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[
[
"Burgundian"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Burgundian''' can refer to any of the following:*Someone or something from Burgundy.",
"*Burgundians, an East Germanic tribe, who first appear in history in South East Europe.",
"Later Burgundians colonised the area of Gaul that is now known as Burgundy (French Bourgogne)*The Old Burgundian language (Germanic), an East Germanic language spoken by the Burgundians*The Modern Burgundian language (Oïl), an Oïl language also known as spoken in the region of Burgundy, France.",
"* Frainc-Comtou dialect, sometimes regarded as part of the Burgundian group of languages*Burgundian (party), a political faction in early 15th century during the Hundred Years' War*Kingdom of the Burgundians (411–534), an early medieval state founded by the Burgundians*Burgundian Netherlands (1384–1482), the parts of the Duchy of Burgundy that correspond to the Low Countries"
],
[
"See also",
"* Burgundian War (disambiguation)* Burgundy (disambiguation)* Bourgogne (disambiguation)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bronze Age"
],
[
"Introduction",
"One of the Alaca Höyük bronze standards from a pre-Hittite tomb dating to the third millennium BC, from the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, AnkaraThe '''Bronze Age''' is a historic period, lasting from approximately 3300 BC to 1200 BC.",
"Characterized by the use of bronze, the use of writing in some areas, and other features of early urban civilization, the Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age system proposed in 1836 by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for classifying and studying ancient societies and history.",
"It is also considered the second phase of three, in the Metal Ages.An ancient civilization is deemed to be part of the Bronze Age if it either produced bronze by smelting its own copper and alloying it with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or traded other items for bronze from producing areas elsewhere.",
"Bronze is harder and more durable than other metals available at the time, allowing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a technological advantage.While terrestrial iron is naturally abundant, the higher temperature required for smelting, , in addition to the greater difficulty of working with the metal, placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC.",
"Tin's lower melting point of and copper's relatively moderate melting point of placed both these metals within the capabilities of Neolithic pottery kilns, which date back to 6,000 BC and were able to produce temperatures of at least .",
"Copper and tin ores are rare since there were no tin bronzes in West Asia before trading in bronze began in the 3rd millennium BC.",
"Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition.Bronze Age cultures were the first to develop writing.",
"According to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia, which used cuneiform script, and Egypt, which used hieroglyphs, developed the earliest practical writing systems.The Bronze Age is said to have ended with the Late Bronze Age collapse, a time of widespread societal collapse during the 12th century BC, mostly between and 1150.This collapse affected a large area of the Eastern Mediterranean, including North Africa and Southeast Europe, as well as the Near East, in particular Egypt, eastern Libya, the Balkans, the Aegean, Anatolia, and the Caucasus.",
"It was sudden, violent, and culturally disruptive for many Bronze Age civilizations, and it brought a sharp economic decline to regional powers, most notably ushering in the Greek Dark Ages."
],
[
"Metal use",
"Diffusion of metallurgy in Europe and Asia Minor—the darkest areas are the oldest.The Bronze Age is characterized by the widespread use of bronze, even if only by elites in the early years, though the introduction and development of bronze technology were not universally synchronous.",
"Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques.",
"Tin must be mined (mainly as the tin ore cassiterite) and smelted separately, then added to hot copper to make bronze alloy.",
"The Bronze Age was a time of extensive use of metals and of developing trade networks.",
"A 2013 report suggests that the earliest tin-alloy bronze was a foil dated to the mid-5th millennium BC from a Vinča culture site in Pločnik, Serbia, although this culture is not conventionally considered part of the Bronze Age.",
"; however, the dating of the foil has been disputed."
],
[
"Near East",
"West Asia and the Near East were the first regions to enter the Bronze Age, beginning with the rise of the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium BC.",
"Cultures in the ancient Near East practiced intensive year-round agriculture, developed writing systems, invented the potter's wheel, created centralized governments (usually in the form of hereditary monarchies), written law codes, city-states and nation-states and empires, embarked on advanced architectural projects, introduced social stratification, economic and civil administration, slavery, and practiced organized warfare, medicine, and religion.",
"Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy, mathematics, and astrology.The following dates are approximate.",
"For details, consult linked articles.ImageSize = width:800 height:115PlotArea = width:720 height:90 left:65 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) #Period = from:-3500 till:-1000TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-3000ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-3500PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:15 shift:(0,-5) bar: color:period from: -3300 till: -1200 text:Classic Bronze Age bar:NEast color:era from: -3300 till: -1200 shift:(0,5) text:Ancient Near East from: -3300 till: -2100 text:Early Bronze Age from: -2100 till: -1550 text:Intermediate Bronze Age from: -1550 till: -1200 text:Late Bronze Age bar:Mesop.",
"color:age from: -2900 till: -2350 text:Sumerian city-states from: -2350 till: -2193 text:Akkadia from: -2119 till: -2000 text:Ur from: -2050 till: -1700 shift:(0,5) text:Assyria from: -1900 till: -1800 text:Babylonia from: -1600 till: -1200 text:Kassites bar:Egyptian color:era from: -3200 till: -1070 shift:(0,5) text:Ancient Egypt from: -3200 till: -3000 text:Protodynastic from: -3000 till: -2700 text:Archaic from: -2700 till: -2180 text:Old Kingdom from: -2050 till: -1700 text:Middle Kingdom from: -1550 till: -1070 text:New Kingdom===Near East Bronze Age divisions===The Bronze Age in the Near East can be conveniently divided into Early, Middle and Late periods.",
"The dates and phases below are applicable solely to the Near East, not universally.",
"However, some archaeologists propose a \"high chronology\" which extend periods such as Intermediate Bronze Age by 300 to 500-600 years, based on material analysis of southern Levantine cities such as Hazor, Jericho and Beit She'an.",
"*Early Bronze Age (EBA): 3300–2100 BC** 3300–3000: EBA I** 3000–2700: EBA II** 2700–2200: EBA III** 2200–2100: EBA IV*Middle Bronze Age (MBA) or Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA): 2100–1550 BC** 2100–2000: MBA I** 2000–1750: MBA II A** 1750–1650: MBA II B** 1650–1550: MBA II C*Late Bronze Age (LBA): 1550–1200 BC** 1550–1400: LBA I** 1400–1300: LBA II A** 1300–1200: LBA II B (Bronze Age collapse)ImageSize = width:400 height:665PlotArea = width:300 height:640 left:80 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:blackPeriod = from:1200 till:3300TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:1200ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:50 start:1200PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:20 shift:(25,-5) bar:Phase color:era from: 3300 till: 3000 text:EBA I from: 3000 till: 2700 text:EBA II from: 2700 till: 2200 text:EBA III from: 2200 till: 2100 text:EBA IV from: 2100 till: 2000 text:MBA I from: 2000 till: 1750 text:MBA II A from: 1750 till: 1650 text:MBA II B from: 1650 till: 1550 text:MBA II C from: 1550 till: 1400 text:LBA I from: 1400 till: 1300 text:LBA II A from: 1300 till: 1200 text:LBA II B bar:Period color:age from: 3300 till: 2100 text:Early Bronze Age (EBA) from: 2100 till: 1550 text:Middle Bronze Age (MBA) from: 2100 till: 1550 shift:(25,-20) text:(Intermediate Bronze Age) from: 1550 till: 1200 text:Late Bronze Age (LBA) bar:Age color:period from: 3300 till: 1200 shift:(-25,0) text:Bronze Age=== Anatolia ===Hittite bronze tablet from Çorum-Boğazköy dating from 1235 BC, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, AnkaraThe Hittite Empire was established during the 18th century BC in Hattusa, northern Anatolia.",
"In the 14th century BC, the Hittite Kingdom at its height, encompassed central Anatolia, southwestern Syria as far as Ugarit, and upper Mesopotamia.",
"After 1180 BC, amid general turmoil in the Levant, which is conjectured to have been associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, The kingdom disintegrated into several independent \"Neo-Hittite\" city-states, some of which survived into the 8th century BC.Arzawa in Western Anatolia, during the second half of the second millennium BC, likely extended along southern Anatolia in a belt from near the Turkish Lakes Region to the Aegean coast.",
"Arzawa was the western neighbor of the Middle and New Hittite Kingdoms, at times a rival and, at other times, a vassal.The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia defeated by the Hittites under the earlier Tudhaliya I, around 1400 BC.",
"Arzawa has been associated with the much more obscure Assuwa generally located to its north.",
"It probably bordered it, and may even have been an alternative term for it (at least during some periods).=== Egypt ======= Early Bronze dynasties ====Bronze mirror with a female human figure at the base, Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1540–1296 BC)Sphinx-lion of Thutmose III 1479–1425 BCIn Ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age began in the Protodynastic period, 3150 BC.",
"The archaic ''Early Bronze Age of Egypt'', known as the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, immediately followed the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, 3100 BC.",
"It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the Protodynastic Period of Egypt until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom.",
"With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Abydos to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king.",
"Abydos remained the major holy land in the south.",
"The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture, and religion, took shape in the Early Dynastic Period.",
"Memphis in the Early Bronze Age was the largest city of the time.",
"The Old Kingdom of the regional Bronze Age is the name given to the period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egyptian civilization attained its first continuous peak of complexity and achievement—the first of three \"Kingdom\" periods which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley (the others being the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom).The First Intermediate Period of Egypt, often described as a \"dark period\" in ancient Egyptian history, spanned about 100 years after the end of the Old Kingdom from about 2181 to 2055 BC.",
"Very little monumental evidence survives from this period, especially from the early part of it.",
"The First Intermediate Period was a dynamic time when the rule of Egypt was roughly divided between two competing for power bases: Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt.",
"These two kingdoms eventually came into conflict, and the Theban kings conquered the north, reunifying Egypt under a single ruler during the second part of the Eleventh Dynasty.==== Nubia ====The Bronze Age in Nubia started as early as 2300 BC.",
"Egyptians introduced copper smelting to the Nubian city of Meroë in modern-day Sudan around 2600 BC.",
"A furnace for bronze casting found in Kerma dated to 2300–1900 BC.==== Middle Bronze dynasties ====The Middle Kingdom of Egypt lasted from 2055 to 1650 BC.",
"During this period, the Osiris funerary cult rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion.",
"The period comprises two phases: the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th and 13th Dynasties centered on el-Lisht.",
"The unified kingdom was previously considered to comprise the 11th and 12th Dynasties, but historians now consider at least part of the 13th Dynasty to have belonged to the Middle Kingdom.During the Second Intermediate Period, Ancient Egypt fell into disarray a second time between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom, best known for the Hyksos, whose reign comprised the 15th and 16th dynasties.",
"The Hyksos first appeared in Egypt during the 11th Dynasty, began their climb to power in the 13th Dynasty, and emerged from the Second Intermediate Period in control of Avaris and the Delta.",
"By the 15th Dynasty, they ruled lower Egypt, and they were expelled at the end of the 17th Dynasty.==== Late Bronze dynasties ====The New Kingdom of Egypt, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, lasted from the 16th to the 11th century BC.",
"The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period.",
"It was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of Egypt's power.",
"The later New Kingdom, i.e.",
"the 19th and 20th Dynasties (1292–1069 BC), is also known as the Ramesside period, after the eleven pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses.=== Iranian plateau ===Fars, with linear-Elamite inscriptionElam was a ''pre-Iranian'' ancient civilization located east of Mesopotamia.",
"In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian Plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands.",
"Its culture played a crucial role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Iranian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it.The Oxus civilization was a Bronze Age Central Asian culture dated to 2300–1700 BC and centered on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus).",
"In the Early Bronze Age, the culture of the Kopet Dag oases and Altyndepe developed a proto-urban society.",
"This corresponds to level IV at Namazga-Tepe.",
"Altyndepe was a major center even then.",
"Pottery was wheel-turned.",
"Grapes were grown.",
"The height of this urban development was reached in the Middle Bronze Age 2300 BC, corresponding to level V at Namazga-Depe.",
"This Bronze Age culture is called the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC).The Kulli culture, similar to that of the Indus Valley civilisation, was located in southern Balochistan (Gedrosia) 2500–2000 BC.",
"The economy was agricultural.",
"In several places, dams were found, providing evidence for a highly developed water management system.Master of Animals in chlorite, Jiroft culture, c. 2500 BC, Bronze Age I, National Museum of IranKonar Sandal is associated with the hypothesized \"Jiroft culture\", a 3rd-millennium-BC culture postulated based on a collection of artifacts confiscated in 2001.=== Levant ===Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, IsraelIn modern scholarship, the chronology of the Bronze Age Levant is divided into: *Early/Proto Syrian; corresponding to the Early Bronze.",
"*Old Syrian; corresponding to the Middle Bronze.",
"*Middle Syrian; corresponding to the Late Bronze.",
"The term Neo-Syria is used to designate the early Iron Age.The old Syrian period was dominated by the Eblaite first kingdom, Nagar and the Mariote second kingdom.",
"The Akkadians conquered large areas of the Levant and were followed by the Amorite kingdoms, 2000–1600 BC, which arose in Mari, Yamhad, Qatna, Assyria.",
"From the 15th century BC onward, the term Amurru is usually applied to the region extending north of Canaan as far as Kadesh on the Orontes River.The earliest-known contact of Ugarit with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971–1926 BC.",
"A stela and a statuette of the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found.",
"However, it is unclear when they got to Ugarit.",
"In the Amarna letters, messages from Ugarit 1350 BC written by Ammittamru I, and Niqmaddu II and his queen, have been discovered.",
"From the 16th to the 13th century BC, Ugarit remained in constant touch with Egypt and Cyprus (Alashiya).Mitanni was a loosely organized state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from 1500–1300 BC.",
"Founded by an Indo-Aryan ruling class that governed a predominantly Hurrian population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Kassite Babylon created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia.",
"At its beginning, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids.",
"However, with the ascent of the Hittite empire, Mitanni and Egypt allied to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination.",
"At the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, it had outposts centered on its capital, Washukanni, which archaeologists have located on the headwaters of the Khabur River.",
"Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to the Hittites and later Assyrian attacks and was reduced to a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire.The Israelites were an ancient Semitic-speaking people of the Ancient Near East who inhabited part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods (15th to 6th centuries BC), and lived in the region iäẹn smaller numbers after the fall of the monarchy.",
"The name \"Israel\" first appears 1209 BC, at the end of the Late Bronze Age and the very beginning of the Iron Age, on the Merneptah Stele raised by the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah.The Arameans were a Northwest Semitic semi-nomadic pastoralists who originated in what is now modern Syria (Biblical Aram) during the Late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age.",
"Large groups migrated to Mesopotamia, where they intermingled with the native Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian) population.",
"The Aramaeans never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East.",
"After the Bronze Age collapse, their political influence was confined to Syro-Hittite states, which were entirely absorbed into the Neo-Assyrian Empire by the 8th century BC.=== Mesopotamia ===The Mesopotamian Bronze Age began about 3500 BC and ended with the Kassite period ( 1500 BC – 1155 BC).",
"The usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used.",
"Instead, a division primarily based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common.The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people.",
"Ur, Kish, Isin, Larsa and Nippur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon, Calah and Assur in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations.",
"The Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) became the dominant power in the region, and after its fall the Sumerians enjoyed a renaissance with the Neo-Sumerian Empire.",
"Assyria became a regional power, under the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad I, with the Old Assyrian Empire ( 1800–1600 BC).",
"The earliest mention of Babylon (then a small administrative town) appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC.",
"The Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC.",
"Over 100 years later, it briefly took over the other city-states and formed the short-lived First Babylonian Empire during what is also called the Old Babylonian Period.",
"Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia all used the written East Semitic Akkadian language for official use and as a spoken language.",
"By that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use in Assyria and Babylonia, and would remain so until the 1st century AD.",
"The Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in later Assyrian and Babylonian culture, even though Babylonia, unlike the more militarily powerful Assyria, itself was founded by non-native Amorites and often ruled by other non-indigenous peoples, such as Kassites, Aramaeans and Chaldeans, as well as its Assyrian neighbors."
],
[
"Asia",
"Map of the world in 2000 BC=== Central Asia ======= Agropastoralism ====For many decades, scholars made superficial reference to Central Asia as the \"pastoral realm\" or alternatively, the \"nomadic world\", in what researchers have come to call the \"Central Asian void\": a 5,000-year span that was neglected in studies of the origins of agriculture.",
"Foothill regions and glacial melt streams supported Bronze Age agropastoralists who developed complex east–west trade routes between Central Asia and China that introduced wheat and barley to China and spread millet across Central Asia.==== Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex ====The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), also known as the Oxus civilization, was a Bronze Age civilization in Central Asia, dated to c. 2400–1600 BC, located in present-day northern Afghanistan, eastern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan, centred on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus River).",
"Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976).",
"Bactria was the Greek name for the area of Bactra (modern Balkh), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Marguš, the capital of which was Merv, in modern-day southeastern Turkmenistan.A wealth of information indicates that the BMAC had close international relations with the Indus Valley, the Iranian Plateau, and possibly even indirectly with Mesopotamia, and all civilizations were very familiar with lost wax casting.According to recent studies, the BMAC was not a primary contributor to later South-Asian genetics.==== Seima-Turbino phenomenon ====The Altai Mountains in what is now southern Russia and central Mongolia have been identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon.",
"It is conjectured that changes in climate in this region around 2000 BC and the ensuing ecological, economic and political changes triggered a rapid and massive migration westward into northeast Europe, eastward into China and southward into Vietnam and Thailand across a frontier of some 4,000 miles.",
"This migration took place in just five to six generations and led to peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing the same metalworking technology and, in some areas, horse breeding and riding.",
"It is further conjectured that the same migrations spread the Uralic group of languages across Europe and Asia: some 39 languages of this group are still extant, including Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian.",
"However, recent genetic testings of sites in south Siberia and Kazakhstan (Andronovo horizon) would rather support spreading of the bronze technology via Indo-European migrations eastwards, as this technology had been well known for quite a while in western regions.=== East Asia ======= China ====A Shang dynasty two-handled bronze ''gefuding gui'' (1600–1046 BC)Spring and Autumn period ''pu'' bronze vessel with interlaced dragon design (c. 770 to 481 BC)In China, the earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC).The term \"Bronze Age\" has been transferred to the archaeology of China from that of Western Eurasia, and there is no consensus or universally used convention delimiting the \"Bronze Age\" in the context of Chinese prehistory.",
"\"Early Bronze Age\" in China is sometimes taken as equivalent to the \"Shang dynasty\" period (16th to 11th centuries BC), and the \"Later Bronze Age\" as equivalent to the \"Zhou dynasty\" period (11th to 3rd centuries BC, from the 5th century, also dubbed \"Iron Age\"), although there is an argument to be made that the \"Bronze Age\" proper never ended in China, as there is no recognizable transition to an \"Iron Age\".",
"Significantly, together with the jade art that precedes it, bronze was seen as a \"fine\" material for ritual art when compared with iron or stone.Bronze metallurgy in China originated in what is referred to as the Erlitou () period, which some historians argue places it within the Shang dynasty.",
"Others believe the Erlitou sites belong to the preceding Xia () dynasty.",
"The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the \"period between about 2000 BC and 771 BC\", a period that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule.There is reason to believe that bronze work developed inside China apart from outside influence.",
"However, the discovery of Europoid mummies in Xinjiang has caused some scholars such as Johan Gunnar Andersson, Jan Romgard, and to suggest a possible route of transmission from the West eastwards.",
"According to An Zhimin, \"It can be imagined that initially, bronze and iron technology took its rise in West Asia, first influenced the Xinjiang region, and then reached the Yellow River valley, providing external impetus for the rise of the Shang and Zhou civilizations.\"",
"According to Jan Romgard, \"bronze and iron tools seems to have traveled from west to east as well as the use of wheeled wagons and the domestication of the horse.\"",
"There are also possible links to Seima-Turbino culture, \"a transcultural complex across northern Eurasia,\" the Eurasian steppe, and the Urals.",
"However, the oldest bronze objects found in China so far were discovered at the Majiayao site in Gansu rather than at Xinjiang.The Shang dynasty (also known as the Yin dynasty) of the Yellow River Valley rose to power after the Xia dynasty around 1600 BC.",
"While some direct information about the Shang dynasty comes from Shang-era inscriptions on bronze artifacts, most comes from oracle bones—turtle shells, cattle scapulae, or other bones—which bear glyphs that form the first significant corpus of recorded Chinese characters.The production of Erlitou in Henan represents the earliest large-scale metallurgy industry in the Central Plains of China.",
"The influence of the Saima-Turbino metalworking tradition from the north is supported by a series of recent discoveries in China of many unique perforated spearheads with downward hooks and small loops on the same or opposite side of the socket, which could be associated with the Seima-Turbino visual vocabulary of southern Siberia.",
"The metallurgical centers of northwestern China, especially Qijia in Gansu and Kexingzhuang culture in Shaanxi, played an intermediary role in this process.Iron has been found from the Zhou dynasty, but its use was minimal.",
"Chinese literature dating to the 6th century BC attests to knowledge of iron smelting, yet bronze continues to occupy the seat of significance in the archaeological and historical record for some time after this.",
"Historian W.C. White argues that iron did not supplant bronze \"at any period before the end of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC)\" and that bronze vessels make up the majority of metal vessels through the Later Han period, or to 221 BC.The Chinese bronze artifacts generally are either utilitarian, like spear points or adze heads, or \"ritual bronzes\", which are more elaborate versions in precious materials of everyday vessels, as well as tools and weapons.",
"Examples are the numerous large sacrificial tripods known as dings in Chinese; there are many other distinct shapes.",
"Surviving identified Chinese ritual bronzes tend to be highly decorated, often with the ''taotie'' motif, which involves highly stylized animal faces.",
"These appear in three main motif types: those of demons, symbolic animals, and abstract symbols.",
"Many large bronzes also bear cast inscriptions that are the great bulk of the surviving body of early Chinese writing and have helped historians and archaeologists piece together the history of China, especially during the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC).The bronzes of the Western Zhou dynasty document large portions of history not found in the extant texts that were often composed by persons of varying rank and possibly even social class.",
"Further, the medium of cast bronze lends the record they preserve a permanence not enjoyed by manuscripts.",
"These inscriptions can commonly be subdivided into four parts: a reference to the date and place, the naming of the event commemorated, the list of gifts given to the artisan in exchange for the bronze, and a dedication.",
"The relative points of reference these vessels provide have enabled historians to place most of the vessels within a certain time frame of the Western Zhou period, allowing them to trace the evolution of the vessels and the events they record.===== Japan ====2nd century BC Yayoi dōtaku bronze bell2nd-century BC Yayoi bronze spearheadThe Japanese archipelago saw the introduction of bronze during the beginning of the Early Yayoi period (≈300 BC), which saw the introduction of metalworking and agricultural practices brought in by settlers arriving from the continent.",
"Bronze and iron smelting techniques spread to the Japanese archipelago through contact with other ancient East Asian civilizations, particularly immigration and trade from the ancient Korean peninsula, and ancient mainland China.",
"Iron was mainly used for agricultural and other tools, whereas ritual and ceremonial artifacts were mainly made of bronze.==== Korea ====Hwasun, KoreaThe beginning of the Bronze Age on the peninsula is around 1000–800 BC.",
"Initially centered around Liaoning and southern Manchuria, Korean Bronze Age culture exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects.The Mumun pottery period is named after the Korean name for undecorated or plain cooking and storage vessels that form a large part of the pottery assemblage over the entire length of the period, but especially 850–550 BC.",
"The Mumun period is known for the origins of intensive agriculture and complex societies in both the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Archipelago.The Middle Mumun pottery period culture of the southern Korean Peninsula gradually adopted bronze production ( 700–600?",
"BC) after a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze artifacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the Southern Peninsula ( 900–700 BC).",
"The bronze daggers lent prestige and authority to the personages who wielded and were buried with them in high-status megalithic burials at south-coastal centers such as the Igeum-dong site.",
"Bronze was an important element in ceremonies and for mortuary offerings until 100 BC.=== South Asia ===(Dates are approximate, consult linked articles for details)ImageSize = width:800 height:50PlotArea = width:720 height:25 left:65 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:blackPeriod = from:-3300 till:-1000TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-3300ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-3300PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:15 shift:(0,-5) bar:India color:age from: -3300 till: -1550 shift:(0,7) text:Bronze Age India from: -3300 till: -2700 text:Early Indus from: -2700 till: -1900 text:Mature Harappan from: -1900 till: -1550 text:Late Harappa from: -1500 till: -1200 text:Rigvedic==== Indus Valley ====''Dancing girl'' of Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500 BC (replica).The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization.",
"Inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.",
"The Late Harappan culture, which dates from 1900 to 1400 BC, overlapped the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age; thus it is difficult to date this transition accurately.",
"It has been claimed that a 6,000-year-old copper amulet manufactured in Mehrgarh in the shape of a wheel spoke is the earliest example of lost-wax casting in the world.The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).",
"The large cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilization itself during its florescence may have contained between one and five million individuals.=== Southeast Asia ===The Vilabouly Complex in Laos is a significant archaeological site for dating the origin of bronze metallurgy in Southeast Asia.==== Thailand ====In Ban Chiang, Thailand, (Southeast Asia) bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC.",
"However, according to the radiocarbon dating on the human and pig bones in Ban Chiang, some scholars propose that the initial Bronze Age in Ban Chiang was in the late 2nd millennium.",
"In Nyaunggan, Burma, bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts.",
"Dating is still currently broad (3500–500 BC).",
"Ban Non Wat, excavated by Charles Higham, was a rich site with over 640 graves excavated that gleaned many complex bronze items that may have had social value connected to them.Ban Chiang, however, is the most thoroughly documented site and has the clearest evidence of metallurgy when in Southeast Asia.",
"With a rough date range from the late 3rd millennium BC to the first millennium AD, this site alone has artifacts such as burial pottery (dating from 2100 to 1700 BC) and fragments of bronze and copper-base bangles.",
"This technology suggested on-site casting from the very beginning.",
"The on-site casting supports the theory that bronze was first introduced in Southeast Asia from a different country.",
"Some scholars believe that copper-based metallurgy was disseminated from northwest and central China south and southwest via areas such as Guangdong province and Yunnan province and finally into southeast Asia around 1000 BC.",
"Archaeology also suggests that Bronze Age metallurgy may not have been as significant a catalyst in social stratification and warfare in Southeast Asia as in other regions, and that social distribution shifted away from chiefdom-states to a heterarchical network.",
"Data analyses of sites such as Ban Lum Khao, Ban Na Di, Non-Nok Tha, Khok Phanom Di, and Nong Nor have consistently led researchers to conclude that there was no entrenched hierarchy.==== Vietnam ====Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums, were uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Northern Vietnam and Southern China.",
"These relate to the Dong Son culture of Vietnam.Archaeological research in Northern Vietnam indicates an increase in rates of infectious disease following the advent of metallurgy; skeletal fragments in sites dating to the early and mid-Bronze Age evidence a greater proportion of lesions than in sites of earlier periods.",
"There are a few possible implications of this.",
"One is the increased contact with bacterial and/or fungal pathogens due to increased population density and land clearing/cultivation.",
"The other one is decreased levels of immunocompetence in the Metal age due to changes in diet caused by agriculture.",
"The last is that there may have been an emergence of infectious diseases that evolved into a more virulent form in the metal period.==== Myanmar ===="
],
[
"Europe",
"A few examples of named Bronze Age cultures in Europe in roughly relative order.",
"(Dates are approximate, consult linked articles for details)ImageSize = width:800 height:145PlotArea = width:720 height:105 left:65 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) #Period = from:-3300 till:-300TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-3300ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-3300PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:15 shift:(0,-5) bar:Europe color:era width:25 from: -3200 till: -600 shift:(0,15) text:Bronze Age Europe from: -3200 till: -2850 text:Aegean Bronze from: -2850 till: -2500 text:Corded Ware from: -2500 till: -2150 text:Beaker from: -2150 till: -1600 text:Unetice from: -1600 till: -1250 text:Tumulus from: -1250 till: -750 text:Urnfield from: -1250 till: -600 shift:(40,0) text:Lusatian bar:Britain color:era from: -2700 till: -700 shift:(0,15) text:Bronze Age Britain from: -2700 till: -2500 shift:(0,2) text:Mount~Pleasant link:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pleasant_Phase from: -2500 till: -1900 text:Beaker from: -1900 till: -1500 text:Bedd Branwen from: -1500 till: -1300 shift:(0,3) text:Acton~Park link:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acton_Park_Phase from: -1300 till: -1200 shift:(0,0) text:Knighton~Heath link:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knighton_Heath_Period from: -1200 till: -850 text:Urnfield from: -850 till: -700 shift:(0,2) text:Ewart~Park link:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewart_Park_Phase bar:Scand.",
"color:era from: -1700 till: -500 shift:(0,15) text:Nordic Bronze Age from: -1700 till: -1500 text:Phase I from: -1500 till: -1300 text:Phase II from: -1300 till: -1100 text:Phase III from: -1100 till: -900 text:Phase IV from: -900 till: -700 text:Phase V from: -700 till: -500 text:Phase VI:''The chosen cultures overlapped in time and the indicated periods do not fully correspond to their estimated extents.",
"''=== Southeast Europe ===Valchitran Treasure from 1600 to 1100 BCRadivojevic et al.",
"(2013) reported the discovery of a tin bronze foil from the Pločnik archaeological site securely dated to c. 4650 BC as well as 14 other artifacts from Serbia and Bulgaria dated to before 4000 BC, showing that early tin bronze was more common than previously thought and developed independently in Europe 1500 years before the first tin bronze alloys in the Near East.",
"The production of complex tin bronzes lasted for c. 500 years in the Balkans.",
"The authors reported that evidence for the production of such complex bronzes disappears at the end of the 5th millennium, coinciding with the \"collapse of large cultural complexes in north-eastern Bulgaria and Thrace in the late fifth millennium BC\".",
"Tin bronzes using cassiterite tin were reintroduced to the area some 1500 years later.The oldest golden artifacts in the world (4600 BC - 4200 BC) were found in the Necropolis of Varna.",
"These artefacts are on display in the Varna Archaeological MuseumThe Dabene Treasure was unearthed from 2004 to 2007 near Karlovo, Plovdiv Province, central Bulgaria.",
"The whole treasure consists of 20,000 gold jewelry items from 18 to 23 carats.",
"The most important of them was a dagger made of gold and platinum with an unusual edge.",
"The treasure was dated to the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.",
"Scientists suggest that the Karlovo valley used to be a major crafts center that exported golden jewelry all over Europe.",
"It is considered one of the largest prehistoric golden treasures in the world.=== Aegean ===Gold 'Mask of Agamemnon' produced during the Mycenaean civilization, from Mycenae, Greece, 1550 BCThe Aegean Bronze Age began around 3200 BC, when civilizations first established a far-ranging trade network.",
"This network imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus, where copper was mined and alloyed with tin to produce bronze.",
"Bronze objects were then exported far and wide and supported the trade.",
"Isotopic analysis of tin in some Mediterranean bronze artifacts suggests that they may have originated from Great Britain.Knowledge of navigation was well-developed by this time and reached a peak of skill not exceeded (except perhaps by Polynesian sailors) until 1730 when the invention of the chronometer enabled the precise determination of longitude.The Minoan civilization based in Knossos on the island of Crete appears to have coordinated and defended its Bronze Age trade.",
"Ancient empires valued luxury goods in contrast to staple foods, leading to famine.==== Aegean collapse ====Invasions, destruction and possible population movements during the collapse of the Bronze Age, 1200 BCBronze Age collapse theories have described aspects of the end of the Bronze Age in this region.",
"At the end of the Bronze Age in the Aegean region, the Mycenaean administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of Minoan primacy.",
"Several Minoan client states lost much of their population to famine and/or pestilence.",
"This would indicate that the trade network may have failed, preventing the trade that would previously have relieved such famines and prevented illness caused by malnutrition.",
"It is also known that in this era the breadbasket of the Minoan empire, the area north of the Black Sea, also suddenly lost much of its population, and thus probably some capacity to cultivate crops.",
"Drought and famine in Anatolia may have also led to the Aegean collapse by disrupting trade networks, and therefore preventing the Aegean from accessing bronze and luxury goods.The Aegean collapse has been attributed to the exhaustion of the Cypriot forests causing the end of the bronze trade.",
"These forests are known to have existed in later times, and experiments have shown that charcoal production on the scale necessary for the bronze production of the late Bronze Age would have exhausted them in less than fifty years.The Aegean collapse has also been attributed to the fact that as iron tools became more common, the main justification for the tin trade ended, and that trade network ceased to function as it did formerly.",
"The colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered drought, famine, war, or some combination of the three, and had no access to the distant resources of an empire by which they could easily recover.The Thera eruption occurred 1600 BC, north of Crete.",
"Speculation includes that a tsunami from Thera (more commonly known today as Santorini) destroyed Cretan cities.",
"A tsunami may have destroyed the Cretan navy in its home harbor, which then lost crucial naval battles; so that in the LMIB/LMII event ( 1450 BC) the cities of Crete burned and the Mycenaean civilization took Knossos over.",
"If the eruption occurred in the late 17th century BC (as most chronologists now think) then its immediate effects belong to the Middle to Late Bronze Age transition, and not to the end of the Late Bronze Age, but it could have triggered the instability that led to the collapse first of Knossos and then of Bronze Age society overall.",
"One such theory highlights the role of Cretan expertise in administering the empire, post–Thera.",
"If this expertise was concentrated in Crete, then the Mycenaeans may have made political and commercial mistakes in administering the Cretan empire.Archaeological findings, including some on the island of Thera, suggest that the center of the Minoan civilization at the time of the eruption was actually on Thera rather than on Crete.",
"According to this theory, the catastrophic loss of the political, administrative and economic center due to the eruption, as well as the damage wrought by the tsunami to the coastal towns and villages of Crete precipitated the decline of the Minoans.",
"A weakened political entity with a reduced economic and military capability and fabled riches would have then been more vulnerable to conquest.",
"Indeed, the Santorini eruption is usually dated to 1630 BC, while the Mycenaean Greeks first enter the historical record a few decades later, 1600 BC.",
"The later Mycenaean assaults on Crete ( 1450 BC) and Troy ( 1250 BC) would have been a continuation of the steady encroachment of the Greeks upon the weakened Minoan world.=== Central Europe ===Nebra sky disc, Germany, 1800–1600 BCIn Central Europe, the early Bronze Age Unetice culture (2300–1600 BC) includes numerous smaller groups like the Straubing, Adlerberg and Hatvan cultures.",
"Some very rich burials, such as the one located at Leubingen with grave gifts crafted from gold, point to an increase of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture.",
"All in all, cemeteries of this period are small and rare.",
"The Unetice culture was followed by the middle Bronze Age (1600–1200 BC) tumulus culture, characterised by inhumation burials in tumuli (barrows).",
"In the eastern Hungarian Körös tributaries, the early Bronze Age first saw the introduction of the Mako culture, followed by the Otomani and Gyulavarsand cultures.Romania, The late Bronze Age Urnfield culture (1300–700 BC) was characterized by cremation burials.",
"It included the Lusatian culture in eastern Germany and Poland (1300–500 BC) that continues into the Iron Age.",
"The Central European Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (700–450 BC).Important sites include:* Biskupin (Poland)* Nebra (Germany)* Vráble (Slovakia)* Zug-Sumpf, Zug, SwitzerlandGerman prehistorian Paul Reinecke described Bronze A1 (Bz A1) period (2300–2000 BC: triangular daggers, flat axes, stone wrist-guards, flint arrowheads) and Bronze A2 (Bz A2) period (1950–1700 BC: daggers with metal hilt, flanged axes, halberds, pins with perforated spherical heads, solid bracelets) and phases Hallstatt A and B (Ha A and B).=== Southern Europe ===Nuragic figurine, Sardinia, |243x243pxThe Apennine culture (also called Italian Bronze Age) is a technology complex of central and southern Italy spanning the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age proper.",
"The Camuni were an ancient people of uncertain origin (according to Pliny the Elder, they were Euganei; according to Strabo, they were Rhaetians) who lived in Val Camonica—in what is now northern Lombardy—during the Iron Age, although groups of hunters, shepherds, and farmers are known to have lived in the area since the Neolithic.Located in Sardinia and Corsica, the Nuragic civilization lasted from the early Bronze Age (18th century BC) to the 2nd century AD, when the islands were already Romanized.",
"They take their name from the characteristic Nuragic towers, which evolved from the pre-existing megalithic culture, which built dolmens and menhirs.Sardinia , The towers are unanimously considered the best-preserved and largest megalithic remains in Europe.",
"Their purpose is still debated: some scholars consider them monumental tombs, others as Houses of the Giants, other as fortresses, ovens for metal fusion, prisons, or, finally, temples for a solar cult.",
"Around the end of the 3rd millennium BC, Sardinia exported to Sicily a culture that built small dolmens, trilithic or polygonal shaped, that served as tombs, as in the Sicilian dolmen of \"Cava dei Servi\".",
"From this region, they reached Malta and other countries of Mediterranean basin.The Terramare was an early Indo-European civilization in the area of what is now Pianura Padana (in northern Italy) before the arrival of the Celts, and in other parts of Europe.",
"They lived in square villages of wooden stilt houses.",
"These villages were built on land, but generally near a stream, with roads that crossed each other at right angles.",
"The whole complex was of the nature of a fortified settlement.",
"The Terramare culture was widespread in the Pianura Padana, especially along the Panaro river, between Modena and Bologna, and in the rest of Europe.",
"The civilization developed in the Middle and Late Bronze Age, between the 17th and the 13th centuries BC.The Castellieri culture developed in Istria during the Middle Bronze Age.",
"It lasted for more than a millennium, from the 15th century BC until the Roman conquest in the 3rd century BC.",
"It takes its name from the fortified boroughs (''Castellieri'', Friulian: ''cjastelir'') that characterized the culture.The Canegrate culture developed from the mid-Bronze Age (13th century BC) until the Iron Age in the Pianura Padana, in what are now western Lombardy, eastern Piedmont, and Ticino.",
"It takes its name from the township of Canegrate, where, in the 20th century, some fifty tombs with ceramics and metal objects were found.",
"The Canegrate culture migrated from the northwest part of the Alps and descended to Pianura Padana from the Swiss Alps passes and the Ticino.The Golasecca culture developed starting from the late Bronze Age in the Po plain.",
"It takes its name from Golasecca, a locality next to the Ticino, where, in the early 19th century, abbot excavated its first findings (some fifty tombs with ceramics and metal objects).",
"Remains of the Golasecca culture span an area of c. 20,000 square kilometers south to the Alps, between the Po, Sesia, and Serio rivers, dating from the 9th to the 4th century BC.=== West Europe ======= Great Britain ====Bronze shield, 1300–1000 BCIn Great Britain, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around 2100 to 750 BC.",
"Migration brought new people to the islands from the continent.",
"Recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around Stonehenge indicates that at least some of the migrants came from the area of modern Switzerland.",
"Another example site is Must Farm near Whittlesey, host to the most complete Bronze Age wheel ever to be found.",
"The Beaker culture displayed different behaviors from earlier Neolithic people, and cultural change was significant.",
"Integration is thought to have been peaceful, as many of the early henge sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers.",
"The rich Wessex culture developed in southern Britain at this time.",
"Additionally, the climate was deteriorating; where once the weather was warm and dry it became much wetter as the Bronze Age continued, forcing the population away from easily defended sites in the hills and into the fertile valleys.",
"Large livestock farms developed in the lowlands and appear to have contributed to economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearances.",
"The Deverel-Rimbury culture began to emerge in the second half of the Middle Bronze Age ( 1400–1100 BC) to exploit these conditions.",
"Devon and Cornwall were major sources of tin for much of western Europe and copper was extracted from sites such as the Great Orme mine in northern Wales.",
"Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent.The burials, which until this period had usually been communal, became more individual.",
"For example, whereas in the Neolithic a large chambered cairn or long barrow housed the dead, Early Bronze Age people buried their dead in individual barrows (commonly known and marked on modern British Ordnance Survey maps as tumuli), or sometimes in cists covered with cairns.The greatest quantities of bronze objects in England were discovered in East Cambridgeshire, with the most important finds recovered in Isleham (more than 6500 pieces).Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass or bronze was practiced soon after the discovery of copper itself.",
"One copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales, reached a depth of 70 meters.",
"At Alderley Edge in Cheshire, carbon dating has established mining at around 2280 to 1890 BC (95% probability).",
"The earliest identified metalworking site (Sigwells, Somerset) came much later, dated by globular urn-style pottery to approximately the 12th century BC.",
"The identifiable sherds from over 500 mould fragments included a perfect fit of the hilt of a sword in the Wilburton style held in Somerset County Museum.==== Iberian Peninsula ====Treasure of Vilena, Spain, 1000 BC.The Bronze Age began on the Iberian Peninsula in 2100 cal.",
"BC according to radiocarbon datings of several key sites.",
"According to the period sequence, the Iberian Bronze Age is divided into three sub-periods or phases with different diagnostic markers (lithic tools, decorated ceramics and types of metal tools): Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age.",
"The Early Bronze Age began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 2100 cal.",
"BC and the Late Bronze Age (equivalent to Atlantic Bronze Age phase) in 1350 cal.",
"BC.",
"In the three phases of the Iberian Bronze Age, different cultures emerged, which have been defined by regions with typical names: e.g.",
"El Argar, Las Motillas, Bronce Atlántico, Bronce Valenciano, Montelavar, Las Cogotas and others.==== Atlantic Bronze Age ====Netherlands, |232x232pxThe Atlantic Bronze Age as cultural geographic region is a cultural complex (ca.",
"2100-/800/700 cal.",
"BC) that includes different cultures in the contex of the Atlantic Iberian Peninsula (Portugal, Andalucía, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, País Vasco, Navarra and Castilla and León), the Atlantic France, Britain and Ireland, while the Atlantic Bronze Age as cultural complex of the final phase of the Bronze Age period is dated between ca.",
"1350 and 700 BC.",
"It is marked by economic and cultural exchange.",
"Commercial contacts extend to Denmark and the Mediterranean.",
"The Atlantic Bronze Age was defined by many distinct regional centers of metal production, unified by a regular maritime exchange of products.==== Ireland ====The Bronze Age in Ireland commenced around 2000 BC when copper was alloyed with tin and used to manufacture Ballybeg type flat axes and associated metalwork.",
"The preceding period is known as the Copper Age and is characterised by the production of flat axes, daggers, halberds and awls in copper.",
"The period is divided into three phases: Early Bronze Age (2000–1500 BC), Middle Bronze Age (1500–1200 BC), and Late Bronze Age (1200– 500 BC).",
"Ireland is known for a relatively large number of Early Bronze Age burials.",
"The country's stone circles and stone rows were built during this period.",
"One of the characteristic types of artifact of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland is the flat axe.",
"There are five main types of flat axes: Lough Ravel crannog ( 2200 BC), Ballybeg ( 2000 BC), Killaha ( 2000 BC), Ballyvalley ( 2000–1600 BC), Derryniggin ( 1600 BC), and a number of metal ingots in the shape of axes.=== Northern Europe ===Trundholm sun chariot, Denmark, 1500 BCThe Bronze Age in Northern Europe spans the entire 2nd millennium BC, (Unetice culture, Urnfield culture, Tumulus culture, Terramare culture and Lusatian culture) lasting until 600 BC.",
"The Northern Bronze Age was both a period and a Bronze Age culture in Scandinavian pre-history, 1700–500 BC, with sites as far east as Estonia.",
"Succeeding the Late Neolithic culture, its ethnic and linguistic affinities are unknown in the absence of written sources.",
"It was followed by the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Even though Northern European Bronze Age cultures came relatively late, and came into existence via trade, sites present rich and well-preserved objects made of wool, wood and imported Central European bronze and gold.",
"Many rock carvings depict ships, and the large stone burial monuments known as stone ships suggest that shipping played an important role.",
"Thousands of rock carvings depict ships, most probably representing sewn plank-built canoes for warfare, fishing, and trade.",
"These may have a history as far back as the neolithic period and continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as shown by the Hjortspring boat.",
"There are many mounds and rock carving sites from the period.",
"Numerous artifacts of bronze and gold are found.",
"No written language existed in the Nordic countries during the Bronze Age.",
"The rock carvings have been dated through comparison with depicted artifacts.=== Eastern Europe ===Yamnaya steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and location of the Afanasievo culture, which has the same genetic characteristics as the Yamnayas.The Yamnaya culture (c.3300–2600 BC) was a Late Copper Age/Early Bronze Age culture of the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and is associated with early Indo-Europeans.",
"It was followed on the steppe by the Catacomb culture ( 2800–2200 BC) and the Poltavka culture (c.2800–2200 BC).",
"The closely-related Corded Ware culture in the forest-steppe region to the north (c. 3000–2350 BC) spread eastwards with the Fatyanovo culture (c.2900–2050 BC), which subsequently developed into the Abashevo culture (c.2200–1850 BC) and the Sintashta culture (c. 2200–1750 BC).",
"The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials and there is earlier evidence for chariot use in the Abashevo culture.",
"The Sintashta culture expanded further eastwards into central Asia becoming the Andronovo culture, whilst the Srubnaya culture (c.1900–1200 BC) continued the use of chariots in eastern Europe.=== Caucasus ===Arsenical bronze artifacts of the Maykop culture in the North Caucasus have been dated to around the 4th millennium BC.",
"This innovation resulted in the circulation of arsenical bronze technology through southern and eastern Europe."
],
[
"Africa",
"=== Sub-Saharan Africa ===Iron and copper smelting appeared around the same time in most parts of Africa.",
"As such, most African civilizations outside of Egypt did not experience a distinct Bronze Age.",
"Evidence for iron smelting appears earlier or at the same time as copper smelting in Nigeria –800 BC, Rwanda and Burundi –500 BC and Tanzania .There is a longstanding debate about whether both copper and iron metallurgy were independently developed in sub-Saharan Africa or introduced from the outside across the Sahara Desert from North Africa or the Indian Ocean.",
"Evidence for theories of independent development and outside introduction are scarce and the subject of active scholarly debate.",
"Scholars have suggested that both the relative dearth of archeological research in sub-Saharan Africa as well as long-standing prejudices have limited or biased our understanding of pre-historic metallurgy on the continent.",
"One scholar characterized the state of historical knowledge: \"To say that the history of metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa is complicated is perhaps an understatement.",
"\"=== West Africa ===Copper smelting took place in West Africa prior to the appearance of iron smelting in the region.",
"Evidence for copper smelting furnaces was found near Agadez, Niger that has been dated as early as 2200 BC.",
"However, evidence for copper production in this region before 1000 BC is debated.",
"Evidence of copper mining and smelting has been found at Akjoujt, Mauretania that suggests small scale production 800 to 400 BC."
],
[
"Americas",
"The Moche civilization of South America independently discovered and developed bronze smelting.",
"Bronze technology was developed further by the Incas and widely used both for utilitarian objects and for sculpture.",
"A later appearance of limited bronze smelting in western Mexico suggests either contact of that region with Andean cultures or separate discovery of the technology.",
"The Calchaquí people of northwestern Argentina had bronze technology."
