line)* Viola (the alto voice of the orchestral string section and string quartet; it often performs \"inner voices\", which are accompaniment lines which fill in the harmony of the piece)* Cello (the cello plays two roles in Classical era music; at times it is used to play the bassline of the piece, typically doubled by the double basses Note: When cellos and double basses read the same bassline, the basses play an octave below the cellos, because the bass is a transposing instrument; and at other times it performs melodies and solos in the lower register)* Double bass (the bass typically performs the lowest pitches in the string section in order to provide the bassline for the piece)In the Baroque era, the double bass players were not usually given a separate part; instead, they typically played the same basso continuo bassline that the cellos and other low-pitched instruments (e.g., theorbo, serpent wind instrument, viols), albeit an octave below the cellos, because the double bass is a transposing instrument that sounds one octave lower than it is written.", "In the Classical era, some composers continued to write only one bass part for their symphony, labeled \"bassi\"; this bass part was played by cellists and double bassists.", "During the Classical era, some composers began to give the double basses their own part.===Woodwinds===It was commonplace for all orchestras to have at least 2 winds, usually oboes, flutes, clarinets, or sometimes english horns (see Symphony No.", "22 (Haydn).", "Patrons also usually employed an ensemble of entirely winds, called the ''harmonie'', which would be employed for certain events.", "The harmonie would sometimes join the larger string orchestra to serve as the wind section.", "* Piccolo (used in military bands)* Flute* Oboe* English horn* Clarinet* Basset horn (see Requiem (Mozart))* Basset Clarinet * Clarinette d'amour* Bassoon* Contrabassoon (see The Creation (Haydn))* Bagpipe (see Leopold Mozart's divertimento, \"Die Bauernhochzeit\" or \"Peasant Wedding\")===Percussion===* Timpani* \"Turkish music\":**Bass drum**Cymbals**Triangle** Tambourine===Keyboards===* Clavichord* Fortepiano (the forerunner to the modern piano)* Harpsichord, the standard Baroque era basso continuo keyboard instrument, was used until the 1750s, after which time it was gradually phased out, and replaced with the fortepiano and then the piano.", "By the early 1800s, the harpsichord was no longer used.", "* Organ===Brasses===* Natural horn* Natural trumpet* Sackbut (Trombone precursor)* Keyed trumpet (see Trumpet Concerto (Haydn))* Serpent (commonplace in military bands)* Post horn (see Serenade No.", "9 (Mozart))" ], [ "See also", "* List of Classical-era composers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Downs, Philip G. (1992).", "''Classical Music: The Era of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven'', 4th vol of ''Norton Introduction to Music History''.", "W. W. Norton.", "(hardcover).", "* Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996).", "''A History of Western Music'', Fifth Edition.", "W. W. Norton.", "(hardcover).", "* Hanning, Barbara Russano; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev.", "2006).", "''Concise History of Western Music''.", "W. W. Norton.", "(hardcover).", "* Kennedy, Michael (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, * Lihoreau, Tim; Fry, Stephen (2004).", "''Stephen Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music''.", "Boxtree.", "* Rosen, Charles (1972 expanded 1997).", "''The Classical Style''.", "New York: W. W. Norton.", "(expanded edition with CD, 1997)* Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev.", "Paperback version 2009).", "''Oxford History of Western Music''.", "Oxford University Press (US).", "(Hardback), (Paperback)" ], [ "External links", "* Classical Net – Classical music reference site*" ] ]

[ [ "Character encoding" ], [ "Introduction", "Punched tape with the word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in ASCII.", "Presence and absence of a hole represents 1 and 0, respectively; for example, \"W\" is encoded as \"1010111\".", "'''Character encoding''' is the process of assigning numbers to graphical characters, especially the written characters of human language, allowing them to be stored, transmitted, and transformed using digital computers.", "The numerical values that make up a character encoding are known as \"code points\" and collectively comprise a \"code space\", a \"code page\", or a \"character map\".Early character codes associated with the optical or electrical telegraph could only represent a subset of the characters used in written languages, sometimes restricted to upper case letters, numerals and some punctuation only.", "The low cost of digital representation of data in modern computer systems allows more elaborate character codes (such as Unicode) which represent most of the characters used in many written languages.", "Character encoding using internationally accepted standards permits worldwide interchange of text in electronic form." ], [ "History", "The history of character codes