],
[
"Trade",
"Trade and industry played a major role in the development of Bronze Age civilizations.",
"With artifacts of the Indus Valley civilization found in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, it is clear that these civilizations were not only in touch with one another, but also trading.",
"Early long-distance trade was limited almost exclusively to luxury goods like spices, textiles, and precious metals.",
"Not only did this make cities with ample amounts of these products extremely rich, but it also led to an intermingling of cultures for the first time in history.Trade routes were not just on land.",
"The first and most extensive trade routes were along rivers such as the Nile, the Tigris, and the Euphrates, which led to the growth of cities on the banks of these rivers.",
"The later domestication of camels also helped encourage trade routes overland, linking the Indus Valley with the Mediterranean.",
"This further led to towns sprouting up everywhere there was a pit-stop or caravan-to-ship port."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dover Bronze Age Boat* Ferriby Boats* Hillfort* Langdon Bay (Kent) hoard* Middle Bronze Age migrations (ancient Near East)* Oxhide ingot* Shropshire bulla* Timeline of human evolution* Tollense valley battlefield"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* Eogan, George (1983).",
"''The hoards of the Irish later Bronze Age'', Dublin: University College, 331 p., * Hall, David and Coles, John (1994).",
"''Fenland survey : an essay in landscape and persistence'', Archaeological report '''1''', London : English Heritage, 170 p., * * * * Pernicka, E., Eibner, C., Öztunah, Ö., Wagener, G.A.",
"(2003).",
"\"Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Northeast Aegean\", In: Wagner, G.A., Pernicka, E. and Uerpmann, H-P. (eds), ''Troia and the Troad: scientific approaches'', Natural science in archaeology, Berlin; London : Springer, , pp.",
"143–172* Piccolo, Salvatore (2013).",
"''Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily''.",
"Abingdon (GB): Brazen Head Publishing, ,*Power, Denis.",
"''Archaeological inventory of County Cork, Volume 3: Mid Cork''.",
"Stationery Office, 1992.",
"* Waddell, John (1998).",
"''The prehistoric archaeology of Ireland'', Galway University Press, 433 p.,"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Links to the Bronze Age in Europe and beyond Commented web index, geographically structured (private website)* Bronze Age Experimental Archeology and Museum Reproductions* Umha Aois – Reconstructed Bronze Age metal casting* Umha Aois – ancient bronze casting videoclip* * Aegean and Balkan Prehistory articles, site-reports and bibliography database concerning the Aegean, Balkans and Western Anatolia* \" The Transmission of Early Bronze Technology to Thailand: New Perspectives\"* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).",
"; Seafaring* Divers unearth Bronze Age hoard off the coast of Devon"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"BBC News (TV channel)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''BBC News''' channel is a British free-to-air public broadcast television news channel owned and operated by the BBC.",
"The channel is based at and broadcasts from Broadcasting House in the West End of London from which it is anchored during British daytime, with overnight broadcasts anchored from Washington, D.C. and Singapore.",
"It was launched as '''BBC News 24''' on 9 November 1997 at 5:30 pm as part of the BBC's foray into digital domestic television channels, becoming the first competitor to Sky News, which had been running since 1989.On 22 February 2006, the channel was named ''News Channel of the Year'' at the Royal Television Society Television Journalism Awards for the first time in its history.",
"The judges remarked that this was the year that the channel had \"really come into its own.\"",
"The channel won the accolade for a second time in 2017.From May 2007, viewers in the UK could watch the channel via the BBC News website.",
"In April 2008, the channel was renamed ''BBC News'' as part of a £550,000 rebranding of the BBC's news output, complete with a new studio and presentation.The channel's international counterpart, formerly known as BBC World News, initially operated as a counterpart carrying international news, as well as selected programmes from the domestic service.",
"Unlike BBC News in the UK, which is a free-to-air channel funded by the licence fee, the world feed is a pay television service distributed by BBC Studios and funded by advertising.",
"Some of its programmes had been simulcast by the domestic BBC News channel, especially in the overnight hours.",
"In 2022, the BBC announced that it would further consolidate the programming and talent of the BBC News and World News channels as a cost-cutting move; these changes took place on 3 April 2023, when BBC World News was renamed \"BBC News\".",
"The UK feed occasionally opts out when it airs UK-specific content not deemed significant enough to warrant coverage globally."
],
[
"History",
"Logo used from 2008 until 2013Logo used from 2013 until 2019Logo used from 2019 until 2022Logo used from 2022Rolling news began in the UK on 5 February 1989 when Sky News was launched and on 16 January 1995, the BBC launched an international news channel BBC World.",
"However it was meant for global audiences and normally wasn't available to viewers in the UK.",
"In May 1996, the BBC announced that it was to launch a UK rolling news service as part of its move into digital broadcasting.",
"BBC News 24 went on air on 9 November 1997, nearly a year before digital television was launched in the UK and due to a lack of space on satellite, the channel was only available on cable, with an overnight shop window on BBC One when that channel was not on air.",
"However, Sky News had complained about the costs associated with running a channel that only a minority could view from the licence fee.",
"Sky News claimed that a number of British cable operators had been incentivised to carry News 24 (which, as a licence-fee funded channel was made available to such operators for free) in preference to the commercial Sky News.",
"However, in September 1999 the European Commission ruled against a complaint made by Sky News that the publicly funded channel was unfair and illegal under EU law.",
"The Commission ruled that the licence fee should be considered state aid but that such aid was justified due to the public service remit of the BBC and that it did not exceed actual costs.The advent of digital television in the United Kingdom in autumn 1998 saw the channel launch on Sky's new digital satellite service and a month later it started to broadcast via digital terrestrial television.",
"Initially it was difficult to obtain a digital satellite or terrestrial receiver without a subscription to Sky or ONdigital respectively, but following the demise of ITV Digital in 2002 and the subsequent launch of Freeview, the channel started to become much more widely available and the BBC Governors' annual report for 2005/2006 reported that average audience figures for fifteen-minute periods had reached 8.6% in multichannel homes.",
"The 2004 report also claimed that the channel outperformed Sky News in both weekly and monthly reach in multichannel homes for the January 2004 period, and for the first time in two years moved ahead of Sky News in being perceived as the channel best for news.In 2005, the Head of television news Peter Horrocks outlined plans to provide more funding and resources for the channel and shift the corporation's emphasis regarding news away from the traditional BBC One bulletins and across to the rolling news channel.",
"The introduction of simulcasts of the main bulletins on the channel was to allow the news bulletins to pool resources rather than work against each other at key times in the face of competition particularly from Sky News.=== 2008 rebranding ===On 21 April 2008, BBC News 24 was renamed ''BBC News'' on the channel itself, and referred to as the ''BBC News Channel'' on other BBC services.",
"This was part of the creative futures plan, launched in 2006, to bring all BBC News output under the single brand name.The BBC News Channel moved from the Studio N8 set, which became home to BBC World News, to what was the home of the national news in Studio N6, allowing the channel to share its set with the ''BBC News at One'' and the ''BBC News at Ten'' – with other bulletins moving to Studio TC7.=== Move to Broadcasting House ===The channel relocated, along with the remaining BBC News services at Television Centre, to the newly refurbished Broadcasting House on 18 March 2013 at 13:00 GMT.",
"Presentation and on-screen graphics were refreshed, with new full HD studios and a live newsroom backdrop.",
"Moving cameras in the newsroom form part of the top of the hour title sequence and are used at the start of weather bulletins.=== Consolidation with BBC World News===On 26 May 2022, as part of planned cuts and streamlining across the broadcaster, the BBC announced plans for consolidation of the domestic BBC News channel in the UK with BBC World News.",
"The domestic and international versions would share content, while maintaining the ability to opt out from the shared feed for domestic coverage if warranted.",
"The BBC promoted that the service would offer \"new flagship programmes built around high-profile journalists, and programmes commissioned for multiple platforms\".The BBC announced a new presenter lineup for the merged service in February 2023, led by Matthew Amroliwala, Christian Fraser, Yalda Hakim, Lucy Hockings, and Maryam Moshiri.",
"On 3 April 2023, the BBC World News channel rebranded as BBC News, formally marking the implementation of the unified service with the UK feed opting out for UK-specific programming, such as BBC television newscasts and ''Newsnight'', and coverage of UK-specific news not judged to be significant enough to warrant rolling coverage globally.",
"Overall, the changes resulted in the layoffs of about 50 employees, including presenters David Eades, Joanna Gosling, and Tim Willcox."
],
[
"BBC News HD",
"BBC News HD logo (2013–2019)On 16 July 2013, the BBC announced that a high-definition (HD) simulcast of BBC News would be launched by early 2014.The channel broadcasts on the BBC's new HD multiplex on Freeview.",
"HD output from BBC News has been simulcast on BBC One HD and BBC Two HD since the move to Broadcasting House in March 2013.The channel launched on 10 December 2013 (at an earlier date than originally planned) and rolled out nationwide over the next six months (as did BBC Four HD, CBBC HD and CBeebies HD)."
],
[
"Programming",
"Sophie Raworth presenting the first BBC News at One at Broadcasting House, 18 March 2013, 13:00=== Breaking news ===The BBC maintains guidelines for procedures to be taken for breaking news.",
"With domestic news, the correspondent first recorded a \"generic minute\" summary (for use by all stations and channels) and then priority was to report on BBC Radio 5 Live, then on the BBC News channel and any other programmes that are on air.",
"Since 5 Live's move to Manchester, this has been reversed.",
"For foreign news, first a \"generic minute\" is recorded, then reports are to World Service radio, then the reporter talks to any other programmes that are on air.A key claim made by Lord Lambert in his report had been that the channel was slower to react to breaking news compared with its main rival Sky News.",
"To counteract this, a new feature introduced with the 2003 relaunch was a \"breaking news sting\": a globe shown briefly onscreen to direct a viewer's attention to the breaking news.The graphics relaunch in January 2007 saw the globe sting replaced by a red strapline to highlight the breaking story immediately.To complement this, a permanent live news ticker had earlier been introduced in 2006: this had previously been in use only sporadically.",
"News statements are shown as continuously scrolling upper-case text located at the bottom of the screen; some past ambiguities noted have included spelling the plural of MPs as \"MPS\", together with other occasional spelling and grammatical errors.",
"The design of this ticker was slightly altered with the 2007 graphics redesign and from June turned red to indicate breaking news, as ''Newswatch'' reported viewers' confusion.",
"The ticker was removed during trails and weather forecasts.A new set of graphics, including a change to font style, was officially launched in July 2019 although it was broadcast in error up to a couple of months before.",
"The news ticker, which had been a long-running feature of the Channel, was replaced by a flipper as stories no longer scroll across the screen.",
"The headlines now have a limited length and appear in full in turn.",
"The word \"BREAKING\" may appear on screen and flash to indicate breaking news.",
"Occasionally a breaking news sting may appear on the Channel to call attention to breaking news.",
"This sting gained some notoriety in June 2017 when a technical error caused it to appear several times in a row, delaying the start of the ''BBC News at Ten''.",
"Usually the BBC News Channel crosses over to live events, such as press conferences, without using the sting and the presenter on air introduces what viewers are seeing.=== BBC World News simulcasts ===The BBC began simulcasting the channel overnight on terrestrial channel BBC One with the launch of the channel, ending the tradition of a closedown but at the same time effectively making the service available to many more viewers.",
"In the early 2000s, BBC Two also started simulcasting the channel, although the weekend morning show ''Weekend 24'' had been simulcast on the channel in the early days.",
"During major breaking news events, the BBC News Channel has been broadcast on BBC One; examples of special broadcasts include the 11 September 2001 attacks, 7 July 2005 London bombings, the capture of Saddam Hussein, the death of Osama bin Laden and the death and funerals of Prince Philip and Elizabeth II.",
"In 2020, shared programming between BBC One and the News Channel often included the UK Government's Coronavirus Daily Update.",
"This was usually broadcast during late afternoons when the Government made announcements.Coverage of major events has also been simulcast on BBC World News.",
"Currently, overnight viewers receive 25-minute editions of BBC News every hour, and on weekdays 23:00–02:00 receive ''Newsday'', live from Singapore and from London which also includes ''Asia Business Report'' and ''Sport Today'' between 00:30 and 01:00 and also between 01:30 and 02:00From 02:00–05:00 (00:00–06:00 on weekends) receive ''BBC World News''.",
"''The Briefing'' airs between 05:00–06:00 on weekdays.These simulcasts were expanded as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"The BBC introduced a streamlined schedule and the News Channel and BBC World News now share major parts of evening and weekend coverage.",
"From August 2020 this was changed and made permanent to 10:00 to 12:00 and on weekdays 19:00 to 06:00, with opt-outs for ''BBC News at Ten'' and half an hour at 20:30, weekends 21:00 to 06:00, apart from the evening BBC One bulletin.=== BBC One, BBC Two and BBC World News simulcasts ===''BBC Breakfast'' has been simulcast since launch (in 2000) on BBC One and BBC News, replacing the individual breakfast shows that had run on both channels.",
"Since May 2006 until 17 March 2020, the simulcast generally ran from 06:00 until 08:30 during the week.",
"''Breakfast'' on BBC One continued from MediaCityUK until 09:15 with entertainment and features, whilst BBC News usually went to Business Live until 09:00 and reverted to its traditional format from 09:00.Since 18 March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused changes to these arrangements.",
"''Business Live'', which had become ''Worklife'', is no longer on air.",
"Weekdays, ''BBC Breakfast'' now runs until 09:00 on both BBC One and the BBC News Channel and there is then an hour of news, now called the ''BBC News at Nine'', on both channels.",
"This continues as the first half of two hours of programming on the BBC News Channel, the second hour usually taken by BBC Two presented by Victoria Derbyshire on Mondays to Wednesdays and generally by Annita McVeigh on the other two days of the week.BBC Two simulcasts the News Channel on weekday mornings from 09:00 until 12:15 or 13:00.Coverage switches to BBC One in the form of the simulcast ''BBC News at One''.",
"The ''BBC News at One'' may be broadcast on BBC One only however during periods of breaking news or major announcements in the House of Commons carried only on the News Channel, if it's an international story coverage will switch for the hour to simulcast with BBC World News.",
"A similar arrangement applies for the ''BBC News at Six'', generally simulcast on both BBC One and the News Channel but, as ever, subject to change for breaking news for the News Channel.The ''BBC News at Ten'' began simulcasting on the channel on 30 January 2006 as part of the ''Ten O'Clock Newshour'', followed by extended sport and business news updates.",
"The bulletin was joined in being simulcast on 10 April 2006 when the ''BBC News at One'' (with British Sign Language in-vision signing) and ''BBC News at Six'' bulletins were added to the schedule following a similar format to the ''News at Ten'' in terms of content on the channel once each simulcast ends.During the summer, the hour-long programme ''News 24 Sunday'' was broadcast both on BBC One and the BBC News Channel at 09:00, to replace ''The Andrew Marr Show'', which is off air.",
"It was presented by a news presenter, and came from the main News channel studio.",
"The programme was made up mostly of interviews focusing on current affairs, and included a full paper review, a weather summary, and a news update at 09:00, 09:30 and 10:00.",
"''Sunday Morning Live'' and alternative programming now fill this slot.From 2013, a new programme was created for BBC Two for 11:00–12:00 weekdays, consisting of 30 minutes of domestic news and 30 minutes of BBC World News.",
"On Wednesdays, when parliament is sitting the latter is replaced by the ''Daily Politics'' for coverage of Prime Minister's Questions (PMQ).",
"In March 2016 the channel started showing ''Newsnight'' at 23:15.The coverage from 10:00 to 13:00 on BBC Two and the News Channel is part of three-hour block of ''BBC World News'' simulcast due to the Coronavirus Pandemic.",
"However, by the end of 2021 the simulcast had been cut back to a single hour on weekdays, between 10:00 and 11:00 with all-morning simulcasts continuing at the weekend.",
"BBC World News produces the three-hour BBC News / BBC World News simulcast between 19:00 to 22:00 and 23:00 to 06:00, including one edition of ''The Papers''.",
"From August 2020 this was changed and made permanent to 10:00 to 12:00 and on weekdays 19:00 to 06:00, with opt-outs for BBC News at Ten and half an hour at 20:30, weekends 21:00 to 06:00, these exclude BBC One bulletin.",
"=== Exclusive programmes ===* ''BBC News'' – The latest national and international news as they break from the BBC.",
"* ''Asia Business Report'' – Live from Singapore, it is a look ahead to the news that will shape the business day.",
"This is presented by whoever covered the ''Newsday'' shift.",
"* ''The Context'' – The latest news from both sides of the Atlantic, presented by Christian Fraser in London (Monday to Thursday).",
"* ''Newsday'' – Live international news from Singapore.",
"Presented by Steve Lai.",
"Usually airs three 30-minute editions each hour from 23:00 between Sunday to Thursday.",
"* ''Sportsday'' / ''Sport Today'' – All the latest sports news and results from around the globe.",
"* ''Sunday with Laura Kuenssberg'' – Interviews and analysis of the weeks big news from the UK and around the world stories, including interviews with key politicians and personalities from all walks of life.",
"* ''World Business Report'' – The latest business news.",
"* ''BBC News Now'' – Reactive and fast-paced international breaking news, business and sport, covering several stories in an immersive format with as much detail as possible.",
"Launched on 22 May 2023.",
"* ''Verified Live'' – Forensic analysis and journalism from the BBC Verify team, using advanced editorial tools and techniques to investigate, source and verify information, video, and images.",
"Launched on 22 May 2023.",
"* ''The Daily Global'' – A deep-dive into some of the significant news stories of the day, using in-depth interviews combined with a unique global perspective.",
"Launched on 22 May 2023.==== Other programmes ====* ''BBC World News America'' – News and analysis with Laura Trevelyan.",
"Broadcast from the BBC's Washington D.C. studio.",
"This programme was broadcast during a few weeks of the year when daylight savings schedules of the UK and the USA ran out of sync.",
"It is now broadcast occasionally when ''BBC News at Ten'' is running late due to programming on BBC One and sometimes shown live when broadcasting significant events are happening in the Americas.",
"* ''Click'' – A guide to gadgets, websites, games and computer industry news.",
"* ''Global Questions'' – The panels and contributing audiences discuss topical themes put to representatives from global politics, finance, business, the arts, media and other areas.",
"* ''HARDtalk'' – Stephen Sackur talks to newsmakers and personalities from across the globe.",
"* ''Our World'' – Features the BBC's news programmes on current issues around the world.",
"The documentaries are intended to showcase BBC journalism at its best.",
"* ''Panorama'' – Current affairs programme, featuring interviews and investigative reports on a wide variety of subjects.",
"* ''Reporters'' – This programme, a showcase of reports from the BBC's global network of correspondents, occasionally airs on BBC News.",
"*''Talking Business'' – BBC business presenters, based in London, New York, Mumbai, Johannesburg and Singapore, discuss with the most important and influential people from the world of business and finance, the key issues of the day.",
"* ''The Travel Show''* ''Witness'' – A monthly round-up of BBC News stories of global events told by the people who were there.==== Previous programming ====* ''BBC News at Five'' – An hour of news live from Broadcasting House in London, usually presented by Huw Edwards or Jane Hill, covering the day's national and international news, sports events, and weather.",
"On 13 March 2020, the last edition of the ''BBC News at Five'' was broadcast and was suspended until further notice in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"The UK Government's daily press conference on the pandemic was broadcast in place of ''BBC News at Five'' on BBC One and the BBC News Channel.",
"The new schedule under the COVID-19 pandemic involves the ''BBC News at One'' presenter continuing on air until 16:00, replacing Afternoon Live.",
"The programme did not return after the daily news briefings ended later in 2020.",
"* ''BBC News at Nine'' – An in-depth look at the morning news and briefing on the day's events.",
"This programme included News Briefing, involving a look at top stories on the BBC News website through smartphone access.",
"* ''The Briefing'' – Sally Bundock with news, business, and sports from BBC News.",
"It is currently airing unbranded as part of an hour block of BBC News.",
"**''Business Briefing'' – Sally Bundock with the latest business, economic and financial news, market updates and interviews with the key news-makers in the business world.",
"It is currently airing as the 05:30 & 06:30 edition of World Business Report.",
"**''News Briefing'' - A summary of the latest headlines from newspapers and websites.",
"It is currently airing unbranded as part of an hour block of BBC News.",
"* ''Business Live'' – Sally Bundock and Ben Thompson or Tanya Beckett with the latest business news and a look ahead to the news that will shape the business day.",
"With the latest news from end of trading in Asia, Europe, Middle East and Americas.",
"* ''Dateline London'' – Foreign correspondents based in London give their views on the week's international news.",
"The final episode was broadcast on 15 October 2022.",
"* ''Outside Source'' – Ros Atkins hosts live reports linking up with the BBC's global network of correspondents.",
"This was occasionally simulcast at 18:00 weekdays during major stories.",
"It was broadcast at 19:00 to 20:00 (Monday to Thursday).",
"* ''The Papers'' – From 2013 until 2023, the channel broadcast ''The Papers'' which featured lively and informed conversation about the next day's or today's headlines as featured in the national newspapers.",
"From around 2017 the nightly editions were usually to Clive Myrie and Martine Croxall, the latter having also generally covered some late weekday and weekend shifts.",
"Other News Channel presenters filled in across the week.",
"A Sunday-morning edition was usually presented by Ben Brown as part of his News Channel 09:00 to 14:00 shift.",
"''The Papers'' was axed in January 2023 ahead of the merger between the UK news channel with BBC World News.",
"* ''STORYFix'' – A short-lived weekly programme which was broadcast in 2006 and 2007.It took a mildly satirical view of the week's events – although the satire was aimed more at the way the news was reported than at the news itself.",
"The programme ended after just a year as it had been seen as being part of a video podcasting trial, and that the production team 'will be moving on to other projects'.",
"* ''Victoria Derbyshire'' – From 2015 until 2020, ''Victoria Derbyshire'' was broadcast on weekday mornings.",
"The programme had featured original stories, exclusive interviews, audience debate and breaking news.",
"On 22 January 2020, it was announced that the programme would be axed later in 2020 as part of BBC cuts.",
"However, due to priority put on coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic, the BBC suspended the programme earlier than initially planned with the final episode airing on 17 March 2020.Derbyshire has remained as a presenter in the same time slot, instead presenting a standardly structured BBC News newscast.",
"* ''World News Today'' – This programme focused on the UK, Europe, Middle East and Africa and was presented by Kasia Madera, Nancy Kacungira, Lukwesa Burak and Lewis Vaughan Jones.",
"It was broadcast at 19:00, 21:00 and 03:00.The 19:00 programme was simulcast on BBC Four, when ''Beyond 100 Days'' was not on air, and the 03:00 programme was simulcast on BBC One.",
"Under COVID-19, the programme effectively ended when it became part of the news coverage simulcast with BBC World News during the weekends (including Friday mid-evening and the approximate half hour slot from 21:00 on Saturday and Sunday).",
"*''Your News'' – A user-generated news programme which was part of the channel's weekend schedule from November 2006 until December 2008.Other programmes previous broadcast on BBC News Channel included ''Head 2 Head'', ''E24'', ''The Record Europe'', ''Politics Europe'' and ''News 24 Tonight'', a weekday evening programme which ran from 2005 to 2008, providing a round up of the day's news.=== 2015 schedule changes ===As part of budget cuts, major changes to the channel were announced in late 2014 / early 2015.This included axing some bulletins and replacing them with ''Victoria Derbyshire'' and ''BBC Business Live'' with Sally Bundock and Ben Thompson in the morning.",
"''Outside Source with Ros Atkins'' – an \"interactive\" show already broadcast on BBC World News – aired Mondays-Thursday at (during major stories at 18:00) and 21:00 and a new edition of ''World News Today'' Friday-Sunday at 21:00 (during major stories at 19:00/20:00 Monday-Friday) adding to the 19:00 edition on BBC Four.",
"''HARDtalk'' was moved to 20:30 in May.",
"The 00:00 edition was replaced on Sundays–Thursday with ''Newsday'' and on Friday-Saturday a standard edition of ''BBC World News''.=== BBC World News shared programming ===On 1 October 2007, BBC World News started broadcasting ''BBC World News America'' and ''World News Today'' at 00:00 and 03:00 GMT respectively.",
"''World News Today'' was simulcast on the BBC News channel at 03:00 GMT.",
"''BBC World News America'' used to be aired as a reduced length, time-delayed version at 00:30 GMT, with ''ABC World News Tonight with David Muir'' also being shown at 01:30 every Tuesday-Friday.From 13 June 2011, the weekday editions of BBC News at 01:00, 02:00, 03:00 and 04:00 were replaced with ''Newsday''.",
"The programme acts as a morning news bulletin for the Asia-Pacific region and is broadcast as a double-headed news bulletin with Rico Hizon in Singapore and Babita Sharma in London.",
"''Asia Business Report'' and ''Sport Today'' are aired at the back of the first three hours of ''Newsday''.",
"But Newsday changed to 23:00–02:00 on BBC News a year later meaning Mike Embley presents Tuesday-Friday ''BBC World News'' 23:00–02:00 with Kasia Madera on Saturdays and Daniela Ritorto 00:00–06:00 Sunday, 02:00–05:00 Friday/Monday.",
"''BBC World News'' and ''World Business Report'' air at 05:00.This was previously known as ''The World Today'', However, since November 2017 this was rebranded as ''The Briefing'' and ''Business Briefing'' on both channels and in lieu of commercials seen on the international broadcasts, the presenters gave a brief update on UK news for domestic audiences.In June 2015, BBC News began simulcasting ''Outside Source with Ros Atkins'' on Mondays-Thursday at (during major stories 18:00) / at 21:00 and a new edition of ''World News Today'' Friday-Sunday at (during major stories Monday-Friday 19:00) 21:00.Since January 2017, they began simulcasting ''Beyond 100 Days'' (previously '100 Days'' and ''100 Days +) Monday to Thursday at 19:00, presented from London and Washington.",
"During August, ''Beyond 100 Days'' is replaced by another edition of ''World News Today''.On 26 May 2022, as part of planned cuts and streamlining to create a \"digital first\" broadcaster, the BBC announced plans to consolidate the BBC News and BBC World News networks into a single service under the \"BBC News\" name.",
"The merged service was slated to launch in April 2023, with the BBC stating that it would offer \"new flagship programmes built around high-profile journalists, and programmes commissioned for multiple platforms\".",
"The international version of the BBC News channel remains an advertising-supported service distributed by the corporation's commercial arm, BBC Studios.",
"The domestic channel may opt out from the shared schedule to provide coverage of UK-specific breaking news, and would continue to carry UK-specific programmes (such as simulcasts of BBC One bulletins and ''Newsnight'') that are not cleared by the international channel.By the end of 2022, sharing had extended to 23:00–06:00 UK time, BBC News and BBC World News simulcast for the first 25 minutes of each hour with world news shown all through the simulcasts.",
"In addition, the 10:00 hour on weekdays was simulcast and at the weekend, simulcasts run throughout the morning UK-time.",
"The two channels also simulcast between 19:00 and 22:00.UK-specific rolling coverage had, by now, been restricted to daytime hours.=== Sports ===Since 5 March 2012, sports bulletins come from the ''BBC Sport Centre'' in MediaCityUK in Salford Quays, where the sports network BBC Radio 5 Live is also based.Headlines are usually provided at 15 minutes past the hour with a full bulletin after the bottom-of-the-hour headlines.",
"There are also extended sports bulletins per day, entitled ''Sportsday'' or ''Sport Today'' (when simulcasting with BBC World News) broadcast at 00:45, 01:45, 02:45, 03:45, 13:30, 18:30, 19:30 (weekends only), 22:30 (weekdays only).",
"Each bulletin is read by a single sports presenter, with the exception of Saturday ''Sportsday'', which is double headed.The channel's sports bulletins (internally known as Sport 24) have always had a separate, dedicated production gallery, which is also responsible for the graphics.Bulletins during ''BBC Breakfast'' are presented by Sally Nugent or Mike Bushell, with the latter also appearing on other sports bulletins on the channel.",
"the main sports presenters on the channel are Olly Foster, Gavin Ramjaun, Katie Gornall, Chetan Pathak, Katherine Downes, Tulsen Tollett, Lizzie Greenwood-Hughes and John Watson.Until March 2012, bulletins came from the News Channel studio at the quarter to the hour.",
"Presenters for bulletins on the channel have included: Reshmin Chowdhury, Amanda Davies, Sean Fletcher, Matt Gooderick, Celina Hinchcliffe, Rachael Hodges, Damian Johnson, Adnan Nawaz and Olympic gold medallist turned journalist Matthew Pinsent.=== Business ===Before BBC News moved to Broadcasting House, an hourly business update was included during the weekday schedule from the BBC Business Unit.",
"There were two shifts, from 08:30 to 14:00 and 14:00 to 23:00, presented by Penny Haslam, Maryam Moshiri, Ben Thompson, Adam Parsons, Susannah Streeter, Joe Lynam, Sara Coburn or Sally Eden.",
"News Channel updates were usually broadcast at 40 minutes past the hour between 08:00 and 23:00.The 21:40 round-up was often earlier and the 22:40 bulletin is an extended round-up of the day's business news.",
"Until May 2009, the business updates on the BBC News Channel were broadcast from one of the London Stock Exchange's studios in central London.",
"From then until March 2013 the bulletins were provided from the channel's studio at BBC Television Centre.",
"The business updates were axed in March 2013 as part of the BBC's Delivering Quality First plan.",
"But after complaints returned in November 2013.Stock market updates now only appear during the quarter-to-the-hour headlines.",
"Rachel Horne is the main presenter from 13:30 to 18:00, with Vishala Sri-Pathma, Alice Baxter, Jamie Robertson, Aaron Heslehurst and Sally Bundock.",
"There is normally an extended bulletin at 16:45 when the main business stories of the day are discussed on ''Afternoon Live''.",
"Bundock and Thompson present ''Business Live'' on weekdays at 08:30.Declan Curry presented ''Your Money'', a weekly round-up on a Saturday morning.Alice Baxter and Sally Bundock presented ''World Business Report''."
],
[
"News presenters"
],
[
"Presentation",
"=== Graphics ===The channel was criticised at launch for its style of presentation, with accusations of it being less authoritative than the BBC One news bulletins, with presenters appearing on-screen without jackets.",
"Jenny Abramsky had originally planned to have a television version of the informal news radio channel BBC Radio 5 Live, or a TV version of Radio 4 News FM both of which she had run.",
"The bright design of the set was also blamed for this – one insider reportedly described it as a \"car crash in a shower\" – and was subject to the network relaunch on 25 October 1999.The channel swapped studios with sister channel BBC World, moving to studio N8 within the newsroom, where it remained until 2008.New music and title sequences accompanied this set change, following the look of newly relaunched BBC One bulletins.Graphics and titles were developed by the Lambie-Nairn design agency and were gradually rolled out across the whole of BBC News, including a similar design for regional news starting with ''Newsroom South East'' and the three 'BBC Nations' – Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.",
"The similarity of main BBC News output was intended to increase the credibility of the channel as well as aiding cross-channel promotion.A graphics relaunch in January 2007 saw the channel updated, with redesigned headline straplines, a redesigned 'digital on-screen graphic' and repositioned clock.",
"The clock was originally placed to the left hand side of the channel name though following complaints that this could only be viewed in widescreen, it was moved to the right in February 2007.Bulletins on BBC World News and BBC One also introduced similar graphics and title sequences on the same day.In 2008, the graphics were again relaunched, using the style introduced in 2007 and a new colour scheme.",
"The typeface of the on-screen text was changed from Helvetica to Gill Sans.In 2013 the graphics were changed again, to coincide with the move to New Broadcasting House.",
"The typeface was changed back to Helvetica.These were updated again in July 2019 when the BBC redesigned its on-air look with the growth of television viewing on smartphones and tablets.",
"These included again redesigned, larger headline straplines sharply contrasting with the background (drawing criticism for obscuring content) using the BBC Reith typeface with larger text.",
"Despite this, the 2008 titles and music continue to be used for the updated local titles.=== The Lambert Report ===The Lambert Report into the channel's performance in 2002 called upon News 24 to develop a better brand of its own, to allow viewers to differentiate between itself and similar channels such as Sky News.",
"As a direct result of this, a brand new style across all presentation for the channel launched on 8 December 2003 at 09:00.Philip Hayton and Anna Jones were the first two presenters on the set, the relaunch of which had been put back a week due to previous power disruptions at Television Centre where the channel was based.",
"The new designs also featured a dynamic set of titles for the channel; the globe would begin spinning from where the main story was taking place, while the headline scrolled around in a ribbon; this was occasionally replaced by the BBC News logo.",
"The titles concluded with a red globe surrounded by a red stylised clamshell and BBC News ribbons forming above the BBC News logo.Bulletins on BBC One moved into a new set in January 2003 although retained the previous ivory Lambie-Nairn titles until February 2004.News 24 updated the title colours slightly to match those of BBC One bulletins in time for the 50th anniversary of BBC television news on 5 July 2004.=== Countdown sequence ===The countdown since 2005 has shown the elements of journalism and production involved in bringing news stories to air.An important part of the channel's presentation since launch has been the top of the hour countdown sequence, since there is no presentation system with continuity announcers so the countdown provides a link to the beginning of the next hour.",
"A similar musical device is used on BBC Radio 5 Live, and mirrors the pips on BBC Radio 4.Previous styles have included a series of fictional flags set to music between 1997 and 1999 before the major relaunch, incorporating the new contemporary music composed by David Lowe, and graphics developed by Lambie-Nairn.",
"Various images, originally ivory numbers fully animated against a deep red background, were designed to fit the pace of the channel, and the music soon gained notoriety, and was often satirised and parodied in popular culture.",
"Images of life around the UK were added in replacement later with the same music, together with footage of the newsroom and exterior of Television Centre.",
"The 2003 relaunch saw a small change to this style with less of a metropolitan feel to the footage.A new sequence was introduced on 28 March 2005, designed and created by Red Bee Media and directed by Mark Chaudoir.",
"The full version ran for 60 seconds, though only around 30 seconds were usually shown on air.",
"The music was revised completely but the biggest change came in the footage used – reflecting the methods and nature of newsgathering, while a strong emphasis was placed on the BBC logo itself.",
"Satellite dishes are shown transmitting and receiving red \"data streams\".",
"In production of the countdown sequence, Clive Norman filmed images around the United Kingdom, Richard Jopson in the United States, while BBC News camerapeople filmed images from Iraq, Beijing (Tiananmen Square), Bund of Shanghai, Africa, as well as areas affected by the 2004 Asian tsunami and others.The sequence has since seen several remixes to the music and a change in visuals to focus more on the well-known journalists, with less footage of camera crews and production teams.",
"Changes have also seen the channel logo included during the sequences and at the end, as well as the fonts used for the time.",
"The conclusion of the countdown was altered in 2008 to feature the new presentation style, rather than a data stream moving in towards the camera.",
"Also in 2008, the graphic for the countdown changed, resembling the BBC One Rhythm and Movement idents, due to the logo being in a red square in the bottom left corner.To coincide with the move of BBC News to Broadcasting House, on 18 March 2013 the countdown was updated again along with several other presentation elements.",
"Three of the most striking features of the new countdown include music performed by the BBC Concert Orchestra, a redesign of the \"data streams\" and the ending of the sequence no longer fading to the BBC News globe and logo, but instead stopping with a time-lapse shot outside the corporation's headquarters.",
"The countdown was also extended to 87 seconds, which was fully shown before the first hour from Broadcasting House.",
"In 2019, the countdown started using the BBC's new Reith font but otherwise retained the same style.",
"A full three-minute version of the countdown music was made available on BBC News Online and David Lowe's own website after a remix on 16 May 2006.An international version of the countdown was launched on BBC World News on 5 September 2005 featuring more international content and similar music.",
"Various changes have been made to the music and visuals since then, with presentation following the style of BBC News.",
"The visuals in the sequence were updated on 10 May 2010.In June 2011, further imagery was added relating to recent events, including the conflict in Libya and views of outside 10 Downing Street.",
"In January 2013, as part of the relocation of BBC News to Broadcasting House in Central London, BBC World News received a new countdown in the same style as the BBC News Channel's updated countdown, with some minor differences.In April 2021, a new \"sombre\" version of the countdown was played, with no \"data streams\" and slower shots of places within the UK, or in the case of the international version, timelapse shots across the world.",
"Both were introduced to run up to programmes immediately following the death of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and were used again following the death of Queen Elizabeth II in 2022.To coincide with the integration of BBC World News into BBC News, the countdown sequence was slightly refreshed in April 2023 to follow the new \"Chameleon\" branding scheme used by BBC television since October 2021, with the countdown now centred between the BBC and \"News\" wordmarks at the top- and bottom-centre of the screen respectively."
],
[
"Viewing audience figures",
"The Daily Telegraph reported in November 2021, \"BBC News reaches 370,000 for its best performing slots\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of television channels in the United Kingdom* List of news television channels* List of world news channels"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* ** via BBC iPlayer (available to UK viewers only – TV Licence required)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bill Oddie"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''William Edgar Oddie''' (born 7 July 1941) is an English actor, artist, birder, comedian, conservationist, musician, songwriter, television presenter and writer.",
"He was a member of comedy trio The Goodies.A birder since his childhood in Quinton, Birmingham, Oddie has established a reputation as a naturalist, conservationist, and television presenter on wildlife issues.",
"Some of his books are illustrated with his own paintings and drawings.",
"His wildlife programmes for the BBC include ''Springwatch'' and ''Autumnwatch'', ''How to Watch Wildlife'', ''Wild in Your Garden'', ''Birding with Bill Oddie'', ''Britain Goes Wild with Bill Oddie'' and ''Bill Oddie Goes Wild''."
],
[
"Early life",
"Oddie was born on 7 July 1941 in Rochdale, Lancashire, but moved to Birmingham at a young age; his father was assistant chief accountant at the Midlands Electricity Board.",
"His mother was diagnosed with schizophrenia and, during most of his youth, lived in a hospital.",
"He was educated at Lapal Primary School, Halesowen Grammar School (now The Earls High School, Halesowen) and King Edward's School, Birmingham, an all-boys direct grant school, where he captained the school's rugby union team.",
"He then studied English literature at Pembroke College, Cambridge."
],
[
"Career",
"===Comedy===While at Cambridge University Oddie appeared in several Footlights Club productions.",
"One of these, a revue called ''A Clump of Plinths'', was so successful at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe that it was renamed ''Cambridge Circus'' and transferred to the West End in London, then New Zealand and Broadway in September 1964.Meanwhile, still at Cambridge, Oddie wrote scripts for and appeared briefly in TV's ''That Was the Week That Was''.He appeared in Bernard Braden's television series ''On The Braden Beat'' in 1964.Subsequently, he was a key member of the performers in the BBC radio series ''I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again'', where many of his musical compositions were featured.",
"Some were released on the album ''Distinctly Oddie'' (Polydor, 1967).",
"He was one of the first performers to parody a rock song, arranging the traditional Yorkshire folk song \"On Ilkla Moor Baht'at\" in the style of Joe Cocker's hit rendition of the Beatles' \"With a Little Help from My Friends\" (released on John Peel's Dandelion Records in 1970 and featured in Peel's special box of most-treasured singles), and singing \"Andy Pandy\" in the style of a brassy soul number such as Wilson Pickett or Geno Washington might perform.",
"In many shows he would do short impressions of Hughie Green.On television Oddie was co-writer and performer in the comedy series ''Twice a Fortnight'' with Graeme Garden, Terry Jones, Michael Palin and Jonathan Lynn.",
"Later he was co-writer and performer in the comedy series ''Broaden Your Mind'' with Tim Brooke-Taylor and Graeme Garden, for which he became a cast member for the second series.Oddie, Brooke-Taylor and Garden then co-wrote and appeared in their television comedy series ''The Goodies'' (1970–1982).",
"The Goodies also released records, including \"Father Christmas Do Not Touch Me\"/\"The In-Betweenies\", \"The Funky Gibbon\" (co-written by Oddie with Dave MacRae) and \"Black Pudding Bertha\", which were hit singles in 1974–75.They reformed, briefly, in 2005 for a successful 13-date tour of Australia.Oddie, Brooke-Taylor and Garden voiced characters on the 1983 animated children's programme ''Bananaman''.In the Amnesty International show ''A Poke in the Eye (With a Sharp Stick)'', Oddie, Brooke-Taylor and Garden sang their hit song \"Funky Gibbon\".",
"They also appeared on ''Top of the Pops'' with the song.",
"Together with Garden (who is a qualified medical doctor), Oddie co-wrote many episodes of the television comedy series ''Doctor in the House'', including most of the first season and all of the second season.",
"He has occasionally appeared on the BBC Radio 4 panel game ''I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue'', on which Garden is and Brooke-Taylor was a regular panellist.",
"In 1982 Garden and Oddie wrote, but did not perform in, a six-part science-fiction sitcom called ''Astronauts'' for Central and ITV.",
"The show was set in an international space station in the near future.===Natural history===Oddie's first published work was an article about the birdlife of Birmingham's Bartley Reservoir in the West Midland Bird Club's 1962 Annual Report.",
"(He is first credited in the 1956 report, in which reports of his bird observations are tagged with his initials \"WEO\".)",
"He has since written a number of books about birds and birdwatching as well as articles for many specialist publications including ''British Birds'', ''Birdwatching Magazine'' and ''Birdwatch''.He discussed bird-song recordings with Derek Jones in an August 1973 BBC Radio 4 programme called ''Sounds Natural''.In the autumn of 1976 Oddie was involved in the successful identification of Britain's first-ever record of Pallas's reed bunting on Fair Isle, Shetland.One of Oddie's first forays into the world of television natural history was as a guest on ''Animal Magic'' in December 1977.Another early natural-history radio appearance was in October, as the guest on Radio 4's ''Through My Window'', discussing the birds of Hampstead Heath.On 30 July 1985 he was the subject of a 50-minute ''Nature Watch Special: Bill Oddie – Bird Watcher'', in which he was interviewed by Julian Pettifer at places where he had spent time birding, including Bartley Reservoir, the Christopher Cadbury Wetland Reserve at Upton Warren, RSPB Titchwell Marsh and Blakeney Point.Oddie has since hosted a number of successful nature programmes for the BBC, many produced by Stephen Moss, including:*''The Great Bird Race'' (1983; Channel 4)*''The Great Kenyan Bird Safari'' (BBC)*''Favourite Walks'': \"A Bird Walk\" (1985; BBC; filmed on Fair Isle)*''Worldwise'': \"The Bird Business\" (1985; Channel 4)*''Oddie in Paradise'' (1985; BBC)*''Wild Weekends'' (TV AM)*''Flight to Eilat'' (Channel 4)*''Bird in the Nest'' (two series, 1994 and 1995)*''Birding with Bill Oddie'' (three series, 1997, 1998 and 2000)*''Bill Oddie Goes Wild'' (three series, 2001, 2002 and 2003)*''Wild in Your Garden'' (2003)*''Britain Goes Wild'' (2004)*''Bill Oddie in Tiger Country'' (2004)*''Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife'' (two series, 2005 and 2006; also on DVD)*''Seven Natural Wonders'' (London edition) (2005)*''The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs'' (2005; also on DVD)*''Springwatch'' (2005–2008)*''Autumnwatch'' (2006–2008)*''Bill Oddie Back in the USA'' (2007)*''Bill Oddie's Top Ten Birds'' (2007; BBC Four)*''100 Years of Wildlife'' (2007)*''Bill Oddie's Wild Side'' (2008)*''Bill Oddie's Top 10'' (2008)The first broadcast, in 2004, of ''Britain Goes Wild'' set a record for its timeslot of 8 pm on BBC Two of 3.4 million viewers, one million more than the Channel 4 programme showing at that time.",
"''Britain Goes Wild'', renamed ''Springwatch'' the following year, became a wildlife broadcasting phenomenon, attracting over 4 million viewers.He became president of the West Midland Bird Club in 1999, having been vice-president since 1991, and is a former member of the council of the RSPB.",
"Oddie is also a President of the League Against Cruel Sports and a vice-president of the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers.",
"He practised as a bird ringer but allowed his licence to lapse.In 2003, Oddie set up a half-marathon to raise money for various wildlife charities in his birth town of Rochdale.",
"Celebrities who have participated in the event include Ray Mears, Katherine Jenkins and Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall.In 2011, Oddie featured as an investigator in ''Snares Uncovered: killers in the countryside''.",
"The film was an exposé of snaring in Scotland and was commissioned by animal protection charity OneKind.",
"During the investigation Oddie discovered more than 70 snares and several stink pits.===Music===Oddie wrote original music at Cambridge University for the Footlights and later wrote comic songs for ''I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again''.",
"He also wrote a number of comic songs for The Goodies, most of which he also performed.In the 1960s and early 1970s Oddie released a number of singles and at least one album.",
"One of the former, issued in 1970 on John Peel's Dandelion Records label (Catalogue No: 4786), was \"On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at\", performed in the style of Joe Cocker's \"With a Little Help from my Friends\".",
"The B-side, \"Harry Krishna\", featured the Hare Krishna chant, substituting the names of contemporary famous people called Harry, including Harry Secombe, Harry Worth, Harry Lauder and Harry Corbett, as well as puns such as \"Harry Hurry along now\" and \"Harrystotle Aristotle\" and ending with \"Harry-ly I really must go now\".",
"Both tracks appear on the compilation CD ''Life Too, Has Surface Noise: The Complete Dandelion Records Singles Collection 1969–1972'' (2007).",
"In 1966 he was credited as the vocalist with Spencer's Washboard Kings on \"Five Feet Two\" (Rayrick LCR1001a).",
"The vocalist on the B-side of this 45rpm single, \"If You Knew Susie\", was Jean Hart, Oddie's future wife.He played the drums and saxophone and appeared as Cousin Kevin in a production of The Who's rock opera ''Tommy'' by London Symphonic Orchestra and English Chamber Choir at the Rainbow Theatre, Finsbury Park, London, on 13 and 14 December 1973.He has also contributed vocals to a Rick Wakeman album, ''Criminal Record''.He recorded a single, \"Superspike\", with John Cleese and a group of UK athletes, billed the \"Superspike Squad\", to fund the latter's attendance at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.",
"He co-produced the record with Stephen Shane.Oddie took part in the English National Opera production of the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera ''The Mikado'', in which he appeared in the role of the Lord High Executioner, taking over the role from Eric Idle.",
"During the early 1990s Oddie was a DJ for London-based jazz radio station 102.2 Jazz FM.In 2007, Oddie appeared on the BBC series ''Play It Again''.",
"In the episode he attempts to realise his dream of becoming a rock guitarist.",
"Initially teacher Bridget Mermikides tries to teach him using traditional methods but he rebels: instead he turns to old friends Albert Lee, Dave Davies (of The Kinks) and Mark Knopfler for advice and strikes out on his own.",
"He succeeds in the target of playing lead guitar for his daughter Rosie's band at her 21st birthday party and even manages to impress his erstwhile teacher.In November 2010 he agreed, along with fellow members of The Goodies, to rerelease their 1970s hit \"The Funky Gibbon\" to raise funds for the International Primate Protection League's Save the Gibbon appeal.===Other television and voice work===Oddie appeared as the hapless window cleaner in the Eric Sykes' comedy story ''The Plank'' in 1967.He also presented the live children's Saturday morning entertainment show ''Saturday Banana'' (ITV/Southern Television) during the late 1970s.",
"In the late 1980s he was a presenter of the BBC TV show ''Fax'' (a show about 'facts').In 1981, he appeared as a Telethon celebrity in New Zealand, hosted by TV1.He voices Asterix in the UK dub of the 1989 animated film ''Asterix and the Big Fight'' (an animated adaptation of the books ''Asterix and the Big Fight'' and ''Asterix and the Soothsayer'', novelized as ''Operation Getafix'').In 1992, he was a guest star in the US comedy television series ''Married... with Children'' for a three-part episode set in England.He voiced the chimney sweep in the 1996 film ''The Willows in Winter''.In 1997–98, he appeared on the Channel 4 archaeological programme ''Time Team'', as the team excavated a Roman villa site in Turkdean, Gloucestershire.He was the compère of a daytime BBC gameshow ''History Hunt'' (in 2003); and has appeared in the ''Doctor Who'' audio drama ''Doctor Who and the Pirates''.",
"In 2004, he appeared on the first ever episode of the BBC series ''Who Do You Think You Are?",
"'', in which he looked into his ancestry: he was visibly moved by its revelations.",
"In 2005, he took part in ''Rolf on Art – the big event at Trafalgar Square'' and in September that year was also a celebrity guest along with Lynda Bellingham on the ITV1 programme ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire''.",
"He also gave opinions on 100 greatest cartoons on Channel 4 that year, talking about ''Tom and Jerry'' and cartoon incidents such as the \"Asses of Fire skit\" in ''South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut''.In 2006, Oddie appeared in the BBC show ''Never Mind the Buzzcocks'', and also appeared on the topical quiz show ''8 out of 10 Cats''.",
"He was also the voice behind many B&Q adverts throughout 2006/2007.On 25 May 2007, Oddie made a cameo appearance on Ronni Ancona's new comedy sketch show, ''Ronni Ancona & Co''.Also in 2007, three artists each painted a portrait of Oddie, as part of the BBC programme ''Star Portraits with Rolf Harris''.",
"One of the artists, Mark Roscoe, later revealed a dislike of Oddie, claiming to have included hidden insults in his work.He hosted the genealogy-based series ''My Famous Family'', broadcast on UKTV History in 2007.In 2008, Oddie was a guest on Jamie Oliver's television special ''Jamie's Fowl Dinners'', talking about free-range chickens.He also appeared on ''Would I Lie To You?''",
"in 2011, where he revealed that he was saved from drowning by Freddy from popular children's series ''Rainbow'' and ''Rod, Jane and Freddy'' while on holiday in the Seychelles.Bill Oddie performing live at the Astor Theatre in Perth, Western Australia, 27 June 2013.In February 2015, Oddie appeared in ''The Keith Lemon Sketch Show'' as the narrator of the sketch ''Ed Sheeran Watch''.He appeared as a contestant on a celebrity edition of ''Fifteen to One'' in August 2015 and the following month he appeared on ''Through the Keyhole''.He has appeared three times on the programme ''Pointless Celebrities'', the most recent appearance being in 2016.In 2017, he appeared in three episodes of ''The Real Marigold Hotel''.In 2018, he featured on the programme ''The Two Ronnies: In Their Own Words''.",
"In 2019, he appeared on the show ''The Inbetweeners: Fwends Reunited''.In 2020, he appeared in the documentary ''Celebrity Britain by Barge: Then & Now''.===2013 Australian tour===Oddie undertook an Australian tour during June 2013 in all of the mainland states capital cities – Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth – in a series of one-off shows, ''An Oldie but a Goodie''.",
"A video message from Tim Brooke-Taylor and Graeme Garden was shown during the performances.",
"Oddie made personal appearances on both ''The Project'' and ''Adam Hills Tonight'' TV shows during the tour; he also filmed a guest-programming spot for the ABC-TV's all-night music video show ''Rage''."