illustrates the evolving need for machine-mediated character-based symbolic information over a distance, using once-novel electrical means.", "The earliest codes were based upon manual and hand-written encoding and cyphering systems, such as Bacon's cipher, Braille, international maritime signal flags, and the 4-digit encoding of Chinese characters for a Chinese telegraph code (Hans Schjellerup, 1869).", "With the adoption of electrical and electro-mechanical techniques these earliest codes were adapted to the new capabilities and limitations of the early machines.", "The earliest well-known electrically transmitted character code, Morse code, introduced in the 1840s, used a system of four \"symbols\" (short signal, long signal, short space, long space) to generate codes of variable length.", "Though some commercial use of Morse code was via machinery, it was often used as a manual code, generated by hand on a telegraph key and decipherable by ear, and persists in amateur radio and aeronautical use.", "Most codes are of fixed per-character length or variable-length sequences of fixed-length codes (e.g.", "Unicode).Common examples of character encoding systems include Morse code, the Baudot code, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Unicode.", "Unicode, a well-defined and extensible encoding system, has supplanted most earlier character encodings, but the path of code development to the present is fairly well known.The Baudot code, a five-bit encoding, was created by Émile Baudot in 1870, patented in 1874, modified by Donald Murray in 1901, and standardized by CCITT as International Telegraph Alphabet No.", "2 (ITA2) in 1930.The name ''baudot'' has been erroneously applied to ITA2 and its many variants.", "ITA2 suffered from many shortcomings and was often improved by many equipment manufacturers, sometimes creating compatibility issues.", "In 1959 the U.S. military defined its Fieldata code, a six-or seven-bit code, introduced by the U.S. Army Signal Corps.", "While Fieldata addressed many of the then-modern issues (e.g.", "letter and digit codes arranged for machine collation), it fell short of its goals and was short-lived.", "In 1963 the first ASCII code was released (X3.4-1963) by the ASCII committee (which contained at least one member of the Fieldata committee, W. F. Leubbert), which addressed most of the shortcomings of Fieldata, using a simpler code.", "Many of the changes were subtle, such as collatable character sets within certain numeric ranges.", "ASCII63 was a success, widely adopted by industry, and with the follow-up issue of the 1967 ASCII code (which added lower-case letters and fixed some \"control code\" issues) ASCII67 was adopted fairly widely.", "ASCII67's American-centric nature was somewhat addressed in the European ECMA-6 standard.Hollerith 80-column punch card with EBCDIC character setHerman Hollerith invented punch card data encoding in the late 19th century to analyze census data.", "Initially, each hole position represented a different data element, but later, numeric information was encoded by numbering the lower rows 0 to 9, with a punch in a column representing its row number.", "Later alphabetic data was encoded by allowing more than one punch per column.", "Electromechanical tabulating machines represented date internally by the timing of pulses relative to the motion of the cards through the machine.", "When IBM went to electronic processing, starting with the IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, it used a variety of binary encoding schemes that were tied to the punch card code.IBM's Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) was a six-bit encoding scheme used by IBM as early as 1953 in its 702 and 704 computers, and in its later 7000 Series and 1400 series, as well as in associated peripherals.", "Since the punched card code then in use only allowed digits, upper-case English letters and a few special characters, six bits were sufficient.", "BCD extended existing simple four-bit numeric encoding to include alphabetic and special characters, mapping it easily to punch-card encoding which was already in widespread use.", "IBMs codes were used primarily with IBM equipment; other computer vendors of the era had their own character codes, often six-bit, but usually had the ability to read tapes produced on IBM equipment.", "BCD was the precursor of IBM's Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (usually abbreviated as EBCDIC), an eight-bit encoding scheme developed in 1963 for the IBM System/360 that featured a larger character set, including lower case letters.In trying to develop universally interchangeable character encodings, researchers in the 1980s faced the dilemma that, on the one hand, it seemed necessary to add more bits to accommodate additional characters, but on the other hand, for the users of the relatively small character set of the Latin alphabet (who still constituted the majority of computer users), those additional bits were a colossal waste of then-scarce and expensive computing resources (as they would always be zeroed out for such users).", "In 