],
[
"Personal life",
"===Family===In 1966 Oddie married Jeanne Hart, and from this marriage he has two daughters, one of whom is the actress Kate Hardie.",
"The couple later divorced.In 1983 Oddie married Laura Beaumont-Giles.",
"The couple have worked on a variety of projects for children, including film scripts, drama and comedy series, puppet shows and books.",
"They have a daughter, Rosie, born in October 1985, and live in Hampstead, North London.",
"Rosie Oddie is a musician, also using the name Rosie Bones.===Mental health===Oddie has experienced depression for most of his life before being diagnosed with clinical depression in 2001.In March 2009 he was reportedly admitted to Capio Nightingale psychiatric hospital in Marylebone for treatment.",
"His then agent, David Foster, said: \"Bill gets these bouts every two or three years where he gets down for about two weeks and recovers.",
"He sometimes goes into hospital or takes a break or has a change of scenery to recharge his batteries.\"",
"In January 2010 Oddie spoke to the media, revealing that he had in fact had two separate stays in different hospitals, only being discharged \"in time for Christmas\".",
"He said that he was dealing with depression and bipolar disorder, describing the period as \"probably the worst 12 months of my life\".",
"Oddie stated that he was planning to meet BBC executives to discuss his return to television work.His illness meant that Oddie did not appear in the 2009 and 2010 series of ''Springwatch'', although he made a guest appearance in the penultimate episode of the latter.",
"He subsequently said he was dismissed from ''Springwatch'' and that this had caused the depressive illness.Oddie presented the BBC Radio 4 Appeal programme on 10 August 2014 on behalf of the charity Bipolar UK.",
"He revealed that as a consequence of his bipolar disorder he had attempted suicide during one of his depressive episodes.",
"On the UK TV programme ''Who Do You Think You Are?''",
"he attributed his depression and bipolar disorder as an adult to his minimal and painful relationship with his mother.===Political views===Oddie supports the Green Party.",
"In October 2014, on the BBC's ''Sunday Morning Live'', he stated that he wanted a limit on the number of children that British families can have, saying that he was \"very often ashamed\" to be British, calling them \"a terrible race\"."
],
[
"Honours",
"In 2002, Oddie became the third person to decline to appear on ''This Is Your Life'' but changed his mind a few hours later.",
"On 16 October 2003 Oddie was made an OBE for his service to wildlife conservation in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace.",
"He wore a camouflage shirt and crumpled jacket to receive his medal.",
"In June 2004 Oddie and Johnny Morris were jointly profiled in the first of a three-part BBC Two series ''The Way We Went Wild'', about television wildlife presenters.",
"In May 2005 he received the British Naturalists' Association's Peter Scott Memorial Award, from BNA president David Bellamy, \"in recognition of his great contribution to our understanding of natural history and conservation.\"",
"He is a recipient of the RSPB Medal.On 30 June 2009 he was proposed for inclusion in the Birmingham Walk of Stars, with the public invited to vote."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"(incomplete list)*''Bill Oddie Unplucked: Columns, Blogs and Musings'' (Bloomsbury, 2015)*''Bill Oddie's Introduction to Birdwatching'' (Subbuteo Books, 2002)*''Bill Oddie's Colouring Guide to Birds'' (Piccolo, 1991)*''Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book''*''Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book'' (paperback with additional material)*''Bill Oddie's Gone Birding''*''The Big Bird Race'' (with David Tomlinson; Collins, 1983)*''Follow That Bird!",
"''*''Gripping Yarns'' (Christopher Helm, 2000)*''Bird in the Nest''*''Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife''*''One Flew into the Cuckoos Egg'' (Autobiography)Bill Oddie also co-wrote the Springwatch & Autumnwatch book with Kate Humble and Simon King.Co-written with the other members of The Goodies:*''The Goodies File''*''The Goodies Book of Criminal Records''*''The Goodies Disaster Movie''Co-written with Laura Beaumont:*''The Toilet Book (or 11 & ½ minutes a day and how not to waste them)'' (Methuen, 1984, )===Contributions===*''Confessions of a Scilly Birdman'', David Hunt; Croom Helm, 1985.",
"(foreword and postscript)*''Birds in the Yorkshire Museum'', Michael Denton; North Yorkshire County Council, 1995.",
"(foreword)*''Bird Brain of Britain'', Charles Gallimore & Tim Appleton; Christopher Helm, 2004.",
"(foreword)*''Blokes and Birds'', Stephen Moss; New Holland Publishers.",
"(foreword)*''The New Birds of the West Midlands'', Graham and Janet Harrison (West Midland Bird Club, 2005) (foreword)"
],
[
"Discography",
"===Albums=== Year Title Label Cat No.",
"1967 ''Distinctly Oddie'' Polydor 582 007===Singles=== Year A-side B-side Label Cat.",
"No.",
"1964 Nothing Better To Do Traffic Island Parlophone R 5153 1965 The Knitting Song Ain't Got Rhythm R 5346 1966 I Can't Get Through Because She Is My Love R 5433 1969 Jimmy Young Irish Get Out Decca F 12903 1970 On Ilkla Moor Baht'at Harry Krishna Dandelion Epic 4786 S EPC 3793 1976 Superspike (Part 1) Superspike (Part 2) Bradley's BRAD 7606"
],
[
"In popular culture",
"In the fictional world of comedy character Alan Partridge, Oddie is an unseen presence in Alan's life, buying him dressing gowns for Christmas and being part of a radicalised RSPB.",
"He has also been referenced, often humorously, by the hosts of ''Top Gear''."
],
[
"References",
"===Sources===**"
],
[
"External links",
"****** Bill Oddie's family history at the BBC website for the programme ''Who Do You Think You Are?",
"''* Bill Oddie Goes Wild – on BBC's Science and Nature website* In-depth interview, ''The Telegraph'', 28 April 2005* Gigrin Farm chapter from ''Gripping Yarns''* Oddie on UKTV"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Broadway (Manhattan)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Broadway''' () is a road in the U.S. state of New York.",
"Broadway runs from State Street at Bowling Green for through the borough of Manhattan, over the Broadway Bridge, and through the Bronx, exiting north from New York City to run an additional through the Westchester County municipalities of Yonkers, Hastings-On-Hudson, Dobbs Ferry, Irvington, Tarrytown, and Sleepy Hollow, after which the road continues, but is no longer called \"Broadway\".",
"The latter portion of Broadway comprises a portion of US Route 9.It is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, with much of the current street beginning as the Wickquasgeck trail before the arrival of Europeans.",
"This then formed the basis for one of the primary thoroughfares of the Dutch New Amsterdam colony, which continued under British rule, although most of it did not bear its current name until the late 19th century.",
"Some portions of Broadway in Manhattan are interrupted for continuous traffic, including Times Square, Herald Square, and Union Square.Broadway in Manhattan is known widely as the heart of the American commercial theatrical industry, and is used as a metonym for it, as well as in the names of alternative theatrical ventures such as Off-Broadway and Off-off-Broadway."
],
[
"History",
"=== Colonial history ===An 1834 illustration of BroadwayBroadway in 1860Broadway was originally the Wickquasgeck trail, carved into the brush of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants.",
"This trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island.Upon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail was widened and soon became the main road through the island from ''Nieuw Amsterdam'' at the southern tip.",
"The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David Pietersz.",
"de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642 (\"the Wickquasgeck Road over which the Indians passed daily\").",
"The Dutch called it the ''Heeren Wegh'' or ''Heeren Straat'', meaning \"Gentlemen's Way\" or \"Gentlemen's Street\" – echoing the name of a similar street in Amsterdam – or \"High Street\" or \"the Highway\"; it was renamed \"Broadway\" after the British took over the city, because of its unusual width.",
"Although currently the name of the street is simply \"Broadway\", in a 1776 map of New York City, it is labeled as \"Broadway Street\".",
"===18th century===A mid-19th century illustration of Somerindyke House on Bloomingdale RoadIn the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town commons north of Wall Street.",
"The part of Broadway in what is now Lower Manhattan was initially known as '''Great George Street'''.",
"Traffic continued up the East Side of the island via Eastern Post Road and the West Side via Bloomingdale Road, which opened in 1703, continued up to 117th Street and contributed to the development of the modern Upper West Side into an upscale area with mansions.",
"In her 1832 book ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', Fanny Trollope wrote of her impressions of New York City in general and of Broadway in particular:===19th century===In 1868, Bloomingdale Road between 59th Street (at the Grand Circle, now Columbus Circle) and 155th Streets would be paved and widened, becoming an avenue with landscaped medians.",
"It was called \"Western Boulevard\" or \"The Boulevard\".",
"An 1897 official map of the city shows a segment of what is now Broadway as \"Kingsbridge Road\" in the vicinity of Washington Heights.On February 14, 1899, the name \"Broadway\" was extended to the entire Broadway / Bloomingdale / Boulevard / Kingsbridge complex.===20th century===Broadway seen from the south at Broome Street, –55In the 20th century, a 30-block stretch of Broadway, extending mainly between Times Square at 42nd Street and Sherman Square at 72nd Street, formed part of Manhattan's \"Automobile Row\".",
"Before the first decade of the 20th century, the area was occupied mostly by equestrian industries and was \"thoroughly lifeless\", but by 1907, ''The New York Times'' characterized this section of Broadway as having \"almost a solid line of motor vehicle signs all the way from Times Square to Sherman Square\".",
"In the late 1900s and early 1910s, several large automobile showrooms, stores, and garages were built on Broadway, including the U.S. Rubber Company Building at 58th Street, the B.F. Goodrich showroom at 1780 Broadway (between 58th and 57th Streets), the Fisk Building at 250 West 57th Street, and the Demarest and Peerless Buildings at 224 West 57th Street.Broadway once was a two-way street for its entire length.",
"The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle (59th Street), came about in several stages.",
"On June 6, 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway.",
"None of Broadway became one-way, but the increased southbound traffic between Columbus Circle (Eighth Avenue) and Times Square (Seventh Avenue) caused the city to re-stripe that section of Broadway for four southbound and two northbound lanes.",
"Broadway became one-way from Columbus Circle south to Herald Square (34th Street) on March 10, 1957, in conjunction with Sixth Avenue becoming one-way from Herald Square north to 59th Street and Seventh Avenue becoming one-way from 59th Street south to Times Square (where it crosses Broadway).",
"On June 3, 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place and Church Street carrying northbound traffic.Another change was made on November 10, 1963, when Broadway became one-way southbound from Herald Square to Madison Square (23rd Street) and Union Square (14th Street) to Canal Street, and two routes – Sixth Avenue south of Herald Square and Centre Street, Lafayette Street, and Fourth Avenue south of Union Square – became one-way northbound.",
"Finally, at the same time as Madison Avenue became one-way northbound and Fifth Avenue became one-way southbound, Broadway was made one-way southbound between Madison Square (where Fifth Avenue crosses) and Union Square on January 14, 1966, completing its conversion south of Columbus Circle.=== 21st century ===Maiden Lane.The segment of Broadway in Times Square in Midtown ManhattanIn 2001, a one-block section of Broadway between 72nd Street and 73rd Street at Verdi Square was reconfigured.",
"Its easternmost lanes, which formerly hosted northbound traffic, were turned into a public park when a new subway entrance for the 72nd Street station was built in the exact location of these lanes.",
"Northbound traffic on Broadway is now channeled onto Amsterdam Avenue to 73rd Street, makes a left turn on the three-lane 73rd Street, and then a right turn on Broadway shortly afterward.In August 2008, two traffic lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas.",
"Bike lanes were added on Broadway from 42nd Street to Union Square.Since May 2009, the portions of Broadway through Duffy Square, Times Square, and Herald Square have been closed entirely to automobile traffic, except for cross traffic on the Streets and Avenues, as part of a traffic and pedestrianization experiment, with the pavement reserved exclusively for walkers, cyclists, and those lounging in temporary seating placed by the city.",
"The city decided that the experiment was successful, and decided to make the change permanent in February 2010.Though the anticipated benefits to traffic flow were not as large as hoped, pedestrian injuries dropped dramatically and foot traffic increased in the designated areas; the project was popular with both residents and businesses.",
"The current portions converted into pedestrian plazas are between West 47th and 42nd Streets within Times and Duffy Squares, and between West 35th and 33rd Streets in the Herald Square area.",
"Additionally, portions of Broadway in Madison Square and Union Square have been dramatically narrowed, allowing ample pedestrian plazas to exist along the side of the road.==== 2010s ====A terrorist attempted to set off a bomb on Broadway in Times Square on May 1, 2010.The attempted bomber was sentenced to life in prison.In May 2013, the NYCDOT decided to redesign Broadway between 35th and 42nd Streets for the second time in five years, owing to poor connections between pedestrian plazas and decreased vehicular traffic.",
"With the new redesign, the bike lane is now on the right side of the street; it was formerly on the left side adjacent to the pedestrian plazas, causing conflicts between pedestrian and bicycle traffic.In spring 2017, as part of a capital reconstruction of Worth Square, Broadway between 24th and 25th Streets was converted to a shared street, where through vehicles are banned and delivery vehicles are restricted to .",
"Delivery vehicles go northbound from Fifth Avenue to 25th Street for that one block, reversing the direction of traffic and preventing vehicles from going south on Broadway south of 25th Street.",
"The capital project expands on a 2008 initiative where part of the intersection of Broadway and Fifth Avenue was repurposed into a public plaza, simplifying that intersection.",
"As part of the 2017 project, Worth Square was expanded, converting the adjoining block of Broadway into a \"shared street\".Open Street on Broadway in NoMad, ManhattanIn September 2019, the pedestrian space in the Herald Square area was expanded between 33rd and 32nd Streets alongside Greeley Square.",
"Five blocks of Broadway—from 50th to 48th, 39th to 39th, and 23rd to 21st Street—were converted into shared streets in late 2021.The block between 40th and 39th Streets, known as Golda Meir Square, was closed to vehicular traffic at that time.",
"==== 2020s ====During 2020, the section from 31st to 25th Street was converted to a temporary pedestrian-only street called NoMad Piazza as part of the New York City Department of Transportation's Open Streets program.",
"Following the success of the pedestrian-only street, the Flatiron/23rd Street Partnership BID closed the section between 25th and 27th Streets to vehicular traffic again during 2021 and 2022.City officials announced in March 2023 that the section of Broadway between 32nd and 21st Streets would be redesigned as part of a project called Broadway Vision.",
"The section between 32nd and 25th Streets would receive a bidirectional bike lane and would be converted to a shared street.",
"Cars would be banned permanently from 27th to 25th Street."
],
[
"Route",
"===Route description===Broadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, roughly parallel to the North River (the portion of the Hudson River bordering Manhattan), from Bowling Green at the south to Inwood at the northern tip of the island.",
"South of Columbus Circle, it is a one-way southbound street.",
"Since 2009, vehicular traffic has been banned at Times Square between 47th and 42nd Streets, and at Herald Square between 35th and 33rd Streets as part of a pilot program; the right-of-way is intact and reserved for cyclists and pedestrians.",
"From the northern shore of Manhattan, Broadway crosses Spuyten Duyvil Creek via the Broadway Bridge and continues through Marble Hill (a discontiguous portion of the borough of Manhattan) and the Bronx into Westchester County.",
"U.S. 9 continues to be known as Broadway until its junction with NY 117.====Lower Manhattan====A view of Broadway from Bowling Green with the Chrysler Building in the backgroundThe section of lower Broadway from its origin at Bowling Green to City Hall Park is the historical location for the city's ticker-tape parades, and is sometimes called the \"Canyon of Heroes\" during such events.",
"West of Broadway, as far as Canal Street, was the city's fashionable residential area until ; landfill has more than tripled the area, and the Hudson River shore now lies far to the west, beyond Tribeca and Battery Park City.Broadway marks the boundary between Greenwich Village to the west and the East Village to the east, passing Astor Place.",
"It is a short walk from there to New York University near Washington Square Park, which is at the foot of Fifth Avenue.",
"A bend in front of Grace Church allegedly avoids an earlier tavern; from 10th Street it begins its long diagonal course across Manhattan, headed almost due north.====Midtown Manhattan====Broadway in 1909Theater DistrictBecause Broadway preceded the grid that the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 imposed on the island, Broadway crosses midtown Manhattan diagonally, intersecting with both the east–west streets and north–south avenues.",
"Broadway's intersections with avenues, marked by \"squares\" (some merely triangular slivers of open space), have induced some interesting architecture, such as the Flatiron Building.At Union Square, Broadway crosses 14th Street, merges with Fourth Avenue, and continues its diagonal uptown course from the Square's northwest corner; Union Square is the only location wherein the physical section of Broadway is discontinuous in Manhattan (other portions of Broadway in Manhattan are pedestrian-only plazas).",
"At Madison Square, the location of the Flatiron Building, Broadway crosses Fifth Avenue at 23rd Street, thereby moving from the east side of Manhattan to the west, and is discontinuous to vehicles for a one-block stretch between 24th and 25th Streets.",
"At Greeley Square (West 32nd Street), Broadway crosses Sixth Avenue (Avenue of the Americas), and is discontinuous to vehicles until West 35th Street.",
"Macy's Herald Square department store, one block north of the vehicular discontinuity, is located on the northwest corner of Broadway and West 34th Street and southwest corner of Broadway and West 35th Street; it is one of the largest department stores in the world.One famous stretch near Times Square, where Broadway crosses Seventh Avenue in midtown Manhattan, is the home of many Broadway theatres, housing an ever-changing array of commercial, large-scale plays, particularly musicals.",
"This area of Manhattan is often called the Theater District or the Great White Way, a nickname originating in the headline \"Found on the Great White Way\" in the February 3, 1902, edition of the ''New York Evening Telegram''.",
"The journalistic nickname was inspired by the millions of lights on theater marquees and billboard advertisements that illuminate the area.",
"After becoming the city's de facto red-light district in the 1960s and 1970s (as can be seen in the films ''Taxi Driver'' and ''Midnight Cowboy''), since the late 1980s Times Square has emerged as a family tourist center, in effect being Disneyfied following the company's purchase and renovation of the New Amsterdam Theatre on 42nd Street in 1993.",
"''The New York Times'', from which the Square gets its name, was published at offices at 239 West 43rd Street; the paper stopped printing papers there on June 15, 2007.====Upper West Side====72nd Street and the treetops of Verdi SquareAt the southwest corner of Central Park, Broadway crosses Eighth Avenue (called Central Park West north of 59th Street) at West 59th Street and Columbus Circle; on the site of the former New York Coliseum convention center is the new shopping center at the foot of the Time Warner Center, headquarters of Time Warner.",
"From Columbus Circle northward, Broadway becomes a wide boulevard to 169th Street; it retains landscaped center islands that separate northbound from southbound traffic.",
"The medians are a vestige of the central mall of \"The Boulevard\" that had become the spine of the Upper West Side, and many of these contain public seating.Broadway intersects with Columbus Avenue (known as Ninth Avenue south of West 59th Street) at West 65th and 66th Streets where the Juilliard School and Lincoln Center, both well-known performing arts landmarks, as well as the Manhattan New York Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are located.Between West 70th and 73rd Streets, Broadway intersects with Amsterdam Avenue (known as 10th Avenue south of West 59th Street).",
"The wide intersection of the two thoroughfares has historically been the site of numerous traffic accidents and pedestrian casualties, partly due to the long crosswalks.",
"Two small triangular plots of land were created at points where Broadway slices through Amsterdam Avenue.",
"One is a tiny fenced-in patch of shrubbery and plants at West 70th Street called Sherman Square (although it and the surrounding intersection have also been known collectively as Sherman Square), and the other triangle is a lush tree-filled garden bordering Amsterdam Avenue from just above West 72nd Street to West 73rd Street.",
"Named Verdi Square in 1921 for its monument to Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi, which was erected in 1909, this triangular sliver of public space was designated a Scenic Landmark by the Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1974, one of nine city parks that have received the designation.",
"In the 1960s and 1970s, the area surrounding both Verdi Square and Sherman Square was known by local drug users and dealers as \"Needle Park\", and was featured prominently in the gritty 1971 dramatic film ''The Panic in Needle Park'', directed by Jerry Schatzberg and starring Al Pacino in his second onscreen role.The original brick and stone shelter leading to the entrance of the 72nd Street subway station, one of the first 28 subway stations in Manhattan, remains located on one of the wide islands in the center of Broadway, on the south side of West 72nd Street.",
"For many years, all traffic on Broadway flowed on either side of this median and its subway entrance, and its uptown lanes went past it along the western edge of triangular Verdi Square.",
"In 2001 and 2002, renovation of the historic 72nd Street station and the addition of a second subway control house and passenger shelter on an adjacent center median just north of 72nd Street, across from the original building, resulted in the creation of a public plaza with stone pavers and extensive seating, connecting the newer building with Verdi Square, and making it necessary to divert northbound traffic to Amsterdam Avenue for one block.",
"While Broadway's southbound lanes at this intersection were unaffected by the new construction, its northbound lanes are no longer contiguous at this intersection.",
"Drivers can either continue along Amsterdam Avenue to head uptown or turn left on West 73rd Street to resume traveling on Broadway.Several notable apartment buildings are in close proximity to this intersection, including The Ansonia, its ornate architecture dominating the cityscape here.",
"After the Ansonia first opened as a hotel, live seals were kept in indoor fountains inside its lobby.",
"Later, it was home to the infamous Plato's Retreat nightclub.",
"Immediately north of Verdi Square is the Apple Bank Building, formerly the Central Savings Bank, which was built in 1926 and designed to resemble the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.",
"Broadway is also home to the Beacon Theatre at West 74th Street, designated a national landmark in 1979 and still in operation as a concert venue after its establishment in 1929 as a vaudeville and music hall, and \"sister\" venue to Radio City Music Hall.At its intersection with West 78th Street, Broadway shifts direction and continues directly uptown and aligned approximately with the Commissioners' grid.",
"Past the bend are the historic Apthorp apartment building, built in 1908, and the First Baptist Church in the City of New York, incorporated in New York in 1762, its current building on Broadway erected in 1891.The road heads north and passes historically important apartment houses such as the Belnord, the Astor Court Building, and the Art Nouveau Cornwall.At Broadway and 95th Street is Symphony Space, established in 1978 as home to avant-garde and classical music and dance performances in the former Symphony Theatre, which was originally built in 1918 as a premier \"music and motion-picture house\".",
"At 99th Street, Broadway passes between the controversial skyscrapers of the Ariel East and West.At 107th Street, Broadway merges with West End Avenue, with the intersection forming Straus Park with its Titanic Memorial by Augustus Lukeman.====Northern Manhattan and the Bronx====Broadway at Dyckman Street in InwoodBroadway then passes the campus of Columbia University at 116th Street in Morningside Heights, in part on the tract that housed the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum from 1808 until it moved to Westchester County in 1894.Still in Morningside Heights, Broadway passes the park-like campus of Barnard College.",
"Next, the Gothic quadrangle of Union Theological Seminary, and the brick buildings of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America with their landscaped interior courtyards, face one another across Broadway.",
"On the next block is the Manhattan School of Music.Broadway then runs past the Manhattanville campus of Columbia University, and the main campus of CUNY–City College near 135th Street; the Gothic buildings of the original City College campus are out of sight, a block to the east.",
"Also to the east are the brownstones of Hamilton Heights.",
"Hamilton Place is a surviving section of Bloomingdale Road, and originally the address of Alexander Hamilton's house, The Grange, which has been moved.Broadway achieves a verdant, park-like effect, particularly in the spring, when it runs between the uptown Trinity Church Cemetery and the former Trinity Chapel, now the Church of the Intercession near 155th Street.NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital lies on Broadway near 166th, 167th, and 168th Streets in Washington Heights.",
"The intersection with St. Nicholas Avenue at 167th Street forms Mitchell Square Park.",
"At 178th Street, US 9 becomes concurrent with Broadway.Broadway crosses the Harlem River on the Broadway Bridge to Marble Hill.",
"Afterward, it then enters the Bronx, where it is the eastern border of Riverdale and the western border of Van Cortlandt Park.",
"At 253rd Street, NY 9A joins with US 9 and Broadway.",
"(NY 9A splits off Broadway at Ashburton Avenue in Yonkers.",
")====Westchester County====U.S.",
"9) in YonkersWashington Irving Memorial on North Broadway in Irvington, not far from Washington Irving's home in SunnysideThe northwestern corner of the park marks the New York City limit and Broadway enters Westchester County in Yonkers, where it is now known as South Broadway.",
"It trends ever westward, closer to the Hudson River, remaining a busy urban commercial street.",
"In downtown Yonkers, it drops close to the river, becomes North Broadway and 9A leaves via Ashburton Avenue.",
"Broadway climbs to the nearby ridgetop runs parallel to the river and the railroad, a few blocks east of both as it passes St. John's Riverside Hospital.",
"The neighborhoods become more residential and the road gently undulates along the ridgetop.",
"In Yonkers, Broadway passes the historic Philipse Manor house, which dates back to colonial times.It remains Broadway as it leaves Yonkers for Hastings-on-Hudson, where it splits into separate north and south routes for .",
"The trees become taller and the houses, many separated from the road by stone fences, become larger.",
"Another National Historic Landmark, the John William Draper House, was the site of the first astrophotograph of the Moon.In the next village, Dobbs Ferry, Broadway has various views of the Hudson River while passing through the residential section.",
"Broadway passes by the Old Croton Aqueduct and nearby the shopping district of the village.",
"After intersecting with Ashford Avenue, Broadway passes Mercy College, then turns left again at the center of town just past South Presbyterian Church, headed for equally comfortable Ardsley-on-Hudson and Irvington.",
"Villa Lewaro, the home of Madam C. J. Walker, the first African-American millionaire, is along the highway here.",
"At the north end of the village of Irvington, a memorial to writer Washington Irving, after whom the village was renamed, marks the turnoff to his home at Sunnyside.",
"Entering into the southern portion of Tarrytown, Broadway passes by historic Lyndhurst mansion, a massive mansion built along the Hudson River built in the early 1800s.North of here, at the Kraft Foods technical center, the Tappan Zee Bridge becomes visible.",
"After crossing under the Thruway and I-87 again, here concurrent with I-287, and then intersecting with the four-lane NY 119, where 119 splits off to the east, Broadway becomes the busy main street of Tarrytown.",
"Christ Episcopal Church, where Irving worshiped, is along the street.",
"Many high-quality restaurants and shops are along this main road.",
"This downtown ends at the eastern terminus of NY 448, where Broadway slopes off to the left, downhill, and four signs indicate that Broadway turns left, passing the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow, another NHL.",
"The road then enters Sleepy Hollow (formerly North Tarrytown), passing the visitors' center for Kykuit, the National Historic Landmark that was (and partially still is) the Rockefeller family's estate.",
"Broadway then passes the historic Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, which includes the resting place of Washington Irving and the setting for \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\".Broadway expands to four lanes at the trumpet intersection with NY 117, where it finally ends and U.S. 9 becomes Albany Post Road (and Highland Avenue) at the northern border of Sleepy Hollow, New York.===Nicknamed sections=======Canyon of Heroes====Canyon of Heroes during a ticker-tape parade for the Apollo 11 astronauts on August 13, 1969''Canyon of Heroes'' is occasionally used to refer to the section of lower Broadway in the Financial District that is the location of the city's ticker-tape parades.",
"The traditional route of the parade is northward from Bowling Green to City Hall Park.",
"Most of the route is lined with tall office buildings along both sides, affording a view of the parade for thousands of office workers who create the snowstorm-like jettison of shredded paper products that characterize the parade.While typical sports championship parades have been showered with some 50 tons of confetti and shredded paper, the V-J Day parade on August 14–15, 1945 – marking the end of World War II – was covered with 5,438 tons of paper, based on estimates provided by the New York City Department of Sanitation.More than 200 black granite strips embedded in the sidewalks along the Canyon of Heroes list honorees of past ticker-tape parades.====Great White Way====\"The Great White Way\" is a nickname for a section of Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, specifically the portion that encompasses the Theater District, between 42nd and 53rd Streets, and encompassing Times Square.In 1880, a stretch of Broadway between Union Square and Madison Square was illuminated by Brush arc lamps, making it among the first electrically lighted streets in the United States.",
"By the 1890s, the portion from 23rd Street to 34th Street was so brightly illuminated by electrical advertising signs, that people began calling it \"The Great White Way\".",
"When the theater district moved uptown, the name was transferred to the Times Square area.The phrase \"Great White Way\" has been attributed to Shep Friedman, columnist for the ''New York Morning Telegraph'' in 1901, who lifted the term from the title of a book about the Arctic by Albert Paine.",
"The headline \"Found on the Great White Way\" appeared in the February 3, 1902, edition of the ''New York Evening Telegram''.A portrait of Broadway in the early part of the 20th century and \"The Great White Way\" late at night appeared in \"Artist In Manhattan\" (1940) written by the artist-historian Jerome Myers:"
],
[
"Transportation",
"Broadway under the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's elevated structure in The BronxAn 1868 plan for an arcade railwayFrom south to north, Broadway at one point or another runs over or under various New York City Subway lines, including the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the BMT Broadway Line, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, and IND Eighth Avenue Line (the IND Sixth Avenue Line is the only north–south trunk line in Manhattan that does not run along Broadway).",
"* The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Bowling Green to Fulton Street ().",
"* The BMT Broadway Line runs under it from City Hall to Times Square–42nd Street ().",
"* The IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line runs under and over Broadway from Times Square to 168th Street (), and again from 218th Street to its terminal in the Bronx at Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street ().",
"* The northern portion of the IND Eighth Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Dyckman Street to Inwood–207th Street ().Early street railways on Broadway included the Broadway and Seventh Avenue Railroad's Broadway and University Place Line (1864?)",
"between Union Square (14th Street) and Times Square (42nd Street), the Ninth Avenue Railroad's Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues Line (1884) between 65th Street and 71st Street, the Forty-second Street, Manhattanville and St. Nicholas Avenue Railway's Broadway Branch Line (1885?)",
"between Times Square and 125th Street, and the Kingsbridge Railway's Kingsbridge Line north of 169th Street.",
"The Broadway Surface Railroad's Broadway Line, a cable car line, opened on lower Broadway (below Times Square) in 1893, and soon became the core of the Metropolitan Street Railway, with two cable branches: the Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line and Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line.These streetcar lines were replaced with bus routes in the 1930s and 1940s.",
"Before Broadway became one-way, the main bus routes along it were the New York City Omnibus Company's (NYCO) 6 (Broadway below Times Square), 7 (Broadway and Columbus Avenue), and 11 (Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues), and the Surface Transportation Corporation's M100 (Kingsbridge) and M104 (Broadway Branch).",
"Additionally, the Fifth Avenue Coach Company's (FACCo) 4 and 5 used Broadway from 135th Street north to Washington Heights, and their 5 and 6 used Broadway between 57th Street and 72nd Street.",
"With the implementation of one-way traffic, the northbound 6 and 7 were moved to Sixth Avenue., Broadway is served by the M4 (ex-FACCo 4), M7 (ex-NYCO 7), M55, M100, and M104.Other routes that use part of Broadway include the M5 (ex-FACCo 5), M10, M20, M60 Select Bus Service, Bx7, Bx9, and Bx20.Bee-Line buses also serves Broadway within Riverdale and Westchester County.",
"Routes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 13, and several others run on a portion of Broadway."
],
[
"Notable buildings",
"International Mercantile Marine Company BuildingBroadway is lined with many famous and otherwise noted and historic buildings, such as:* 2 Broadway* 280 Broadway (also known as the Marble Palace, the A.T. Stewart Company Store, or The Sun Building)* Alexander Hamilton U.S.",
"Custom House (1 Bowling Green, between the two legs of the southern end of Broadway)* American Surety Building (100 Broadway)* Ansonia Hotel (2109 Broadway)* Bowling Green Fence and Park (between 25 and 26 Broadway)* Bowling Green Offices Building (11 Broadway)* Brill Building (1619 Broadway)* Corbin Building (196 Broadway)* Cunard Building (25 Broadway)* Dyckman House (4881 Broadway)* Equitable Building (120 Broadway)* Flatiron Building (Fifth Avenue and Broadway at 23rd Street)* Gilsey House (1200 Broadway)* Gorham Manufacturing Company Building (889-91 Broadway)* Home Life Building (253, 256 Broadway)* International Mercantile Marine Company Building (1 Broadway)* Morgan Stanley Building (1585 Broadway)* One Times Square (1475 Broadway)* Paramount Building (1501 Broadway)* Standard Oil Building (26 Broadway)* Trinity Church (79 Broadway)* Union Theological Seminary (3041 Broadway)* United Palace (4140 Broadway)* United States Lines-Panama Pacific Lines Building (1 Broadway)* Winter Garden Theatre (1634 Broadway)* Woolworth Building (233 Broadway)Historic buildings on Broadway that are now demolished include:* Appleton Building* Alexander Macomb House* Barnum's American Museum* Equitable Life Building* Grand Central Hotel (673 Broadway)* Mechanics' Hall* Metropolitan Opera House, from 1883 to 1966, between 39th and 40th Streets* Singer Tower (Liberty Street and Broadway)* St. Nicholas Hotel"
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Great White Way; historical citations from etymologist Barry Popik* New York Songlines: Broadway; a virtual walking tour of the street* Green Light for Midtown; New York City Department of Transportation pilot program for Broadway traffic* Walking the length of Broadway"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bilinear transform"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''bilinear transform''' (also known as '''Tustin's method''', after Arnold Tustin) is used in digital signal processing and discrete-time control theory to transform continuous-time system representations to discrete-time and vice versa.The bilinear transform is a special case of a conformal mapping (namely, a Möbius transformation), often used for converting a transfer function of a linear, time-invariant (LTI) filter in the continuous-time domain (often named an analog filter) to a transfer function of a linear, shift-invariant filter in the discrete-time domain (often named a digital filter although there are analog filters constructed with switched capacitors that are discrete-time filters).",
"It maps positions on the axis, , in the s-plane to the unit circle, , in the z-plane.",
"Other bilinear transforms can be used for warping the frequency response of any discrete-time linear system (for example to approximate the non-linear frequency resolution of the human auditory system) and are implementable in the discrete domain by replacing a system's unit delays with first order all-pass filters.The transform preserves stability and maps every point of the frequency response of the continuous-time filter, to a corresponding point in the frequency response of the discrete-time filter, although to a somewhat different frequency, as shown in the Frequency warping section below.",
"This means that for every feature that one sees in the frequency response of the analog filter, there is a corresponding feature, with identical gain and phase shift, in the frequency response of the digital filter but, perhaps, at a somewhat different frequency.",
"This is barely noticeable at low frequencies but is quite evident at frequencies close to the Nyquist frequency."
],
[
"Discrete-time approximation",
"The bilinear transform is a first-order Padé approximant of the natural logarithm function that is an exact mapping of the ''z''-plane to the ''s''-plane.",
"When the Laplace transform is performed on a discrete-time signal (with each element of the discrete-time sequence attached to a correspondingly delayed unit impulse), the result is precisely the Z transform of the discrete-time sequence with the substitution of:where is the numerical integration step size of the trapezoidal rule used in the bilinear transform derivation; or, in other words, the sampling period.",
"The above bilinear approximation can be solved for or a similar approximation for can be performed.The inverse of this mapping (and its first-order bilinear approximation) is:The bilinear transform essentially uses this first order approximation and substitutes into the continuous-time transfer function, :That is:"
],
[
"Stability and minimum-phase property preserved",
"A continuous-time causal filter is stable if the poles of its transfer function fall in the left half of the complex s-plane.",
"A discrete-time causal filter is stable if the poles of its transfer function fall inside the unit circle in the complex z-plane.",
"The bilinear transform maps the left half of the complex s-plane to the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane.",
"Thus, filters designed in the continuous-time domain that are stable are converted to filters in the discrete-time domain that preserve that stability.Likewise, a continuous-time filter is minimum-phase if the zeros of its transfer function fall in the left half of the complex s-plane.",
"A discrete-time filter is minimum-phase if the zeros of its transfer function fall inside the unit circle in the complex z-plane.",
"Then the same mapping property assures that continuous-time filters that are minimum-phase are converted to discrete-time filters that preserve that property of being minimum-phase."
],
[
"Transformation of a General LTI System",
"A general LTI system has the transfer functionThe order of the transfer function is the greater of and (in practice this is most likely as the transfer function must be proper for the system to be stable).",
"Applying the bilinear transformwhere is defined as either or otherwise if using frequency warping, givesMultiplying the numerator and denominator by the largest power of present, , givesIt can be seen here that after the transformation, the degree of the numerator and denominator are both .Consider then the pole-zero form of the continuous-time transfer functionThe roots of the numerator and denominator polynomials, and , are the zeros and poles of the system.",
"The bilinear transform is a one-to-one mapping, hence these can be transformed to the z-domain usingyielding some of the discretized transfer function's zeros and poles and As described above, the degree of the numerator and denominator are now both , in other words there is now an equal number of zeros and poles.",
"The multiplication by means the additional zeros or poles areGiven the full set of zeros and poles, the z-domain transfer function is then"
],
[
"Example",
"As an example take a simple low-pass RC filter.",
"This continuous-time filter has a transfer function:If we wish to implement this filter as a digital filter, we can apply the bilinear transform by substituting for the formula above; after some reworking, we get the following filter representation::The coefficients of the denominator are the 'feed-backward' coefficients and the coefficients of the numerator are the 'feed-forward' coefficients used for implementing a real-time digital filter."
],
[
"Transformation for a general first-order continuous-time filter",
"It is possible to relate the coefficients of a continuous-time, analog filter with those of a similar discrete-time digital filter created through the bilinear transform process.",
"Transforming a general, first-order continuous-time filter with the given transfer function:using the bilinear transform (without prewarping any frequency specification) requires the substitution of:where:.However, if the frequency warping compensation as described below is used in the bilinear transform, so that both analog and digital filter gain and phase agree at frequency , then:.This results in a discrete-time digital filter with coefficients expressed in terms of the coefficients of the original continuous time filter::Normally the constant term in the denominator must be normalized to 1 before deriving the corresponding difference equation.",
"This results in:The difference equation (using the Direct form I) is:"
],
[
"General second-order biquad transformation",
"A similar process can be used for a general second-order filter with the given transfer function:This results in a discrete-time digital biquad filter with coefficients expressed in terms of the coefficients of the original continuous time filter::Again, the constant term in the denominator is generally normalized to 1 before deriving the corresponding difference equation.",
"This results in:The difference equation (using the Direct form I) is:"
],
[
"Frequency warping",
"To determine the frequency response of a continuous-time filter, the transfer function is evaluated at which is on the axis.",
"Likewise, to determine the frequency response of a discrete-time filter, the transfer function is evaluated at which is on the unit circle, .",
"The bilinear transform maps the axis of the ''s''-plane (which is the domain of ) to the unit circle of the ''z''-plane, (which is the domain of ), but it is '''not''' the same mapping which also maps the axis to the unit circle.",
"When the actual frequency of is input to the discrete-time filter designed by use of the bilinear transform, then it is desired to know at what frequency, , for the continuous-time filter that this is mapped to.",
"::This shows that every point on the unit circle in the discrete-time filter z-plane, is mapped to a point on the axis on the continuous-time filter s-plane, .",
"That is, the discrete-time to continuous-time frequency mapping of the bilinear transform is:and the inverse mapping is:The discrete-time filter behaves at frequency the same way that the continuous-time filter behaves at frequency .",
"Specifically, the gain and phase shift that the discrete-time filter has at frequency is the same gain and phase shift that the continuous-time filter has at frequency .",
"This means that every feature, every \"bump\" that is visible in the frequency response of the continuous-time filter is also visible in the discrete-time filter, but at a different frequency.",
"For low frequencies (that is, when or ), then the features are mapped to a ''slightly'' different frequency; .One can see that the entire continuous frequency range: is mapped onto the fundamental frequency interval: The continuous-time filter frequency corresponds to the discrete-time filter frequency and the continuous-time filter frequency correspond to the discrete-time filter frequency One can also see that there is a nonlinear relationship between and This effect of the bilinear transform is called '''frequency warping'''.",
"The continuous-time filter can be designed to compensate for this frequency warping by setting for every frequency specification that the designer has control over (such as corner frequency or center frequency).",
"This is called '''pre-warping''' the filter design.It is possible, however, to compensate for the frequency warping by pre-warping a frequency specification (usually a resonant frequency or the frequency of the most significant feature of the frequency response) of the continuous-time system.",
"These pre-warped specifications may then be used in the bilinear transform to obtain the desired discrete-time system.",
"When designing a digital filter as an approximation of a continuous time filter, the frequency response (both amplitude and phase) of the digital filter can be made to match the frequency response of the continuous filter at a specified frequency , as well as matching at DC, if the following transform is substituted into the continuous filter transfer function.",
"This is a modified version of Tustin's transform shown above.",
":However, note that this transform becomes the original transform:as .The main advantage of the warping phenomenon is the absence of aliasing distortion of the frequency response characteristic, such as observed with Impulse invariance."
],
[
"See also",
"* Impulse invariance* Matched Z-transform method"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* MIT OpenCourseWare Signal Processing: Continuous to Discrete Filter Design* Lecture Notes on Discrete Equivalents* The Art of VA Filter Design"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Brian Boitano"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Brian Anthony Boitano''' (born October 22, 1963) is an American figure skater from Sunnyvale, California.",
"He is the 1988 Olympic champion, the 1986 and 1988 World Champion, and the 1985–1988 U.S. National Champion.",
"He turned professional following the 1988 season.",
"Under new rules by the ISU, he returned to competition in 1993 and competed at the 1994 Winter Olympics, where he placed sixth.",
"In 1996, he was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame and the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame."
],
[
"Early life",
"Brian Boitano was born in 1963 and raised in Mountain View, California.",
"Boitano is a graduate of Marian A. Peterson High School in Sunnyvale, California.",
"He is of Italian American descent, with family from northern Italy.",
"As an adult, he has lived in San Francisco."
],
[
"Figure skating career",
"===Early career===Beginning skating as a child, Brian Boitano first made his mark on the international scene when he won the bronze medal at the 1978 World Junior Figure Skating Championships, beating future rival Brian Orser for that medal.Early in his career, Boitano was known primarily for his jumping.",
"He, along with several other skaters, helped push the technical envelope of men's skating.",
"In 1982, Boitano became the first American to land a triple Axel.",
"In 1987, he introduced his signature jump, the 'Boitano triple Lutz', in which the skater raises his left arm above his head.",
"He attempted a quadruple jump throughout the 1986–87 season and at the 1988 World Figure Skating Championships, but did not cleanly land the jump; he double-footed the landing on two occasions.At the 1983 World Championships, he became the first skater to ever land all six triple jumps in competition.",
"He would eventually include and successfully land eight triple jumps in his free skate program, the maximum number possible (see Zayak rule).",
"He would jump two flip jumps and two triple Axels to compete with his rival, Brian Orser, who jumped one triple flip and one triple Axel.",
"It was not until failing to defend his World title in 1987 that Boitano focused specifically on improving his artistry.",
"Toward this end, he worked with renowned choreographer Sandra Bezic.Boitano placed second at the 1984 United States Figure Skating Championships, earning a place in the 1984 Winter Olympics.",
"He placed 5th at the Olympics, setting the stage for his success over the next four years.===World Champion===Following the 1984 Olympics, several skaters emerged as likely medal hopes following the retirement of Scott Hamilton.Boitano won the 1985 United States Figure Skating Championships, the first of his four titles.",
"At the first World Championships of the post-Hamilton era in 1985, Alexander Fadeev won, with Brian Orser finishing 2nd and Boitano 3rd.",
"He had injured tendons in his right ankle a few weeks before the 1986 U.S. Championships but went on to win his second national title.",
"At the 1986 World Championships, Boitano took the title, while Fadeev had a disastrous free skate despite having been in an excellent position to win; Orser finished 2nd once again.During the 1986–87 season, Boitano had introduced three new elements to his programs: the 'Tano triple lutz and a quadruple toe loop, as well as wearing a blindfold, although he never succeeded in landing a clean quadruple jump in competition.",
"The 1987 World Championships were held in Cincinnati, giving defending World champion Boitano a home-field advantage.",
"The outcome of the event would set the tone for the 1988 Olympics.",
"At Worlds, Boitano fell on his quadruple toe loop attempt and placed second.After losing the world title to Orser at home, Boitano and his coach Linda Leaver decided that some changes needed to be made if Boitano was to become the Olympic champion.",
"Boitano had always been good at the technical requirements (\"The first mark\"), but he was weak on the artistic (\"the second mark\").",
"He was a self-described \"jumping robot.\"",
"In order to help his growth as an artist, he hired choreographer Sandra Bezic to choreograph his programs for the 1987–1988 Olympic season.Bezic choreographed two programs that featured clean lines and accentuated the skating abilities of the 5' 11\" Boitano.",
"The short program was based on Giacomo Meyerbeer's ballet ''Les Patineurs'', in which Boitano plays a cocky young man showing off his tricks, using movements dating to the 19th century.",
"In one famous moment, Boitano wipes ice shavings, also called snow, off his skate blade and tosses it over his shoulder after landing a triple Axel combination.",
"The free skating program was based on the film score, ''Napoleon'', detailing various phases of a soldier's life.Boitano debuted his new programs at 1987 Skate Canada, held in the Saddledome in Calgary, Alberta, Canada.",
"This was the same venue in which he would compete against Brian Orser for the Olympic title three months later.",
"Boitano's new programs were received with standing ovations by the audience.",
"Although Orser won the competition, Boitano skated clean, landing seven triple jumps, including a footwork section into a jump.",
"He did, however, pop his planned second triple Axel.",
"Boitano, Leaver, and Bezic were so confident about the strength of Boitano's new programs that they omitted the quadruple toe loop, which if landed, could have put him a shoulder above Orser in technical merit.The short program at the 1988 United States Figure Skating Championships proved to be a highlight.",
"Boitano received marks of 6.0 from eight of the nine judges for presentation, the second mark.",
"His free skate was flawed.",
"Due to delays, he did not skate until after midnight.",
"Still, Boitano won the competition, and went into the Olympics as the national champion (U.S.), as did Orser (representing Canada).===1988 Olympics: Battle of the Brians===Going into the Olympics, Boitano and Brian Orser each had won a world title and each had an excellent, balanced repertoire.",
"Boitano was known as the slightly better technician and Orser as the better artist.",
"Adding to the rivalry, Boitano and Orser were both performing military-themed programs.",
"Boitano's free skate was set to music from ''Napoleon and Josephine'', the television miniseries.",
"For his free skate, Boitano wore a blue stretch suit with red braids and epaulets, and used military gestures and postures as much as his music allowed.The Battle of the Brians at the 1988 Winter Olympics was the highlight of Boitano's amateur career.",
"Boitano and Orser were effectively tied going into the free skating portion of the event and whoever won that portion would win the event.",
"Alexander Fadeev had won the compulsory figures section of the competition, with Boitano second and Orser third.",
"In the short program, Orser placed first and Boitano second.",
"The free skating was, at the time, worth 50% of the score, and so Boitano's lead would not be enough to hold him in first place if he lost the free skate.Boitano skated a clean, technically excellent long program, with eight triple jumps, including two axels, and a triple flip-triple toe loop combination.",
"Landing his second triple axel jump cleanly was probably a critical factor in the battle.",
"Orser made one small mistake on a jump and omitted his planned second triple axel.",
"Boitano won the battle in a 5–4 split.",
"It was later discovered that the Canadian Figure Skating Association had engaged in \"vote trading\" with several countries on the judging panel, particularly East Germany and the USSR.",
"This ultimately backfired, as the Soviet judge refused to follow this agreement and voting \"with his conscience,\" placing Boitano first.",
"Had he followed his federation's directive, Boitano would have lost the gold medal.",
"The judge was promptly suspended by his federation.",
"Experts questioned why the scores were so close between the two skaters because Boitano had 2 triple axels, 2 triple flips and a triple triple combination, elements that were not included in Orser's program.With his win, Boitano became the first Olympic champion to land the full complement of six types of triple jumps.",
"Boitano won the gold medal, wearing skates with American flag appliqués.",
"These are now part of the collections of the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution.Following the Olympics, both Orser and Boitano went to the World Championships, which Boitano won.",
"Boitano turned professional soon after.===Professional career and return to amateur standing===Following the Olympics, Boitano went on to dominate competitions in the professional ranks, winning 10 straight professional competitions, including 5 consecutive World Professional Championship titles and 4 consecutive wins at the Challenge of Champions.",
"Boitano also appeared in ''Carmen on Ice'', for which he won an Emmy.",
"However, Boitano wanted to return to amateur competition and make another run at the Olympics.In June 1993, the International Skating Union (ISU) introduced a clause, commonly known as the \"Boitano rule,\" which allowed professionals to reinstate as \"amateur\" or \"eligible\" skaters.",
"Many others joined Boitano, including Ukrainian Viktor Petrenko, 1988 bronze medalist and 1992 gold medalist.",
"The ISU decision was the result of Boitano's active involvement during the early 1990s, when the International Olympic Committee lifted the remaining limits on athletes' remuneration.",
"Previously, the Committee had been accused of rejecting Western professionals, while allowing Eastern Bloc state-sponsored \"amateurs\" to compete.",
"Boitano reinstated as an amateur to compete in the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway.Boitano competed at the 1994 United States Figure Skating Championships, led after the short program, but lost to Scott Davis in the long program in a 6–3 split decision.",
"Boitano was named to the Olympic team.",
"Going into the Olympics as a medal favorite in a strong field, Boitano missed his triple Axel combination during the short program for the first time in his career.",
"This mistake proved extremely costly, and knocked Boitano out of medal contention.",
"He skated a good long program and finished 6th.Boitano returned to the professional ranks afterward.",
"In 1996 he was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame and the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame."
],
[
"Personal life",
"In December 2013, Boitano was named to the United States delegation to the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.",
"In conjunction with that appointment, Boitano publicly came out as gay.",
"The Sochi games and Russia were the targets of criticism and LGBT activism because of a Russian anti-gay \"propaganda\" law passed in June 2013.In January 2014, Boitano told the Associated Press that he had never wanted to come out until he was named to the delegation.",
"Boitano's older brother, Mark Boitano, is a real estate agent and former politician.",
"He served as a member of the New Mexico Senate from 1997 to 2013."
],
[
"Celebrity and popular culture career",
"===''South Park'' song===A caricature of Boitano as a superhero appears as a semi-recurring character in the cartoon series ''South Park''.",
"The film ''South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut'' (1999) features a musical number titled \"What Would Brian Boitano Do?\".",
"He was also featured in ''Jesus vs. Santa''.===Food Network show===On August 23, 2009, Food Network debuted a new series entitled ''What Would Brian Boitano Make?",
"'', which borrows both its name and opening musical theme from the ''South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut'' song.",
"The show features Boitano preparing meals for his friends.",
"The series was picked up for a ten-episode second season.===Other television and film appearances===* Boitano starred, along with Katarina Witt and archrival Brian Orser, in the 1990 German dance film ''Carmen on Ice''; Boitano played Don Jose.",
"All three won an Emmy Award for \"Outstanding performance in classical music/dance programming\".",
"* He was featured in the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show \"Winter Magic\", along with Gloria Estefan and Dorothy Hamill.",
"* Boitano had a cameo in the 2007 film ''Blades of Glory'' as a world skating federation judge.",
"* He and fellow figure skater Michelle Kwan had a cameo as themselves in the 2005 Disney film, ''Ice Princess'', appearing as commentators during the Sectionals competition.",
"* He appeared on ''Giada at Home'' for one episode.",
"* He appeared as a guest judge on ''Top Chef Masters'', Season 4 episode 3.The episode is titled \"What would Brian Boitano Make?",
"\"* He appeared on Fox Business Network's ''Stossel'', episode \"Spontaneous Order\" (February 10, 2011).",
"* He appeared in an episode of ''Check, Please!",
"Bay Area'', a restaurant review program which airs on KQED-TV in San Francisco.",
"*He hosted a series on HGTV, called ''The Brian Boitano Project'', which premiered January 16, 2014, in which he purchased a near derelict ancestral home in Northern Italy, home to many Boitanos.",
"During the series he gives the home in Favale di Malvaro a sympathetic restoration/renovation and shops flea markets with two nieces to find decor and furnishings.",
"Local artisans, carpenters, masons and painters create a gem where he can live part-time and host Boitanos from afar.",
"*Boitano appeared as a guest on Season 18 of the reality series ''Hell's Kitchen'', where he along with Gordon Ramsay and Traci Des Jardins co-judged the team challenge in the episode \"Hell Freezes Over\"."
],
[
"Programs",
" Season Short program Free skating Exhibition 1993–1994 Carousel Waltz Appalachian Spring/Lincoln Portrait by Aaron Copland Elegy For Harp And StringsLee Holdridge 1987–1988 Les Patineurs (Meyerbeer) Silent movie Napoleon (Carmine Coppola / Francis Ford Coppola) Adventures of Don Juan from the Errol Flynn movie Parlami d'amore Mariu (Italian love song)"
],
[
"Results",
" International Event 78–79 79–80 80–81 81–82 82–83 83–84 84–85 85–86 86–87 87–88 93–94 Olympics 5th 1st 6th Worlds 7th 6th 3rd 1st 2nd 1st Skate America 3rd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd Skate Canada 1st 2nd NHK Trophy 3rd 1st St. Ivel 1st Nebelhorn 3rd St. Gervais 3rd International: Junior Junior Worlds 3rd National U.S.",
"Champ.",
"1st J 8th 5th 4th 4th 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 2nd"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *Beisteiner, Johanna: ''Art music in figure skating, synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics / Kunstmusik in Eiskunstlauf, Synchronschwimmen und rhythmischer Gymnastik''.",
"PhD thesis by Johanna Beisteiner, Vienna 2005, (German).",
"The PhD thesis contains an extensive description and analysis of Carmen on Ice (Chapter II/2, pages 105–162).",
"Article about the PhD thesis of Johanna Beisteiner in the catalogue of the Austrian Library Network.",
"2005.",
"(German and English)===Bibliography===* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * Brian Boitano's Gold-Medal Skates at the National Museum of American History"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"List of political scandals in the United Kingdom"
],
[
"Introduction",
"This is a '''list of political scandals in the United Kingdom''' in chronological order.",
"Scandals implicating political figures or governments of the UK, often reported in the mass media, have long had repercussions for their popularity.",
"Issues in political scandals have included alleged or proven financial and sexual matters, or various other allegations or actions taken by politicians that led to controversy.",
"In British media and political discourse, such scandals have sometimes been referred to as '''political sleaze''' since the 1990s.",
"Notable scandals include the Marconi scandal, Profumo affair and the 2009 expenses scandal."
],
[
"1890s",
"*Liberator Building Society scandal, in which the Liberal Party MP Jabez Balfour was exposed as running several fraudulent companies to conceal financial losses.",
"Balfour fled to Argentina, but was eventually arrested and imprisoned."
],
[
"1910s",
"* Marconi scandal of insider trading by Liberal Party Ministers including:** Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading, the Attorney General** The Master of Elibank, Lord Murray, the Treasurer of the Liberal Party,** David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, the Chancellor of the Exchequer**Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel, Postmaster General; was falsely implicated.",
"(1912)*Shell Crisis of 1915, which led to the fall of H. H. Asquith's Liberal Party government during World War I."
],
[
"1920s",
"*Lloyd George and the honours scandal.",
"Honours sold for large campaign contributions (1922)* Zinoviev Letter (1924)"
],
[
"1930s",
"* Jimmy Thomas budget leak (1936)"
],
[
"1940s",
"* Hugh Dalton budget leak (1947)* John Belcher corruptly influenced – led to Lynskey Tribunal"
],
[
"1950s",
"* Crichel Down and the resignation of Thomas Dugdale (1954)* Suez Crisis (1956)"
],
[
"1960s",
"* Vassall affair (1963): civil servant John Vassall, working for Minister Tam Galbraith, was revealed to be a spy for the Soviet Union and was arrested.",
"The affair was investigated in the Vassall tribunal.",
"* Profumo affair (1963): Secretary of State for War John Profumo had an affair with Christine Keeler (to whom he had been introduced by artist Stephen Ward) who was having an affair with a Soviet spy at the same time.",
"* The Robert Boothby (Tory), Tom Driberg (Labour), Kray brothers affair and consequent cover-up involving senior politicians of both parties.",
"The Daily Mirror published some details of the matter and was falsely sued for libel."
],
[
"1970s",
"* Corrupt architect John Poulson and links to Conservative Home Secretary Reginald Maudling, Labour council leader T. Dan Smith and others (1972–1974): Maudling resigned, Smith sentenced to imprisonment.",
"* Earl Jellicoe and Lord Lambton sex scandal (1973): Conservatives, junior defence minister Lambton is arrested for using prostitutes and Cabinet minister Jellicoe also confesses.",
"* Labour MP John Stonehouse's faked suicide (1974)* Harold Wilson's Prime Minister's Resignation Honours (known satirically as the \"Lavender List\") gives honours to a number of wealthy businessmen whose principles were considered antipathetic to those held by the Labour Party (May 1976)* Peter Jay's appointment as British Ambassador to the US by his father in law, the then Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan.",
"At the time Jay was a journalist with little diplomatic experience.",
"(1976)*\"Rinkagate\": the Thorpe affair.",
"Liberal Party leader Jeremy Thorpe was arrested and tried for allegedly paying a hitman to murder his lover, model Norman Scott, while walking his dog on Exmoor; the hitman only shot the dog, Rinka.",
"Thorpe was forced to resign due to his clandestine gay affairs, but was acquitted of conspiracy to murder."
],
[
"1980s",
"* Joseph Kagan, Baron Kagan, earlier ennobled by the Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson's notorious Lavender List (1976), was convicted of fraud (1980)* Cecil Parkinson affair with secretary Sara Keays resulting in their child, Flora Keays (1983)* Al Yamamah contract alleged to have been obtained by bribery (1985)* Westland affair (1986): The Defence Secretary, Michael Heseltine resigned from his Cabinet job in a disagreement with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher over the Westland affair.",
"Heseltine walked out of a meeting at Number 10 as his views on the future of the Westland helicopter company were being ignored at the time.",
"* Jeffrey Archer and the prostitute allegations (1986), and his subsequent conviction for perjury (2001)*Westminster cemeteries scandal (1987)* Edwina Currie resigns as a junior Health minister after claiming that millions of British eggs were infected with salmonella, stating that \"most of British egg production\" was infected (1988) * \"Homes for votes\" gerrymandering scandal (1987–1989)"
],
[
"1990s",
"* Arms-to-Iraq and the closely connected Iraqi Supergun affair (1990)* David Mellor resignation after press disclosure of his affair with Antonia de Sancha and gratis holiday from a daughter of a PLO official (1992)* Michael Mates gift of a watch (\"Don't let the bastards grind you down\") to Asil Nadir (1993)* Monklandsgate dominated the 1994 Monklands East by-election.",
"It mainly consisted of allegations of sectarian spending discrepancies between Protestant Airdrie and Catholic Coatbridge, fuelled by the fact that all 17 of the ruling Labour group were Roman Catholics.",
"(1994)* ''Back to Basics'', a government policy slogan portrayed by opponents and the press as a morality campaign to compare it with a contemporaneous succession of sex scandals in John Major's government which led to the resignation of Tim Yeo and the Earl of Caithness, among others (1994)* Cash-for-questions affair involving Neil Hamilton, Tim Smith and Mohamed Al-Fayed (1994)* Jonathan Aitken and the Paris Ritz Hotel bill allegations, and his subsequent conviction for perjury after his failed libel action against ''The Guardian'', resulting in Aitken being only the third person to have to resign from the Privy Council in the 20th century.",
"(1995)* Conservative MP Jerry Hayes was \"outed\" as a homosexual by the ''News of the World'' with the headline \"TORY MP 2-TIMED WIFE WITH UNDER-AGE GAY LOVER\".",
"Hayes had met Young Conservative Paul Stone at the 1991 Conservative conference and that same evening, \"committed a lewd act which was in breach of the law at the time\".",
"Stone had been 18 at the time, whilst the legal age for homosexual sex in 1991 was 21.He had previously supported Section 28 and other anti-gay legislation.",
"(1997)* Bernie Ecclestone was involved in a political scandal when it transpired he had given the Labour Party a million pound donation – which raised eyebrows when the incoming Labour government changed its policy to allow Formula One to continue being sponsored by tobacco manufacturers.",
"The Labour Party returned the donation when the scandal came to light.",
"(1997)*Peter Mandelson, Trade and Industry Secretary, resigned after failing to disclose £373,000 loan from Paymaster General Geoffrey Robinson.",
"(1998)* Ron Davies resigned from the cabinet after being robbed by a man he met at Clapham Common (a well-known gay cruising ground) and then lying about it (1998)"
],
[
"2000s",
"* Officegate (2001).",
"Henry McLeish, Labour First Minister of Scotland, failed to refund the House of Commons for income he had received from the sub-let of his constituency office in Glenrothes while still a Westminster MP.",
"* Keith Vaz, Peter Mandelson and the Hinduja brothers.",
"Mandelson forced to resign for a second time due to misleading statements.",
"(2001)* Jo Moore, within an hour of the September 11 attacks, sent an email to the press office of her department suggesting: \"It's now a very good day to get out anything we want to bury.",
"Councillors' expenses?\"",
"Although prior to the catastrophic collapse of the towers, the phrase \"a good day to bury bad news\" (not actually used by Moore) has since been used to refer to other instances of attempting to hide one item of news behind a more publicised issue.",
"*Betsygate (2002), which revolved around the level of pay that Iain Duncan Smith's wife Elisabeth received as his diary secretary.",
"* In 2002, Edwina Currie revealed that she had had an affair, beginning in 1984, with John Major before he became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.",
"This was criticised as Major had frequently pushed his ''Back To Basics'' agenda (see above), which was taken by the media as a form of moral absolutism.",
"* The Burrell affair – allegations about the behaviour of the British royal family and their servants with possible constitutional implications.",
"(2002)* Ron Davies stood down from the Welsh assembly following accusations of illicit gay sex.",
"Davies had claimed he had been badger-watching in the area.",
"(2003)* The apparent suicide of Dr. David Kelly and the ''Hutton Inquiry''.",
"On 17 July 2003, Kelly, an employee of the Ministry of Defence, apparently committed suicide after being misquoted by BBC journalist Andrew Gilligan as saying that Tony Blair's Labour government had knowingly \"sexed up\" the \"September Dossier\", a report into Iraq and weapons of mass destruction.",
"The government was cleared of wrongdoing, while the BBC was strongly criticised by the subsequent inquiry, leading to the resignation of the BBC's chairman and director-general.",
"*In April 2004, Beverly Hughes was forced to resign as minister for Immigration, Citizenship and Counter Terrorism when it was shown that she had been informed of procedural improprieties concerning the granting of visas to certain categories of workers from Eastern Europe.",
"She had earlier told the House of Commons that if she had been aware of such facts she would have done something about it.",
"*In 2005, David McLetchie, leader of the Scottish Conservatives, was forced to resign after claiming the highest taxi expenses of any MSP.",
"These included personal journeys, journeys related solely with his second job as a solicitor, and Conservative Party business, for example travel to Conservative conferences.",
"Conservative backbench MSP Brian Monteith had the whip withdrawn for briefing against his leader to the ''Scotland on Sunday'' newspaper.",
"*Liberal Democrats Home Affairs spokesman Mark Oaten resigned after it was revealed by the ''News of the World'' that he paid rentboys to perform sexual acts on him.",
"*David Mills financial allegations (2006).",
"Tessa Jowell, Labour cabinet minister, was embroiled in a scandal about a property remortgage allegedly arranged to enable her husband, David Mills, to realise £350,000 from an off-shore hedge fund, money he allegedly received as a gift following testimony he had provided for Silvio Berlusconi in the 1990s.",
"Nicknamed by the press as \"Jowellgate\".",
"*Cash for Honours (2006).",
"In March 2006 it emerged that the Labour Party had borrowed millions of pounds in 2005 to help fund their general election campaign.",
"While not illegal, on 15 March the Treasurer of the party, Jack Dromey stated publicly that he had neither knowledge of nor involvement in these loans and had only become aware when he read about it in the newspapers.",
"A story was running at the time that Dr Chai Patel and others had been recommended for life peerages after lending the Labour party money.",
"He called on the Electoral Commission to investigate the issue of political parties taking out loans from non-commercial sources.",
"* Following revelations about Dr Chai Patel and others who were recommended for peerages after lending the Labour party money, the Treasurer of the party, Jack Dromey said he had not been involved and did not know the party had secretly borrowed millions of pounds in 2005.He called on the Electoral Commission to investigate the issue of political parties taking out loans from non-commercial sources.",
"* Angus McNeil (2007).",
"The married SNP MP who made the initial police complaint over the cash for honours scandal was forced to make an apology after it was revealed that in 2005 he had a \"heavy petting\" session with two teenage girls aged 17 and 18 in a hotel room at the same time his wife was pregnant with their third child.",
"*News of the World royal phone hacking scandal* In November 2007, it emerged that more than £400,000 had been accepted by the Labour Party from one person through a series of third parties, causing the Electoral Commission to seek an explanation.",
"Peter Watt resigned as the General Secretary of the party the day after the story broke and was quoted as saying that he knew about the arrangement but had not appreciated that he had failed to comply with the reporting requirements.",
"*On 24 January 2008, Peter Hain resigned his two cabinet posts (Secretary of State for Work and Pensions and Secretary of State for Wales) after the Electoral Commission referred donations to his Deputy Leadership campaign to the police.",
"*Derek Conway (2008).",
"The Conservative Party MP was found to have reclaimed salaries he had paid to his two sons who had in fact not carried out the work to the extent claimed.",
"He was ordered to repay £16,918, suspended from the House of Commons for 10 days and removed from the party whip.",
"*Cash for Influence (2009).",
"Details of covertly recorded discussions with four Labour Party peers which their ability to influence legislation and the consultancy fees that they charged (including retainer payments of up to £120,000) were published by ''The Sunday Times''.",
"*United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal (2009).",
"Widespread actual and alleged misuse of the permitted allowances and expenses claimed by Members of Parliament and attempts by MPs and peers to exempt themselves from Freedom of Information legislation."
],
[
"2010s",
"=== 2010 ===* The Iris Robinson scandal in which First Minister of Northern Ireland Peter Robinson stepped aside for six weeks in January 2010 following revelations of his wife's involvement in an extramarital affair, her attempted suicide, and allegations that he had failed to properly declare details of loans she had procured for her lover to develop a business venture.",
"* Red Sky scandal, involving contracts given to company Red Sky by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive.",
"* The 2010 cash for influence scandal, in which undercover reporters for the ''Dispatches'' television series posed as political lobbyists offering to pay Members of Parliament to influence policy.",
"* On 29 May 2010 Chief Secretary to the Treasury David Laws resigned from the Cabinet and was referred to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards after ''The Daily Telegraph'' newspaper published details of Laws claiming around £40,000 in expenses on a second home owned by a secret partner between 2004 and 2009, whilst House of Commons rules have prevented MPs from claiming second home expenses on properties owned by a partner since 2006.By resigning Laws became the shortest serving Minister in modern British political history with less than 18 days' service as a Cabinet Minister.=== 2011 ===* On 14 October 2011 Secretary of State for Defence Liam Fox resigned from the Cabinet after he \"mistakenly allowed the distinction between his personal interest and his government activities to become blurred\" over his friendship with Adam Werritty.",
"(He again served as a cabinet minister under Theresa May.",
")*News International phone hacking scandal* The Ed Balls document leak was exposed by the Daily Telegraph and showed that shadow chancellor Ed Balls was involved in a supposed plot known as 'Project Volvo' to oust Tony Blair as leader and replace him with Gordon Brown shortly after the 2005 election.=== 2012 ===*Conservative Party 'cash for access' scandal involving Peter Cruddas and Sarah Southern, March 2012.",
"*In February 2012 Liberal Democrat MP Chris Huhne resigned from the Cabinet when he was charged with perverting the course of justice over a 2003 speeding case.",
"His wife Vicky Pryce had claimed that she was driving the car, and accepted the licence penalty points on his behalf so that he could avoid being banned from driving.",
"Huhne pleaded guilty at his trial, resigned as a member of parliament, and he and Pryce were sentenced to eight months in prison for perverting the course of justice.",
"* In April 2012, Conservative Party MP and Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt came under pressure to resign as a result of his closeness to Rupert Murdoch's media empire and alleged corruption in dealing with Murdoch's bid for News Corporation's takeover of BSkyB.",
"* In October 2012, Andrew Mitchell resigned from his post as Chief Whip following allegations made about his conduct during an altercation with police at Downing Street on 19 September, the incident becoming known as \"plebgate\".=== 2013 ===* In the 2013 Labour Party Falkirk candidate selection, which began following the announcement that the incumbent MP Eric Joyce was to step down at the 2015 general election, allegations were made on the significant infiltration of the selection process by the Unite trade union, the Labour Party's largest financial backer.=== 2014 ===* In April 2014 Maria Miller, the Culture Secretary, resigned following pressure relating to the results of an investigation into her past expenses claims.",
"* On 20 November 2014 Emily Thornberry resigned her shadow cabinet position shortly after polls closed in the Rochester and Strood by-election.",
"Earlier in the day, she had received criticism after tweeting a photograph of a house in the constituency adorned with three flags of St. George and the owner's white van parked outside on the driveway, under the caption \"Image from #Rochester\", provoking accusations of snobbery.",
"She was criticised by fellow Labour Party MPs, including leader Ed Miliband who said her tweet conveyed a \"sense of disrespect\".",
"* Namagate, involving allegations that First Minister of Northern Ireland Peter Robinson may have financially benefitted from a deal with National Asset Management Agency (NAMA).=== 2015 ===* In September 2015, Lord Ashcroft published a biography of David Cameron, which suggested that the then Prime Minister took drugs regularly and performed an \"outrageous initiation ceremony\" which involved inserting \"a private part of his anatomy\" into the mouth of a dead pig during his time in university.",
"This became known as \"piggate\".",
"It also led to questions about the Prime Minister's honesty with party donors' known tax statuses as Lord Ashcroft suggested he had openly discussed his non-domiciled status with him in 2009, earlier than previously thought.=== 2017 ===* In 2017 the contaminated blood scandal, in which many haemophiliacs died from infected Factor medicine, hit the headlines and Parliament with allegations of an \"industrial scale\" criminal cover-up.",
"MP Ken Clarke retracted remarks from his autobiography relating to the scandal and a public inquiry is now underway.",
"* The Renewable Heat Incentive scandal in Northern Ireland, in which Arlene Foster set up a green energy scheme but failed to introduce cost controls, creating perverse incentives which eventually led to a £480m bill to the Northern Ireland budget.",
"There were allegations that members of the Democratic Unionist Party attempted to postpone the closure of the scheme, which gave way to a spike in applications and causing the public purse millions of pounds.",
"In January 2017, the scandal caused the resignation of the deputy First Minister, Martin McGuinness, after Foster refused to stand aside as First Minister pending an investigation, collapsing the Executive Office and triggering an early election of the Northern Ireland Assembly.",
"The resulting political rifts meant the Assembly did not meet again until 2020.=== 2018 ===* The 2018 Windrush scandal, involving members of the Windrush generation being wrongly detained, deported, or threatened with deportation which caused the resignation of then Home Secretary, Amber Rudd."
],
[
"2020s",
"=== 2020 ===* The Dominic Cummings scandal, where Dominic Cummings, chief strategist of Prime Minister Boris Johnson, broke COVID-19 pandemic restrictions during the UK's first nationwide lockdown while experiencing symptoms of the disease.",
"Cummings and Johnson rejected calls for the former to resign.",
"It was suggested that the scandal undermined the public's compliance with pandemic restrictions.",
"* The Alex Salmond scandal concerned how the Scottish Government, led by incumbent First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon, breached its own guidelines in its investigation into the harassment claims against Sturgeon's predecessor as First Minister, Alex Salmond.",
"The Scottish Government lost a judicial review into their actions and had to pay over £500,000 to Salmond for legal expenses.",
"Salmond claimed that senior figures in Sturgeon's government and the ruling Scottish National Party (SNP) conspired against him for political reasons.",
"Critics accused Sturgeon of breaking the Ministerial Code which resulted in calls for her resignation.",
"Sturgeon disputed the allegations, arguing that while mistakes had been made, her government acted appropriately.=== 2021 ===* The Greensill scandal, where former Prime Minister David Cameron approached a number of government ministers on behalf of Greensill Capital to lobby for the company to receive Covid Corporate Financing Facility loans.",
"* ''The Sun'' published pictures and then video of leaked CCTV footage from inside the Department of Health of Health Secretary Matt Hancock and Gina Coladangelo kissing in a breach of COVID-19 social distancing guidance.",
"Boris Johnson accepted Matt Hancock's apology and stated that he \"considers the matter closed\", however the Health Secretary resigned the following day.",
"*In November 2021, Conservative MP Owen Paterson was found to have broken paid advocacy rules Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards but instead of approving his suspension, the government enforced a three-line whip on Conservative MPs to pass a motion that the investigation was \"clearly flawed\".",
"After an outcry from opposition parties, the government made a U-turn and Paterson resigned.",
"*Partygate involving social gatherings by Downing Street and Conservative Party staff during COVID-19 restrictions in late 2020.=== 2022 === * Neil Parish, Conservative MP for Tiverton and Honiton, was forced to resign in April after it was discovered that he had watched pornography in the House of Commons on at least two occasions.",
"* Chris Pincher scandal.",
"Chris Pincher, the Deputy Chief Whip of the Conservative Party, resigned on 30th June following allegations about him groping two men.",
"Further allegations of harassment emerged against Pincher, along with claims that Prime Minister Boris Johnson had already been informed of his behaviour.",
"The incremental effect of this and other recent controversies led to the resignation of 59 Conservative politicians, most notably Rishi Sunak as Chancellor and Sajid Javid as Health Secretary.",
"This in turn, led to Boris Johnson committing to resign as leader of the Conservative Party, and thus as prime minister, when his replacement as leader had been chosen by his party."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bombardier Inc."
],
[
"Introduction",
"1952 Bombardier snow coach on display at The Exploration Museum in Húsavík, Iceland.Bombardier BR100+ Groomer, mid engine, hard cab modelOld Bombardier sprocket wheel logoA 2015 Bombardier Global 6000'''Bombardier Inc.''' () is a Canadian business jet manufacturer.",
"Headquartered in Montreal, the company was founded in 1942 by Joseph-Armand Bombardier to market his snowmobiles and became one of the world's biggest producers of aircraft and trains.",
"In the 1970s and 1980s, the company diversified into public transport vehicles and commercial jets and became a multinational corporation.",
"It grew particularly fast at the end of the 1980s when the turnover multiplied sixfold within six years.",
"At that time it was North America's most important producer of railway vehicles, Canada's most important aerospace producer and the worldwide leading snowmobile manufacturer.",
"The growth came mainly from buying failing government-owned companies at a low price and orchestrating a turnaround.However, the launch of the CSeries aircraft sent the company into deep debt, pushing it to the brink of bankruptcy by 2015.As a result, the company sold nearly all of its operations except business jet manufacturing.Bombardier manufactures several series of corporate jets: Global 7500, Global Express, Challenger 650 and Challenger 3500."
],
[
"Divested lines of business",
"===Commercial aviation===Bombardier Global Express Global 6000 landing at Montreal International AirportBombardier C Series CS100 Flight Test Vehicle (FTV1) at MirabelIn 1986, Bombardier acquired Canadair for C$120 million from the Government of Canada after it recorded the largest corporate loss in Canadian history.In 1989, the company acquired Short Brothers.By 1990, the first product of the company, the Ski-Doo snowmobile, had become its weakest part gaging up deficits and high inventories.",
"In 1990, it acquired Learjet.",
"In 1992, the company acquired de Havilland Canada from Boeing.In 1995, the company founded Flexjet.",
"In December 2013, the division was sold for $195 million.A Bombardier CSeries (Airbus A220) in Swiss liveryOn June 29, 2016, Bombardier delivered the first CSeries CS100 aircraft (now called the Airbus A220) to Swiss International Air Lines.",
"Air Canada placed an order for the aircraft one day earlier.In April 2016, Delta Air Lines placed an order for the aircraft.",
"On September 26, 2017, after Boeing complained that Bombardier was selling the CS100 to Delta Air Lines below cost due to subsidies from the governments of Canada and Quebec, the United States Department of Commerce proposed a 219% tariff on the aircraft.",
"Boeing's complaint stated that the CS100 planes were being sold at US$19.6 million each, below the US$33.2 million production cost.",
"The governments of Canada and the United Kingdom threatened to stop ordering Boeing aircraft since the company was putting aerospace jobs at risk.",
"On January 26, 2018, the United States International Trade Commission overturned the tariffs.",
"Boeing did not appeal.In July 2018, Airbus acquired a 50.01% stake in the CSeries for one Canadian dollar, with an option to acquire the remaining interest by 2024.Airbus built a second CSeries assembly line at its A320 assembly facility in Mobile, Alabama.In November 2018, the company announced the sale of its turboprop passenger aircraft unit to an affiliate of Viking Air.",
"It also announced 5,000 layoffs.In March 2019, the company sold its Business Aircraft Training business to CAE Inc. for $645 million.",
"The business included flight simulators and training devices for the Bombardier Learjet, Challenger, and Global product lines.On 25 June 2019, Bombardier agreed with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries to sell the CRJ programme, a deal was expected to close in early 2020 subject to regulatory approval.",
"Bombardier will retain the Mirabel assembly facility and produce the CRJ on behalf of Mitsubishi until the current order backlog is complete.In October 2019, Bombardier announced the sale agreement of its remaining aerostructure division to US company Spirit AeroSystems.",
"The division at time of sale involved component manufacture for new and after-market Bombardier group and Airbus group aircraft models, and also operated in aircraft maintenance, repair and overhaul.",
"Due to how the 2020 pandemic affected the industry, the agreement was renegotiated with the sale to Spirit concluded finally in October 2020.Bombardier's former aerostructures division purchased by Spirit consisted at time of sale of operations in Belfast, UK; Casablanca, Morocco; and Dallas, USA.The 2019-20, aerostructures division sell-off was described at the time as supporting Bombardier's \"strategic decision to reposition itself as a pure-play business aircraft company\".In February 2020, Airbus acquired an additional 25% stake in the A220 for US$591 million.",
"This transaction was the final step to get Bombardier Aviation out of the commercial jet industry.In December 2022, Bombardier broke ground on the new service center at the Abu Dhabi International Airport.",
"This new facility in Abu Dhabi will be Bombardier’s first full-service facility in the United Arab Emirates.===Bombardier Capital===From 1973, when it was based in Colchester, Vermont, Bombardier Capital offered financial services such as lending and leasing.In 1997, the company began transitioning some services to Jacksonville, Florida.In 2001, it ceased taking on new consumer loans.In 2005, Bombardier sold its inventory finance division to GE Commercial Finance.===Military===The company acquired the rights to the Volkswagen Iltis in 1981.Production ceased in 1989.When UTDC was acquired by Bombardier in 1991 several military products were added: UTDC 24M32 - HLVW military trucks based on the Steyr 91 (Percheron)* MLVW military trucks based on the M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truckIn 2003, the company sold its arms industry division in Canada.",
"Military Aviation Services was sold to SPAR Aerospace.",
"Land-based arms industry products made by Urban Transportation Development Corporation ceased operations.===Public transport bus in Ireland===In the late 1970s, in the Republic of Ireland, CIÉ (now Bus Éireann and Dublin Bus) commissioned a range of single and double-decker buses to be designed and produced.CIÉ looked for partners to build these buses in Ireland, eventually finding two: Bombardier, and the United States-based General Automotive Corporation (GAC) from Ann Arbor, Michigan.",
"The two companies formed a new company Bombardier Ireland Limited, 51% owned by Bombardier and 49% owned by GAC.",
"In August 1983, Bombardier sold its shares to GAC, with the company renamed GAC Ireland Limited.The prototypes were devised in Germany and production of 51 express coaches (KE type) and 366 double-decker buses (KD type) were assembled between 1980 and 1983 at a facility in Shannon, County Clare.",
"They remained in service until 1997 and 2000, respectively.",
"Some surviving examples are now exhibited at the National Transport Museum of Ireland at Howth Castle.===Rail equipment===An MR-73 train arriving at Lucien-L'Allier station, February 2009The company diversified into rail transport after the 1970s energy crisis reduced demand for snowmobiles.In 1974, the company received its first order – to build MR-73 trains for Société de transport de Montréal for use on the Montreal Metro.In 1975, the company acquired Montreal Locomotive Works.",
"It was sold to General Electric in 1988.In 1982, the company won a contract from New York's Metropolitan Transportation Authority to build 825 R62A cars for the New York City Subway for $663 million.In 1985, the company ceased manufacturing locomotives and concentrated on producing passenger train rolling stock.",
"It acquired a 45% stake in La Brugeoise et Nivelles (formerly BN Constructions Ferroviaires et Métalliques) based in Bruges in 1986, the assets of U.S. railcar manufacturers Budd Company and Pullman Company in 1987, and ANF Industrie based in Crespin, Nord, France in 1989.A series of acquisitions in the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Mexico further increased operations.In 1996, the company was selected as the lead developer for the Acela Express trains, the fastest trains in North America, in a $710 million contract.",
"Problems with the trains resulted in lawsuits between the company and Amtrak.In 2001, Bombardier acquired Adtranz (DaimlerChrysler Rail Systems), a manufacturer of trains which were widely used throughout Germany and Great Britain, becoming one of the largest manufacturers of railway rolling stock in the world.",
"This division produced the Bombardier Turbostar.In 2005, it launched the Bombardier Zefiro high-speed rail, with speeds of 200–380 kilometres per hour, for the Ministry of Railways (China).On February 13, 2020, Alstom agreed to buy the Bombardier Transportation division for €7 billion.",
"The acquisition deal was completed on January 29, 2021.===Bombardier Recreational Products===In January 1934, a blizzard prevented Joseph-Armand Bombardier from reaching the nearest hospital in time to save his two-year-old son, Yvon, who died from appendicitis complicated by peritonitis.Bombardier was a mechanic who dreamed of building a vehicle that could \"float on snow\".",
"In 1935, in a repair shop in Valcourt, Quebec, he designed and produced the first snowmobile using a drive system he developed that revolutionized travel in snow and swampy conditions.In 1937, he patented and sold 12 of the 7-passenger \"B7\" snow coaches.",
"They were used in rural Quebec to take children to school, carry freight, deliver mail, and as ambulances.",
"In 1941, Bombardier opened a factory in Valcourt.In 1942, ''L'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée'' (\"Bombardier Snow Car Limited\") was founded in Valcourt.During World War II, the Government of Canada issued wartime rationing regulations.",
"Bombardier customers had to prove that snowmobiles were essential to their livelihood in order to buy one.",
"The company then shifted its focus to the arms industry.In 1947, during a blizzard in Saskatchewan, the company received positive press coverage when army snowmobiles resupplied isolated radio communication towers.In 1948, the Government of Quebec passed a law requiring all roads to be cleared of snow; Bombardier's sales fell by nearly half in one year.",
"Armand Bombardier therefore decided to diversify his business, first by producing tracked snowplows sized specifically for use on municipal sidewalks, replacing horse-drawn vehicles, then by making all-terrain vehicles for the mining, petroleum, and forestry industries.The machines had removable front skis that could be replaced with front wheels for use on paved or hard surfaces, thus providing greater utility to his large snowmobiles.",
"In 1951, the wooden bodies were replaced with sheet steel, and these vehicles were powered by Chrysler flathead six-cylinder engines and 3-speed manual transmissions.In the early 1950s, Bombardier focused on developing a snowmobile for 1 or 2 passengers.",
"A breakthrough occurred in 1957 when Bombardier developed a one-piece molded rubber continuous track with enough durability to provide snow-gripping traction for lightweight vehicles.",
"The vehicle was called the \"Ski-Dog\" because it was meant to replace the dog sled for hunters and trappers.",
"However, in 1958, \"Ski-Doo\" was accidentally painted on the first prototype, and immediately became the popular name.The public soon discovered the great fun of speedy vehicles zooming over snow, and a new winter sport was born, centered in Quebec.",
"In the first year, Bombardier sold 225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold.",
"Bombardier slowed promotion of the Ski-Doo line to prevent it from crowding out other company products, while still dominating the snowmobile industry against competitors Polaris Industries and Arctic Cat.In 1963, Roski was created in Roxton Falls, Quebec as a manufacturer of composite parts for the Ski-Doo.",
"In the 1960s, V-8 engines were added.On February 18, 1964, J. Armand Bombardier died of cancer at age 56.Until then, he oversaw all areas of operation and controlled the research department, making all the drawings himself.",
"The younger generation took over, led by Armand's sons and sons-in-law, reorganizing and decentralizing the company.",
"The company adopted computer inventory, accounting, and billing.",
"Distribution networks were improved and increased, and an incentive program was developed for sales staff.",
"That year, a survey was mailed to Ski-Doo owners to find out how the product was being used.",
"Germain Bombardier, who had been groomed by his father, took over the company upon his father's death in 1964.However, he quit and sold his shares in 1966 after a disagreement with other family members.",
"Laurent Beaudoin, the son-in-law of the founder, then became president, a position he held until 1999.He had joined the company as controller in 1963 and was president for 25 years.In 1967, the company was renamed ''Bombardier Limited''.",
"By that time, the snowmobiles were very useful for the Inuit.In 1968, Clayton Jacobson II invented the jet ski and the company licensed his patents to create the Sea-Doo personal watercraft.On January 23, 1969, the company became a public company, listing on the Montreal Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange.In 1969–1970, the standard round windows reminiscent of portholes were replaced with larger rectangular windows that provided more interior light.",
"A change was made to the Chrysler Industrial 318 engines with the automatic Loadflite transmissions.In 1970, the company acquired Rotax, an engine manufacturer based in Gunskirchen, Austria.In 1971, Bombardier acquired Moto-Ski.",
"Also in 1971, Bombardier launched Operation SnoPlan, a program to promote snowmobile safety after a mounting death toll due to snowmobile accidents.In the 1970s, the company began producing Can-Am motorcycles, which included Rotax engines.In 2003, the company sold Bombardier Recreational Products to a group of investors: Bain Capital (50%), Bombardier Family (35%) and Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec (15%) for $875 million."
],
[
"Aircraft fleet",
"As of February 2023, Bombardier Inc. has the following aircraft listed with Transport Canada and operate as ICAO airline designator BBA, and telephony BOMBARDIER.",
"*Bell 206 helicopter – 1*Challenger 600 – 1*Bombardier BD-100 (CL30) – 1 *Bombardier BD-700 – 9"
],
[
"Bombardier Museum",
"1951 Bombardier B12 Snow Bus SnowmobileThe '''Museum of Ingenuity J. Armand Bombardier''' is a museum in Valcourt, Quebec dedicated to the life of Joseph-Armand Bombardier and the snowmobile industry.",
"Opened in 1971, with substantial renovations in 1990, the museum is professionally curated and features a wide array of Ski-Doos, other industrial designs, and a selection of related books, booklets and other items of interest to snowmobile enthusiasts.The museum includes the original garage \"factory\" where the first snowmobile was built.",
"The garage was carefully removed from its original location in Valcourt and moved to its present site at the museum, which is located blocks away from the present-day Bombardier Recreational Products factory."
],
[
"Sponsorships",
"For the 2021 Formula 1 season, Bombardier was a sponsor of the Aston Martin Cognizant F1 Team.Bombardier served as the primary sponsor for Ben Rhodes and ThorSport Racing during their 2021 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series Championship season."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Hadekel, Peter.",
"''Silent Partners: Taxpayers and the Bankrolling of Bombardier''.",
"Toronto: Key Porter Books Limited, 2004..* MacDonald, Larry.",
"''The Bombardier Story: Planes, Trains and Snowmobiles''.",
"Toronto: J. Wiley & Sons, 2001.."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Bombardier Inc. Corporate Reports – McGill University Library & Archives"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Break key"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Break/Pause key on PC keyboardThe '''Break key''' (or the symbol ⎉) of a computer keyboard refers to breaking a telegraph circuit and originated with 19th century practice.",
"In modern usage, the key has no well-defined purpose, but while this is the case, it can be used by software for miscellaneous tasks, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.Because the break function is usually combined with the pause function on one key since the introduction of the IBM Model M 101-key keyboard in 1985, the Break key is also called the '''Pause key'''.",
"It can be used to pause some computer games."
],
[
"History",
"A standard telegraph circuit connects all the keys, sounders and batteries in a single series loop.",
"Thus the sounders actuate only when both keys are down (closed, also known as \"marking\" — after the ink marks made on paper tape by early printing telegraphs).",
"So the receiving operator has to hold their key down or close a built-in shorting switch in order to let the other operator send.",
"As a consequence, the receiving operator could interrupt the sending operator by opening their key, breaking the circuit and forcing it into a \"spacing\" condition.",
"Both sounders stop responding to the sender's keying, alerting the sender.",
"(A physical break in the telegraph line would have the same effect.",
")The teleprinter operated in a very similar fashion except that the sending station kept the loop closed (logic 1, or \"marking\") even during short pauses between characters.",
"Holding down a special \"break\" key opened the loop, forcing it into a continuous logic 0, or \"spacing\", condition.",
"When this occurred, the teleprinter mechanisms continually actuated without printing anything, as the all-0s character is the non-printing ''NUL'' in both Baudot and ASCII.",
"The resulting noise got the sending operator's attention.This practice carried over to teleprinter use on time-sharing computers.",
"A continuous spacing (logical 0) condition violates the rule that every valid character has to end with one or more logic 1 (marking) \"stop\" bits.",
"The computer (specifically the UART) recognized this as a special \"break\" condition and generated an interrupt that typically stopped a running program or forced the operating system to prompt for a login.",
"Although asynchronous serial telegraphy is now rare, the key once used with terminal emulators can still be used by software for similar purposes."
],
[
"Sinclair",
"On the ZX80 and ZX81 computers, the Break is accessed by pressing .",
"On the ZX Spectrum it is accessed by .",
"The Spectrum+ and later computers have a dedicated key.",
"It does not trigger an interrupt but will halt any running BASIC program, or terminate the loading or saving of data to cassette tape.",
"An interrupted BASIC program can usually be resumed with the CONTINUE command.",
"The Sinclair QL computer, without a key, maps the function to ."
],
[
"BBC Micro",
"On a BBC Micro computer, the key generates a hardware reset which would normally cause a warm restart of the computer.",
"A cold restart is triggered by pressing .",
"If a filing system is installed, will cause the computer to search for and load or run a file called !Boot on the filing system's default device (e.g.",
"floppy disk 0, network user BOOT).",
"The latter two behaviours were inherited by the successor to Acorn MOS, RISC OS.",
"These behaviours could be changed or exchanged in software, and were often used in rudimentary anti-piracy techniques.Because of the BBC Micro's near universal usage in British schools, later versions of the machine incorporated a physical lock on the Break key to stop children from intentionally resetting the computer."
],
[
"Modern keyboards",
"On many modern PCs, interrupts screen output by BIOS until another key is pressed.",
"This is effective during boot in text mode and in a DOS box in Windows safe mode with 50 lines.",
"On early keyboards without a key (before the introduction of 101/102-key keyboards) the Pause function was assigned to , and the Break function to ; these key-combinations still work with most programs, even on modern PCs with modern keyboards.",
"Pressing the dedicated key on 101/102-key keyboards sends the same scancodes as pressing , then , then releasing them in the reverse order would do; additionally, an E1hex prefix is sent, which enables 101/102-key-aware software to discern the two situations, while older software usually just ignores the prefix.",
"The key is different from all other keys in that it sends no scancodes at all on release in PS/2 modes 1 or 2, so it is impossible to determine whether this key is being held down with older devices.",
"In PS/2 mode 3 or USB HID mode, there is a release scancode, so it is possible to determine whether this key is being held down on modern computers.On modern keyboards, the key is usually labeled ''Pause'' with ''Break'' below, sometimes separated by a line: , or ''Pause'' on the top of the keycap and ''Break'' on the front, or only ''Pause'' without ''Break'' at all.",
"In most Windows environments, the key combination brings up the system properties."
],
[
"Keyboards without Break key",
"Compact and notebook keyboards often do not have a dedicated key.Substitutes for :* or or on certain Lenovo laptops.",
"* or on certain Dell laptops.",
"* on some other Dell laptops.",
"* on Samsung.",
"* on certain HP laptops.",
"* on certain HP laptops.",
"* on certain Logitech (LOGI) keyboards.Substitutes for :* or or on certain Lenovo laptops.",
"* on certain Dell laptops.",
"* on certain HP laptops.",
"* on certain HP laptops.For some Dell laptops, without a key, press the and select \"Interrupt\"."
],
[
"Usage for breaking the program's execution",
"While both and combination are commonly implemented as a way of breaking the execution of a console application, they are also used for similar effect in integrated development environments.",
"Although these two are often considered interchangeable, compilers and execution environments usually assign different signals to these.",
"Additionally, in some kernels (e.g.",
"miscellaneous DOS variants) is detected only at the time OS tries reading from a keyboard buffer and only if it's the only key sequence in the buffer, while is often translated instantly (e.g.",
"by INT 1Bh under DOS).",
"Because of this, is usually a more effective choice under these operating systems; sensitivity for these two combinations can be enhanced by the BREAK=ON CONFIG.SYS statement."
],
[
"See also",
"*System request*Scroll lock*Num lock"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bogie"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A railway bogieA '''bogie''' ( ) (or '''truck''' in North American English) is a chassis or framework that carries a wheelset, attached to a vehicle—a modular subassembly of wheels and axles.",
"Bogies take various forms in various modes of transport.",
"A bogie may remain normally attached (as on many railroad cars and semi-trailers) or be quickly detachable (as the dolly in a road train or in railway bogie exchange).",
"It may include a suspension component within it (as most rail and trucking bogies do), or be solid and in turn be suspended (as most bogies of tracked vehicles are); it may be mounted on a swivel, as traditionally on a railway carriage or locomotive, additionally jointed and sprung (as in the landing gear of an airliner), or held in place by other means (centreless bogies).Although ''bogie'' is the preferred spelling and first-listed variant in various dictionaries, '''bogey''' and '''bogy''' are also used."