1985, the average personal computer user's hard disk drive could store only about 10 megabytes, and it cost approximately US$250 on the wholesale market (and much higher if purchased separately at retail), so it was very important at the time to make every bit count.The compromise solution that was eventually found and was to break the assumption (dating back to telegraph codes) that each character should always directly correspond to a particular sequence of bits.", "Instead, characters would first be mapped to a universal intermediate representation in the form of abstract numbers called code points.", "Code points would then be represented in a variety of ways and with various default numbers of bits per character (code units) depending on context.", "To encode code points higher than the length of the code unit, such as above 256 for eight-bit units, the solution was to implement variable-length encodings where an escape sequence would signal that subsequent bits should be parsed as a higher code point." ], [ "Terminology", "Informally, the terms \"character encoding\", \"character map\", \"character set\" and \"code page\" are often used interchangeably.", "Historically, the same standard would specify a repertoire of characters and how they were to be encoded into a stream of code units — usually with a single character per code unit.", "However, due to the emergence of more sophisticated character encodings, the distinction between these terms has become important.", "* A ''character'' is a minimal unit of text that has semantic value.", "* A ''character set'' is a collection of elements used to represent text.", "For example, the Latin alphabet and Greek alphabet are both character sets.", "* A ''coded character set'' is a character set mapped to set of unique numbers.", "For historical reasons, this is also often referred to as a code page.", "* A ''character repertoire'' is the set of characters that can be represented by a particular coded character set.", "The repertoire may be closed, meaning that no additions are allowed without creating a new standard (as is the case with ASCII and most of the ISO-8859 series); or it may be open, allowing additions (as is the case with Unicode and to a limited extent Windows code pages).", "* A ''code point'' is a value or position of a character in a coded character set.", "* A ''code space'' is the range of numerical values spanned by a coded character set.", "* A ''code unit'' is the minimum bit combination that can represent a character in a character encoding (in computer science terms, it is the word size of the character encoding).", "For example, common code units include 7-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit.", "In some encodings, some characters are encoded using multiple code units; such an encoding is referred to as a variable-width encoding.===Code pages===\"Code page\" is a historical name for a coded character set.Originally, a code page referred to a specific page number in the IBM standard character set manual, which would define a particular character encoding.", "Other vendors, including Microsoft, SAP, and Oracle Corporation, also published their own sets of code pages; the most well-known code page suites are \"Windows\" (based on Windows-1252) and \"IBM\"/\"DOS\" (based on code page 437).Despite no longer referring to specific page numbers in a standard, many character encodings are still referred to by their code page number; likewise, the term \"code page\" is often still used to refer to character encodings in general.The term \"code page\" is not used in Unix or Linux, where \"charmap\" is preferred, usually in the larger context of locales.", "IBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA) designates entities with coded character set identifiers (CCSIDs), each of which is variously called a \"charset\", \"character set\", \"code page\", or \"CHARMAP\".===Code units===The code unit size is equivalent to the bit measurement for the particular encoding:* A code unit in US-ASCII consists of 7 bits;* A code unit in UTF-8, EBCDIC and GB 18030 consists of 8 bits;* A code unit in UTF-16 consists of 16 bits;* A code unit in UTF-32 consists of 32 bits.===Code points===A code point is represented by a sequence of code units.", "The mapping is defined by the encoding.", "Thus, the number of code units required to represent a code point depends on the encoding:* UTF-8: code points map to a sequence of one, two, three or four code units.", "* UTF-16: code units are twice as long as 8-bit code units.", "Therefore, any code point with a scalar value less than U+10000 is encoded with a single code unit.", "Code points with a value U+10000 or higher require two code units each.", "These pairs of code units have a unique term in UTF-16: \"Unicode surrogate pairs\".", "* UTF-32: the 32-bit code unit is large enough that every code point is represented as a single code unit.", "* GB 18030: multiple code units per code point are common, because of the small code units.", "Code points are mapped to one, two, or four code units.