],
[
"Railway",
"A ''bogie'' in the UK, or a ''railroad truck'', ''wheel truck'', or simply ''truck'' in North America, is a structure underneath a railway vehicle (wagon, coach or locomotive) to which axles (hence, wheels) are attached through bearings.",
"In Indian English, ''bogie'' may also refer to an entire railway carriage.",
"In South Africa, the term ''bogie'' is often alternatively used to refer to a freight or goods wagon (shortened from ''bogie wagon'').",
"''Experiment'', the first successful American locomotive with a bogie, built in 1831 to a design by civil engineer John B. JervisA locomotive with a bogie was built by engineer William Chapman in 1812.It hauled itself along by chains and was not successful, but Chapman built a more successful locomotive with two gear-driven bogies in 1814.The bogie was first used in America for wagons on the Quincy Granite Railroad in 1829.The first successful locomotive with a bogie to guide the locomotive into curves while also supporting the smokebox was built by John B. Jervis in 1831.The concept took decades before it was widely accepted but eventually became a component of the vast majority of mainline locomotive designs.",
"The first use of bogie coaches in Britain was in 1872 by the Festiniog Railway.The first standard gauge British railway to build coaches with bogies, instead of rigidly mounted axles, was the Midland Railway in 1874.===Purpose===wheelsets to more closely follow the direction of the rails when travelling around a curve in the railroad.Displacements of a bogieBogies serve a number of purposes:* Support of the rail vehicle body* Stability on both straight and curved track* Improve ride quality by absorbing vibration and minimizing the impact of centrifugal forces when the train runs on curves at high speed* Minimizing generation of track irregularities and rail abrasionUsually, two bogies are fitted to each carriage, wagon or locomotive, one at each end.",
"Another configuration is often used in articulated vehicles, which places the bogies (often Jacobs bogies) under the connection between the carriages or wagons.Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for heavy loads have more axles per bogie.",
"Heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using span bolsters to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars.Usually, the train floor is at a level above the bogies, but the floor of the car may be lower between bogies, such as for a bilevel rail car to increase interior space while staying within height restrictions, or in easy-access, stepless-entry, low-floor trains.===Components===A diagram of an American-style truck showing the names of its parts and showing the journal boxes to be integral parts of the side frame.",
"The journal boxes house plain bearings.Key components of a bogie include:* The bogie frame: This can be of inside frame type where the main frame and bearings are between the wheels, or (more commonly) of outside frame type where the main frame and bearings are outside the wheels.",
"* Suspension to absorb shocks between the bogie frame and the rail vehicle body.",
"Common types are coil springs, leaf springs and rubber airbags.",
"* At least one wheelset, composed of an axle with bearings and a wheel at each end.",
"* The bolster, the main crossmember, connected to the bogie frame through the secondary suspension.",
"The railway car is supported at the pivot point on the bolster.",
"* Axle box suspensions absorb shocks between the axle bearings and the bogie frame.",
"The axle box suspension usually consists of a spring between the bogie frame and axle bearings to permit up-and-down movement, and sliders to prevent lateral movement.",
"A more modern design uses solid rubber springs.",
"* Brake equipment: Two main types are used: brake shoes that are pressed against the tread of the wheel, and disc brakes and pads.",
"* In powered vehicles, some form of transmission, usually electrically powered traction motors with a single speed gearbox or a hydraulically powered torque converter.The connections of the bogie with the rail vehicle allow a certain degree of rotational movement around a vertical axis pivot (bolster), with side bearers preventing excessive movement.",
"More modern, bolsterless bogie designs omit these features, instead taking advantage of the sideways movement of the suspension to permit rotational movement.==== Locomotives ========= Diesel and electric =====Modern diesel and electric locomotives are mounted on bogies.",
"Those commonly used in North America include Type A, Blomberg, HT-C and Flexicoil trucks.===== Steam =====On a steam locomotive, the leading and trailing wheels may be mounted on bogies like Bissel trucks (also known as ''pony trucks'').",
"Articulated locomotives (e.g.",
"Fairlie, Garratt or Mallet locomotives) have '''power bogies''' similar to those on diesel and electric locomotives.==== Rollbock ====A rollbock is a specialized type of bogie that is inserted under the wheels of a rail wagon/car, usually to convert for another track gauge.",
"Transporter wagons carry the same concept to the level of a flatcar specialized to take other cars as its load.==== Archbar bogies ====In archbar or diamond frame bogies, the side frames are fabricated rather than cast.File:Oigawa-Archbar-Truck.jpg|Japanese archbar bogie with axleboxesFile:Diamond Frame bogie (elliptical).jpg|Diamond frame bogie, elliptical springs and American style journal boxesFile:Diamond Frame bogie (coil).JPG|Diamond frame bogie, coil springs and journal boxesFile:archbar ACL143.JPG |Archbar bogie with journal bearings in American style journal boxes, as used on some steam locomotive tenders.",
"Archbar bogies (trucks) were also used on freight cars.=== Tramway ======= Modern ====Side view of a SEPTA K-Car bogieTram bogies are much simpler in design because of their axle load, and the tighter curves found on tramways mean tram bogies almost never have more than two axles.",
"Furthermore, some tramways have steeper gradients and vertical as well as horizontal curves, which means tram bogies often need to pivot on the horizontal axis, as well.Some articulated trams have bogies located under articulations, a setup referred to as a Jacobs bogie.",
"Often, low-floor trams are fitted with nonpivoting bogies; many tramway enthusiasts see this as a retrograde step, as it leads to more wear of both track and wheels and also significantly reduces the speed at which a tram can round a curve.==== Historic ====In the past, many different types of bogie (truck) have been used under tramcars (e.g.",
"Brill, Peckham, maximum traction).",
"A maximum traction truck has one driving axle with large wheels and one nondriving axle with smaller wheels.",
"The bogie pivot is located off-centre, so more than half the weight rests on the driving axle.=== Hybrid systems ===Mockup of the pneumatic bogie system of an MP 89 carriage used on the ''Meteor'' metro, showing the two special wheelsetsThe retractable stadium roof on Toronto's Rogers Centre used modified off-the-shelf train bogies on a circular rail.",
"The system was chosen for its proven reliability.Rubber-tyred metro trains use a specialised version of railway bogies.",
"Special flanged steel wheels are behind the rubber-tired running wheels, with additional horizontal guide wheels in front of and behind the running wheels, as well.",
"The unusually large flanges on the steel wheels guide the bogie through standard railroad switches, and in addition keep the train from derailing in case the tires deflate.=== Variable gauge axles ===To overcome breaks of gauge some bogies are being fitted with variable gauge axles (VGA) so that they can operate on two different gauges.",
"These include the SUW 2000 system from ZNTK Poznań.=== Cleminson system ===The Cleminson system is not a true bogie, but serves a similar purpose.",
"It was based on a patent of 1883 by James Cleminson, and was once popular on narrow-gauge rolling stock, e.g.",
"on the Isle of Man and Manx Northern Railways.",
"The vehicle would have three axles and the outer two could pivot to adapt to curvature of the track.",
"The pivoting was controlled by levers attached to the third (centre) axle, which could slide sideways."
],
[
"Tracked vehicles",
"Some tanks and other tracked vehicles have bogies as external suspension components (see armoured fighting vehicle suspension).",
"This type of bogie usually has two or more road wheels and some type of sprung suspension to smooth the ride across rough terrain.",
"Bogie suspensions keep much of their components on the outside of the vehicle, saving internal space.",
"Although vulnerable to antitank fire, they can often be repaired or replaced in the field."
],
[
"Articulated bogie",
"NCTD Sprinter Siemens Desiro VT642An '''articulated bogie''' is any one of a number of bogie designs that allow railway equipment to safely turn sharp corners, while reducing or eliminating the \"screeching\" normally associated with metal wheels rounding a bend in the rails.",
"There are a number of such designs, and the term is also applied to train sets that incorporate articulation in the vehicle, as opposed to the bogies themselves.If one considers a single bogie \"up close\", it resembles a small rail car with axles at either end.",
"The same effect that causes the bogies to rub against the rails at longer radius causes each of the pairs of wheels to rub on the rails and cause the screeching.",
"Articulated bogies add a second pivot point between the two axles (wheelsets) to allow them to rotate to the correct angle even in these cases."
],
[
"Articulated lorries (tractor-trailers)",
"In trucking, a bogie is the subassembly of axles and wheels that supports a semi-trailer, whether permanently attached to the frame (as on a single trailer) or making up the dolly that can be hitched and unhitched as needed when hitching up a second or third semi-trailer (as when pulling doubles or triples)."
],
[
"Bogie (aircraft)"
],
[
"Radial steering truck",
"Radial steering trucks, also known as radial bogies, allow the individual axles to align with curves in addition to the bogie frame as a whole pivoting.",
"For non-radial bogies, the more axles in the assembly, the more difficulty it has negotiating curves, due to wheel flange to rail friction.",
"For radial bogies, the wheel sets actively \"steer\" through curves, thus reducing wear at the wheel flange to rail interface and improving adhesion.In the US, this has been implemented for locomotives both by EMD and GE.",
"The EMD version, designated HTCR, was made standard equipment for the SD70 series, first sold in 1993.However, the HTCR in actual operation had mixed results and relatively high purchase and maintenance costs.",
"Thus EMD introduced the HTSC truck in 2003, which basically is the HTCR stripped of radial components.",
"GE introduced their version in 1995 as a buyer option for the AC4400CW and later Evolution Series locomotives.",
"However it also met with limited acceptance due to relatively high purchase and maintenance costs, and customers have generally chosen GE Hi-Ad standard trucks for newer and rebuilt locomotives.File:CP9112 SD90MAC.jpg|EMD HTCR radial steering trucks on an EMD SD9043MACFile:FSRR 01.jpg|GE radial steering trucks on a GE AC4400CW"
],
[
"See also",
"===Articles on bogies and trucks===* Arnoux system* Bissel bogie* Blomberg B* Gölsdorf axle* Jacobs bogie* Krauss-Helmholtz bogie* Lateral motion device* Mason Bogie* Pony truck* Rocker-bogie* Scheffel bogie* Schwartzkopff-Eckhardt bogie* Syntegra===Related topics===* Caster* Dolly* Flange* List of railroad truck parts* Luttermöller axle* Road–rail vehicle* Skateboard truck* Spring (device)* Timmis system, an early form of coil spring used on railway axles.",
"* Trailing wheel* Wheel arrangement* Wheelbase* Wheelset"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"** Truck (bogie) with tyres* Track modelling* Bogies/Trucks* Barber truck parts* Suspension systems* Locomotive’s Bogies & Components"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"British Steel (1967–1999)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''British Steel''' was a major British steel producer.",
"It originated from the nationalised '''British Steel Corporation''' ('''BSC'''), formed in 1967, which was privatised as a public limited company, '''British Steel plc''', in 1988.It was once a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.",
"The company merged with Koninklijke Hoogovens to form Corus Group in 1999."
],
[
"History",
"Alasdair M. Blair (1997), Professor of International Relations and Head of the Department of Politics and Public Policy at De Montfort University, has explored the history of British Steel since the Second World War to evaluate the impact of government intervention in a market economy.",
"He suggests that entrepreneurship was lacking in the 1940s; the government could not persuade the industry to upgrade its plants.",
"For generations, the industry had followed a piecemeal growth pattern that proved relatively inefficient in the face of world competition.The Labour Party came to power at the 1945 general election, pledging to bring several industries into state ownership.",
"In 1946, it put the first steel development plan into practice with the aim of increasing capacity.",
"It passed the Iron and Steel Act 1949, which meant nationalisation of the industry, as the government bought out the shareholders, and created the Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain.",
"American Marshall Plan aid in 1948–50 reinforced modernisation efforts and provided funding for them.",
"However, the nationalisation was reversed by the Conservative government after 1952.The industry was re-nationalised in 1967 under another Labour government, becoming British Steel Corporation (BSC).",
"But by then, 20 years of political manipulation had left companies, such as British Steel, with serious problems: a complacency with existing equipment, plants operating below full capacity (hence the low efficiency), poor-quality assets, outdated technology, government price controls, higher coal and oil costs, lack of funds for capital improvement, and increasing competition on the world market.By the 1970s, the Labour government's main goal for the declining industry was to keep employment high.",
"Since British Steel was a major employer in depressed regions, it was decided to keep many mills and facilities operating at a loss.",
"In the 1980s, Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher re-privatised BSC as British Steel.",
"Under private control, the company dramatically cut its workforce and underwent a radical reorganisation and massive capital investment to again become competitive in the world marketplace.=== Nationalisation ===BSC was formed from the assets of former private companies which had been nationalised, largely under the Labour government of Harold Wilson, on 28 July 1967.Wilson's was the second attempt at nationalisation, the post-war government of Clement Attlee had created the Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain in 1951 taking public ownership of 80 companies but this had been largely reversed by the following Conservative governments of the 1950s with only Britain's largest steel company, Richard Thomas and Baldwins, remaining in public ownership.British Steel Hartlepool Works, formerly South Durham Steel & Iron Company, in 1970BSC was established under the Iron and Steel Act 1967, which vested in the Corporation the shares of the fourteen major UK-based steel companies then in operation, being:*David Colville & Sons;*Consett Iron Company Ltd;*Dorman Long & Company Ltd;*English Steel Corporation Ltd;*GKN Steel Company Ltd;*John Summers & Sons Ltd;*The Lancashire Steel Corporation Ltd;*The Park Gate Iron and Steel Company Ltd;*Richard Thomas and Baldwins Ltd;*Round Oak Steelworks Ltd;*South Durham Steel & Iron Company Ltd;*The Steel Company of Wales Ltd;*Stewarts & Lloyds, Ltd; and*The United Steel Companies Ltd.At the time of its formation, BSC comprised around ninety per cent of the UK's steelmaking capacity; it had around 268,500 employees and around 200 wholly or partly-owned subsidiaries based in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Africa, South Asia, and South America.Dorman Long, South Durham and Stewarts and Lloyds had merged as British Steel and Tube Ltd before vesting took place.",
"BSC later arranged an exchange deal with Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds Ltd (GKN), the parent company of GKN Steel, under which BSC acquired Dowlais Ironworks at Merthyr Tydfil and GKN took over BSC's Brymbo Steelworks near Wrexham.=== Restructuring ===According to Blair (1997), British Steel faced serious problems at the time of its formation, including obsolescent plants; plants operating under capacity and thus at low efficiency; outdated technology; price controls that reduced marketing flexibility; soaring coal and oil costs; lack of capital investment funds; and increasing competition on the world market.",
"By the 1970s, the government adopted a policy of keeping employment high in the declining industry.",
"This especially impacted BSC since it was a major employer in a number of depressed regions.One of the arguments made in favour of nationalisation was that it would enable steel production to be rationalised.",
"This involved concentrating investment on major integrated plants, placed near the coast for ease of access by sea, and closing older, smaller plants, especially those that had been located inland for proximity to coal supplies.From the mid-1970s, British Steel pursued a strategy of concentrating steelmaking in five areas: South Wales, South Yorkshire, Scunthorpe, Teesside and Scotland.",
"This policy continued following the Conservative victory at the 1979 general election.",
"Other traditional steelmaking areas faced cutbacks.",
"Under the Labour government of James Callaghan, a review by Lord Beswick had led to the reprieve of the so-called 'Beswick plants', for social reasons, but subsequent governments were obliged under EU rules to withdraw subsidies.",
"Major changes resulted across Europe, including in the UK:* At Consett, the closure of the British Steel works in 1980 marked the end of steel production in Derwent Valley and the sharp decline of the area.",
"* At Corby, the closure of the former Stewarts & Lloyds site in the early-1980s saw the loss of 11,000 jobs, leading to an initial unemployment rate of over 30%.",
"* In Wales, works at East Moors (Cardiff) closed in 1978.",
"*Shotton closure of the heavy end with the loss of over 6,000 jobs.",
"* In Scotland, Western Europe's largest hot strip steel mill Ravenscraig steelworks, near Motherwell, North Lanarkshire, was closed by British Steel in 1992, leading to high levels of unemployment in the area.",
"It also led to the closure of several local support and satellite businesses, such as the nearby British Steel Clydesdale Works in Mossend, Clyde Alloy in Netherton and equipment maker Anderson Strathclyde.",
"Demolition of the site's landmark blue gasometer in 1996, and the subsequent cleanup operation, has created the largest brownfield site in Europe.",
"This huge area between Motherwell and Wishaw is in line to be transformed into the new town of Ravenscraig, a project partly funded by Corus.=== Privatisation ===The Conservative manifesto for the 1987 general election noted that \"British Steel has more than doubled its productivity since 1979 and made a profit last year for the first time in over ten years.",
"\"Following Margaret Thatcher's re-election, on 3 December 1987 the Conservative government formally announced in a statement by Kenneth Clarke, Minister of State for Trade and Industry, that it intended to privatise the British Steel Corporation.On 5 September 1988 the assets, rights and liabilities of British Steel Corporation were transferred to British Steel plc, registered under the Companies Act as company number 2280000, by the British Steel Act 1988.The government retained a special share which carried no voting rights but until 31 December 1993, permitted the government to stop any one party controlling more than 15% of the shares.British Steel employees were given a free allocation of shares, and offered two free shares for each they purchased up to £165, discounted shares up to £2,200, and priority on applying for shares up to £10,000.Dealing in shares opened on the London Stock Exchange on 5 December 1988.=== Post-privatisation ===The privatised company later merged with the Dutch steel producer Koninklijke Hoogovens to form Corus Group on 6 October 1999.Corus itself was taken over in March 2007 by the Indian steel operator Tata Steel."
],
[
"Chairmen",
"*Lord Melchett (1967–1973)*Monty Finniston (1973–1976)*Charles Villiers (1976–1980)*Ian MacGregor (1980–1983)*Robert Haslam (1983–1986)*Robert Scholey (1986–1992)*Sir Brian Moffat (1992-1999)Ian MacGregor later became famous for his role as Chairman of the National Coal Board during the UK miners' strike (1984–1985).",
"During the strike the \"Battle of Orgreave\" took place at British Steel's coking plant."
],
[
"Sponsorships",
"In 1971 British Steel sponsored Sir Chay Blyth in his record-making non-stop circumnavigation against the winds and currents, known as 'The Impossible Voyage'.",
"In 1992 they sponsored the British Steel Challenge, the first of a series of 'wrong way' races for amateur crews.British Steel had agreed a sponsorship deal with Middlesbrough Football Club during the 1994–95 season, with a view to British Steel-sponsored Middlesbrough shirts making their appearance the following season.",
"But the sponsorship deal was terminated before it commenced after it was revealed that British steel only made up a tiny fraction of steel used in construction of the stadium, and that the bulk of the steel had been imported from Germany."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"The English rock band XTC mentioned British Steel in their 1979 song Making Plans for Nigel.The heavy metal band Judas Priest named their 1980 album ''British Steel'' after the British Steel Corporation.",
"Lead singer Rob Halford explained in an interview that the 'sounds of heavy metal' have been with him since childhood, due to the close proximity of the BSC plant where he grew up."
],
[
"See also",
"* British Iron and Steel Research Association"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Bank, John, and Jones, Ken, ''Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors'' (Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)* , on nationalization 1945–50, pp 183–235*Dudley, G. F., and J. J. Richardson, eds.",
"''Politics and Steel in Britain, 1967–1988: The Life and Times of the British Steel Corporation'' (1990)* Jones, Ken.",
"''The Human Face of Change: Social Responsibility and Rationalization at British Steel'' (Institute of Personnel Management, London, 1974)*Rhodes, Martin; Wright, Vincent.",
"\"The European Steel Unions and the Steel Crisis, 1974–84: A Study in the Demise of Traditional Unionism,\" ''British Journal of Political Science,'' April 1988, Vol.",
"18 Issue 2, pp 171–195 in JSTOR*Scheuerman, William.",
"''The Steel Crisis: The Economics and Politics of a Declining Industry'' (1986)"
],
[
"External links",
"* British Steel Corporation, 1988 Competition Commission report* British Steel plc and C Walker & Sons (Holdings) Ltd, 1990 Competition Commission report** Catalogue of the BSC archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick* Catalogue of the BSC Department of Operational Research archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"BT Group"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''BT Group plc''' (trading as '''BT''' and formerly '''British Telecom''') is a British multinational telecommunications holding company headquartered in London, England.",
"It has operations in around 180 countries and is the largest provider of fixed-line, broadband and mobile services in the UK, and also provides subscription television and IT services.BT's origins date back to the founding in 1846 of the Electric Telegraph Company, the world's first public telegraph company, which developed a nationwide communications network.",
"BT Group as it came to be started in 1912, when the General Post Office, a government department, took over the system of the National Telephone Company becoming the monopoly telecoms supplier in the United Kingdom.",
"The Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation, '''Post Office Telecommunications'''.",
"The ''British Telecom'' brand was introduced in 1980, and became independent of the Post Office in 1981, officially trading under the name.",
"British Telecom was privatised in 1984, becoming ''British Telecommunications plc'', with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors.",
"The Government sold its remaining stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993.BT holds a royal warrant and has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange, and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.BT controls a number of large subsidiaries.",
"Its BT Enterprise division supplies telecoms services to corporate and government customers worldwide, and its BT Consumer division supplies telephony, broadband, and subscription television services in the United Kingdom to around 18 million customers."
],
[
"History",
"=== Electrical telegraphy ===A number of privately owned electrical telegraph companies operated in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1846 onwards.",
"Among them were:* Electric Telegraph Company, the world's first public telegraph company, which developed a nationwide communications network* British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company* British Telegraph Company* London District Telegraph Company* United Kingdom Telegraph Company=== General Post Office ===The Telegraph Act 1868 passed the control of all these to the Postal Telegraphs Department of the newly formed General Post Office (GPO).",
"The Telegraph Act 1869 granted the GPO a monopoly over communications.With the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 the GPO began to provide telephone services from some of its telegraph exchanges.",
"It was confirmed in 1880 that the 1869 Act included telephony even though the telephone had not been invented when the Act was first conceived.",
"In 1882, the Postmaster-General, Henry Fawcett started to issue licences to operate a telephone service to private businesses and the telephone system grew under the GPO in some areas and private ownership in others.",
"The GPO's main competitor, the National Telephone Company (NTC), emerged in this market by absorbing other private telephone companies.",
"It controlled most of telephony in Britain before the 1880 ruling on the Telegraph Act 1869 mandated a nationalised service – which was instated in 1911 prior to the absorption of the NTC into the GPO in 1912.The trunk network was unified under GPO control in 1896 and the local distribution network in 1912.A few municipally owned services remained outside of GPO control.",
"These were Kingston upon Hull, Portsmouth and Guernsey.",
"Hull still retains an independent operator, Kingston Communications, though it is no longer municipally controlled.The assets of the National Telephone Company were acquired by the UK Government to form Post Office Telephones in late 1911.Post Office engineers in the inter-war period had considerable expertise in both telecommunications and hearing assistive devices.Although transistors were invented by Bell Telephone Laboratories in the US in 1948, it was not until the mid 1960s that a transistorised oscillator was introduced to make the calling sound on a telephone in the UK.=== Post Office Telecommunications ===The Post Office Tower, 1966 (shortly after construction)In 1969 the GPO, a government department, became the Post Office, a nationalised industry separate from government.",
"'''Post Office Telecommunications''' was set up as a division of the Post Office, in October 1969.The Post Office Act 1969 was passed to provide for greater efficiency in post and telephone services; rather than run a range of services, each organisation would be able to focus on their respective service, with dedicated management.",
"By law, the Post Office retained the exclusive right to operate the UK national telecom network, (although since 1914 had licensed Hull City Council to operate its own local telephone network, Kingston Communications).The 1970s was a period of great expansion for the Post Office.",
"Most exchanges were modernised and expanded, and many services, such as STD and international dialling were extended.",
"By the early 1970s, subscribers in most cities could dial direct to Western Europe, the US, and Canada; by the end of the decade, most of the world could be dialled direct.",
"The System X digital switching platform was developed, and the first digital exchanges began to be installed.",
"The Post Office also procured their own fleet of vans, based on the Commer FC model.Post Office Telecommunications researched and implemented data communications using packet switching in the 1970s, resulting in the EPSS, International Packet Switched Service, and Packet Switch Stream.=== British Telecom ===British Telecom logo used from 1980 to 1991In 1979 the Conservatives decided that telecommunications should be fully separated from the Post Office.",
"The ''British Telecom'' brand was introduced in 1980.On 1 October 1981, this became the official name of Post Office Telecommunications, which became a state-owned corporation independent of the Post Office under the provisions of the British Telecommunications Act 1981.In 1982 BT's monopoly on telecommunications was broken with the granting of a licence to Mercury Communications.=== Privatisation ===On 19 July 1982, the Government announced its intention to sell shares in British Telecom to the public.",
"On 1 April 1984, British Telecommunications was incorporated as a public limited company (plc) in anticipation of the passing of the Telecommunications Bill.",
"This Bill received royal assent on 12 April as the Telecommunications Act 1984, and the transfer to British Telecommunications plc from British Telecom as a statutory corporation of its business, its property, its rights and liabilities took place on 6 August 1984.The remainder of the statutory corporation British Telecom was dissolved in 1994.Initially all shares in the new plc were owned by the Government.",
"In November 1984, 50.2% of the new company was offered for sale to the public and employees.",
"Shares were listed in London, New York, and Toronto and the first day of trading on was 3 December 1984.The Government sold half its remaining interest in December 1991 and the other half in July 1993.In July 1997, the new Labour Government relinquished its Special Share (\"Golden Share\"), retained at the time of the flotation, which had effectively given it the power to block a takeover of the company, and to appoint two non-executive directors to the Board.The company changed its trading name to \"BT\" on 2 April 1991.In 1996 Peter Bonfield was appointed CEO and chairman of the executive committee, promising a \"rollercoaster ride\".In the 1990s, BT entered the Irish telecommunications market through a joint venture with the Electricity Supply Board, the Irish state owned power provider.",
"This venture, entitled Ocean, found its main success through the launch of Ireland's first subscription-free dial-up ISP, oceanfree.net.",
"As a telecoms company it found much less success, mainly targeting corporate customers.",
"BT acquired 100% of this venture in 1999.Over the period 1980 to 2000, BT and other providers adopted Internet product strategies when it became commercially advantageous.=== Attempted global alliances ======= MCI ====In June 1994 BT and MCI Communications launched Concert Communications Services which was a $1 billion joint venture between the two companies.",
"Its aim was to build a network which would provide easy global connectivity to multinational corporations.This alliance progressed further on 3 November 1996 when the two companies announced that they had agreed to a merger, creating a global telecommunications company called Concert plc.",
"The proposal gained approval from the European Commission, the US Department of Justice, and the US Federal Communications Commission and looked set to proceed.However, in light of pressure from investors reacting to the slide in BT's share price on the London Stock Exchange, BT reduced its bid price for MCI, releasing MCI from its exclusivity clause and allowing it to speak to other interested parties.",
"On 1 October 1997, Worldcom made a rival bid for MCI which was followed by a counter-bid from GTE.BT sold its stake in MCI to Worldcom in 1998 for £4,159 million.",
"As part of the deal, BT also bought out from MCI its 24.9% interest in Concert Communications, thereby making Concert a wholly owned part of BT.The reaction to the failure of the deal in the City of London was critical of then Chairman Iain Vallance and CEO Peter Bonfield, and the lack of confidence from the failed merger led to their removal.==== AT&T ====As BT owned Concert in 1994, and still wanted access to the North American market, it needed a new partner.",
"An AT&T/BT option had been mooted in the past, but stopped on regulatory grounds due to their individual virtual monopolies in their home markets.",
"By 1996, this had receded to the point where a deal was possible, and a deal was consummated in 1998.At its height, the Concert managed network was extensive.",
"Although Concert continued signing customers, its rate of revenue growth slowed, so that in 1999 David Dorman was made CEO with a brief to revive it.In late 2000 the BT and AT&T boards fell-out, partly due to each partner's excess debt and the resulting board room clear-outs, partly due to Concert's extensive annual losses.",
"AT&T recognized that Concert was a threat to its ambitions if left intact, and so negotiated a deal where Concert was split in two in 2001: North America and Eastern Asia went to AT&T, the rest of the world and $400M to BT.",
"BT's remaining Concert assets were merged into its BT Ignite, later BT Global Services group.=== BT Ireland ===In 2000, BT acquired Esat Telecom Group plc, and all its subsidiary companies, and Ireland On Line.",
"It also purchased Telenor's minority shareholding in Esat Digifone.",
"The Esat Telecom Group was split in two with the landline and internet operations were combining with Ocean to become part of BT Ignite.",
"Esat Group was renamed Esat BT in July 2002, and eventually BT Ireland in April 2005.Esat Digifone became part of BT Wireless, before being spun off into a separate independent company mmo2 plc (now Telefónica Europe).",
"EsatBT installed the first DSL lines in Ireland, to try and compete heavily with former state telecoms company Eircom and operate one exchange, in Limerick.=== 2001 debt crisis and sale, demerger ===By 2001, BT had a debt of £30 billion, much of which was acquired during the bidding round for the 3rd generation mobile telephony (commonly known as 3G) licences.",
"It had also failed in its series of proposed global mergers, and the funds flowing from its then virtual monopoly of the UK market place had been largely removed.",
"It was also headed by two executives who had little support from the London Stock Exchange, particularly in light of a 60% drop in share price in sixteen months.Philip Hampton joined as CFO, and in April 2001 Sir Iain Vallance was replaced as chairman by recognised turn around expert Sir Christopher Bland.In May 2001 BT carried out corporate Europe's largest ever rights issue, allowing it to raise £5.9 billion.",
"A few days before, it sold stakes in Japan Telecom, in mobile operator J-Phone Communications, and in Airtel of India to Vodafone.In June 2001 BT's directory business was sold as Yell Group to a combination of private equity firms Apax Partners and Hicks, Muse, Tate & Furst for £2.1 billion.A demerger followed in November 2001, when the former mobile telecommunications business of BT, BT Cellnet, was hived off as a separate business named \"mmO2\".",
"This included BT owned or operated networks in other countries, including BT Cellnet (UK), Esat Digifone (Ireland), and Viag Interkom (Germany).",
"All networks now owned or operated by mmO2 (except Manx Telecom) were renamed as O2.The de-merger was accomplished via a share-swap, all British Telecommunications plc shareholders received one mmO2 plc and one BT Group plc (of which British Telecommunications is now a wholly owned subsidiary) share for each share they owned.",
"British Telecommunications plc was de-listed on 16 November, and the two new companies started trading on 19 November.=== Aftermath, 2001–2006 ===At the end of the series of sales, in October 2001 Sir Peter Bonfield resigned, and was replaced by former Lucent CEO Ben Verwaayen.During Bonfield's tenure the share price went from £4 to £15, and back again to £5.Bonfield's salary to 31 March 2001 was a basic of £780,000 (increasing to £820,000) plus a £481,000 bonus and £50,000 of other benefits including pension.",
"He also received a deferred bonus, payable in shares three years' later, of £481,000, and additional bonuses of £3.3 million.mmO2 plc was replaced by O2 plc in a further share-swap in 2005, and subsequently bought in an agreed takeover by Telefónica for £18 billion and delisted.",
"In 2004, BT launched Consult 21, a consultation organisation that was to aid BT 21CN in the eventual conversion to digital telephony.In 2004, BT was awarded the contract to deliver and manage N3, a secure and fast broadband network for the NHS National Programme for IT (NPfIT) program, on behalf of the English National Health Service (NHS).In 2005 BT made a number of acquisitions.",
"In February 2005, BT acquired Infonet (now re-branded BT Infonet), a large telecoms company based in El Segundo, California, giving BT access to new geographies.",
"It also acquired the Italian company Albacom.",
"Then in April 2005, it bought Radianz from Reuters (now rebranded as BT Radianz), which expanded BT's coverage and provided BT with more buying power in certain countries.In August 2006, BT acquired online electrical retailer Dabs.com for £30.6 million.",
"The BT Home Hub manufactured by Inventel was also launched in June 2006.In October 2006, BT confirmed that it would be investing 75% of its total capital spending, put at £10 billion over five years, in its new Internet Protocol (IP) based 21st century network (21CN).",
"Annual savings of £1 billion per annum were expected when the transition to the new network was to have been completed in 2010, with over 50% of its customers to have been transferred by 2008.That month the first customers on to 21CN was successfully tested at Adastral Park in Suffolk.=== 2007 to 2012 ===In January 2007, BT acquired Sheffield-based ISP, PlusNet plc, adding 200,000 customers.",
"BT stated that PlusNet will continue to operate separately out of its Sheffield head-office.",
"On 1 February 2007, BT announced agreed terms to acquire International Network Services Inc. (INS), an international provider of IT consultancy and software.In February 2007, Sir Michael Rake succeeded Sir Christopher Bland.",
"In April that year, they acquired COMSAT International, followed in October by the acquisition of Lynx Technology.BT acquired Wire One Communications in June 2008 and folded the company into \"BT Conferencing\", its existing conferencing unit, as a new video business unitIn July 2008, BT acquired the online business directory firm Ufindus for £20 million in order to expand its position in the local information market in GB.",
"On 28 July 2008, BT acquired Ribbit, of Mountain View, California, \"Silicon Valley's First Phone Company\".",
"Ribbit provides Adobe Flash/Flex APIs, allowing web developers to incorporate telephony features into their software as a service (SaaS) applications.In the early days of its fibre broadband rollout, BT said it would deliver fibre-to-the-premises (FTTP) to around 25% of the Country, with the rest catered for by the slower fibre-to-the-cabinet (FTTC), which uses copper wiring to deliver the final stretch of the connection.",
"In 2014, with less than 0.7% of the company's fibre network being FTTP, BT dropped the 25% target, saying that it was \"far less relevant today\" because of improvements made to the headline speed of FTTC, which had doubled to 80Mbit/s since its fibre broadband rollout was first announced.",
"To supplement FTTC, BT offered an 'FTTP on Demand' product.",
"In January 2015, BT stopped taking orders for the on-demand product.On 1 April 2009, BT Engage IT was created from the merger of two previous BT acquisitions, Lynx Technology and Basilica.",
"Apart from the name change not much else changed in operations for another 12 months.",
"On 14 May 2009, BT said it was cutting up to 15,000 jobs in the coming year after it announced its results for the year to 31 March 2009.Then in July 2009, BT offered workers a long holiday for an up front sum of 25% of their annual wage or a one-off payment of £1000 if they agree to go part-time.On 6 April 2011, BT launched the first online not-for-profit fundraising service for UK charities called BT MyDonate as part of its investment to the community.",
"The service will pass on 100% of all donations made through the site to the charity, and unlike other services which take a proportion as commission and charge charities for using their services, BT will only pass on credit/debit card charges for each donation.",
"The service allows people to register to give money to charity or collect fundraising donations.",
"BT developed MyDonate with the support of Cancer Research UK, Changing Faces, KidsOut, NSPCC and Women's Aid.=== 2013 to 2020 ===BT logo used from 2003 to 2019In March 2013, BT was allocated 4G spectrum in the UK following an auction and assignment by Ofcom, after paying £201.5m.On 1 August 2013, BT launched its first television channels, BT Sport, to compete with rival broadcaster Sky Sports.",
"Plans for the channels' launch came about when it was announced in June 2012 that BT had been awarded a package of broadcast rights for the Premier League from the 2013–14 to 2015–16 season, broadcasting 38 matches from each season.",
"In February 2013, BT acquired ESPN Inc.'s UK and Ireland TV channels, continuing its expansion into sports broadcasting.",
"ESPN America and ESPN Classic were both closed, while ESPN continued to be operated by BT.",
"On 9 November 2013, BT announced it had acquired exclusive rights to the Champions League and Europa League for £897m, from the 2015 season, with some free games remaining including both finals.On 1 November 2014, BT created a new central business services organisation to provide customer services and improve operational efficiency.On 24 November 2014, shares in BT rose considerably on the announcement that the company was in talks to buy back O2, while at the same time confirmed it was also in talks to acquire EE.",
"BT subsequently entered into exclusive talks to buy EE for £12.5 billion on 15 December 2014 and confirmed on 5 February 2015, subject to regulatory approval.",
"The deal combined BT's 10 million retail customers and EE's 24.5 million direct mobile subscribers.",
"Deutsche Telekom would own 12% of BT, while Orange S.A. would own 4%.In March 2015, BT launched a 4G service as BT Mobile BT Group CEO Gavin Patterson announced that BT plans to migrate all of its customers onto the IP network by 2025, switching off the company's ISDN network.On 15 January 2016, BT received approval by the Competition and Markets Authority to acquire EE.",
"The deal was officially completed on 29 January 2016 with Deutsche Telekom then owning 12% of BT, while Orange S.A. owned 4%.On 1 February 2016, BT announced a new organisational structure to take effect from April 2016 after acquiring EE.",
"The EE brand, network and high street stores became a second consumer division, operating alongside BT Consumer to serve customers with mobile services, broadband and TV and continued to deliver the Emergency Services Network contract awarded to EE in late 2015.There was to be a new BT Business and Public Sector division with around £5bn of revenues to serve small and large businesses as well as the public sector in the UK and Ireland.",
"It was to comprise the existing BT Business division along with EE's business division and those parts of BT Global Services that are UK focused.",
"There will also be another new division; BT Wholesale and Ventures that will comprise the existing BT Wholesale division along with EE's MVNO business as well as some specialist businesses such as Fleet, Payphones and Directories.",
"Gerry McQuade, Chief Sales and Marketing Officer, Business at EE, was to be its CEO.",
"The June 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum set off the Brexit process.On 8 June 2017, BT appointed KPMG as its new auditor to replace PwC in the wake of a fraud scandal in Italy that triggered a major profit warning earlier that year.",
"Also in of that year, KPMG fired six US employees over a scandal that calls into question efforts to ensure that public company accounts are being properly scrutinised.On 8 July 2017, ''The Daily Telegraph'' reported that BT \"has called in consultants from McKinsey to conduct a review of its businesses in the hope of saving hundreds of millions of pounds per year.",
"The work, dubbed 'Project Novator', is understood to include a potential merger of BT's struggling global services corporate networking and IT unit with its business and public sector division\".",
"On 28 July 2017, BT again announced organisational changes to \"simplify its operating model, strengthen accountabilities and accelerate its transformation\" to bring together its BT Consumer and EE divisions into a new unified BT Consumer division to operate across three brands – BT, EE and Plusnet.",
"It was to take effect from 1 April 2018.On 18 April 2018, BT announced further organisational changes after unification of BT Consumer and EE divisions, bringing together its BT Business and Public Sector and BT Wholesale and Ventures divisions into a new unified division known as ''BT Enterprise''.",
"It was to include BT's Ventures business which \"acts as an incubator for potential new growth areas of the company\" and to report as a single unit from 1 October 2018.===2020–present===In June 2021, the French telecommunications company, Altice acquired a 12% stake in BT, increasing it to 18% in December 2021 and 24.5% in May 2023.Patrick Drahi's purchase of 650 million shares cost about £960 million.",
"Altice's increasing ownership in BT Group posed questions around the national security of the United Kingdoms infrastructure asset and the UK government opened an investigation in May 2022 to look into possible security implications of Patrick Drahi and Altice's ownership.",
"In August 2022 the Government concluded its investigation and Patrick Drahi would not be forced to cut his stake in BT after the UK government ruled the investment did not pose any national security concerns.In July 2023, BT announced the appointment of businesswoman Allison Kirkby as its new Chief Executive, replacing Philip Jansen by January 2024."
],
[
"Operations",
"The Adastral Park campus at Martlesham Heath in Suffolk, the principal site of BT ResearchBT Group is a holding company; the majority of its businesses and assets are held by its wholly owned subsidiary British Telecommunications plc.",
"BT's businesses are operated under special government regulation by the British telecoms regulator Ofcom (formerly Oftel).",
"BT has been found to have significant market power in some markets following market reviews by Ofcom.",
"In these markets, BT is required to comply with additional obligations such as meeting reasonable requests to supply services and not to discriminate.BT runs the telephone exchanges, trunk network and local loop connections for the vast majority of British fixed-line telephones.",
"Currently BT is responsible for approximately 28 million telephone lines in GB.",
"Apart from KCOM Group, which serves Kingston upon Hull, BT is the only UK telecoms operator to have a ''Universal service Obligation,'' (USO) which means it must provide a fixed telephone line to any address in the UK.",
"It is also obliged to provide public call boxes.As well as continuing to provide service in those traditional areas in which BT has an obligation to provide services or is closely regulated, BT has expanded into more profitable products and services where there is less regulation.",
"These are principally, broadband internet service and bespoke solutions in telecommunications and information technology.=== Branding ===Simplified BT logo, used since 2019 for non-corporate purposesIn 2019, a simplified BT logo and brand was launched to replace the previous mutli-coloured globe logo.",
"In April 2022, BT announced its intentions to focus on the EE brand for consumer products."
],
[
"Corporate affairs",
"=== Buildings and facilities ===As BT operates in around 180 countries, it owns and leases a range of buildings and facilities in the UK and around the world.",
"In 2001, it sold some of its UK property portfolio for £2.38 billion to Telereal Trillium in a 30-year leaseback.",
"The deal included 6,700 properties and contributed towards alleviating its debt at the time, with the main advantage being flexibility as it allows BT to vacate property over time, so as to adapt to changing operational requirements.==== Headquarters ====The BT Centre was completed in 1985.Until December 2021, BT Group's world headquarters and registered office was the BT Centre, a 10-storey office building at 81 Newgate Street in the City of London, opposite St Paul's tube station.",
"In November 2021 BT relocated to new headquarters at One Braham, a brand new 18-storey building completed earlier in 2021.==== Buildings and stations ====Some of its UK buildings and stations are:* Adastral Park – headquarters of BT Labs in Suffolk* The Assembly – building in Bristol* Baynard House – building in City of London* BT Riverside Tower – headquarters of BT Northern Ireland in Belfast* BT Tower – building in Swansea* Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station – satellite earth station in Cornwall* Guardian telephone exchange – telephone exchange in Manchester* Madley Communications Centre – satellite earth station in Herefordshire* National Network Management Centre – network operations centre in Shropshire* Stadium House – building in Cardiff==== Telecommunications towers ====BT remains one of the largest owners of telecommunications towers in the UK and were a major node in its microwave network.",
"Its BT Tower in London is notable for numerous reasons such as being the tallest building in the UK from its construction in the 1960s until the early 1980s, its revolving restaurant at the top known as 'Top of the Tower' in operation through the late 1960s and 1970s, and remains one of the UK's most important communications nerve centres, the heart of a vast broadcasting and communications network.",
"It carries approximately 95% of the UK's TV content, including live broadcasts and 99% of all live football games as well as pioneering the first international HD, 3D and 4K television transmissions.",
"It serves media production and distribution customers around the world and as part of the Things Connected Network launched in London, it became the highest building in the world to host an Internet of things (IoT) base station in September 2016.Some of its towers are:==== Other ====Some of its other UK facilities are:=== Divisions ===BT Group is organised into the following divisions:==== Customer facing ====* '''BT Consumer''' – provides retail telecoms services to consumers in the UK including:** BT Broadband** BT Mobile** BT Superfast Fibre** BT TV** BT Wi-fi** EE – mobile network operator, provides mobile and fixed communications services to consumers in the UK** Plusnet – internet service provider, provides mobile and fixed communications services to consumers in the UK** TNT Sports (joint venture, operated by Warner Bros.",
"Discovery)* '''BT Business''' – products and services to organisations in the small-to-medium-sized business, corporate and public sectors in the UK and globally, and wholesale services.",
"Formed from the merger of BT Enterprise and BT Global Services.",
"* '''Openreach''' – fenced-off wholesale division, established in 2005 following a review by Ofcom and commenced operations in 2006, employing 25,000 engineers previously employed by BT.",
"Its purpose is to ensure that other communications providers have the same operational conditions as BT, and is responsible for the provision and repair in the \"last mile\" of copper wire.==== Internal services ====* Networks – Responsible for designing, building and running the networks and technology platforms that BT and its customers use.",
"** BT Research* Digital – Responsible for leading BT's digital transformation, driving experience innovation and delivering the products and services customers use.",
"*BT's procurement arm, \"BT Sourced\", was established in February 2021 and is based in Dublin.=== Corporate governance ===Former CEO Gavin Patterson at the 2016 Chatham House Corporate Leaders SeriesBT's board of directors as of November 2021:BT's executive committee as of March 2018:=== Pension fund ===BT has the second largest defined benefit pension plan of any UK public company.",
"The trustees valued the scheme at £36.7 billion at the end of 2010; an actuarial valuation valued the deficit of the scheme at £9.043 billion as of 31 December 2008.Following a change in the regulations governing inflation index linking, the deficit was estimated at £5.2 billion in November 2010.=== Sponsorships ===BT sponsored Scotland's domestic rugby union championship and cup competitions between 1999 and 2006.On 31 July 2012, it was announced that BT agreed a three-year sponsorship deal with Ulster Rugby and sees BT become the Official Communications Partner.",
"BT's logo will appear on the Ulster Rugby shirt sleeve for all friendlies, Heineken Cup and RaboDirect Pro12 matches as well as a significant brand presence at their home ground; Ravenhill Stadium.On 29 July 2013, it was announced that BT had partnered up with Scottish Rugby Union in a four-year sponsorship deal with its two professional clubs; Edinburgh Rugby and Glasgow Warriors that will commence from August 2013.The deal involves BT Sport becoming the new shirt sponsor for both clubs as well as being promoted with BT Group at their respective home grounds; Scotstoun Stadium and Murrayfield Stadium.On 13 May 2014, BT joined Sky, TalkTalk and Virgin Media as founding partners of Internet Matters, a not-for-profit organisation that provides online safety advice for parents and their children.On 28 May 2014, it was announced that BT agreed a £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union which includes BT securing the naming rights for Murrayfield Stadium which becomes BT Murrayfield Stadium, become sponsor of the Scotland sevens team, become principal and exclusive sponsor of Scotland's domestic league and cup competitions from next season, taking over the role from The Royal Bank of Scotland and become sponsor of Scottish Rugby's four new academies that aims to drive forward standards for young players who have aspirations to play professionally.On 14 April 2015, it was announced that as part of BT's current £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union that was announced in May 2014, BT has completed its sponsorship portfolio following an additional investment of £3.6 million for the 3 years remaining of its sponsorship deal, to become the new shirt sponsor for the Scotland national teams.On 27 January 2016, it was announced that BT, alongside YouTube will be the new joint headline sponsors in a three-year deal with Edinburgh International Television Festival.",
"The two companies will \"share prominence across all branding of the 41st TV Festival, including the famous MacTaggart Lecture and will work closely with the festival organisers in their bid to reflect new trends in a rapidly transforming industry, from new ways of distributing content to technical innovations such as virtual reality\".BT is the founding and principal partner of the Wayne Rooney Foundation, which was established to improve the lives of children and young people.",
"The Foundation will run events \"to raise vital funds to support the work of key organisations dedicated to supporting disadvantaged and vulnerable children and young people\".",
"These organisations are four chosen charities which are, Manchester United Foundation, NSPCC, Claire House Children's Hospice and Alder Hey Children's Hospital.",
"The first of these events was Wayne's testimonial match in August 2016 between Manchester United F.C.",
"and Everton F.C.",
"which raised £1.2 million.",
"The match was screened live through BT Sport with BT MyDonate being the official fundraising platform for the testimonial, with both online and text options for donations promoted during the match.On 26 May 2017, it was announced that BT is to sponsor the 2017 British Urban Film Festival (BUFF) and sees BT host every event of the film festival, including the Awards at the BT Tower.",
"BT will also broadcast the awards ceremony on BT.com and will have the opportunity to screen films acquired from the festival on its BT TV store platform.On 6 September 2017, it was announced that BT had extended its current £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union that was announced in May 2014, for a further three years beginning from June 2018.The new deal sees BT retain the naming rights to BT Murrayfield Stadium, alongside its role as principal partner of the Scotland national team and Scotland 7s.",
"BT's logo will continue to be displayed on the front of Scotland rugby shirts across the world, in the Six Nations Championship, as well as the summer and autumn test matches.",
"BT will also continue to be promoted at Edinburgh Rugby and Scotstoun Stadium in Glasgow.=== Historical financial performance ===BT's financial results have been as follows:==== 2008–present ==== Year ending 31 March 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Turnover (£m) 20,704 21,390 20,911 20,076 19,307 18,017 18,287 17,851 18,909 24,082 23,746 23,428 22,905 21,370 20,845 20,669 Profit/(loss) before tax (£m) 1,976 (134) 1,007 1,717 2,421 2,501 2,827 3,172 3,473 2,354 2,616 2,666 2,353 1,804 1,963 2,290 Net profit/(loss) (£m) 1,738 (81) 1,029 1,504 2,003 2,091 2,018 2,135 2,588 1,908 2,032 2,159 1,734 1,472 1,274 1,905 Basic eps (p) 21.5 3.2 13.3 19.4 23.7 26.7 25.7 26.5 33.2 19.2 20.5 21.8 17.5 14.8 12.9 19.4==== 1992–2007 ==== Year ending 31 March 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Turnover (£m) 13,337 13,242 13,675 13,893 14,446 14,935 15,640 16,953 18,715 17,141 18,447 18,727 18,519 18,429 19,514 20,223 Profit/(loss) before tax (£m) 3,073 1,972 2,756 2,662 3,019 3,203 3,214 4,295 2,942 (1,031) 1,461 3,157 1,945 2,693 2,633 2,484 Net profit/(loss) (£m) 2,044 1,220 1,767 1,731 1,986 2,077 1,702 2,983 2,055 (1,875) 1,008 2,702 1,414 1,539 1,644 2,852 Basic eps (p) 33.2 19.8 28.5 27.8 31.6 32.8 26.6 46.3 31.7 (25.8) 12.1 31.4 16.4 18.1 19.5 34.4"
],
[
"Controversies",
"=== World Wide Web hyperlink patent ===In 2001, BT discovered it owned a patent () which it believed gave it patent rights on the use of hyperlink technology on the World Wide Web.",
"The corresponding UK patent had already expired, but the US patent was valid until 2006.On 11 February 2002, BT began a court case relating to its claims in a US federal court against the internet service provider Prodigy Communications Corporation.",
"In the case ''British Telecommunications plc v. Prodigy'', the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled on 22 August 2002 that the BT patent was not applicable to web technology and granted Prodigy's request for summary judgment of non-infringement.=== Behavioural targeting ===In early 2008 it was announced that BT had entered into a contract (along with Virgin Media and TalkTalk) with the spyware company Phorm (responsible under their 121Media guise for the Apropos rootkit) to intercept and analyse their users' click-stream data and sell the anonymised aggregate information as part of Phorm's OIX advertising service.",
"The practice, known as \"behavioural targeting\" and condemned by critics as \"data pimping\", came under intense fire from various internet communities and other interested-parties who believe that the interception of data without the consent of users and web site owners is illegal under UK law (RIPA).",
"At a more fundamental level, many have argued that the ISPs and Phorm have no right to sell a commodity (a user's data, and the copyrighted content of web sites) to which they have no claim of ownership.",
"In response to questions about Phorm and the interception of data by the Webwise system Sir Tim Berners-Lee, the creator of the World Wide Web, indicated his disapproval of the concept and is quoted as saying of his data and web history:=== Huawei infrastructure access ===Beginning in 2010 the UK intelligence community investigated Huawei, the Chinese supplier of BT's new fibre infrastructure with increasing urgency after the United States, Canada and Australia prevented the company from operating in their countries.",
"Although BT had notified the UK government in 2003 of Huawei's interest in their £10bn network upgrade contract, they did not raise the security implications as BT failed to explain that the Chinese company would have unfettered access to critical infrastructure.",
"On 16 December 2012 the then prime minister David Cameron was supplied with an in-depth report indicating that the intelligence services had very grave doubts regarding Huawei, and that UK governmental, military, and civilian privacy may have been under serious threat.On 7 June 2013, British lawmakers concluded that BT should not have allowed Huawei access to the UK's communications network without ministerial oversight, saying they were 'deeply shocked' that BT did not inform government that they were allowing Huawei and ZTE, both with ties to the Chinese military, unfettered access to critical national systems.",
"Furthermore, ministers discovered that the agency with the responsibility to ensure Chinese equipment and code was threat-free was entirely staffed by Huawei employees.",
"Subsequently, parliamentarians confirmed that in case of an attack on the UK there was nothing that could be done to stop Chinese infiltration.By 2016 Huawei had put measures in place to ensure the integrity of UK national security.",
"Specifically their UK work is now overseen by a board that includes directors from GCHQ, the Cabinet Office and the Home Office.ZTE, another Chinese company that supplies extensive network equipment and subscriber hardware used with BT 'Infinity', was also under scrutiny by parliament's intelligence and security committee after the US, Canada, Australia and the European Union declared the company a security risk.In 2020 following a government ruling, BT began removing Huawei equipment from its broadband and mobile networks in order to comply with new restrictions on the usage of Huawei equipment.",
"As of 2023, the process is still ongoing.=== Alleged complicity with drone strikes in Yemen and Somalia ===In September 2012, BT entered into a $23 million deal with the US military to provide a key communications cable connecting RAF Croughton, a US military base on UK soil, with Camp Lemonnier, a large US base in Djibouti.",
"Camp Lemonnier is used as a base for American drone attacks in Yemen and Somalia, and has been described by ''The Economist'' as \"the most important base for drone operations outside the war zone of Afghanistan.",
"\"Human rights groups including Reprieve and Amnesty International have criticised the use of armed drones outside declared war zones.",
"Evidence produced by The Bureau of Investigative Journalism and Stanford University's International Human Rights & Conflict Resolution Clinic suggest that drone strikes have caused substantial civilian casualties, and may be illegal under international law.In 2013, BT was the subject of a complaint by Reprieve to the Department of Business, Innovation and Skills under the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, following their refusal to explain whether or not their infrastructure was used to facilitate drone strikes.",
"The subsequent refusal of this complaint was appealed in May 2014, on the basis that the UK National Contact Point's decision did not follow the OECD Guidelines.",
"The issue of bias was also raised, due to the appointment of Lord Ian Livingston as government minister for the department which was processing the complaint: Livingston had occupied a senior position at BT when the cable between RAF Croughton and Camp Lemonnier was originally built.=== Overcharging ===In February 2017, a review of the telecoms market by Ofcom found that BT's landline only contracts provided poor value to customers.",
"Ofcom ordered BT to reduce their prices but stopped short of demanding that customers were compensated.",
"In January 2021, Law firm Mishcon de Reya filed a claim with the Competition Appeal Tribunal against BT worth £600 million, accusing them of historic overcharging on landlines.",
"The class action lawsuit claims BT have increased their prices for line-only services every year since 2009, whilst the wholesale cost for delivering these services has reduced.",
"The claimants suggest that customers could be entitled to compensation of up to £500 each.=== Bidding rules violation ===In 2020, BT was fined £6.3m by the telecoms regulator Ofcom for violating the law on a large public sector deal in Northern Ireland.",
"Under Ofcom's regulations, the BT network shall handle all wholesale customers similarly.",
"In its report, Ofcom found that BT's network violated the rules by failing to supply Eir with the same details on its on-demand fiber-to-the-premises offering as its own rival team."
],
[
"Historical documents",
"Records of the Post Office Corporation (Telecommunications division) 19691981 and its predecessors (including Post Office Telegraph and Telephone Service 18641969 and some private telegraph and telephone companies) are Public Records, and are held by BT Archives."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of telephone operating companies* UK telephone area codes (STD codes)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Baldwin, F.G.C.",
"''The History of the Telephone in the United Kingdom'' (1925)* Foreman-Peck, J.",
"\"The development and diffusion of telephone technology in Britain, 1900–1940,\" ''Transactions of the Newcomen Society,'' (1991–92).",
"63, pp165–180.",
"* Foreman-Peck, J., & Millward, R. ''Public and private ownership of British industry 1820–1990'' (1994).",
"* Hazlewood, A.",
"\"The origins of the state telephone service in Britain\" ''Oxford Economic Papers'' (1953).",
"5:13–25.in JSTOR* * Johannessen, Neil.",
"''Ring up Britain: the Early Years of the Telephone in the United Kingdom'' (British Telecommunications plc, London, 1991) * Johnston, S. F. \"The telephone in Scotland.\"",
"in: K. Veitch, ed., ''Transport and Communications.",
"Publications of the European Ethnological Research Centre; Scottish life and society: a compendium of Scottish ethnology'' (2009): pp.",
"716–727 online * Magill, Frank N. ''Great Events from History II: Business and Commerce Series, volume 1:1897–1923'' (1994) pp 218–23; historiography* Meyer, Hugo Richard.",
"''Public Ownership and the Telephone in Great Britain: Restriction of the Industry by the State and the Municipalities'' (1907).",
"online* Pitt, D.C. ''The telecommunications function in the British Post Office.",
"A case study of bureaucratic adaption'' (Westmead: Saxon House, 1980).",
"* Robertson, John Henry.",
"''The story of the telephone: A history of the telecommunications industry of Britain'' (1947)* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * BT Archives * BT Archives online catalogue* BT Login Links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Balmoral Castle"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Balmoral Castle''' () is a large estate house in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, and a residence of the British royal family.",
"It is near the village of Crathie, west of Ballater and west of Aberdeen.The estate and its original castle were bought from the Farquharson family in 1852 by Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria.",
"Soon afterwards the house was found to be too small and the current Balmoral Castle was commissioned.",
"The architect was William Smith of Aberdeen, and his designs were amended by Prince Albert.",
"Balmoral remains the private property of the monarch and is not part of the Crown Estate.",
"It was the summer residence of Queen Elizabeth II, who died there on 8 September 2022.The castle is an example of Scottish baronial architecture, and is classified by Historic Environment Scotland as a category A listed building.",
"The new castle was completed in 1856 and the old castle demolished shortly thereafter.The Balmoral Estate has been added to by successive members of the royal family, and now covers an area of approximately .",
"It is a working estate, including grouse moors, forestry and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, Highland cattle, sheep and ponies."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Balmoral is pronounced or sometimes locally .",
"It was first recorded as 'Bouchmorale' in 1451, and it was pronounced by local Scottish Gaelic speakers.",
"The first element in the name is thought to be the Gaelic ''both'', meaning \"a hut\", but the second part is uncertain.",
"Adam Watson and Elizabeth Allan wrote in ''The Place Names of Upper Deeside'' that the second part meant \"big spot (of ground)\".",
"Alexander MacBain suggested this was originally the Pictish ''*mor-ial'', \"big clearing\" (c.f.",
"Welsh ''mawr-ial'').",
"Alternatively, the second part could be a saint's name."
],
[
"History",
"Sir Robert Gordon made major alterations to the original castleKing Robert II of Scotland (1316–1390) had a hunting lodge in the area.",
"Historical records also indicate that a house at Balmoral was built by Sir William Drummond in 1390.The estate was later tenanted by Alexander Gordon, second son of the 1st Earl of Huntly.",
"A tower house was built on the estate by the Gordons.In 1662, the estate passed to Charles Farquharson of Inverey, brother of John Farquharson, the \"Black Colonel\".",
"The Farquharsons were Jacobite sympathisers and James Farquharson of Balmoral was involved in both the 1715 and 1745 rebellions.",
"He was wounded at the Battle of Falkirk in 1746.The Farquharson estates were forfeit, and passed to the Farquharsons of Auchendryne.",
"In 1798, James Duff, 2nd Earl Fife, acquired Balmoral and leased the castle.",
"Sir Robert Gordon, a younger brother of the 4th Earl of Aberdeen, acquired the lease in 1830.He made major alterations to the original castle at Balmoral, including baronial-style extensions that were designed by John Smith of Aberdeen.===Royal acquisition===Balmoral Castle, 1860s, albumen print carte de visiteQueen Victoria and Prince Albert first visited Scotland in 1842, five years after she acceded to the throne and two years after their marriage.",
"During this first visit they stayed at Edinburgh, and at Taymouth Castle in Perthshire, the home of the Marquess of Breadalbane.",
"They returned in 1844 to stay at Blair Castle, and in 1847, when they rented Ardverikie House by Loch Laggan.",
"Frequent rain during the last trip led Sir James Clark, the queen's doctor, to recommend Deeside instead, for its healthier climate.Sir Robert Gordon died in 1847 and his lease on Balmoral reverted to Lord Aberdeen.",
"In February 1848 an arrangement was made that Prince Albert would acquire the remaining part of the lease on Balmoral, together with its furniture and staff, without having seen the property first.The royal couple arrived for their first visit on 8 September 1848.Victoria found the house \"small but pretty\", and recorded in her diary that: \"All seemed to breathe freedom and peace, and to make one forget the world and its sad turmoils\".",
"The surrounding hilly landscape reminded them of Thuringia, Albert's homeland in Germany.The house was soon confirmed to be too small, and in 1848, John and William Smith were commissioned to design new offices, cottages, and other ancillary buildings.",
"Improvements to the woodlands, gardens and estate buildings were also being made, with the assistance of the landscape gardener James Beattie, and possibly the painter James Giles.Major additions to the old house were considered in 1849, but by then negotiations were under way to purchase the estate from the trustees of the deceased Earl Fife.",
"After seeing a corrugated iron cottage at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Prince Albert ordered a prefabricated iron building for Balmoral from E. T. Bellhouse & Co., to serve as a temporary ballroom and dining room.",
"It was in use by 1 October 1851, and would serve as a ballroom until 1856.The sale was completed in June 1852, the price being £32,000 () and Prince Albert formally took possession that autumn.",
"The neighbouring estate of Birkhall was bought at the same time, and the lease on Abergeldie Castle secured as well.",
"To mark the occasion, the ''Purchase Cairn'' was erected in the hills overlooking the castle, the first of many cairns on the estate.===Construction of the new house===''Balmoral Castle'' – a principal keep similar to that of Craigievar Castle is the central feature of the castle, while a large turreted country house is attachedSpace was needed for the growing family of Victoria and Albert, for additional staff, and for accommodation for visiting friends and official visitors such as cabinet members.",
"Thus extension of the existing structure would not provide enough space, and a larger house needed to be built.",
"In early 1852, this was commissioned from William Smith.",
"The son of John Smith (who designed the 1830 alterations of the original castle), William Smith, was the city architect of Aberdeen from 1852.On learning of the commission, William Burn sought an interview with the prince, apparently to complain that Smith previously had plagiarised his work, however, Burn was unsuccessful in depriving Smith of the appointment.",
"William Smith's designs were amended by Prince Albert, who took a close interest in details such as turrets and windows.",
"''Balmoral Castle'', painted by Queen Victoria in 1854 during its constructionConstruction began in mid-1853, on a site some northwest of the original building that was considered to have a better vista.",
"Another consideration was that during construction the family would still be able to use the old house.",
"Queen Victoria laid the foundation stone on 28 September 1853, during her annual autumn visit.",
"By the autumn of 1855, the royal apartments were ready for occupancy, although the tower was still under construction and the servants had to be lodged in the old house.",
"By coincidence, shortly after their arrival at the estate that autumn, news circulated about the fall of Sevastopol, ending the Crimean War, resulting in wild celebrations by royalty and locals alike.",
"While visiting the estate soon afterwards, Prince Frederick of Prussia asked for the hand of Princess Victoria.",
"''Balmoral Castle'', painted by James CassieThe new house was completed in 1856, and the old castle was later demolished.",
"By autumn 1857, a new bridge across the Dee, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel linking Crathie and Balmoral was finished.Balmoral Castle is built from granite quarried at Invergelder on the estate.",
"It consists of two main blocks, each arranged around a courtyard.",
"The southwestern block contains the main rooms, while the northeastern contains the service wings.",
"At the southeast is an clock tower topped with turrets, one of which has a balustrade similar to a feature at Castle Fraser.",
"Being similar in style to the demolished castle of the 1830s, the architecture of the new house is considered to be somewhat dated for its time when contrasted with the richer forms of Scots baronial being developed by William Burn and others during the 1850s.",
"As an exercise in Scots baronial, it is sometimes described as too ordered, pedantic, and even Germanic as a consequence of Prince Albert's influence on the design.However, the purchase of a Scottish estate by Victoria and Albert and their adoption of a Scottish architectural style were influential for the ongoing revival of Highland culture.",
"They decorated Balmoral with tartans and attended highland games at Braemar.",
"Queen Victoria expressed an affinity for Scotland, even professing herself to be a Jacobite.",
"Added to the work of Sir Walter Scott, this became a major factor in promoting the adoption of Highland culture by Lowland Scots.",
"Historian Michael Lynch comments that \"the Scottishness of Balmoral helped to give the monarchy a truly British dimension for the first time\".===Victoria and Albert at Balmoral===Even before the completion of the new house, the pattern of the life of the royal couple in the Highlands was soon established.",
"Victoria took long walks of up to four hours daily and Albert spent many days hunting deer and game.",
"In 1849, diarist Charles Greville described their life at Balmoral as resembling that of gentry rather than royalty.",
"Victoria began a policy of commissioning artists to record Balmoral, its surroundings, and its staff.",
"Over the years, numerous painters were employed at Balmoral, including Edwin and Charles Landseer, and Carl Haag.During the 1850s, new plantations were established near the house and exotic conifers were planted on the grounds.",
"Prince Albert had an active role in these improvements, overseeing the design of parterres, the diversion of the main road north of the river via a new bridge, and plans for farm buildings.",
"These buildings included a model dairy that he developed in 1861, the year of his death.",
"The dairy was completed by Victoria.",
"Subsequently, she also built several monuments to her husband on the estate.",
"These include a pyramid-shaped cairn built a year after Albert's death, on top of ''Craig Lurachain''.",
"A large statue of Albert with a dog and a gun by William Theed, was inaugurated on 15 October 1867, the twenty-eighth anniversary of their engagement.Following Albert's death, Victoria spent increasing periods at Balmoral, staying for as long as four months a year during early summer and autumn.",
"She placed numerous mementos of Albert on display.Few further changes were made to the grounds, with the exception of some alterations to mountain paths, the erection of various cairns and monuments, and the addition of some cottages (''Karim Cottage'' and ''Baile na Coille'') built for senior staff.",
"It was during this period that Victoria began to depend on her servant, John Brown.",
"He was a local ghillie from Crathie, who became one of her closest companions during her long mourning.In 1887, Balmoral Castle was the birthplace of Victoria Eugenie, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria.",
"She was born to Princess Beatrice, the fifth daughter of Victoria and Albert.",
"Victoria Eugenie became queen of Spain when she married King Alfonso XIII in 1906.In September 1896, Victoria welcomed Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and Empress Alexandra, a granddaughter of Victoria, to Balmoral.",
"Four years later Victoria made her last visit to the estate, three months before her death on 22 January 1901.BalmoralCastle1900.jpg|Balmoral () Cairn for Prince Albert Balmoral.JPG|Memorial cairn for Prince Albert, Balmoral Estate George Washington Wilson (1823 - 1893) - Balmoral Business Room - ABDMS017805 - Aberdeen City Council (Archives, Gallery and Museums Collection).jpg|Queen Victoria's Business Room at Balmoral===After Victoria===After Victoria's death, the royal family continued to use Balmoral during annual autumn visits.",
"George V had substantial improvements made during the 1910s and 1920s, including formal gardens to the south of the castle.During the Second World War, royal visits to Balmoral ceased.",
"In addition, due to the conflict with Germany, ''Danzig Shiel'', a lodge built by Victoria in Ballochbuie, was renamed ''Garbh Allt Shiel'' and the \"King of Prussia's Fountain\" was removed from the grounds.In the 1950s, Prince Philip added herbaceous borders and a water garden.",
"During the 1980s, new staff buildings were built close to the castle.===Death of Queen Elizabeth II===Queen Elizabeth II had been at the castle since July 2022 for her annual summer holiday and had been receiving medical care there.",
"In a break with tradition, Balmoral Castle, rather than Buckingham Palace, was the location of the appointment of British Prime Minister Liz Truss on 6 September 2022, due to concerns regarding the Queen's mobility issues.",
"Elizabeth died at Balmoral at 15:10 BST on 8 September 2022 at the age of 96.She was the first monarch to die at Balmoral, and this was the first time a monarch had died in Scotland since James V died in 1542 at Falkland Palace.",
"The Queen's coffin lay in repose in the ballroom of the castle for three days, to allow the Royal Family, estate staff and neighbours to pay their respects.",
"On 11 September, the coffin was transported to the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh for the start of the state funeral proceedings."
],
[
"Architecture",
"The \"battlemented\" porte cochère.",
"Also called a \"carriage porch\", this structure is covered to protect guests from inclement weather.Though called a castle, Balmoral's primary function is that of a country house.",
"It is a \"typical and rather ordinary\" country house from the Victorian period.",
"The tower and \"pepper pot turrets\" are characteristic features of the residence's Scottish baronial style.",
"The seven-storey tower is an architectural feature borrowed from medieval defensive tower houses.",
"The \"pepper pot\" turrets were influenced by the style of 16th-century French châteaux.",
"Other features of the Scottish baronial style are the crow-stepped gables, dormer windows, and battlemented porte-cochère."
],
[
"Ownership",
"Balmoral is private property and, unlike the monarch's official residences, is not the property of the Crown.",
"It was originally purchased privately by Prince Albert, for Queen Victoria, meaning that no revenues from the estate go to Parliament or the public purse, as would otherwise be the case for property owned outright by the monarch by the Civil List Act 1760.Along with Sandringham House in Norfolk, ownership of Balmoral was inherited by Edward VIII on his accession in 1936.When he abdicated later the same year, however, he retained ownership of them.",
"A financial settlement was devised, under which Balmoral and Sandringham were purchased by Edward's brother and successor to the Crown, George VI.Elizabeth II inherited the Balmoral estate from her father, and then after her death, ownership passed to her eldest son King Charles III, but the estate is managed by trustees under Deeds of Nomination and Appointment."
],
[
"Estate",
"===Extent and operation===Balmoral Estate is within the Cairngorms National Park and is partly within the Deeside and Lochnagar National Scenic Area.",
"The estate contains a wide variety of landscapes, from the Dee river valley to open mountains.",
"There are seven Munros (hills in Scotland over ) within the estate, the highest being Lochnagar at .",
"This mountain was the setting for a children's story, ''The Old Man of Lochnagar'', told originally by Prince Charles to his younger brothers, Prince Andrew and Prince Edward.",
"The story was published in 1980, with royalties accruing to The Prince's Trust.",
"The estate also incorporates the Delnadamph Lodge estate, bought by Elizabeth II in 1978.Red deer stag near Glas-allt-Shiel lodge on the Balmoral estateThe estate extends to Loch Muick in the southeast where an old boat house and the Royal Bothy (hunting lodge) now named ''Glas-allt-Shiel'', built by Victoria, are located.The working estate includes grouse moors, forestry, and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, Highland cattle, and ponies.",
"It also offers access to the public for fishing (paid) and hiking during certain seasons.Approximately of the estate are covered by trees, with almost used for forestry that yields nearly 10,000 tonnes of wood per year.",
"''Ballochbuie Forest'', one of the largest remaining areas of old Caledonian pine growth in Scotland, consists of approximately .",
"It is managed with only minimal or no intervention.",
"The principal mammal on the estate is the red deer with a population of 2,000 to 2,500 head.The areas of Lochnagar and Ballochbuie were designated in 1998 by the Secretary of State for Scotland as Special Protection Areas (SPA) under the European Union (EU) Birds Directive.",
"Bird species inhabiting the moorlands include red grouse, black grouse, ptarmigan, and the capercaillie.",
"Ballochbuie is also protected as a Special Area of Conservation by the EU Habitats Directive, as \"one of the largest remaining continuous areas of native Caledonian Forest\".",
"In addition, there are four sites of special scientific interest on the estate.The royal family employs approximately 50 full-time and 50–100 part-time staff to maintain the working estate.There are approximately 150 buildings on the estate, including Birkhall, formerly home to Elizabeth the Queen Mother.",
"Craigowan Lodge is regularly used by the family and friends of the royal family and has also been used while Balmoral Castle was being prepared for a royal visit.",
"Six smaller buildings on the estate are let as holiday cottages.===Public access to gardens and castle grounds===Northwest corner of Balmoral CastleIn 1931, the gardens and castle grounds were opened to the public for the first time.",
"They are now open daily between April and the end of July, after which royal family members arrive at the castle for their annual stay.",
"The ballroom is the only room in the castle that may be viewed by the public.===Craigowan Lodge===Craigowan Lodge is a seven-bedroom stone house approximately from the main castle in Balmoral.",
"More rustic than the castle, the lodge was often used by Prince Charles and Princess Diana when they visited.",
"In May 1981 Charles and Diana posed for a photo at the lodge before their July 1981 wedding.In the obituary of Prince Michael Andreevich of Russia in 2008, it was noted that his family spent most of World War II at Craigowan Lodge.The lodge has been in the news periodically since 2005 because Elizabeth II and Prince Philip often spent the first few days of their summer holiday there.",
"During the summer, the castle is a lucrative source of income from tourists.",
"Sometimes, the Queen arrived at Balmoral before the tourist season was over."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Parts of the films ''Mrs Brown'' (1997) and ''The Queen'' (2006) were based on events at Balmoral.",
"In both films, substitute locations were used: Blairquhan Castle in ''The Queen'' and Duns Castle in ''Mrs Brown''.",
"In the Netflix series ''The Crown'', Ardverikie House was used as a stand-in.",
"In the sci-fi film ''The Day After Tomorrow'' (2004), three helicopters of the Royal Air Force crash in Scotland during an attempt to evacuate the Royal Family from Balmoral Castle.An illustration of the castle features on the reverse of £100 notes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland."
],
[
"See also",
"* Ardverikie House, often used as a stand-in for Balmoral Castle in film* Crathie Kirk* List of British royal residences* Scottish castles* Alatskivi Castle, an Estonian castle influenced by the Balmoral Castle style"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===*"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Breton language"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Breton''' ( , ; or in Morbihan) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language group spoken in Brittany, part of modern-day France.",
"It is the only Celtic language still widely in use on the European mainland, albeit as a member of the insular branch instead of the continental grouping.Breton was brought from Great Britain to Armorica (the ancient name for the coastal region that includes the Brittany peninsula) by migrating Britons during the Early Middle Ages, making it an Insular Celtic language.",
"Breton is most closely related to Cornish, another Southwestern Brittonic language.",
"Welsh and the extinct Cumbric, both Western Brittonic languages, are more distantly related, and the Goidelic languages (Irish, Manx, Scottish Gaelic) have a slight connection due to both of their origins being from Insular Celtic.Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, Breton is classified as \"severely endangered\" by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''.",
"However, the number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.__TOC__"
],
[
"History and status",
"Breton is spoken in Lower Brittany (), roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha (west of Saint-Brieuc) and La Roche-Bernard (east of Vannes).",
"It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to Armorica (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in Galicia (in present-day Spain).",
"Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.",
"It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany.",
"The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie, adopted French.",
"The written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin, switching to French in the 15th century.",
"There exists a limited tradition of Breton literature.",
"Some philosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton.",
"The recognized stages of the Breton language are: '''Old Breton''' – to , '''Middle Breton''' – to , '''Modern Breton''' – to present.The French monarchy was not concerned with the minority languages of France, spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity.",
"During the French Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as .",
"The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to try to keep the peasant masses under-informed.",
"In 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his \"report on the \" to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that \"federalism and superstition speak Breton\".A Breton speaker, recorded in the United States.A Breton speaker, recorded in Canada.Since the 19th century, under the Third, Fourth and now Fifth Republics, the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture.",
"Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.In the early 21st century, due to the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people are active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950.The majority of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language.At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual.",
"By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today.",
"A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older.",
"Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.",
"In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names."
],
[
"Revival efforts",
"1911 poster with Breton slogan, (\"It's miraculous!",
"\")In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review .",
"During its 19-year run, tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language.",
"Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works.",
"In 1946, replaced .",
"Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion.",
"Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany.",
"This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.The ''Asterix'' comic series has been translated into Breton.",
"According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany.",
"Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including ''The Adventures of Tintin'', , ''Titeuf'', ''Hägar the Horrible'', ''Peanuts'' and ''Yakari''.Some original media are created in Breton.",
"The sitcom, , is in Breton.",
"Radio Kerne, broadcasting from Finistère, has exclusively Breton programming.",
"Some movies (''Lancelot du Lac'', ''Shakespeare in Love'', ''Marion du Faouet'', ''Sezneg'') and TV series (''Columbo'', ''Perry Mason'') have also been translated and broadcast in Breton.",
"Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including Yann-Ber Kallocʼh, Roparz Hemon, Anjela Duval, Xavier de Langlais, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Youenn Gwernig, Glenmor, Vefa de Saint-Pierre and Alan Stivell are now known internationally.Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.The first Breton dictionary, the ''Catholicon'', was also the first French dictionary.",
"Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin.",
"Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh.",
"A monolingual dictionary, was published in 1995.The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.In the early 21st century, the (\"Public Office for the Breton language\") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes.",
"Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the Spilhennig to let speakers identify each other.",
"The office also started an Internationalization and localization policy asking Google, Firefox and SPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton.",
"In 2004, the Breton Wikipedia started, which now counts more than 85,000 articles.",
"In March 2007, the signed a tripartite agreement with Regional Council of Brittany and Microsoft for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products.",
"In October 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages after three years of talks between the and Facebook.France has twice chosen to enter the Eurovision Song Contest with songs in Breton; once in 1996 in Oslo with \"\" by Dan Ar Braz and the fifty piece band Héritage des Celtes, and most recently in 2022 in Turin with \"\" by Alvan Morvan Rosius and vocal trio Ahez.",
"These are two of five times France has chosen songs in one of its minority languages for the contest, the others being in 1992 (bilingual French and Antillean Creole), 1993 (bilingual French and Corsican), and 2011 (Corsican)."
],
[
"Geographic distribution and dialects",
"Dialects of BretonBreton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside Gallo and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions.",
"They are (, of the county of Léon), (, of Trégor), (, of ), and (, of Vannes).",
"was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and Batz-sur-Mer.",
"There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a dialect continuum, varying only slightly from one village to the next.",
", however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.Electronic information sign in Breton, Carhaix+Distribution of Breton speakers by region Region Population Number of speakers Percentage of speakers Basse Bretagne 1,300,000 185,000 14.2% Centre Ouest Bretagne 112,000 20,000 20% Trégor-Goelo 127,000 25,000 20% Pays de Brest 370,000 40,000 11% Pays de Cornouaille 320,000 35,000 11.5% Pays de Lorient 212,000 15,000 7.3% Pays de Vannes 195,000 11,000 5.5% Pays de Guingamp 76,000 12,000 17% Pays de Morlaix 126,000 15,000 12% Pays de St Brieuc 191,000 5,000 3% Pays de Pontivy 85,000 6,500 8% Pays d'Auray 85,000 6,500 7.6%Haute Bretagne 1,900,000 20,000 2% Pays de Rennes 450,000 7,000 1.5%Loire-Atlantique 1,300,000 Pays de Nantes 580,000 4,000 0.8% TOTAL 4,560,000 216,000 4.6%"
],
[
"Official status",
", the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the use of Breton.===Nation===As noted, only French is an official language of France.",
"Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.====Constitution====In July 2008, the legislature amended the French Constitution, adding article 75-1: (the regional languages belong to the heritage of France).The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which obliges signatory states to recognize minority and regional languages, was signed by France in 1999 but has not been ratified.",
"On 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected a draft constitutional law ratifying the charter.Gwened/Vannes===Region===Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent.",
"Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns.",
"One station of the Rennes metro system has signs in both French and Breton.Under the French law known as Toubon, it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone.",
"Signs must be bilingual or French only.",
"Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French., the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.",
"It helped to create the campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton."
],
[
"Education",
"Sign in French and partly in Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classesIn the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called ) into the state education system.",
"This action was blocked by the French Constitutional Council based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic.",
"Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools.",
"The Toubon Law implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion.",
"Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany.",
"This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.",
"The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.",
"Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by (\"Two Languages\") in the State schools, created in 1979.",
"(\"Awakening\") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.===Statistics===In 2018, 18,337 pupils (about 2.00% of all pupils in Brittany) attended , and schools, and their number has increased yearly.",
"The goal of Jean-Yves Le Drian (president of the Regional Council) of 20,000, and of \"their recognition\" for \"their place in education, public schools, and public life\", by 2010, was not achieved, but he describes being encouraged by their progress.In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed such a Breton language course as an evening or correspondence one.",
"The transmission of Breton in 1999 is estimated to be 3 percent.+Growth of the percentage of pupils in bilingual education Year Number Percentage of allpupils in Brittany 2005 10,397 1.24% 2006 11,092 1.30% 2007 11,732 1.38% 2008 12,333 ± 1.4% 2009 13,077 1.45% 2010 13,493 1.48% 2011 14,174 1.55% 2012 14,709 1.63% 2013 15,338 1.70% 2014 15,840 1.73% 2015 16,345 1.78% 2016 17,024 1.86% 2017 17,748 1.93% 2018 18,337 2.00% 2019 18,890 2.00% 2020 19,165 2.00% 2021 19,336 ± 2.2% 2022 19,765 ± 2.3%+Percentage of pupils in bilingual education per department Department Primary education(2022) Finistère 9.0% Morbihan 6.7% Côtes-d'Armor 4.4% Ille-et-Vilaine 1.8% Loire-Atlantique 0.5%===Municipalities===+The 10 communes with the highest percentage of pupils in bilingual primary education, listed with their total population Commune Percentage(2008) Population(2007) Saint-Rivoal (Finistère) 100% 177 Plounévez-Moëdec (Côtes-d'Armor) 82.4% 1,461 Bulat-Pestivien (Côtes-d'Armor) 53.7% 493 Commana (Finistère) 49.7% 1,061 Cavan (Côtes-d'Armor) 39.6% 1,425 Rostrenen (Côtes-d'Armor) 39.3% 3,655 Guégon (Morbihan) 35.5% 2,432 Lannilis (Finistère) 35.1% 5,121 Pabu (Côtes-d'Armor) 32.46% 2,923 Melrand (Morbihan) 31.4% 1,558+The 10 communes of historic Brittany with the highest total population, listed with their percentages of pupils in bilingual primary education''These figures include some cities in the department of Loire-Atlantique, which is now included in the Pays de la Loire region.",
"See for example Brittany (administrative region).''",
"Commune Percentage(2008) Population(2007) Nantes (Loire-Atlantique) 1.4% 290,943 Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) 2.87% 213,096 Brest (Finistère) 1.94% 146,519 Saint-Nazaire (Loire-Atlantique) 0.41% 71,046 Quimper (Finistère) 3.17% 67,255 Lorient (Morbihan) 2.71% 59,805 Vannes (Morbihan) 7.71% 55,383 Saint-Malo (Ille-et-Vilaine) 0.55% 50,206 Saint-Brieuc (Côtes-d'Armor) 3.98% 48,178 Saint-Herblain (Loire-Atlantique) ?",
"44,364===Other forms of education===In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère.",
"These \"initiation\" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games.Schools in secondary education ( and ) offer some courses in Breton.",
"In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.",
"Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department offering courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies."
],
[
"Phonology",
"===Vowels===Vowels in Breton may be short or long.",
"All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (vowel lengths are not noted in usual orthographies as they are implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long).",
"An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position, among different dialects.All vowels can also be nasalized, which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for ''a'' and ''o'' due to the Portuguese letters), or more commonly by non-ambiguously appending an letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).",
"FrontCentral Back unrounded rounded unrounded rounded Close ''i'' ''u'' ''ou'' Close-mid ''e'' ''eu'' ''o'' Open-mid ''e'' ''eu'' ''o'' Open ''a'' ''a'' Diphthongs are .===Consonants=== Labial Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal plain lab.",
"plain lab.",
"Nasal ''m'' ''n'' ''gn'' Plosive ''b'' ''d'' ''g'' ''gw'', ''gou'' ''p'' ''t'' ''k'' ''kw'', ''kou'' Fricative ''v'' (''z, d'' ) ''z'', ''zh'' ''j'' ''cʼh'' ''f'' ''s'' ''ch'' ''cʼh'' ''h'', ''zh'' Trill''r'' (''r'' ) Approximant (''r'' ) ''y'' ''u'' ''w'' ''l'' ''lh'' * The pronunciation of the letter varies nowadays: is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille) whereas is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), though in rapid speech mostly a tapped occurs.",
"In the other regions of Trégor or even may be found.",
"* The voiced dental fricative () is a conservative realisation of the lenition (or the \"spirant mutation\" in cases where the phenomenon originates from the mutation of , respectively) of the consonants and which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais.",
"Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and thus it is mostly not orthographically fixed.",
"The ''Peurunvan'', for instance, uses for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais.",
"In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are employed for representing the dental fricative, depending on the scripture's historical period.",
"There once was a time when was used to transcribe the sound, but today mostly the regular is instead used, and this practice can be traced back to at least the end of the 17th century.",
"The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of Pontivy and Baud and surrounding smaller villages like Cléguérec, Noyal-Pontivy, Pluméliau, St. Allouestre, St. Barthélemy, Pluvigner and also parts of Belle-Île.",
"The only known place where the mutation occurs outside of the Vannes country is the Île de Sein, an island located off Finistère's coast.",
"Some scholars also used as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an \"infra-dental\" consonant than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol is usually describes.",
"Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of Sauzon in Belle-Île) or due to the fact that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions were not in need of a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation as it was a clearly distinguishable phoneme.",
"* The digraph ''zh'' represents a variable sound that may exhibit as /s/, /z/, or /h/, and descends from a now-extinct sound , which is still extant in Welsh as ''th''."
],
[
"Grammar",
"===Nouns===Breton nouns are marked for gender and number.",
"While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.====Gender====Breton has two genders: masculine () and feminine (), having largely lost its historic neuter () as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages.",
"Certain suffixes (''-ach/-aj, -(a)dur, -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va'') are masculine, while others (''-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i'', ''-eg'', ''-ell'', and the singulative ''-enn'') are feminine.",
"The suffix ''-eg'' can be masculine or feminine.There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment.",
"Biological sex is applied for animate referents.",
"Metals, time divisions (except for \"hour\", \"night\" and \"week\") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.====Number====Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.",
"However, the system is full of complexities in how this distinction is realized.Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings.",
"This is seen in a prefix (formed in , or ) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two.",
"The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar.",
"The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes () and ears () can be pluralized \"again\" to form and .Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a singulative suffix that is used to form singulars out of collective nouns, for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural.",
"Thus, the singulative of the collective \"mice\" is \"mouse\".",
"However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system.",
"Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- \"fish\" (singular) is pluralized to , singulativized to , referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make \"fishes\".On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions.",
"The \"default\" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to \"emphasize variety or diversity\" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of : \"parks\" and \"various different parks\".",
"Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.",
"Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: \"water\" pluralized forms which means not \"waters\" but instead \"rivers\", while now has come to mean \"running waters after a storm\".",
"Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: means \"news\" and is not used, while has become the regular plural, 'different news items'.Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – \"child\" is pluralized once into \"children\" and then pluralized a second time to make \"groups of children\".The diminutive suffix also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: means \"little child\", but the doubly pluralized means \"little children\"; boat has a singular diminutive and a simple plural , thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized .As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.The most common plural marker is , with its variant ; most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in .",
"However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare.",
"Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word (\"Englishman\", plural ) take the suffix , with a range of variants including , , and .The rare pluralizing suffixes / and are used for a few nouns.",
"When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: triggers a vowel harmony effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to ( \"cousin\" → \"cousins\"; \"crow\" → \"crows\"; \"partridge\" → \"partridges\"); the changes associated with / are less predictable.Various nouns instead form their plural merely with ablaut: or in the stem being changed to : \"wing\" → \"wings\"; \"tooth\" → \"teeth\"; \"rope\" → \"ropes\".Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars.",
"These include \"girl\" → , \"pig\" → , \"cow\" → , and \"dog\" → .In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.===Verbal aspect===As in other Celtic languages as well as English, a variety of verbal constructions is available to express grammatical aspect, for example: showing a distinction between progressive and habitual actions: Breton Cornish Irish English I '''am talking''' to my neighbour I '''talk''' to my neighbour (every morning)===Inflected prepositions===As in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of inflected preposition.",
"Below are some examples in Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx, along with English translations.",
"Breton Cornish Welsh Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx English I have a book you have a drink he has a computer she has a child we have a car you have a house they have moneyNote that in the examples above the Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning ''at'' to show possession, whereas the Brittonic languages use ''with''.",
"The Goidelic languages, however, do use the preposition ''with'' to express \"belong to\" (Irish , Scottish , Manx , The book belongs to me).The Welsh examples are in literary Welsh.",
"The order and preposition may differ slightly in colloquial Welsh (Formal , North Wales , South Wales ).===Initial consonant mutations===Breton has four initial consonant mutations: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of Welsh (but for rare words such the word \"door\": \"dor\" \"an nor\"), it also has a \"hard\" mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a \"mixed\" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.+ Initial consonant mutations in Breton Unmutated consonant Mutations Hard Mixed Soft Aspirant ''m'' ''v'' ''v'' ''b'' ''p'' ''v'' ''v'' ''p'' ''b'' ''f'' ''g'' ''k'' ''cʼh'' ''cʼh'' ''k'' ''g'' ''cʼh'' ''d'' ''t'' ''t'' ''z'' ''t'' ''d'' ''z'' ''gw'' ''kw'' ''w'' ''w'' ===Word order===Normal word order, like the other Insular Celtic languages, is at its core VSO (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses.",
"However, Breton finite verbs in main clauses are additionally subject to V2 word order in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.",
"That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker.",
"The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):*the first places the verbal infinitive in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the auxiliary 'to do'.",
"*the second places the Auxiliary verb 'to be' in initial position (as in (2)), followed the Subject, and the construction ''+ infinitive''.",
"At the end comes the Object.",
"This construction is an exception to verb-second.",
"*the third places the construction ''+ infinitive'' in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the Auxiliary verb , the Subject, and the Object.",
"*the fourth option places the Object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Subject.",
"*the fifth, and originally least common, places the Subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Object, just like in English (SVO)."
],
[
"Vocabulary",
"Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loans from French."
],
[
"Orthography",
"The first extant Breton texts, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: 50 years prior to the Strasbourg Oaths, considered to be the earliest example of French.",
"Like many medieval orthographies, Old- and Middle Breton orthography was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at authors' discretion.",
"In 1499, however, the ''Catholicon'', was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language.",
"The orthography presented in the ''Catholicon'' was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate digraph —a remnant of the sound change > in Latin—and Brittonic or to represent before front vowels.As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies.",
"Many of these orthographies were more closely related to the French model, albeit with some modifications.",
"Examples of these modifications include the replacement of Old Breton - with - to denote word-final (an evolution of Old Breton in the Vannes dialect) and use of - to denote the initial mutation of (today this mutation is written ).",
"and thus needed another transcription.In the 1830s Jean-François Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system for the language.During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known as elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system.",
"They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor (known as from , and in Breton).",
"This '''KLT''' orthography was established in 1911.At the same time writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system also based on that of Le Gonidec.Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects.",
"This (\"wholly unified\") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph , which represents a in Vannetais and corresponds to a in the KLT dialects.In 1955 François Falcʼhun and the group Emgleo Breiz proposed a new orthography.",
"It was designed to use a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French.",
"This (\"University Orthography\", known in Breton as ) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the \"official orthography of Breton in French education.\"",
"It was opposed in the region and today is used only by the magazine and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised — the or .",
"This system is based on the derivation of the words.Today the majority of writers continue to use the ''Peurunvan orthography'', and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.===Alphabet===Breton is written in the Latin script.",
"''Peurunvan'', the most commonly used orthography, consists of the following letters:: a, b, ch, cʼh, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, y, zThe circumflex, grave accent, trema and tilde appear on some letters.",
"These diacritics are used in the following way:: â, ê, î, ô, û, ù, ü, ñ===Differences between and ===Both orthographies use the above alphabet, although is used only in .Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings.",
"In Peurunvan, final obstruents, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in sandhi before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound.",
"In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: \"big\", \"bigger\".In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one.",
"No distinction is made in pronunciation, e.g.",
"\"Breton language\" vs. \"Breton (adj)\".+Camparison of different orthographies (1975) (1941) (1956)English gloss rain who book for with of her add most beautiful where===Pronunciation of the Breton alphabet=== Letter Kerneveg Leoneg Tregiereg Gwenedeg '''A a''' â ae an añ ao aou '''B b''' '''Ch ch''' '''Cʼh cʼh''' , , , , cʼhw '''D d''' '''E e''' , ê ei eeu eo eu eü eue '''F f''' 'f '''G g''' gn gw '''H h''' '''I i''' ilh '''J j''' '''K k''' '''L l''' , '''M m''' '''N n''' , ñ ñv '''O o''' oa ôa oe on oñ ou où oü '''P p''' '''R r''' , '''S s''' sh sk st '''T t''' '''U u''' ui ul, un, ur '''V v''' vh '''W w''' '''Y y''' '''Z z''' , Ø, , Ø , Ø, zh '''Notes:'''# Vocative particle: \"O Brittany\".# Word-initially.# Word-finally.# Unwritten lenition of and spirantization of > .# Unstressed represent in Leoneg but in the other dialects.",
"The realisations appear mainly before (also less often before ), semivowels , consonant clusters beginning with or .",
"Stressed long represent .# In Gwenedeg velars are palatalized before and , i.e.",
", , , , , , represent .",
"In the case of word-final and palatalization to also occurs after .# Before a vowel other than the digraph is written instead of , e.g.",
"\"to drive\", radical , 1PS preterite , 3PS preterite .# Silent in words such as , , , , , and .",
"Always silent in Gwenedeg and Leoneg.# is realized as when it precedes or follows a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such as , , it represents (in orthography may be used: , , ).# represents when it follows a vowel, after a consonant it represents .",
"But before a vowel other than , is written instead of , e.g.",
"\"to follow\", radical , 1PS preterite , 3PS preterite .",
"In some regions may be heard instead of .# Word-finally after a cluster of unvoiced consonants.# In front of .# The digraph is realized like when preceded or followed by a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such as , , it represents .# The digraph represents plural endings.",
"Its pronunciation varies by dialect: rating geographically from Northwest Leon to Southeast Gwened.# usually represents , but word-finally (except in word-final ) it represents in KLT, in Gwenedeg and in Goëlo.",
"The pronunciation is retained word-finally in verbs.",
"In words , , , , , it represents in KLT, in Gwenedeg and in Goëlo.",
"Word-finally following it represents .# But silent in words such as , , , , , , , , , , ', , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .",
"is generally silent in Kerneweg, Tregerieg and Gwenedeg, but in Leoneg is always pronounced.# Used to distinguish words such as \"river\", \"heir\", \"town\" (also written ) from \"sense\", \"bold\", \"dear\".# Used to distinguish \"circuit/tour\" from \"foot\".# In northern dialects (mainly in Leoneg), there is a tendency to voice between vowels.",
"also appears as the lenition of and mixed mutation of .# The lenition of and the spirantization of are both represented by is mainly pronounced although in certain regions (especially for the spirantization of in Cornouaille) and (in some Haut-Vannetais varieties) also occur.# The pronunciation of varies by dialect, nowadays uvular (or ) is standard; occurs in Leoneg, or in Tregerieg, and in Gwenedeg.# In Gwenedeg an unstressed often represents .# Lenited varieties of may appear word-initially in case of soft mutation.# In Leoneg in front of a nasal.# In Leoneg represents before .# In Leoneg represents or before .# In Leoneg represents .# Before a vowel.# Forms of the indefinite article.# A conservative realisation of the initial mutation of and , used in certain parts of the Vannes country."
],
[
"Sample texts",
"'''Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights''' '''Breton''': '''English''': All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.",
"They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.===Lord's Prayer===: ''Hon Tad,'': ''cʼhwi hag a zo en Neñv,'': ''ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.",
"'': ''Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.",
"'': ''Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.",
"'': ''Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.",
"'': ''Distaolit dimp hon dleoù'': ''evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.",
"'': ''Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur,'': ''met hon dieubit eus an Droug.",
"''===Words and phrases in Breton===Bilingual signage in Quimper/Kemper.",
"Note the use of the word ''ti'' in the Breton for ''police station'' and ''tourist office'', plus for ''all directions''.Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following: Breton English welcome you're welcome Brittany Breton ''(language)'' , \"ty\" house town hall town centre all directions school university pipe band ''(nearly)'' lit.",
"\"night festival\", a or \"day festival\" also exists goodbye pancakes (''a'' pancake = ) cider Breton mead Cheers!",
"always at sea rich butter and sugar cake"
],
[
"Language comparison",
" English French Breton Cornish Welsh Scottish Gaelic Irish earth sky (older ) heaven food (older ) house (south ) church person, man dog ( hound) sell trade, pay eat ( feed) ( feed) drink (archaic ) (archaic ) see (fut. )",
"(south ) black white ( 'fair') green red (also: ) (hair, etc. )",
"(hair, etc. )",
"yellow book day (also in names of weekdays) year beer ale go (verbal noun ) (verbal noun, ) come"
],
[
"Borrowing from Breton by other languages",
"The English words and have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton.",
"However, this is uncertain: for instance, is or (\"long stone\"), (\"straight stone\") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton.",
"''Dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be ).",
"Some studies state that these words were borrowed from Cornish.",
"can be directly translated from Welsh as \"long stone\" (which is exactly what a or is).",
"The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish (\"long stone\"), as does \"settlement by the long stone\".The French word (\"to jabber in a foreign language\") is derived from Breton (\"bread\") and (\"wine\").",
"The French word (\"large seagull\") is derived from Breton , which shares the same root as English \"gull\" (Welsh , Cornish )."
],
[
"See also",
"* Armoricani* Gaelic revival, Irish language revival* Julian Maunoir, 17th-century Breton language orthographer* List of Celtic-language media* an association promoting the language"
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Further reading''';Overviews* ** ;Historical development* Hemon, Roparz.",
"''A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton''.",
"Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975.",
"* * * * ;Grammars and handbooks* * * Favereau, Francis.",
"''Grammaire du breton contemporain''.",
"Morlaix: Skol Vreizh, 1997.",
"* Hemon, Roparz.",
"''Breton Grammar'', 3rd edn.",
"Trans.",
"& rev'd by Michael Everson.",
"Westport: Evertype, 2011.",
"* * McKenna, Malachy.",
"''A handbook of modern spoken Breton''.",
"Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1988 (repr.",
"2015).",
"* (repr.",
"2011).",
"* Press, Ian & Hervé Le Bihan.",
"''Colloquial Breton: the complete course for beginners''.",
"London: Routledge, 2004 (repr.",
"2007, 2015)."