===Characters===Exactly what constitutes a character varies between character encodings.For example, for letters with diacritics, there are two distinct approaches that can be taken to encode them: they can be encoded either as a single unified character (known as a precomposed character), or as separate characters that combine into a single glyph.", "The former simplifies the text handling system, but the latter allows any letter/diacritic combination to be used in text.", "Ligatures pose similar problems.Exactly how to handle glyph variants is a choice that must be made when constructing a particular character encoding.", "Some writing systems, such as Arabic and Hebrew, need to accommodate things like graphemes that are joined in different ways in different contexts, but represent the same semantic character." ], [ "Unicode encoding model", "Unicode and its parallel standard, the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set, together constitute a unified standard for character encoding.", "Rather than mapping characters directly to bytes, Unicode separately defines a coded character set that maps characters to unique natural numbers (code points), how those code points are mapped to a series of fixed-size natural numbers (code units), and finally how those units are encoded as a stream of octets (bytes).", "The purpose of this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be encoded in a variety of ways.", "To describe this model precisely, Unicode uses its own set of terminology to describe its process:An '''abstract character repertoire''' (ACR) is the full set of abstract characters that a system supports.", "Unicode has an open repertoire, meaning that new characters will be added to the repertoire over time.A '''coded character set''' (CCS) is a function that maps characters to ''code points'' (each code point represents one character).", "For example, in a given repertoire, the capital letter \"A\" in the Latin alphabet might be represented by the code point 65, the character \"B\" by 66, and so on.", "Multiple coded character sets may share the same character repertoire; for example ISO/IEC 8859-1 and IBM code pages 037 and 500 all cover the same repertoire but map them to different code points.A '''character encoding form''' (CEF) is the mapping of code points to ''code units'' to facilitate storage in a system that represents numbers as bit sequences of fixed length (i.e.", "practically any computer system).", "For example, a system that stores numeric information in 16-bit units can only directly represent code points 0 to 65,535 in each unit, but larger code points (say, 65,536 to 1.4 million) could be represented by using multiple 16-bit units.", "This correspondence is defined by a CEF.A '''character encoding scheme''' (CES) is the mapping of code units to a sequence of octets to facilitate storage on an octet-based file system or transmission over an octet-based network.", "Simple character encoding schemes include UTF-8, UTF-16BE, UTF-32BE, UTF-16LE, and UTF-32LE; compound character encoding schemes, such as UTF-16, UTF-32 and ISO/IEC 2022, switch between several simple schemes by using a byte order mark or escape sequences; compressing schemes try to minimize the number of bytes used per code unit (such as SCSU and BOCU).Although UTF-32BE and UTF-32LE are simpler CESes, most systems working with Unicode use either UTF-8, which is backward compatible with fixed-length ASCII and maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of octets, or UTF-16BE, which is backward compatible with fixed-length UCS-2BE and maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words.", "See comparison of Unicode encodings for a detailed discussion.Finally, there may be a '''higher-level protocol''' which supplies additional information to select the particular variant of a Unicode character, particularly where there are regional variants that have been 'unified' in Unicode as the same character.", "An example is the XML attribute xml:lang.The Unicode model uses the term \"character map\" for other systems which directly assign a sequence of characters to a sequence of bytes, covering all of the CCS, CEF and CES layers.===Unicode code points===In Unicode, a character can be referred to as 'U+' followed by its codepoint value in hexadecimal.", "The range of valid code points (the codespace) for the Unicode standard is U+0000 to U+10FFFF, inclusive, divided in 17 planes, identified by the numbers 0 to 16.Characters in the range U+0000 to U+FFFF are in plane 0, called the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP).", "This plane contains most commonly-used characters.", "Characters in the range U+10000 to U+10FFFF in the other planes are called supplementary characters.The following table shows examples of code point values: Character Unicode code point Glyph Latin A U+0041 Α Latin sharp S U+00DF ß Han for East U+6771 東 Ampersand U+0026 & Inverted exclamation mark U+00A1 ¡ Section sign U+00A7 §===Example===Consider a string of the letters \"ab̲c𐐀\"—that is, a string containing a Unicode combining character () as well a supplementary character ().", "This string has