],
[
"External links",
"* Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg official website.",
"* , the public Breton TV channel.",
"* : an essay about the situation of the Breton language.",
"* * : news in Breton.",
"* : Brittany information, articles about Breton.",
"* .",
"* .",
"'''Dictionaries'''* English online dictionary and grammar for Breton* A multilingual dictionary containing many Breton words alongside those of other languages'''Learning'''* Breton site including online lessons* Audio CD, workbooks, software in English to learn Breton* Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English)* Jouitteau, M. '' Grammaire du breton'', (extensive Breton grammar in French, with glossed examples and typological comparisons), IKER, CNRS, 2009 > 2017.",
"'''Bible'''* Ar Bibl Santel (Jenkins) 1897 (JEN1897).",
"History of Bible translation in Breton and Breton Bible"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Broch"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Broch of MousaIn archaeology, a '''broch''' is an Iron Age drystone hollow-walled structure found in Scotland.",
"Brochs belong to the classification \"complex Atlantic roundhouse\" devised by Scottish archaeologists in the 1980s.Brochs are roundhouse buildings found throughout Atlantic Scotland.",
"The word broch is derived from the Lowland Scots 'brough', meaning fort.",
"In the mid-19th century, Scottish antiquaries called brochs 'burgs', after Old Norse borg, with the same meaning.",
"Brochs are often referred to as duns in the west, and they are the most spectacular of a complex class of buildings found in northern Scotland.",
"There are approximately 571 candidate broch sites throughout the country, according to the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland.The origin of brochs is still subject to ongoing research.",
"While most archaeologists believed 80 years ago that brochs were built by immigrants, there is now little doubt that the hollow-walled broch tower was an invention in what is now Scotland.",
"The first brochs may have been built circa 300 BC, and there is evidence to suggest that they were used primarily for defensive or offensive purposes.The distribution of brochs is centred on northern Scotland, with the densest concentrations found in Caithness, Sutherland, and the Northern Isles.",
"A few examples occur in the Borders and on the west coast of Dumfries and Galloway, and near Stirling.",
"The original interpretation of brochs was that they were defensive structures, places of refuge for the community and their livestock.",
"They were sometimes regarded as the work of Danes or Picts, and from the 1930s to the 1960s, archaeologists regarded them as castles where local landowners held sway over a subject population.However, the castle theory fell from favour among Scottish archaeologists in the 1980s, due to a lack of supporting archaeological evidence.",
"These archaeologists suggested defensibility was never a major concern in the siting of a broch, and argued that they may have been the \"stately homes\" of their time, objects of prestige and very visible demonstrations of superiority for important families.",
"Once again, however, there is a lack of archaeological proof for this reconstruction, and the sheer number of brochs makes it problematic.",
"The article concludes by stating that the purpose of brochs may have been a combination of defensive, offensive, and symbolic functions."
],
[
"Origin and definition",
"The word ''broch'' is derived from Lowland Scots 'brough', meaning (among other things) fort.",
"In the mid-19th century Scottish antiquaries called brochs 'burgs', after Old Norse '''', with the same meaning.",
"Place names in Scandinavian Scotland such as Burgawater and Burgan show that Old Norse '''' is the older word used for these structures in the north.",
"Brochs are often referred to as ''dùns'' in the west.",
"Antiquarians began to use the spelling ''broch'' in the 1870s.A precise definition for the word has proved elusive.",
"Brochs are the most spectacular of a complex class of roundhouse buildings found throughout Atlantic Scotland.",
"The Shetland Amenity Trust lists about 120 sites in Shetland as candidate brochs, while the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) identifies a total of 571 candidate broch sites throughout the country.",
"Researcher Euan MacKie, using a restricted definition, has proposed a much smaller total for Scotland of 104.Remains of Dun Carloway broch, Lewis, ScotlandThe origin of brochs is a subject of continuing research.",
"Eighty years ago most archaeologists believed that brochs, usually regarded as the 'castles' of Iron Age chieftains, were built by immigrants who had been pushed northward after being displaced first by the intrusions of Belgic tribes into what is now southeast England at the end of the second century BC and later by the Roman invasion of southern Britain beginning in AD 43.Yet there is now little doubt that the hollow-walled broch tower was an invention in what is now Scotland; even the kinds of pottery found inside them that most resembled south British styles were local hybrid forms.",
"The first of the modern review articles on the subject (MacKie 1965) did not, as is commonly believed, propose that brochs were built by immigrants, but rather that a hybrid culture formed from the blending of a small number of immigrants with the native population of the Hebrides produced them in the first century BC, basing them on earlier, simpler, promontory forts.",
"This view contrasted, for example, with that of Sir W. Lindsay Scott, who argued, following V. Gordon Childe (1935), for a wholesale migration into Atlantic Scotland of people from southwest England.MacKie's theory has fallen from favour too, mainly because starting in the 1970s there was a general move in archaeology away from 'diffusionist' explanations towards those pointing to exclusively indigenous development.",
"Meanwhile, the increasing number – albeit still pitifully few – of radiocarbon dates for the primary use of brochs (as opposed to their later, secondary use) still suggests that most of the towers were built in the 1st centuries BC and AD.",
"A few may be earlier, notably the one proposed for Old Scatness Broch in Shetland, where a sheep bone dating to between 390 and 200 BC has been reported.The other broch claimed to be substantially older than the 1st century BC is Crosskirk in Caithness, but a recent review of the evidence suggests that it cannot plausibly be assigned a date earlier than the 1st centuries BC/AD."
],
[
"Distribution",
"Overview of the distribution of brochs.The distribution of brochs is centred on northern Scotland.",
"Caithness, Sutherland and the Northern Isles have the densest concentrations, but there are many examples in the west of Scotland and the Hebrides.",
"Although mainly concentrated in the northern Highlands and the Islands, a few examples occur in the Borders (for example Edin's Hall Broch and Bow Castle Broch), on the west coast of Dumfries and Galloway, and near Stirling.",
"In a sketch there appears to be a broch by the river next to Annan Castle in Dumfries and Galloway.",
"This small group of southern brochs has never been satisfactorily explained."
],
[
"Purposes",
"The remains of Kilphedir broch, Sutherland, are surrounded by massive earthworks.The original interpretation of brochs, favoured by nineteenth century antiquarians, was that they were defensive structures, places of refuge for the community and their livestock.",
"They were sometimes regarded as the work of Danes or Picts.",
"From the 1930s to the 1960s, archaeologists such as V. Gordon Childe and later John Hamilton regarded them as castles where local landowners held sway over a subject population.The castle theory fell from favour among Scottish archaeologists in the 1980s, due to a lack of supporting archaeological evidence.",
"These archaeologists suggested defensibility was never a major concern in the siting of a broch, and argued that they may have been the \"stately homes\" of their time, objects of prestige and very visible demonstrations of superiority for important families (Armit 2003).",
"Once again, however, there is a lack of archaeological proof for this reconstruction, and the sheer number of brochs, sometimes in places with a lack of good land, makes it problematic.Midhowe BrochBrochs' close groupings and profusion in many areas may indeed suggest that they had a primarily defensive or even offensive function.",
"Some of them were sited beside precipitous cliffs and were protected by large ramparts, artificial or natural: a good example is at Burland near Gulberwick in Shetland, on a clifftop and cut off from the mainland by huge ditches.",
"Often they are at key strategic points.",
"In Shetland they sometimes cluster on each side of narrow stretches of water: the Broch of Mousa, for instance, is directly opposite another at Burraland in Sandwick.",
"In Orkney there are more than a dozen on the facing shores of Eynhallow Sound, and many at the exits and entrances of the great harbour of Scapa Flow.",
"In Sutherland quite a few are placed along the sides and at the mouths of deep valleys.",
"Writing in 1956 John Stewart suggested that brochs in Shetland were forts put up by a military society to scan and protect the countryside and seas.Finally, some archaeologists consider broch sites individually, doubting that there ever was a single common purpose for which every broch was constructed.",
"There are differences in the positions, dimensions and likely status of broch in the various areas in which brochs are found.",
"For example, the broch \"villages\" which occur at a few places in Orkney have no parallel in the Western Isles."
],
[
"Structures",
"Broch of Mousa, exteriorGenerally, brochs have a single entrance with bar-holes, door-checks and lintels.",
"There are mural cells and there is a scarcement (ledge), perhaps for timber-framed lean-to dwellings lining the inner face of the wall.",
"Also there is a spiral staircase winding upwards between the inner and outer wall and connecting the galleries.",
"Brochs vary from in internal diameter, with walls.",
"On average, the walls only survive to a few metres in height.",
"There are five extant examples of towers with significantly higher walls: Dun Carloway on Lewis, Dun Telve and Dun Troddan in Glenelg, Mousa in Shetland and Dun Dornaigil in Sutherland, all of whose walls exceed in height.The remains of Dun Hallin broch, SkyeMousa's walls are the best preserved and are still tall; it is not clear how many brochs originally stood so high.",
"A frequent characteristic is that the walls are galleried: with an open space between, the outer and inner wall skins are separate but tied together with linking stone slabs; these linking slabs may in some cases have served as steps to higher floors.",
"It is normal for there to be a cell breaking off from the passage beside the door; this is known as the guard cell.",
"It has been found in some Shetland brochs that guard cells in entrance passageways are close to large door-check stones.",
"Although there was much argument in the past, it is now generally accepted among some archaeologists that brochs were roofed, perhaps with a conical timber framed roof covered with a locally sourced thatch.",
"The evidence for this assertion is still very scanty, although excavations at Dun Bharabhat, Lewis, may support it.",
"The main difficulty with the interpretation continues to be identifying potential sources of structural timber, though bog and driftwood may have been sources.Very few of the brochs on the islands of Orkney and Shetland have cells on the ground floor.",
"Most brochs have scarcements (ledges) which may have allowed the construction of a wooden first floor (spotted by the antiquary George Low in Shetland in 1774), and excavations at Loch na Berie on the Isle of Lewis may show signs of a further, second floor (e.g.",
"stairs on the first floor, which head upwards).",
"Some brochs such as Dun Dornaigil and Culswick in Shetland have unusual triangular lintels above the entrance door.GlenelgAs in the case of Old Scatness in Shetland (near Jarlshof) and Burroughston on Shapinsay, brochs were sometimes located close to arable land and a source of water (some have wells or natural springs rising within their central space).",
"Sometimes, on the other hand, they were sited in wilderness areas (e.g.",
"Levenwick and Culswick in Shetland, Castle Cole in Sutherland).",
"Brochs are often built beside the sea (Carn Liath, Sutherland); sometimes they are on islands in lochs (e.g.",
"Clickimin in Shetland).About 20 Orcadian broch sites include small settlements of stone buildings surrounding the main tower.",
"Examples include Howe, near Stromness, Gurness Broch in the north west of Mainland, Orkney, Midhowe on Rousay and Lingro near Kirkwall (destroyed by a farmer in the 1980s).",
"There are \"broch village\" sites in Caithness, but elsewhere they are unknown.Most brochs are unexcavated.",
"The end of the broch building period seems to have come around AD 100–200.Those that have been properly examined show that they continued to be in use for many centuries, with the interiors often modified and changed, and that they underwent many phases of habitation and abandonment."
],
[
"Heritage status",
"Broch of Dun TroddanThe Crucible of Iron Age Shetland's Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof sites are on the United Kingdom \"Tentative List\" of possible nominations for the UNESCO World Heritage Programme list of sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humankind.",
"This list, published in July 2010, includes sites that may be nominated for inscription over the next 5–10 years."
],
[
"New broch planned",
"The Caithness Broch Project was set up in 2013 as a project in experimental archaeology to build a broch using traditional techniques such as drystone walling.",
"Purposes of the project include possible insights into the purpose of brochs, preservation of local skills in techniques such as drystone wall building, and to attract tourists.",
"a site had not been acquired, and the funding required, estimated at £1m–£3m, had not yet been arranged."
],
[
"See also",
"* Oldest buildings in Scotland* Irish round tower* Fortified tower* Nuraghe*Ringfort"
],
[
"References and footnotes",
";General references* Armit, I.",
"(1991) The Atlantic Scottish Iron Age: five levels of chronology, ''Proc.",
"Soc.",
"Antiq.",
"Scot.''",
"v. 121, pp.",
"181–214; * Armit, I.",
"(1996) ''The Archaeology of Skye and the Western Isles'', Edinburgh University Press; * Armit, I.",
"(2003) ''Towers in the North: The Brochs of Scotland'', Stroud : Tempus; * Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I.",
"(eds) (2002) ''In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland'', Stroud: Tempus; * Fojut, N. (1982) Towards a Geography of Shetland Brochs, ''Glasgow Archaeological Journal'', v. 9, pp.",
"38–59; * Harding, D.W. (2000) ''The Hebridean Iron Age: Twenty Years’ Research'', University of Edinburgh Department of Archaeology, Occasional Paper No.",
"20; * Harding, D.W. (2004) ''The Iron Age in Northern Britain'', London : Routledge; ;Specific references and notes"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Armit, Ian (2002), ''Towers in the North: The Brochs of Scotland''.",
"The History Press.",
"* MacKie, E W 1992 The Iron Age semibrochs of Atlantic Scotland: a case study in the problems of deductive reasoning.",
"Archaeol Journ 149 (1991), 149–81.",
"* MacKie, E W 1995a Gurness and Midhowe brochs in Orkney: some problems of misinterpretation.",
"Archaeol Journ 151 (1994), 98–157.",
"* MacKie, E W 1995b The early Celts in Scotland.",
"Miranda Green (ed) The Celtic World.",
"Routledge, London: 654–70.",
"* MacKie, E W 1997 Dun Mor Vaul re-visited, J.N.G.",
"Ritchie (ed) The Archaeology of Argyll.",
"Edinburgh: 141–80.",
"* MacKie, E W 1998 Continuity over three thousand years of northern prehistory: the ‘tel’ at Howe, Orkney.",
"Antiq Journ 78, 1–42.",
"* MacKie, E W 2000 The Scottish Atlantic Iron Age: indigenous and isolated or part of a wider European world?",
"99–116 in Jon C Henderson (ed) The Prehistory and Early History of Atlantic Europe.",
"BAR International Series 861: Oxford.",
"* MacKie, E W 2002a Excavations at Dun Ardtreck, Skye, in 1964 and 1965.Proc Soc Antiq Scot 131 (2000), 301–411.",
"* MacKie, E W 2002b The Roundhouses, Brochs and Wheelhouses of Atlantic Scotland c. 700 BC – AD 500: architecture and material culture.",
"Part 1 The Orkney and Shetland Isles.",
"British Archaeological Reports British Series 342.Oxford.",
"* MacKie, E. W. 2005 119.Scottish brochs at the start of the new millennium, 11–31 in Turner, Val E, Nicholson, Rebecca A, Dockrill, S J & Bond, Julie M (eds.)",
"Tall stories?",
"Two millennia of brochs.",
"Lerwick.",
"*Ritchie, J N G (1998), ''Brochs of Scotland''.",
"Shire Publications.",
"* Hunter, Mollie, ''The Stronghold'', an historical novel about the building of the first broch."
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Towers of stone–the brochs of Scotland\", from The Scotsman, 27 February 2006.",
"* Pretanic World – Chart of Neolithic, Bronze Age and Celtic Stone Structures* Glenelg Brochs* New image of Iron Age broch reconstruction plan, from BBC, 25 January 2022.",
"* The Caithness Broch Project with Kenneth McElroy and Iain Maclean, The Shindig - An Archaeology Podcast interview, 12 January 2022."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Billy Crystal"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''William Edward Crystal''' (born March 14, 1948) is an American comedian, actor, and filmmaker.",
"Crystal is known as a standup comedian and for his film and stage roles.",
"Crystal has received numerous accolades, including six Primetime Emmy Awards and a Tony Award as well as nominations for three Grammy Awards and three Golden Globe Awards.",
"He was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991, the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor in 2007, the Critics' Choice Lifetime Achievement Award in 2022 and the Kennedy Center Honors in 2023.He gained prominence for television roles as Jodie Dallas on the ABC sitcom ''Soap'' from 1977 to 1981 and as a cast member and frequent host of ''Saturday Night Live'' from 1984 to 1985.Crystal then became known for his roles in films such as ''Running Scared'' (1986), ''Throw Momma from the Train'' (1987), ''Memories of Me'' (1988), ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989), ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' (1992), ''Forget Paris'' (1995), ''Father's Day'' (1997), and ''America's Sweethearts'' (2001).",
"He provided the voice of Mike Wazowski in the Pixar animated ''Monsters, Inc.'' franchise.",
"He has hosted the Academy Awards nine times, beginning in 1990 and most recently in 2012.He made his Broadway debut in his one man show ''700 Sundays'' in 2004 for which he won the Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event.",
"He returned to the show again in 2014 which was filmed by HBO and received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special nomination.",
"He wrote and starred in the Broadway musical ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' based on his film in 2022 for which he received two Tony Award nominations for Best Actor in a Musical and Best Book of a Musical.",
"He has written five books including his memoir ''Still Foolin' Em'' (2013)."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Jack Crystal (right) with Milt Gabler, Herbie Hill and Lou Blum at the Commodore Music Shop (1947)William Edward Crystal was born at Doctors Hospital on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, and initially raised in the Bronx.",
"As a toddler, he moved with his family to 549 East Park Avenue in Long Beach, New York, on Long Island.",
"He and his older brothers Joel, who later became an art teacher, and Richard, nicknamed Rip, were the sons of Helen (''née'' Gabler), a housewife, and Jack Crystal, who owned and operated the Commodore Music Store, founded by Crystal's grandfather, Julius Gabler.",
"Crystal's father was also a jazz promoter, a producer, and an executive for an affiliated jazz record label, Commodore Records, founded by Crystal's uncle, musician and songwriter Milt Gabler.",
"Crystal is Jewish (his family emigrated from Austria, Russia, and Lithuania), and he grew up attending Temple Emanu-El (Long Beach, New York) where he had his bar mitzvah.",
"The three young brothers would entertain by reprising comedy routines from the likes of Bob Newhart, Rich Little and Sid Caesar records their father would bring home.",
"Jazz artists such as Arvell Shaw, Pee Wee Russell, Eddie Condon, and Billie Holiday were often guests in the home.",
"With the decline of Dixieland jazz and the rise of discount record stores, in 1963, Crystal's father lost his business and died later that year at the age of 54 after having a heart attack.",
"His mother died in 2001.After graduating from Long Beach High School in 1965, Crystal attended Marshall University in Huntington, West Virginia, on a baseball scholarship, having learned the game from his father, who pitched for St. John's University.",
"Crystal never played baseball at Marshall because the program was suspended during his first year.",
"He did not return to Marshall as a sophomore, instead deciding to stay in New York to be close to his future wife.",
"He studied acting at HB Studio.",
"He attended Nassau Community College with her and later transferred to New York University, where he was a film and television directing major.",
"He graduated from NYU in 1970 with a BFA from its then School of Fine Arts.",
"One of his instructors was Martin Scorsese, while Oliver Stone and Christopher Guest were among his classmates."
],
[
"Career",
"=== 1976–1985: Standup, ''Soap'', and ''SNL'' === Crystal in 1977Crystal returned to New York City.",
"For four years, he was part of a comedy trio with two friends.",
"They played colleges and coffee houses and Crystal worked as a substitute teacher on Long Island.",
"He later became a solo act and performed regularly at ''The Improv'' and ''Catch a Rising Star''.",
"In 1976, Crystal appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and on an episode of ''All in the Family''.",
"He was on the dais for the Dean Martin celebrity roast of Muhammad Ali on February 19, 1976, where he did impressions of both Ali and sportscaster Howard Cosell.",
"He was scheduled to appear on the first episode of ''NBC Saturday Night'' on October 11, 1975 (The show was later renamed ''Saturday Night Live'' on March 26, 1977), but his sketch was cut.",
"He did perform on episode 17 of that first season, doing a monologue of an old jazz man capped by the line \"Can you dig it?",
"I knew that you could.\"",
"Host Ron Nessen introduced him as \"Bill Crystal\".",
"He made a guest appearance on \"The Love Boat\" Season 2 Episode 5, which aired on 10/20/1978.Crystal also made game show appearances such as ''The Hollywood Squares,'' ''All Star Secrets'' and ''The $20,000 Pyramid.''",
"To this day, he holds the Pyramid franchise's record for getting his contestant partner to the top of the pyramid in the winner's circle in the fastest time: 26 seconds.Soap'' (1977).",
"Back row, L-R: Robert Urich, Ted Wass, Richard Mulligan, Robert Guillaume, Robert Mandan, Jimmy Baio, Diana Canova, Arthur Peterson Jr.",
"Seated: Billy Crystal, Cathryn Damon, Katherine Helmond, Jennifer Salt.",
"Crystal's earliest prominent role was as Jodie Dallas on ''Soap,'' one of the first unambiguously gay characters in the cast of an American television series.",
"He continued in the role during the series's entire 1977–1981 run.In 1982, Billy Crystal hosted his own variety show, ''The Billy Crystal Comedy Hour'' on NBC.",
"When Crystal arrived to shoot the fifth episode, he learned it had been canceled after only the first two aired.",
"After hosting ''Saturday Night Live'' twice, on March 17, 1984, and the show's ninth season finale on May 5, he joined the regular cast for the 1984–85 season.",
"His most famous recurring sketch was his parody of Fernando Lamas, a smarmy talk-show host whose catchphrase, \"You look...",
"mahvelous!",
"\", became a media sensation.",
"Also in the 1980s, Crystal starred in an episode of Shelley Duvall's ''Faerie Tale Theatre'' as the smartest of the three little pigs.",
"Crystal's first film role was in Joan Rivers' 1978 film ''Rabbit Test'', the story of the \"world's first pregnant man.\"",
"Crystal appeared briefly in the Rob Reiner \"rockumentary\" ''This Is Spinal Tap'' (1984) as Morty The Mime, a waiter dressed as a mime at one of Spinal Tap's parties.",
"He shared the scene with a then-unknown, non-speaking Dana Carvey, stating famously that \"Mime is money.",
"\"=== 1986–1999: Oscar host and film star ===Due to the success of Crystal's standup and ''SNL'' career, in 1985, he released an album of his stand-up material titled ''Mahvelous!''.",
"The title track ''You Look Marvelous'', written by Crystal and Paul Shaffer, had an accompanying music video that debuted on MTV.",
"Both the song and video features Crystal in character as his SNL persona of talk show host Fernando Lamas.",
"The video features Lamas cruising around in what was at the time the world's longest stretch limousine, built by custom-coach designer and builder Vini Bergeman, surrounded by models in bikinis.",
"The single peaked at No.",
"58 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in the US and No.",
"17 in Canada.",
"The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording at the 1986 Grammy Awards.",
"He later starred in the action comedy ''Running Scared'' (1986) opposite Gregory Hines.",
"Film critic of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' Roger Ebert praised the two for their on-screen chemistry writing, \"But Crystal and Hines...don't need a plot because they have so much good dialogue and such a great screen relationship.",
"\"During this time Crystal hosted the Academy Awards broadcast a total of 9 times, from 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2004 and 2012.His hosting was critically praised, resulting in two Primetime Emmy Award wins for hosting and writing the 63rd Academy Awards and an Emmy win for writing the 64th Academy Awards.",
"''San Francisco Chronicle'' columnist John Carman raved about Crystal's performance for the 70th Academy Awards writing, \"It was the best Oscar show in two decades...Crystal was back in razor form.\"",
"''The Seattle Times'' television editor Kay McFadden praised Crystal commenting that \"he possesses nearly impeccable timing and judgment.",
"\"He reunited with director Rob Reiner in ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), in a comedic supporting role as \"Miracle Max\".",
"Reiner got Crystal to accept the part by saying, \"How would you like to play Mel Brooks?\"",
"Reiner also allowed Crystal to ad-lib, and his parting shot, \"Have fun storming the castle!\"",
"is a frequently quoted line.",
"Critic Roger Ebert described Crystal as a highlight of the film writing \"the funniest sequences in the film stars Billy Crystal and Carol Kane, both unrecogizable behind makeup, as an ancient wizard and crone who specialize in bringing the dead back to life\".",
"Reiner directed Crystal for a third time in the romantic comedy ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989).",
"Crystal starred alongside Meg Ryan, Bruno Kirby and Carrie Fisher in a script written by Nora Ephron.",
"''The Hollywood Reporter'' praised the film and Crystal's performance writing, \"Crystal's lustrous, deeply-shaded performance is certain to win him legions of new fans; indeed, his prowess as a comic reaches its deepest human dimension here.\"",
"He was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy losing to Morgan Freeman in ''Driving Miss Daisy'' (1989).",
"The film has since become an iconic classic for the genre and is Crystal's most celebrated film.",
"In 2019 the BBC named the film the greatest romantic comedy of all time.In 1991, Crystal created and produced the HBO six-part comedy miniseries ''Sessions'' starring Michael McKean and Elliott Gould.",
"The ''Los Angeles Times'' praised the project describing it as \"swankily written, elegantly staged and perfectly cast\".",
"Crystal then starred in the award-winning buddy comedy ''City Slickers'' (1991), which proved very successful both commercially and critically and for which Crystal was nominated for his second Golden Globe.",
"The film was followed by a sequel, which was less successful.",
"The name of his company is Face Productions.",
"''Entertainment Weekly'' praised Crystal's performance writing, \"It's also the first movie ever to do the talented Billy Crystal justice...he's far more pleasureful to watch in this sort of dramatic-comedy role than, say, Robin Williams, because his comfy, urban-shlemiel personality helps ground the jokes\".",
"Following the significant success of these films, Crystal wrote, directed, and starred in ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' (1992) and ''Forget Paris'' (1995).",
"In the former, Crystal played a serious role in aging makeup, as an egotistical comedian who reflects back on his career.In 1992, he narrated ''Dr.",
"Seuss Video Classics: Horton Hatches the Egg''.",
"Crystal was originally asked to voice Buzz Lightyear in ''Toy Story'' (1995) but turned it down, a decision he later regretted due to the popularity of the series.",
"Crystal later films include a supporting roles in Kenneth Branagh's William Shakespeare epic ''Hamlet'' (1996), and Woody Allen's critically acclaimed comedy ensemble film ''Deconstructing Harry'' (1997).",
"Crystal had starred opposite Robin Williams in ''Father's Day'' (1997) and had success alongside Robert De Niro in Harold Ramis' mobster comedy ''Analyze This'' (1999).",
"In 1996, Crystal was the guest star of the third episode of ''Muppets Tonight'' and hosted three Grammy Awards Telecasts: the 29th Grammys; the 30th Grammys; and the 31st Grammys.",
"Crystal was a guest on the first and the last episode of ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno,'' which concluded February 6, 2014, after 22 seasons on the air.===2000–2014: ''Monsters Inc.'' and Broadway debut ===Crystal at the 2013 TCL Chinese TheatreHe directed the made-for-television movie ''61*'' (2001) based on Roger Maris's and Mickey Mantle's race to break Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in 1961.This earned Crystal an Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special.",
"More recent performances include roles in ''America's Sweethearts'' (2001), the sequel ''Analyze That'' (2002), and ''Parental Guidance'' (2012).",
"Crystal later went on to provide the voice of Mike Wazowski in the blockbuster Pixar film ''Monsters, Inc.'' (2001), ''Cars'' (2006), during the epilogue in the end credits, and to reprise his voice role in the prequel, ''Monsters University'' (2013).",
"Crystal also provided the voice of Calcifer in the English version of Hayao Miyazaki's ''Howl's Moving Castle'' (2004).",
"Crystal won the 2005 Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event for ''700 Sundays'', a two-act, one-man play, which he conceived and wrote about his parents and his childhood growing up on Long Island.",
"He toured throughout the US with the show in 2006 and then Australia in 2007.Following the initial success of the play, Crystal wrote the book ''700 Sundays'' for Warner Books, which was published on October 31, 2005.In conjunction with the book and the play that also paid tribute to his uncle, Milt Gabler, Crystal produced two CD compilations: ''Billy Crystal Presents: The Milt Gabler Story'', which featured his uncle's most influential recordings from Billie Holiday's \"Strange Fruit\" to \"Rock Around the Clock\" by Bill Haley & His Comets; and ''Billy Remembers Billie'' featuring Crystal's favorite Holiday recordings.He returned as the host for the 2012 Oscar ceremony, after Eddie Murphy resigned from hosting.",
"His nine times is second only to Bob Hope's 19 in most ceremonies hosted.",
"At the 83rd Academy Awards ceremony in 2011, he appeared as a presenter for a digitally inserted Bob Hope and before doing so was given a standing ovation.",
"Film critic Roger Ebert said when Crystal came onstage about two hours into the show, he got the first laughs of the broadcast.",
"Crystal's hosting gigs have regularly included an introductory video segment in which he comedically inserts himself into scenes of that year's nominees in addition to a song following his opening monologue.",
"In 2013, Crystal released his autobiographical memoir ''Still Foolin' Em''.",
"The audiobook version was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album at the 2014 Grammy Awards.In the fall of 2013, he brought the show, ''700 Sundays'' back to Broadway for a two-month run at the Imperial Theatre.",
"HBO filmed the January 3–4, 2014 performances for a special, which debuted on their network on April 19, 2014 entitled ''Billy Crystal: 700 Sundays''.",
"The televised special received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations including Outstanding Variety Special, and Outstanding Writing for a Variety Special.In 2014, Crystal paid tribute to his close friend Robin Williams at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards.",
"In his tribute he talked about their friendship, saying, \"As genius as he was on stage, he was the greatest friend you could ever imagine.",
"Supportive.",
"Protective.",
"Loving.",
"It's very hard to talk about him in the past because he was so present in all of our lives.",
"For almost 40 years, he was the brightest star in the comedy galaxy…His beautiful light will continue to shine on us forever.",
"And the glow will be so bright, it'll warm your heart.",
"It'll make your eyes glisten.",
"And you'll think to yourselves: Robin Williams.",
"What a concept.\"",
"Crystal stated that paying tribute to Williams so publicly and so soon after Williams had died was one of \"the hardest things I've had to do\" and that \"I was really worried that I wasn't going to get through it.\"",
"Crystal soon after appeared on ''The View'' where he and Whoopi Goldberg shared stories about Williams, reminiscing about their friendship, and their collaborations together on ''Comic Relief''.=== 2015–present: Return to Broadway ===President Joe Biden, Crystal, Renée Fleming, Dionne Warrick, Queen Latifah, Barry Gibb, Jill Biden in 2023In 2015, Crystal co-starred alongside Josh Gad on the FX comedy series ''The Comedians'', which ran for just one season before being canceled.",
"His series received mixed reviews with many critics noting the chemistry developed further as the series went on.",
"The series was compared to backstage shows such as ''The Larry Sanders Show'' and ''30 Rock''.",
"Kate Kulzick of ''The A.V.",
"Club'' wrote \"The odd-couple pairing of Crystal and Gad works well, with their generational divide providing many of the show's early highlights...The friendly rapport that develops between the fictionalized Billy and Josh allows them to relax a bit and get to know each other better\".In 2016, Crystal gave one of the eulogies for Muhammad Ali at his funeral.",
"In his remembrance of Ali, Crystal talked about his admiration for Ali as a boxer, and humanitarian.",
"He also shared stories of their unlikely friendship after Crystal did a series of impersonations of him.",
"Crystal stated of Ali's legacy, \"Only once in a thousand years or so, do we get to hear a Mozart, or see a Picasso, or read a Shakespeare.",
"Ali was one of them.",
"And yet, at his heart, he was still a kid from Louisville who ran with the gods and walked with the crippled and smiled at the foolishness of it all.",
"\"In the fall of 2021, Crystal reprised the role of Buddy Young Jr., in a theatrical musical staging of ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' at the Barrington Stage Company in Pittsfield, MA.",
"In 2022, Crystal adapted his 1992 movie ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' into a Broadway musical with the same name.",
"Crystal stars in the musical reprising his role from the film alongside David Paymer.",
"The production began previews on Broadway at the Nederlander Theatre on March 29, 2022, prior to officially opening on April 27.Crystal earned the Drama League Award for Contribution to the Theater Award for \"his extraordinary work on stages across the country and commitment to mentorship in the field\".",
"Crystal performed a number with the ensemble from his musical at the 75th Tony Awards.",
"He also performed what he described as Yiddish scat singing.",
"He went into the crowd teaching Lin-Manuel Miranda and Samuel L. Jackson as well as the rest of the audience.",
"''The New York Times'' praised Crystal on his bit, describing it as a highlight of the telecast writing, \"one of the few moments that broke through...is when Crystal brought it out into the audience, and threw it up to the balcony, he showed how precision delivery and command of a room can make even the oldest, silliest material impossibly compelling.",
"\"In 2023 Crystal was celebrated by the Kennedy Center Honors.",
"Tributes came from Rob Reiner, Meg Ryan, Whoopi Goldberg, Robert De Niro, Jay Leno, and Bob Costas.",
"Lin-Manuel Miranda and Marc Shaiman did a tribute to Crystal's \"Oscar Medleys\" to the tunes of \"Too Marvelous for Words\", \"It Had to Be You\" (the theme from ''When Harry Met Sally...'') and \"My Favorite Things\" from ''The Sound of Music''."
],
[
"Acting credits and accolades",
"Crystal has received numerous accolades including six Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program as the host of the ''31st Annual Grammy Awards'' (1989), ''63rd Academy Awards'' (1991), and ''70th Academy Awards'' (1998) and the Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series for writing his comedy special ''Midnight Train to Moscow'' (1990), and the ''63rd Academy Awards'' and ''64th Academy Awards'' (1992).",
"For his Broadway debut, his one man show ''700 Sundays'' (2005), he won the Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event, and the Drama Desk Award.",
"He received further Tony nominations for Best Actor in a Musical and Best Book of a Musical for ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' (2022).He received nominations for three Grammy Awards for Best Comedy Album for ''You Look Marvelous'' (1986), Best Spoken Word Album for ''Still Foolin' Em'' (2014), and Best Musical Theatre Album for ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' (2023).",
"He also received three Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his performances in the romantic comedy ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989), the western comedy ''City Slickers'' (1991), and Crystal's directorial debut ''Mr.",
"Saturday Night'' (1992).He has also received numerous honors including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991, and was awarded with the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor in 2007 where he was honored by Robin Williams, Whoopi Goldberg, Robert De Niro, Martin Short, and Rob Reiner at the John F. Kennedy Center for Performing Arts in Washington D.C.",
"He was made one of the Disney Legends in 2013 and also received the Critics' Choice Lifetime Achievement Award in 2022 and the Kennedy Center Honors in 2023."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Albums===*''Mahvelous!",
"'', (A&M Records, 1985) #65 US===Singles===*\"You Look Marvelous\", (A&M Records, 1985) #58 US*\"I Hate When That Happens\", (A&M Records, 1985)*\"The Christmas Song\", (A&M Records, 1985)"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"Personal life",
"On June 4, 1970, Crystal married his high school sweetheart, Janice Goldfinger.",
"Crystal has long credited his parents, \"who always looked like they loved being together,\" with setting an example for his own marriage.",
"They have two daughters: actress Jennifer and Lindsay, a producer, and are grandparents.",
"They live in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles, California.Crystal received an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from New York University in 2016 and spoke at the commencement at Yankee Stadium.=== Philanthropy ===In 1986, Crystal started hosting ''Comic Relief'' on HBO with Robin Williams and Whoopi Goldberg.",
"Founded by Bob Zmuda, Comic Relief raises money for homeless people in the United States.On September 6, 2005, on ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'', Crystal and Jay Leno were the first celebrities to sign a Harley-Davidson motorcycle to be auctioned off for Gulf Coast relief.Crystal has participated in the Simon Wiesenthal Center Museum of Tolerance in Los Angeles.",
"Crystal's personal history is featured in the \"Finding Our Families, Finding Ourselves\" exhibit in the genealogy wing of the museum.=== Political views ===Crystal is a supporter of the Democratic Party and has appeared in advertisements on behalf of the party.Crystal was an outspoken critic of Donald Trump, during Trump's 2016 Presidential campaign.",
"He supported Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election.=== Sports ===On March 12, 2008, Crystal signed a one-day minor league contract to play with the New York Yankees, and he was invited to the team's major league spring training.",
"He wore uniform number 60 in honor of his upcoming 60th birthday.",
"On March 13, in a spring training game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, Crystal led off as the designated hitter.",
"He managed to make contact, fouling a fastball up the first base line, but was eventually struck out by Pirates pitcher Paul Maholm on six pitches and was later replaced in the batting order by Johnny Damon.",
"He was released on March 14, his 60th birthday.Crystal's boyhood idol was Yankee Hall of Fame legend Mickey Mantle, who had signed a program for him when Crystal attended a game where Mantle had hit a home run.",
"Years later on ''The Dinah Shore Show'', in one of his first television appearances, Crystal met Mantle in person and had Mantle re-sign the same program.",
"Crystal would be good friends with Mantle until Mantle's death in 1995.He and Bob Costas together wrote the eulogy Costas read at Mantle's funeral, and George Steinbrenner then invited Crystal to emcee the unveiling of Mantle's monument at Yankee Stadium.",
"In his 2013 memoir ''Still Foolin' 'Em'', Crystal claimed that after the ceremony, near the Yankees clubhouse, he was punched in the stomach by Joe DiMaggio, who was angry at Crystal for not having introduced him to the crowd as the \"Greatest living player\".Crystal also was well known for his impressions of Yankees Hall of Famer turned broadcaster Phil Rizzuto.",
"Rizzuto, known for his quirks calling games, did not travel to Anaheim, California in 1996 to call the game for WPIX.",
"Instead, Crystal joined the broadcasters in the booth and pretended to be Rizzuto for a few minutes during the August 31 game.Although a lifelong Yankees fan, he is a part-owner of the Arizona Diamondbacks, even earning a World Series ring in 2001 when the Diamondbacks beat his beloved Yankees.In ''City Slickers'', Crystal wore a New York Mets baseball cap.",
"In the 1986 film ''Running Scared'', his character is an avid Chicago Cubs fan, wearing a Cubs' jersey in several scenes.",
"In the 2012 film ''Parental Guidance'', his character is the announcer for the Fresno Grizzlies, a Minor League Baseball team, who aspires to announce for their Major League affiliate, the San Francisco Giants.Crystal appeared in Ken Burns's 1994 documentary ''Baseball'', telling personal stories about his life-long love of baseball, including meeting Casey Stengel as a child and Ted Williams as an adult.Crystal is also a longtime Los Angeles Clippers fan and season ticket holder."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** * Website for Billy Crystal's book ''Still Foolin' 'Em'' *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Black hole"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''black hole''' is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape it.",
"Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole.",
"The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon.",
"A black hole has a great effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, but it has no locally detectable features according to general relativity.",
"In many ways, a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light.",
"Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass.",
"This temperature is of the order of billionths of a kelvin for stellar black holes, making it essentially impossible to observe directly.Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace.",
"In 1916, Karl Schwarzschild found the first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole.",
"David Finkelstein, in 1958, first published the interpretation of \"black hole\" as a region of space from which nothing can escape.",
"Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity; it was not until the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity.",
"The discovery of neutron stars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967 sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality.",
"The first black hole known was Cygnus X-1, identified by several researchers independently in 1971.Black holes of stellar mass form when massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle.",
"After a black hole has formed, it can grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings.",
"Supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses () may form by absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, or via direct collapse of gas clouds.",
"There is consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centres of most galaxies.The presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light.",
"Any matter that falls toward a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction, forming quasars, some of the brightest objects in the universe.",
"Stars passing too close to a supermassive black hole can be shredded into streamers that shine very brightly before being \"swallowed.\"",
"If other stars are orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black hole's mass and location.",
"Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars.",
"In this way, astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A*, at the core of the Milky Way galaxy, contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses."
],
[
"History",
"The idea of a body so big that even light could not escape was briefly proposed by English astronomical pioneer and clergyman John Michell in a letter published in November 1784.Michell's simplistic calculations assumed such a body might have the same density as the Sun, and concluded that one would form when a star's diameter exceeds the Sun's by a factor of 500, and its surface escape velocity exceeds the usual speed of light.",
"Michell referred to these bodies as dark stars.",
"He correctly noted that such supermassive but non-radiating bodies might be detectable through their gravitational effects on nearby visible bodies.",
"Scholars of the time were initially excited by the proposal that giant but invisible 'dark stars' might be hiding in plain view, but enthusiasm dampened when the wavelike nature of light became apparent in the early nineteenth century, as if light were a wave rather than a particle, it was unclear what, if any, influence gravity would have on escaping light waves.The modern theory of gravity, general relativity, discredits Michell's notion of a light ray shooting directly from the surface of a supermassive star, being slowed down by the star's gravity, stopping, and then free-falling back to the star's surface.",
"Instead, spacetime itself is curved such that the geodesic light travels on never leaves the surface of the \"star\" (black hole).=== General relativity ===In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity, having earlier shown that gravity does influence light's motion.",
"Only a few months later, Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations that describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass.",
"A few months after Schwarzschild, Johannes Droste, a student of Hendrik Lorentz, independently gave the same solution for the point mass and wrote more extensively about its properties.",
"This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius, where it became singular, meaning that some of the terms in the Einstein equations became infinite.",
"The nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time.In 1924, Arthur Eddington showed that the singularity disappeared after a change of coordinates, although it took until 1933 for Georges Lemaître to realize that this meant the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius was a non-physical coordinate singularity.",
"Arthur Eddington did however comment on the possibility of a star with mass compressed to the Schwarzschild radius in a 1926 book, noting that Einstein's theory allows us to rule out overly large densities for visible stars like Betelgeuse because \"a star of 250 million km radius could not possibly have so high a density as the Sun.",
"Firstly, the force of gravitation would be so great that light would be unable to escape from it, the rays falling back to the star like a stone to the earth.",
"Secondly, the red shift of the spectral lines would be so great that the spectrum would be shifted out of existence.",
"Thirdly, the mass would produce so much curvature of the spacetime metric that space would close up around the star, leaving us outside (i.e., nowhere).",
"\"In 1931, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculated, using special relativity, that a non-rotating body of electron-degenerate matter above a certain limiting mass (now called the Chandrasekhar limit at ) has no stable solutions.",
"His arguments were opposed by many of his contemporaries like Eddington and Lev Landau, who argued that some yet unknown mechanism would stop the collapse.",
"They were partly correct: a white dwarf slightly more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star, which is itself stable.",
"But in 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that neutron stars above another limit (the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit) would collapse further for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar, and concluded that no law of physics was likely to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes.",
"Their original calculations, based on the Pauli exclusion principle, gave it as ; subsequent consideration of neutron-neutron repulsion mediated by the strong force raised the estimate to approximately to .",
"Observations of the neutron star merger GW170817, which is thought to have generated a black hole shortly afterward, have refined the TOV limit estimate to ~.",
"Oppenheimer and his co-authors interpreted the singularity at the boundary of the Schwarzschild radius as indicating that this was the boundary of a bubble in which time stopped.",
"This is a valid point of view for external observers, but not for infalling observers.",
"Because of this property, the collapsed stars were called \"frozen stars\", because an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where its collapse takes it to the Schwarzschild radius.Also in 1939, Einstein would attempt to prove that black holes were impossible in his publication \"On a Stationary System with Spherical Symmetry Consisting of Many Gravitating Masses\", using his theory of general relativity to defend his argument.",
"Months later, Oppenheimer and his student Hartland Snyder would provide the Oppenheimer–Snyder model in their paper \"On Continued Gravitational Contraction\", which predicted the existence of black holes.",
"In the paper, which made no reference to Einstein's recent publication, Oppenheimer and Snyder used Einstein's own theory of general relativity to show the conditions on how a black hole could develop for the first time in contemporary physics .==== Golden age ====In 1958, David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon, \"a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction\".",
"This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers.",
"Finkelstein's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole.",
"A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal, who was urged to publish it.These results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativity, which was marked by general relativity and black holes becoming mainstream subjects of research.",
"This process was helped by the discovery of pulsars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967, which, by 1969, were shown to be rapidly rotating neutron stars.",
"Until that time, neutron stars, like black holes, were regarded as just theoretical curiosities; but the discovery of pulsars showed their physical relevance and spurred a further interest in all types of compact objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse.In this period more general black hole solutions were found.",
"In 1963, Roy Kerr found the exact solution for a rotating black hole.",
"Two years later, Ezra Newman found the axisymmetric solution for a black hole that is both rotating and electrically charged.",
"Through the work of Werner Israel, Brandon Carter, and David Robinson the no-hair theorem emerged, stating that a stationary black hole solution is completely described by the three parameters of the Kerr–Newman metric: mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.At first, it was suspected that the strange features of the black hole solutions were pathological artifacts from the symmetry conditions imposed, and that the singularities would not appear in generic situations.",
"This view was held in particular by Vladimir Belinsky, Isaak Khalatnikov, and Evgeny Lifshitz, who tried to prove that no singularities appear in generic solutions.",
"However, in the late 1960s Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking used global techniques to prove that singularities appear generically.",
"For this work, Penrose received half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics, Hawking having died in 2018.Based on observations in Greenwich and Toronto in the early 1970s, Cygnus X-1, a galactic X-ray source discovered in 1964, became the first astronomical object commonly accepted to be a black hole.Work by James Bardeen, Jacob Bekenstein, Carter, and Hawking in the early 1970s led to the formulation of black hole thermodynamics.",
"These laws describe the behaviour of a black hole in close analogy to the laws of thermodynamics by relating mass to energy, area to entropy, and surface gravity to temperature.",
"The analogy was completed when Hawking, in 1974, showed that quantum field theory implies that black holes should radiate like a black body with a temperature proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole, predicting the effect now known as Hawking radiation.===Observation===On 11 February 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and the Virgo collaboration announced the first direct detection of gravitational waves, representing the first observation of a black hole merger.",
"On 10 April 2019, the first direct image of a black hole and its vicinity was published, following observations made by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) in 2017 of the supermassive black hole in Messier 87's galactic centre.",
", the nearest known body thought to be a black hole, Gaia BH1, is around away.",
"Though only a couple dozen black holes have been found so far in the Milky Way, there are thought to be hundreds of millions, most of which are solitary and do not cause emission of radiation.",
"Therefore, they would only be detectable by gravitational lensing.=== Etymology ===John Michell used the term \"dark star\" in a November 1783 letter to Henry Cavendish, and in the early 20th century, physicists used the term \"gravitationally collapsed object\".",
"Science writer Marcia Bartusiak traces the term \"black hole\" to physicist Robert H. Dicke, who in the early 1960s reportedly compared the phenomenon to the Black Hole of Calcutta, notorious as a prison where people entered but never left alive.The term \"black hole\" was used in print by ''Life'' and ''Science News'' magazines in 1963, and by science journalist Ann Ewing in her article Black Holes' in Space\", dated 18 January 1964, which was a report on a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science held in Cleveland, Ohio.In December 1967, a student reportedly suggested the phrase \"black hole\" at a lecture by John Wheeler; Wheeler adopted the term for its brevity and \"advertising value\", and it quickly caught on, leading some to credit Wheeler with coining the phrase."