several Unicode representations which are logically equivalent, yet while each is suited to a diverse set of circumstances or range of requirements:* Four composed characters:*:, , , * Five graphemes:*:, , , , * Five Unicode code points:*:, , , , * Five UTF-32 code units (32-bit integer values):*:, , , , * Six UTF-16 code units (16-bit integers)*:, , , , , * Nine UTF-8 code units (8-bit values, or bytes)*:, , , , , , , , Note in particular that 𐐀 is represented with either one 32-bit value (UTF-32), two 16-bit values (UTF-16), or four 8-bit values (UTF-8).", "Although each of those forms uses the same total number of bits (32) to represent the glyph, it is not obvious how the actual numeric byte values are related." ], [ "Transcoding", "As a result of having many character encoding methods in use (and the need for backward compatibility with archived data), many computer programs have been developed to translate data between character encoding schemes, a process known as transcoding.", "Some of these are cited below.Cross-platform:* Web browsers – most modern web browsers feature automatic character encoding detection.", "On Firefox 3, for example, see the View/Character Encoding submenu.", "* iconv – a program and standardized API to convert encodings* luit – a program that converts encoding of input and output to programs running interactively* International Components for Unicode – A set of C and Java libraries to perform charset conversion.", "uconv can be used from ICU4C.Windows:* Encoding.Convert – .NET API* MultiByteToWideChar/WideCharToMultiByte – to convert from ANSI to Unicode & Unicode to ANSI" ], [ "See also", "* Percent-encoding* Alt code* Character encodings in HTML* :Category:Character encoding – articles related to character encoding in general* :Category:Character sets – articles detailing specific character encodings* Hexadecimal representations* ''Mojibake'' – character set mismap* Mojikyō – a system (\"glyph set\") that includes over 100,000 Chinese character drawings, modern and ancient, popular and obscure* Presentation layer* TRON, part of the TRON project, is an encoding system that does not use Han Unification; instead, it uses \"control codes\" to switch between 16-bit \"planes\" of characters.", "* Universal Character Set characters* Charset sniffing – used in some applications when character encoding metadata is not available=== Common character encodings ===* ISO 646** ASCII* EBCDIC* ISO 8859:** ISO 8859-1 Western Europe** ISO 8859-2 Western and Central Europe** ISO 8859-3 Western Europe and South European (Turkish, Maltese plus Esperanto)** ISO 8859-4 Western Europe and Baltic countries (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Lapp)** ISO 8859-5 Cyrillic alphabet** ISO 8859-6 Arabic** ISO 8859-7 Greek** ISO 8859-8 Hebrew** ISO 8859-9 Western Europe with amended Turkish character set** ISO 8859-10 Western Europe with rationalised character set for Nordic languages, including complete Icelandic set** ISO 8859-11 Thai** ISO 8859-13 Baltic languages plus Polish** ISO 8859-14 Celtic languages (Irish Gaelic, Scottish, Welsh)** ISO 8859-15 Added the Euro sign and other rationalisations to ISO 8859-1** ISO 8859-16 Central, Eastern and Southern European languages (Albanian, Bosnian, Croatian, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Serbian and Slovenian, but also French, German, Italian and Irish Gaelic)* CP437, CP720, CP737, CP850, CP852, CP855, CP857, CP858, CP860, CP861, CP862, CP863, CP865, CP866, CP869, CP872* MS-Windows character sets:** Windows-1250 for Central European languages that use Latin script, (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Slovene, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Romanian and Albanian)** Windows-1251 for Cyrillic alphabets** Windows-1252 for Western languages** Windows-1253 for Greek** Windows-1254 for Turkish** Windows-1255 for Hebrew** Windows-1256 for Arabic** Windows-1257 for Baltic languages** Windows-1258 for Vietnamese* Mac OS Roman* KOI8-R, KOI8-U, KOI7* MIK* ISCII* TSCII* VISCII* JIS X 0208 is a widely deployed standard for Japanese character encoding that has several encoding forms.", "** Shift JIS (Microsoft Code page 932 is a dialect of Shift_JIS)** EUC-JP** ISO-2022-JP* JIS X 0213 is an extended version of JIS X 0208.", "** Shift_JIS-2004** EUC-JIS-2004** ISO-2022-JP-2004* Chinese Guobiao** GB 2312** GBK (Microsoft Code page 936)** GB 18030* Taiwan Big5 (a more famous variant is Microsoft Code page 950)** Hong Kong HKSCS* Korean** KS X 1001 is a Korean double-byte character encoding standard** EUC-KR** ISO-2022-KR* Unicode (and subsets thereof, such as the 16-bit 'Basic Multilingual Plane')** UTF-8** UTF-16** UTF-32* ANSEL or ISO/IEC 6937" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Character sets registered by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)* Characters and encodings, by Jukka Korpela* Unicode Technical Report #17: Character Encoding Model* Decimal, Hexadecimal Character Codes in HTML Unicode – Encoding converter* The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!)", "by Joel Spolsky (Oct 10, 2003)" ] ]