],
[
"Properties and structure",
"The no-hair theorem postulates that, once it achieves a stable condition after formation, a black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, electric charge, and angular momentum; the black hole is otherwise featureless.",
"If the conjecture is true, any two black holes that share the same values for these properties, or parameters, are indistinguishable from one another.",
"The degree to which the conjecture is true for real black holes under the laws of modern physics is currently an unsolved problem.These properties are special because they are visible from outside a black hole.",
"For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object.",
"Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss's law (through the ADM mass), far away from the black hole.",
"Likewise, the angular momentum (or spin) can be measured from far away using frame dragging by the gravitomagnetic field, through for example the Lense–Thirring effect.Artistic depiction of a black hole and its featuresWhen an object falls into a black hole, any information about the shape of the object or distribution of charge on it is evenly distributed along the horizon of the black hole, and is lost to outside observers.",
"The behavior of the horizon in this situation is a dissipative system that is closely analogous to that of a conductive stretchy membrane with friction and electrical resistance—the membrane paradigm.",
"This is different from other field theories such as electromagnetism, which do not have any friction or resistivity at the microscopic level, because they are time-reversible.",
"Because a black hole eventually achieves a stable state with only three parameters, there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions: the gravitational and electric fields of a black hole give very little information about what went in.",
"The information that is lost includes every quantity that cannot be measured far away from the black hole horizon, including approximately conserved quantum numbers such as the total baryon number and lepton number.",
"This behavior is so puzzling that it has been called the black hole information loss paradox.=== Physical properties ===An animation of how light rays can be gravitationally bentThe simplest static black holes have mass but neither electric charge nor angular momentum.",
"These black holes are often referred to as Schwarzschild black holes after Karl Schwarzschild who discovered this solution in 1916.According to Birkhoff's theorem, it is the only vacuum solution that is spherically symmetric.",
"This means there is no observable difference at a distance between the gravitational field of such a black hole and that of any other spherical object of the same mass.",
"The popular notion of a black hole \"sucking in everything\" in its surroundings is therefore correct only near a black hole's horizon; far away, the external gravitational field is identical to that of any other body of the same mass.Solutions describing more general black holes also exist.",
"Non-rotating charged black holes are described by the Reissner–Nordström metric, while the Kerr metric describes a non-charged rotating black hole.",
"The most general stationary black hole solution known is the Kerr–Newman metric, which describes a black hole with both charge and angular momentum.While the mass of a black hole can take any positive value, the charge and angular momentum are constrained by the mass.",
"The total electric charge ''Q'' and the total angular momentum ''J'' are expected to satisfy the inequality:for a black hole of mass ''M''.",
"Black holes with the minimum possible mass satisfying this inequality are called extremal.",
"Solutions of Einstein's equations that violate this inequality exist, but they do not possess an event horizon.",
"These solutions have so-called naked singularities that can be observed from the outside, and hence are deemed ''unphysical''.",
"The cosmic censorship hypothesis rules out the formation of such singularities, when they are created through the gravitational collapse of realistic matter.",
"This is supported by numerical simulations.Due to the relatively large strength of the electromagnetic force, black holes forming from the collapse of stars are expected to retain the nearly neutral charge of the star.",
"Rotation, however, is expected to be a universal feature of compact astrophysical objects.",
"The black-hole candidate binary X-ray source GRS 1915+105 appears to have an angular momentum near the maximum allowed value.",
"That uncharged limit is:allowing definition of a dimensionless spin parameter such that:+ Black hole classifications Class Approx.mass Approx.radiusUltramassive black hole – >1,000 AUSupermassive black hole – 0.001–400 AUIntermediate-mass black hole – 10 km ≈ ''R''Stellar black hole 30 kmMicro black hole up to ''M'' up to 0.1 mmBlack holes are commonly classified according to their mass, independent of angular momentum, ''J''.",
"The size of a black hole, as determined by the radius of the event horizon, or Schwarzschild radius, is proportional to the mass, ''M'', through:where ''r'' is the Schwarzschild radius and is the mass of the Sun.",
"For a black hole with nonzero spin and/or electric charge, the radius is smaller, until an extremal black hole could have an event horizon close to:=== Event horizon ===The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon—a boundary in spacetime through which matter and light can pass only inward towards the mass of the black hole.",
"Nothing, not even light, can escape from inside the event horizon.",
"The event horizon is referred to as such because if an event occurs within the boundary, information from that event cannot reach an outside observer, making it impossible to determine whether such an event occurred.As predicted by general relativity, the presence of a mass deforms spacetime in such a way that the paths taken by particles bend towards the mass.",
"At the event horizon of a black hole, this deformation becomes so strong that there are no paths that lead away from the black hole.To a distant observer, clocks near a black hole would appear to tick more slowly than those farther away from the black hole.",
"Due to this effect, known as gravitational time dilation, an object falling into a black hole appears to slow as it approaches the event horizon, taking an infinite time to reach it.",
"At the same time, all processes on this object slow down, from the viewpoint of a fixed outside observer, causing any light emitted by the object to appear redder and dimmer, an effect known as gravitational redshift.",
"Eventually, the falling object fades away until it can no longer be seen.",
"Typically this process happens very rapidly with an object disappearing from view within less than a second.On the other hand, indestructible observers falling into a black hole do not notice any of these effects as they cross the event horizon.",
"According to their own clocks, which appear to them to tick normally, they cross the event horizon after a finite time without noting any singular behaviour; in classical general relativity, it is impossible to determine the location of the event horizon from local observations, due to Einstein's equivalence principle.The topology of the event horizon of a black hole at equilibrium is always spherical.",
"For non-rotating (static) black holes the geometry of the event horizon is precisely spherical, while for rotating black holes the event horizon is oblate.=== Singularity ===At the centre of a black hole, as described by general relativity, may lie a gravitational singularity, a region where the spacetime curvature becomes infinite.",
"For a non-rotating black hole, this region takes the shape of a single point; for a rotating black hole it is smeared out to form a ring singularity that lies in the plane of rotation.",
"In both cases, the singular region has zero volume.",
"It can also be shown that the singular region contains all the mass of the black hole solution.",
"The singular region can thus be thought of as having infinite density.Observers falling into a Schwarzschild black hole (i.e., non-rotating and not charged) cannot avoid being carried into the singularity once they cross the event horizon.",
"They can prolong the experience by accelerating away to slow their descent, but only up to a limit.",
"When they reach the singularity, they are crushed to infinite density and their mass is added to the total of the black hole.",
"Before that happens, they will have been torn apart by the growing tidal forces in a process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the \"noodle effect\".In the case of a charged (Reissner–Nordström) or rotating (Kerr) black hole, it is possible to avoid the singularity.",
"Extending these solutions as far as possible reveals the hypothetical possibility of exiting the black hole into a different spacetime with the black hole acting as a wormhole.",
"The possibility of traveling to another universe is, however, only theoretical since any perturbation would destroy this possibility.",
"It also appears to be possible to follow closed timelike curves (returning to one's own past) around the Kerr singularity, which leads to problems with causality like the grandfather paradox.",
"It is expected that none of these peculiar effects would survive in a proper quantum treatment of rotating and charged black holes.The appearance of singularities in general relativity is commonly perceived as signaling the breakdown of the theory.",
"This breakdown, however, is expected; it occurs in a situation where quantum effects should describe these actions, due to the extremely high density and therefore particle interactions.",
"To date, it has not been possible to combine quantum and gravitational effects into a single theory, although there exist attempts to formulate such a theory of quantum gravity.",
"It is generally expected that such a theory will not feature any singularities.=== Photon sphere ===The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole.",
"For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius.",
"Their orbits would be dynamically unstable, hence any small perturbation, such as a particle of infalling matter, would cause an instability that would grow over time, either setting the photon on an outward trajectory causing it to escape the black hole, or on an inward spiral where it would eventually cross the event horizon.While light can still escape from the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole.",
"Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon.",
"For a Kerr black hole the radius of the photon sphere depends on the spin parameter and on the details of the photon orbit, which can be prograde (the photon rotates in the same sense of the black hole spin) or retrograde.=== Ergosphere ===The ergosphere is a region outside of the event horizon, where objects cannot remain in place.Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere.",
"This is the result of a process known as frame-dragging; general relativity predicts that any rotating mass will tend to slightly \"drag\" along the spacetime immediately surrounding it.",
"Any object near the rotating mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation.",
"For a rotating black hole, this effect is so strong near the event horizon that an object would have to move faster than the speed of light in the opposite direction to just stand still.The ergosphere of a black hole is a volume bounded by the black hole's event horizon and the ''ergosurface'', which coincides with the event horizon at the poles but is at a much greater distance around the equator.Objects and radiation can escape normally from the ergosphere.",
"Through the Penrose process, objects can emerge from the ergosphere with more energy than they entered with.",
"The extra energy is taken from the rotational energy of the black hole.",
"Thereby the rotation of the black hole slows down.",
"A variation of the Penrose process in the presence of strong magnetic fields, the Blandford–Znajek process is considered a likely mechanism for the enormous luminosity and relativistic jets of quasars and other active galactic nuclei.=== Innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) ===In Newtonian gravity, test particles can stably orbit at arbitrary distances from a central object.",
"In general relativity, however, there exists an innermost stable circular orbit (often called the ISCO), for which any infinitesimal inward perturbations to a circular orbit will lead to spiraling into the black hole, and any outward perturbations will, depending on the energy, result in spiraling in, stably orbiting between apastron and periastron, or escaping to infinity.",
"The location of the ISCO depends on the spin of the black hole, in the case of a Schwarzschild black hole (spin zero) is::and decreases with increasing black hole spin for particles orbiting in the same direction as the spin."
],
[
"Formation and evolution",
"Given the bizarre character of black holes, it was long questioned whether such objects could actually exist in nature or whether they were merely pathological solutions to Einstein's equations.",
"Einstein himself wrongly thought black holes would not form, because he held that the angular momentum of collapsing particles would stabilize their motion at some radius.",
"This led the general relativity community to dismiss all results to the contrary for many years.",
"However, a minority of relativists continued to contend that black holes were physical objects, and by the end of the 1960s, they had persuaded the majority of researchers in the field that there is no obstacle to the formation of an event horizon.Penrose demonstrated that once an event horizon forms, general relativity without quantum mechanics requires that a singularity will form within.",
"Shortly afterwards, Hawking showed that many cosmological solutions that describe the Big Bang have singularities without scalar fields or other exotic matter.",
"The Kerr solution, the no-hair theorem, and the laws of black hole thermodynamics showed that the physical properties of black holes were simple and comprehensible, making them respectable subjects for research.",
"Conventional black holes are formed by gravitational collapse of heavy objects such as stars, but they can also in theory be formed by other processes.=== Gravitational collapse ===Gas cloud being ripped apart by black hole at the centre of the Milky Way (observations from 2006, 2010 and 2013 are shown in blue, green and red, respectively).Gravitational collapse occurs when an object's internal pressure is insufficient to resist the object's own gravity.",
"For stars this usually occurs either because a star has too little \"fuel\" left to maintain its temperature through stellar nucleosynthesis, or because a star that would have been stable receives extra matter in a way that does not raise its core temperature.",
"In either case the star's temperature is no longer high enough to prevent it from collapsing under its own weight.The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state.",
"The result is one of the various types of compact star.",
"Which type forms depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left if the outer layers have been blown away (for example, in a Type II supernova).",
"The mass of the remnant, the collapsed object that survives the explosion, can be substantially less than that of the original star.",
"Remnants exceeding are produced by stars that were over before the collapse.If the mass of the remnant exceeds about (the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit), either because the original star was very heavy or because the remnant collected additional mass through accretion of matter, even the degeneracy pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse.",
"No known mechanism (except possibly quark degeneracy pressure) is powerful enough to stop the implosion and the object will inevitably collapse to form a black hole.The gravitational collapse of heavy stars is assumed to be responsible for the formation of stellar mass black holes.",
"Star formation in the early universe may have resulted in very massive stars, which upon their collapse would have produced black holes of up to .",
"These black holes could be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centres of most galaxies.",
"It has further been suggested that massive black holes with typical masses of ~ could have formed from the direct collapse of gas clouds in the young universe.",
"These massive objects have been proposed as the seeds that eventually formed the earliest quasars observed already at redshift .",
"Some candidates for such objects have been found in observations of the young universe.While most of the energy released during gravitational collapse is emitted very quickly, an outside observer does not actually see the end of this process.",
"Even though the collapse takes a finite amount of time from the reference frame of infalling matter, a distant observer would see the infalling material slow and halt just above the event horizon, due to gravitational time dilation.",
"Light from the collapsing material takes longer and longer to reach the observer, with the light emitted just before the event horizon forms delayed an infinite amount of time.",
"Thus the external observer never sees the formation of the event horizon; instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red-shifted, eventually fading away.==== Primordial black holes and the Big Bang ====Gravitational collapse requires great density.",
"In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are found only in stars, but in the early universe shortly after the Big Bang densities were much greater, possibly allowing for the creation of black holes.",
"High density alone is not enough to allow black hole formation since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up.",
"In order for primordial black holes to have formed in such a dense medium, there must have been initial density perturbations that could then grow under their own gravity.",
"Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the scale of these fluctuations.",
"Various models predict the creation of primordial black holes ranging in size from a Planck mass ( ≈ ≈ ) to hundreds of thousands of solar masses.Despite the early universe being extremely dense, it did not re-collapse into a black hole during the Big Bang, since the expansion rate was greater than the attraction.",
"Following inflation theory there was a net repulsive gravitation in the beginning until the end of inflation.",
"Since then the Hubble flow was slowed by the energy density of the universe.Models for the gravitational collapse of objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, do not necessarily apply in the same way to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang.=== High-energy collisions ===Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes.",
"In principle, black holes could be formed in high-energy collisions that achieve sufficient density.",
"As of 2002, no such events have been detected, either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments.",
"This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes.",
"Theoretically, this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass, where quantum effects are expected to invalidate the predictions of general relativity.",
"This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high-energy process occurring on or near the Earth.",
"However, certain developments in quantum gravity suggest that the minimum black hole mass could be much lower: some braneworld scenarios for example put the boundary as low as .",
"This would make it conceivable for micro black holes to be created in the high-energy collisions that occur when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.",
"These theories are very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists.",
"Even if micro black holes could be formed, it is expected that they would evaporate in about 10 seconds, posing no threat to the Earth.=== Growth ===Once a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter.",
"Any black hole will continually absorb gas and interstellar dust from its surroundings.",
"This growth process is one possible way through which some supermassive black holes may have been formed, although the formation of supermassive black holes is still an open field of research.",
"A similar process has been suggested for the formation of intermediate-mass black holes found in globular clusters.",
"Black holes can also merge with other objects such as stars or even other black holes.",
"This is thought to have been important, especially in the early growth of supermassive black holes, which could have formed from the aggregation of many smaller objects.",
"The process has also been proposed as the origin of some intermediate-mass black holes.=== Evaporation ===In 1974, Hawking predicted that black holes are not entirely black but emit small amounts of thermal radiation at a temperature ℏ''c''/(8π''GM''''k''); this effect has become known as Hawking radiation.",
"By applying quantum field theory to a static black hole background, he determined that a black hole should emit particles that display a perfect black body spectrum.",
"Since Hawking's publication, many others have verified the result through various approaches.",
"If Hawking's theory of black hole radiation is correct, then black holes are expected to shrink and evaporate over time as they lose mass by the emission of photons and other particles.",
"The temperature of this thermal spectrum (Hawking temperature) is proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole, which, for a Schwarzschild black hole, is inversely proportional to the mass.",
"Hence, large black holes emit less radiation than small black holes.A stellar black hole of has a Hawking temperature of 62 nanokelvins.",
"This is far less than the 2.7 K temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation.",
"Stellar-mass or larger black holes receive more mass from the cosmic microwave background than they emit through Hawking radiation and thus will grow instead of shrinking.",
"To have a Hawking temperature larger than 2.7 K (and be able to evaporate), a black hole would need a mass less than the Moon.",
"Such a black hole would have a diameter of less than a tenth of a millimeter.If a black hole is very small, the radiation effects are expected to become very strong.",
"A black hole with the mass of a car would have a diameter of about 10 m and take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity of more than 200 times that of the Sun.",
"Lower-mass black holes are expected to evaporate even faster; for example, a black hole of mass 1 TeV/''c'' would take less than 10 seconds to evaporate completely.",
"For such a small black hole, quantum gravity effects are expected to play an important role and could hypothetically make such a small black hole stable, although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate this is the case.The Hawking radiation for an astrophysical black hole is predicted to be very weak and would thus be exceedingly difficult to detect from Earth.",
"A possible exception, however, is the burst of gamma rays emitted in the last stage of the evaporation of primordial black holes.",
"Searches for such flashes have proven unsuccessful and provide stringent limits on the possibility of existence of low mass primordial black holes.",
"NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope launched in 2008 will continue the search for these flashes.If black holes evaporate via Hawking radiation, a solar mass black hole will evaporate (beginning once the temperature of the cosmic microwave background drops below that of the black hole) over a period of 10 years.",
"A supermassive black hole with a mass of will evaporate in around 2×10 years.",
"Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies.",
"Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10 years.Some models of quantum gravity predict modifications of the Hawking description of black holes.",
"In particular, the evolution equations describing the mass loss rate and charge loss rate get modified."
],
[
"Observational evidence",
"By nature, black holes do not themselves emit any electromagnetic radiation other than the hypothetical Hawking radiation, so astrophysicists searching for black holes must generally rely on indirect observations.",
"For example, a black hole's existence can sometimes be inferred by observing its gravitational influence on its surroundings.=== Direct interferometry ===A view of M87* black hole in polarised lightSagittarius A*, black hole in the center of the Milky WayThe Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is an active program that directly observes the immediate environment of black holes' event horizons, such as the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way.",
"In April 2017, EHT began observing the black hole at the centre of Messier 87.",
"\"In all, eight radio observatories on six mountains and four continents observed the galaxy in Virgo on and off for 10 days in April 2017\" to provide the data yielding the image in April 2019.After two years of data processing, EHT released the first direct image of a black hole; specifically, the supermassive black hole that lies in the centre of the aforementioned galaxy.",
"What is visible is not the black hole—which shows as black because of the loss of all light within this dark region.",
"Instead, it is the gases at the edge of the event horizon (displayed as orange or red) that define the black hole.On 12 May 2022, the EHT released the first image of Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way galaxy.",
"The published image displayed the same ring-like structure and circular shadow as seen in the M87* black hole, and the image was created using the same techniques as for the M87 black hole.",
"However, the imaging process for Sagittarius A*, which is more than a thousand times smaller and less massive than M87*, was significantly more complex because of the instability of its surroundings.",
"The image of Sagittarius A* was also partially blurred by turbulent plasma on the way to the galactic centre, an effect which prevents resolution of the image at longer wavelengths.The brightening of this material in the 'bottom' half of the processed EHT image is thought to be caused by Doppler beaming, whereby material approaching the viewer at relativistic speeds is perceived as brighter than material moving away.",
"In the case of a black hole, this phenomenon implies that the visible material is rotating at relativistic speeds (>), the only speeds at which it is possible to centrifugally balance the immense gravitational attraction of the singularity, and thereby remain in orbit above the event horizon.",
"This configuration of bright material implies that the EHT observed M87* from a perspective catching the black hole's accretion disc nearly edge-on, as the whole system rotated clockwise.",
"However, the extreme gravitational lensing associated with black holes produces the illusion of a perspective that sees the accretion disc from above.",
"In reality, most of the ring in the EHT image was created when the light emitted by the far side of the accretion disc bent around the black hole's gravity well and escaped, meaning that most of the possible perspectives on M87* can see the entire disc, even that directly behind the \"shadow\".In 2015, the EHT detected magnetic fields just outside the event horizon of Sagittarius A* and even discerned some of their properties.",
"The field lines that pass through the accretion disc were a complex mixture of ordered and tangled.",
"Theoretical studies of black holes had predicted the existence of magnetic fields.In April 2023, an image of the shadow of the Messier 87 black hole and the related high-energy jet, viewed together for the first time, was presented.=== Detection of gravitational waves from merging black holes ===LIGO measurement of the gravitational waves at the Livingston (right) and Hanford (left) detectors, compared with the theoretical predicted valuesOn 14 September 2015, the LIGO gravitational wave observatory made the first-ever successful direct observation of gravitational waves.",
"The signal was consistent with theoretical predictions for the gravitational waves produced by the merger of two black holes: one with about 36 solar masses, and the other around 29 solar masses.",
"This observation provides the most concrete evidence for the existence of black holes to date.",
"For instance, the gravitational wave signal suggests that the separation of the two objects before the merger was just 350 km (or roughly four times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to the inferred masses).",
"The objects must therefore have been extremely compact, leaving black holes as the most plausible interpretation.More importantly, the signal observed by LIGO also included the start of the post-merger ringdown, the signal produced as the newly formed compact object settles down to a stationary state.",
"Arguably, the ringdown is the most direct way of observing a black hole.",
"From the LIGO signal, it is possible to extract the frequency and damping time of the dominant mode of the ringdown.",
"From these, it is possible to infer the mass and angular momentum of the final object, which match independent predictions from numerical simulations of the merger.",
"The frequency and decay time of the dominant mode are determined by the geometry of the photon sphere.",
"Hence, observation of this mode confirms the presence of a photon sphere; however, it cannot exclude possible exotic alternatives to black holes that are compact enough to have a photon sphere.The observation also provides the first observational evidence for the existence of stellar-mass black hole binaries.",
"Furthermore, it is the first observational evidence of stellar-mass black holes weighing 25 solar masses or more.Since then, many more gravitational wave events have been observed.=== Stars orbiting Sagittarius A* ===Stars moving around Sagittarius A* as seen in 2021The proper motions of stars near the centre of our own Milky Way provide strong observational evidence that these stars are orbiting a supermassive black hole.",
"Since 1995, astronomers have tracked the motions of 90 stars orbiting an invisible object coincident with the radio source Sagittarius A*.",
"By fitting their motions to Keplerian orbits, the astronomers were able to infer, in 1998, that a object must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0.02 light-years to cause the motions of those stars.",
"Since then, one of the stars—called S2—has completed a full orbit.",
"From the orbital data, astronomers were able to refine the calculations of the mass to and a radius of less than 0.002 light-years for the object causing the orbital motion of those stars.",
"The upper limit on the object's size is still too large to test whether it is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius; nevertheless, these observations strongly suggest that the central object is a supermassive black hole as there are no other plausible scenarios for confining so much invisible mass into such a small volume.",
"Additionally, there is some observational evidence that this object might possess an event horizon, a feature unique to black holes.=== Accretion of matter ===Blurring of X-rays near black hole (NuSTAR; 12 August 2014)Due to conservation of angular momentum, gas falling into the gravitational well created by a massive object will typically form a disk-like structure around the object.",
"Artists' impressions such as the accompanying representation of a black hole with corona commonly depict the black hole as if it were a flat-space body hiding the part of the disk just behind it, but in reality gravitational lensing would greatly distort the image of the accretion disk.Within such a disk, friction would cause angular momentum to be transported outward, allowing matter to fall farther inward, thus releasing potential energy and increasing the temperature of the gas.When the accreting object is a neutron star or a black hole, the gas in the inner accretion disk orbits at very high speeds because of its proximity to the compact object.",
"The resulting friction is so significant that it heats the inner disk to temperatures at which it emits vast amounts of electromagnetic radiation (mainly X-rays).",
"These bright X-ray sources may be detected by telescopes.",
"This process of accretion is one of the most efficient energy-producing processes known; up to 40% of the rest mass of the accreted material can be emitted as radiation.",
"(In nuclear fusion only about 0.7% of the rest mass will be emitted as energy.)",
"In many cases, accretion disks are accompanied by relativistic jets that are emitted along the poles, which carry away much of the energy.",
"The mechanism for the creation of these jets is currently not well understood, in part due to insufficient data.As such, many of the universe's more energetic phenomena have been attributed to the accretion of matter on black holes.",
"In particular, active galactic nuclei and quasars are believed to be the accretion disks of supermassive black holes.",
"Similarly, X-ray binaries are generally accepted to be binary star systems in which one of the two stars is a compact object accreting matter from its companion.",
"It has also been suggested that some ultraluminous X-ray sources may be the accretion disks of intermediate-mass black holes.In November 2011 the first direct observation of a quasar accretion disk around a supermassive black hole was reported.==== X-ray binaries ====A Chandra X-Ray Observatory image of Cygnus X-1, which was the first strong black hole candidate discoveredX-ray binaries are binary star systems that emit a majority of their radiation in the X-ray part of the spectrum.",
"These X-ray emissions are generally thought to result when one of the stars (compact object) accretes matter from another (regular) star.",
"The presence of an ordinary star in such a system provides an opportunity for studying the central object and to determine if it might be a black hole.If such a system emits signals that can be directly traced back to the compact object, it cannot be a black hole.",
"The absence of such a signal does, however, not exclude the possibility that the compact object is a neutron star.",
"By studying the companion star it is often possible to obtain the orbital parameters of the system and to obtain an estimate for the mass of the compact object.",
"If this is much larger than the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (the maximum mass a star can have without collapsing) then the object cannot be a neutron star and is generally expected to be a black hole.The first strong candidate for a black hole, Cygnus X-1, was discovered in this way by Charles Thomas Bolton, Louise Webster, and Paul Murdin in 1972.Some doubt, however, remained due to the uncertainties that result from the companion star being much heavier than the candidate black hole.",
"Currently, better candidates for black holes are found in a class of X-ray binaries called soft X-ray transients.",
"In this class of system, the companion star is of relatively low mass allowing for more accurate estimates of the black hole mass.",
"Moreover, these systems actively emit X-rays for only several months once every 10–50 years.",
"During the period of low X-ray emission (called quiescence), the accretion disk is extremely faint allowing detailed observation of the companion star during this period.",
"One of the best such candidates is V404 Cygni.===== Quasi-periodic oscillations =====The X-ray emissions from accretion disks sometimes flicker at certain frequencies.",
"These signals are called quasi-periodic oscillations and are thought to be caused by material moving along the inner edge of the accretion disk (the innermost stable circular orbit).",
"As such their frequency is linked to the mass of the compact object.",
"They can thus be used as an alternative way to determine the mass of candidate black holes.==== Galactic nuclei ====Detection of unusually bright X-ray flare from Sagittarius A*, a black hole in the centre of the Milky Way galaxy on 5January 2015Astronomers use the term \"active galaxy\" to describe galaxies with unusual characteristics, such as unusual spectral line emission and very strong radio emission.",
"Theoretical and observational studies have shown that the activity in these active galactic nuclei (AGN) may be explained by the presence of supermassive black holes, which can be millions of times more massive than stellar ones.",
"The models of these AGN consist of a central black hole that may be millions or billions of times more massive than the Sun; a disk of interstellar gas and dust called an accretion disk; and two jets perpendicular to the accretion disk.Although supermassive black holes are expected to be found in most AGN, only some galaxies' nuclei have been more carefully studied in attempts to both identify and measure the actual masses of the central supermassive black hole candidates.",
"Some of the most notable galaxies with supermassive black hole candidates include the Andromeda Galaxy, M32, M87, NGC 3115, NGC 3377, NGC 4258, NGC 4889, NGC 1277, OJ 287, APM 08279+5255 and the Sombrero Galaxy.It is now widely accepted that the centre of nearly every galaxy, not just active ones, contains a supermassive black hole.",
"The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy's bulge, known as the M–sigma relation, strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and that of the galaxy itself.=== Microlensing ===Another way the black hole nature of an object may be tested is through observation of effects caused by a strong gravitational field in their vicinity.",
"One such effect is gravitational lensing: The deformation of spacetime around a massive object causes light rays to be deflected, such as light passing through an optic lens.",
"Observations have been made of weak gravitational lensing, in which light rays are deflected by only a few arcseconds.",
"Microlensing occurs when the sources are unresolved and the observer sees a small brightening.",
"In January 2022, astronomers reported the first possible detection of a microlensing event from an isolated black hole.Another possibility for observing gravitational lensing by a black hole would be to observe stars orbiting the black hole.",
"There are several candidates for such an observation in orbit around Sagittarius A*."
],
[
"Alternatives",
"The evidence for stellar black holes strongly relies on the existence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron star.",
"The size of this limit heavily depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter.",
"New exotic phases of matter could push up this bound.",
"A phase of free quarks at high density might allow the existence of dense quark stars, and some supersymmetric models predict the existence of Q stars.",
"Some extensions of the standard model posit the existence of preons as fundamental building blocks of quarks and leptons, which could hypothetically form preon stars.",
"These hypothetical models could potentially explain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates.",
"However, it can be shown from arguments in general relativity that any such object will have a maximum mass.Since the average density of a black hole inside its Schwarzschild radius is inversely proportional to the square of its mass, supermassive black holes are much less dense than stellar black holes (the average density of a black hole is comparable to that of water).",
"Consequently, the physics of matter forming a supermassive black hole is much better understood and the possible alternative explanations for supermassive black hole observations are much more mundane.",
"For example, a supermassive black hole could be modelled by a large cluster of very dark objects.",
"However, such alternatives are typically not stable enough to explain the supermassive black hole candidates.The evidence for the existence of stellar and supermassive black holes implies that in order for black holes to not form, general relativity must fail as a theory of gravity, perhaps due to the onset of quantum mechanical corrections.",
"A much anticipated feature of a theory of quantum gravity is that it will not feature singularities or event horizons and thus black holes would not be real artifacts.",
"For example, in the fuzzball model based on string theory, the individual states of a black hole solution do not generally have an event horizon or singularity, but for a classical/semi-classical observer the statistical average of such states appears just as an ordinary black hole as deduced from general relativity.A few theoretical objects have been conjectured to match observations of astronomical black hole candidates identically or near-identically, but which function via a different mechanism.",
"These include the gravastar, the black star, and the dark-energy star."
],
[
"Open questions",
"=== Entropy and thermodynamics ===In 1971, Hawking showed under general conditions that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease, even if they collide and merge.",
"This result, now known as the second law of black hole mechanics, is remarkably similar to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease.",
"As with classical objects at absolute zero temperature, it was assumed that black holes had zero entropy.",
"If this were the case, the second law of thermodynamics would be violated by entropy-laden matter entering a black hole, resulting in a decrease in the total entropy of the universe.",
"Therefore, Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy, and that it should be proportional to its horizon area.The link with the laws of thermodynamics was further strengthened by Hawking's discovery in 1974 that quantum field theory predicts that a black hole radiates blackbody radiation at a constant temperature.",
"This seemingly causes a violation of the second law of black hole mechanics, since the radiation will carry away energy from the black hole causing it to shrink.",
"The radiation, however also carries away entropy, and it can be proven under general assumptions that the sum of the entropy of the matter surrounding a black hole and one quarter of the area of the horizon as measured in Planck units is in fact always increasing.",
"This allows the formulation of the first law of black hole mechanics as an analogue of the first law of thermodynamics, with the mass acting as energy, the surface gravity as temperature and the area as entropy.One puzzling feature is that the entropy of a black hole scales with its area rather than with its volume, since entropy is normally an extensive quantity that scales linearly with the volume of the system.",
"This odd property led Gerard 't Hooft and Leonard Susskind to propose the holographic principle, which suggests that anything that happens in a volume of spacetime can be described by data on the boundary of that volume.Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi-classical calculation of black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying.",
"In statistical mechanics, entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system that have the same macroscopic qualities (such as mass, charge, pressure, etc.).",
"Without a satisfactory theory of quantum gravity, one cannot perform such a computation for black holes.",
"Some progress has been made in various approaches to quantum gravity.",
"In 1995, Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa showed that counting the microstates of a specific supersymmetric black hole in string theory reproduced the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy.",
"Since then, similar results have been reported for different black holes both in string theory and in other approaches to quantum gravity like loop quantum gravity.Another promising approach is constituted by treating gravity as an effective field theory.",
"One first computes the quantum gravitational corrections to the radius of the event horizon of the black hole, then integrates over it to find the quantum gravitational corrections to the entropy as given by the Wald formula.",
"The method was applied for Schwarzschild black holes by Calmet and Kuipers, then successfully generalised for charged black holes by Campos Delgado.=== Information loss paradox ===Because a black hole has only a few internal parameters, most of the information about the matter that went into forming the black hole is lost.",
"Regardless of the type of matter which goes into a black hole, it appears that only information concerning the total mass, charge, and angular momentum are conserved.",
"As long as black holes were thought to persist forever this information loss is not that problematic, as the information can be thought of as existing inside the black hole, inaccessible from the outside, but represented on the event horizon in accordance with the holographic principle.",
"However, black holes slowly evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation.",
"This radiation does not appear to carry any additional information about the matter that formed the black hole, meaning that this information appears to be gone forever.The question whether information is truly lost in black holes (the black hole information paradox) has divided the theoretical physics community.",
"In quantum mechanics, loss of information corresponds to the violation of a property called unitarity, and it has been argued that loss of unitarity would also imply violation of conservation of energy, though this has also been disputed.",
"Over recent years evidence has been building that indeed information and unitarity are preserved in a full quantum gravitational treatment of the problem.One attempt to resolve the black hole information paradox is known as black hole complementarity.",
"In 2012, the \"firewall paradox\" was introduced with the goal of demonstrating that black hole complementarity fails to solve the information paradox.",
"According to quantum field theory in curved spacetime, a single emission of Hawking radiation involves two mutually entangled particles.",
"The outgoing particle escapes and is emitted as a quantum of Hawking radiation; the infalling particle is swallowed by the black hole.",
"Assume a black hole formed a finite time in the past and will fully evaporate away in some finite time in the future.",
"Then, it will emit only a finite amount of information encoded within its Hawking radiation.",
"According to research by physicists like Don Page and Leonard Susskind, there will eventually be a time by which an outgoing particle must be entangled with all the Hawking radiation the black hole has previously emitted.",
"This seemingly creates a paradox: a principle called \"monogamy of entanglement\" requires that, like any quantum system, the outgoing particle cannot be fully entangled with two other systems at the same time; yet here the outgoing particle appears to be entangled both with the infalling particle and, independently, with past Hawking radiation.",
"In order to resolve this contradiction, physicists may eventually be forced to give up one of three time-tested principles: Einstein's equivalence principle, unitarity, or local quantum field theory.",
"One possible solution, which violates the equivalence principle, is that a \"firewall\" destroys incoming particles at the event horizon.",
"In general, which—if any—of these assumptions should be abandoned remains a topic of debate."
],
[
"See also",
"* Binary black hole* Black brane or Black string* Black Hole Initiative* Black hole starship* Black holes in fiction* Blanet* BTZ black hole* Charged black hole* Direct collapse black hole* Hypothetical black hole (disambiguation)* Kugelblitz (astrophysics)* List of black holes* List of nearest black holes* Outline of black holes* Sonic black hole* Virtual black hole* Susskind-Hawking battle* Timeline of black hole physics* White hole* Planck star* Dark star (dark matter)* Schwarzschild radius"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"===Popular reading===* * * * * * * * * * * ===University textbooks and monographs===* , the lecture notes on which the book was based are available for free from Sean Carroll's website .",
"* * * * * * * * * * * ===Review papers===* Lecture notes from 2005 SLAC Summer Institute.",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'': \" Singularities and Black Holes\" by Erik Curiel and Peter Bokulich.",
"* Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull – Interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute (HubbleSite)* ESA's Black Hole Visualization * Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Black Holes* Schwarzschild Geometry* Black holes - basic (NYT; April 2021)===Videos===* 16-year-long study tracks stars orbiting Sagittarius A** Movie of Black Hole Candidate from Max Planck Institute* * Computer visualisation of the signal detected by LIGO* Two Black Holes Merge into One (based upon the signal GW150914)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Beta decay"
],
[
"Introduction",
" decay in an atomic nucleus (the accompanying antineutrino is omitted).",
"The inset shows beta decay of a free neutron.",
"Neither of these depictions shows the intermediate virtual boson.",
"In nuclear physics, '''beta decay''' (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron), transforming into an isobar of that nuclide.",
"For example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino; or, conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron with a neutrino in so-called ''positron emission''.",
"Neither the beta particle nor its associated (anti-)neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process.",
"By this process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons.",
"The probability of a nuclide decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its nuclear binding energy.",
"The binding energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or valley of stability.",
"For either electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (see below) or ''Q'' value must be positive.Beta decay is a consequence of the weak force, which is characterized by relatively lengthy decay times.",
"Nucleons are composed of up quarks and down quarks, and the weak force allows a quark to change its flavour by emission of a W boson leading to creation of an electron/antineutrino or positron/neutrino pair.",
"For example, a neutron, composed of two down quarks and an up quark, decays to a proton composed of a down quark and two up quarks.Electron capture is sometimes included as a type of beta decay, because the basic nuclear process, mediated by the weak force, is the same.",
"In electron capture, an inner atomic electron is captured by a proton in the nucleus, transforming it into a neutron, and an electron neutrino is released."
],
[
"Description",
"The two types of beta decay are known as ''beta minus'' and ''beta plus''.",
"In beta minus (β−) decay, a neutron is converted to a proton, and the process creates an electron and an electron antineutrino; while in beta plus (β+) decay, a proton is converted to a neutron and the process creates a positron and an electron neutrino.",
"β+ decay is also known as positron emission.Beta decay conserves a quantum number known as the lepton number, or the number of electrons and their associated neutrinos (other leptons are the muon and tau particles).",
"These particles have lepton number +1, while their antiparticles have lepton number −1.Since a proton or neutron has lepton number zero, β+ decay (a positron, or antielectron) must be accompanied with an electron neutrino, while β− decay (an electron) must be accompanied by an electron antineutrino.An example of electron emission (β− decay) is the decay of carbon-14 into nitrogen-14 with a half-life of about 5,730 years:: → + + In this form of decay, the original element becomes a new chemical element in a process known as nuclear transmutation.",
"This new element has an unchanged mass number , but an atomic number that is increased by one.",
"As in all nuclear decays, the decaying element (in this case ) is known as the ''parent nuclide'' while the resulting element (in this case ) is known as the ''daughter nuclide''.Another example is the decay of hydrogen-3 (tritium) into helium-3 with a half-life of about 12.3 years:: → + + An example of positron emission (β+ decay) is the decay of magnesium-23 into sodium-23 with a half-life of about 11.3 s:: → + + β+ decay also results in nuclear transmutation, with the resulting element having an atomic number that is decreased by one.A beta spectrum, showing a typical division of energy between electron and antineutrinoThe beta spectrum, or distribution of energy values for the beta particles, is continuous.",
"The total energy of the decay process is divided between the electron, the antineutrino, and the recoiling nuclide.",
"In the figure to the right, an example of an electron with 0.40 MeV energy from the beta decay of 210Bi is shown.",
"In this example, the total decay energy is 1.16 MeV, so the antineutrino has the remaining energy: .",
"An electron at the far right of the curve would have the maximum possible kinetic energy, leaving the energy of the neutrino to be only its small rest mass."
],
[
"History",
"===Discovery and initial characterization===Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel in uranium, and subsequently observed by Marie and Pierre Curie in thorium and in the new elements polonium and radium.",
"In 1899, Ernest Rutherford separated radioactive emissions into two types: alpha and beta (now beta minus), based on penetration of objects and ability to cause ionization.",
"Alpha rays could be stopped by thin sheets of paper or aluminium, whereas beta rays could penetrate several millimetres of aluminium.",
"In 1900, Paul Villard identified a still more penetrating type of radiation, which Rutherford identified as a fundamentally new type in 1903 and termed gamma rays.",
"Alpha, beta, and gamma are the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.In 1900, Becquerel measured the mass-to-charge ratio () for beta particles by the method of J.J. Thomson used to study cathode rays and identify the electron.",
"He found that for a beta particle is the same as for Thomson's electron, and therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron.In 1901, Rutherford and Frederick Soddy showed that alpha and beta radioactivity involves the transmutation of atoms into atoms of other chemical elements.",
"In 1913, after the products of more radioactive decays were known, Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently proposed their radioactive displacement law, which states that beta (i.e., ) emission from one element produces another element one place to the right in the periodic table, while alpha emission produces an element two places to the left.===Neutrinos===The study of beta decay provided the first physical evidence for the existence of the neutrino.",
"In both alpha and gamma decay, the resulting alpha or gamma particle has a narrow energy distribution, since the particle carries the energy from the difference between the initial and final nuclear states.",
"However, the kinetic energy distribution, or spectrum, of beta particles measured by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in 1911 and by Jean Danysz in 1913 showed multiple lines on a diffuse background.",
"These measurements offered the first hint that beta particles have a continuous spectrum.",
"In 1914, James Chadwick used a magnetic spectrometer with one of Hans Geiger's new counters to make more accurate measurements which showed that the spectrum was continuous.",
"The distribution of beta particle energies was in apparent contradiction to the law of conservation of energy.",
"If beta decay were simply electron emission as assumed at the time, then the energy of the emitted electron should have a particular, well-defined value.",
"For beta decay, however, the observed broad distribution of energies suggested that energy is lost in the beta decay process.",
"This spectrum was puzzling for many years.A second problem is related to the conservation of angular momentum.",
"Molecular band spectra showed that the nuclear spin of nitrogen-14 is 1 (i.e., equal to the reduced Planck constant) and more generally that the spin is integral for nuclei of even mass number and half-integral for nuclei of odd mass number.",
"This was later explained by the proton-neutron model of the nucleus.",
"Beta decay leaves the mass number unchanged, so the change of nuclear spin must be an integer.",
"However, the electron spin is 1/2, hence angular momentum would not be conserved if beta decay were simply electron emission.From 1920 to 1927, Charles Drummond Ellis (along with Chadwick and colleagues) further established that the beta decay spectrum is continuous.",
"In 1933, Ellis and Nevill Mott obtained strong evidence that the beta spectrum has an effective upper bound in energy.",
"Niels Bohr had suggested that the beta spectrum could be explained if conservation of energy was true only in a statistical sense, thus this principle might be violated in any given decay.",
"However, the upper bound in beta energies determined by Ellis and Mott ruled out that notion.",
"Now, the problem of how to account for the variability of energy in known beta decay products, as well as for conservation of momentum and angular momentum in the process, became acute.In a famous letter written in 1930, Wolfgang Pauli attempted to resolve the beta-particle energy conundrum by suggesting that, in addition to electrons and protons, atomic nuclei also contained an extremely light neutral particle, which he called the neutron.",
"He suggested that this \"neutron\" was also emitted during beta decay (thus accounting for the known missing energy, momentum, and angular momentum), but it had simply not yet been observed.",
"In 1931, Enrico Fermi renamed Pauli's \"neutron\" the \"neutrino\" ('little neutral one' in Italian).",
"In 1933, Fermi published his landmark theory for beta decay, where he applied the principles of quantum mechanics to matter particles, supposing that they can be created and annihilated, just as the light quanta in atomic transitions.",
"Thus, according to Fermi, neutrinos are created in the beta-decay process, rather than contained in the nucleus; the same happens to electrons.",
"The neutrino interaction with matter was so weak that detecting it proved a severe experimental challenge.",
"Further indirect evidence of the existence of the neutrino was obtained by observing the recoil of nuclei that emitted such a particle after absorbing an electron.",
"Neutrinos were finally detected directly in 1956 by the American physicists Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines in the Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment.",
"The properties of neutrinos were (with a few minor modifications) as predicted by Pauli and Fermi.=== decay and electron capture===In 1934, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie bombarded aluminium with alpha particles to effect the nuclear reaction + → + , and observed that the product isotope emits a positron identical to those found in cosmic rays (discovered by Carl David Anderson in 1932).",
"This was the first example of decay (positron emission), which they termed artificial radioactivity since is a short-lived nuclide which does not exist in nature.",
"In recognition of their discovery, the couple were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935.The theory of electron capture was first discussed by Gian-Carlo Wick in a 1934 paper, and then developed by Hideki Yukawa and others.",
"K-electron capture was first observed in 1937 by Luis Alvarez, in the nuclide 48V.",
"Alvarez went on to study electron capture in 67Ga and other nuclides.===Non-conservation of parity===In 1956, Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang noticed that there was no evidence that parity was conserved in weak interactions, and so they postulated that this symmetry may not be preserved by the weak force.",
"They sketched the design for an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory.",
"Later that year, Chien-Shiung Wu and coworkers conducted the Wu experiment showing an asymmetrical beta decay of at cold temperatures that proved that parity is not conserved in beta decay.",
"This surprising result overturned long-held assumptions about parity and the weak force.",
"In recognition of their theoretical work, Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957.However Wu, who was female, was not awarded the Nobel prize."
],
[
"β<sup>−</sup> decay <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"beta minus decay\"></span>",
"The leading-order Feynman diagram for decay of a neutron into a proton, electron, and electron antineutrino via an intermediate boson.",
"For higher-order diagrams see In decay, the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with atomic number increased by one, while emitting an electron () and an electron antineutrino ().",
"decay generally occurs in neutron-rich nuclei.",
"The generic equation is:: → + + where and are the mass number and atomic number of the decaying nucleus, and X and X′ are the initial and final elements, respectively.Another example is when the free neutron () decays by decay into a proton ():: → + + .At the fundamental level (as depicted in the Feynman diagram on the right), this is caused by the conversion of the negatively charged () down quark to the positively charged () up quark by emission of a boson; the boson subsequently decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino:: → + + ."
],
[
"β<sup>+</sup> decay <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"beta plus decay\"></span>",
"The leading-order Feynman diagram for '''' decay of a proton into a neutron, positron, and electron neutrino via an intermediate bosonIn decay, or positron emission, the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with atomic number decreased by one, while emitting a positron () and an electron neutrino (). ''''",
"decay generally occurs in proton-rich nuclei.",
"The generic equation is:: → + + This may be considered as the decay of a proton inside the nucleus to a neutron::p → n + + However, decay cannot occur in an isolated proton because it requires energy, due to the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton.",
"decay can only happen inside nuclei when the daughter nucleus has a greater binding energy (and therefore a lower total energy) than the mother nucleus.",
"The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles.",
"This process is opposite to negative beta decay, in that the weak interaction converts a proton into a neutron by converting an up quark into a down quark resulting in the emission of a or the absorption of a .",
"When a boson is emitted, it decays into a positron and an electron neutrino:: → + + ."
],
[
"Electron capture (K-capture/L-capture)",
"The leading-order Feynman diagrams for electron capture decay.",
"An electron interacts with an up quark in the nucleus via a W boson to create a down quark and electron neutrino.",
"Two diagrams comprise the leading (second) order, though as a virtual particle, the type (and charge) of the W-boson is indistinguishable.In all cases where decay (positron emission) of a nucleus is allowed energetically, so too is electron capture allowed.",
"This is a process during which a nucleus captures one of its atomic electrons, resulting in the emission of a neutrino:: + → + An example of electron capture is one of the decay modes of krypton-81 into bromine-81:: + → + All emitted neutrinos are of the same energy.",
"In proton-rich nuclei where the energy difference between the initial and final states is less than 2, decay is not energetically possible, and electron capture is the sole decay mode.If the captured electron comes from the innermost shell of the atom, the K-shell, which has the highest probability to interact with the nucleus, the process is called K-capture.",
"If it comes from the L-shell, the process is called L-capture, etc.Electron capture is a competing (simultaneous) decay process for all nuclei that can undergo β+ decay.",
"The converse, however, is not true: electron capture is the ''only'' type of decay that is allowed in proton-rich nuclides that do not have sufficient energy to emit a positron and neutrino."
],
[
"Nuclear transmutation",
"Graph of isotopes by type of nuclear decay.",
"Orange and blue nuclides are unstable, with the black squares between these regions representing stable nuclides.",
"The unbroken line passing below many of the nuclides represents the theoretical position on the graph of nuclides for which proton number is the same as neutron number.",
"The graph shows that elements with more than 20 protons must have more neutrons than protons, in order to be stable.If the proton and neutron are part of an atomic nucleus, the above described decay processes transmute one chemical element into another.",
"For example:: → + + (beta minus decay) → + + (beta plus decay) + → + (electron capture)Beta decay does not change the number () of nucleons in the nucleus, but changes only its charge .",
"Thus the set of all nuclides with the same can be introduced; these ''isobaric'' nuclides may turn into each other via beta decay.",
"For a given there is one that is most stable.",
"It is said to be beta stable, because it presents a local minimum of the mass excess: if such a nucleus has numbers, the neighbour nuclei and have higher mass excess and can beta decay into , but not vice versa.",
"For all odd mass numbers , there is only one known beta-stable isobar.",
"For even , there are up to three different beta-stable isobars experimentally known; for example, , , and are all beta-stable.",
"There are about 350 known beta-decay stable nuclides.===Competition of beta decay types===Usually unstable nuclides are clearly either \"neutron rich\" or \"proton rich\", with the former undergoing beta decay and the latter undergoing electron capture (or more rarely, due to the higher energy requirements, positron decay).",
"However, in a few cases of odd-proton, odd-neutron radionuclides, it may be energetically favorable for the radionuclide to decay to an even-proton, even-neutron isobar either by undergoing beta-positive or beta-negative decay.",
"An often-cited example is the single isotope (29 protons, 35 neutrons), which illustrates three types of beta decay in competition.",
"Copper-64 has a half-life of about 12.7 hours.",
"This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay.",
"This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is almost equally likely to decay through proton decay by positron emission () or electron capture () to , as it is through neutron decay by electron emission () to .===Stability of naturally occurring nuclides===Most naturally occurring nuclides on earth are beta stable.",
"Nuclides that are not beta stable have half-lives ranging from under a second to periods of time significantly greater than the age of the universe.",
"One common example of a long-lived isotope is the odd-proton odd-neutron nuclide , which undergoes all three types of beta decay (, and electron capture) with a half-life of ."
],
[
"Conservation rules for beta decay",
"===Baryon number is conserved===where* is the number of constituent quarks, and* is the number of constituent antiquarks.Beta decay just changes neutron to proton or, in the case of positive beta decay (electron capture) proton to neutron so the number of individual quarks doesn't change.",
"It is only the baryon flavor that changes, here labelled as the isospin.Up and down quarks have total isospin and isospin projectionsAll other quarks have .In general===Lepton number is conserved===so all leptons have assigned a value of +1, antileptons −1, and non-leptonic particles 0.===Angular momentum===For allowed decays, the net orbital angular momentum is zero, hence only spin quantum numbers are considered.The electron and antineutrino are fermions, spin-1/2 objects, therefore they may couple to total (parallel) or (anti-parallel).For forbidden decays, orbital angular momentum must also be taken into consideration."
],
[
"Energy release",
"The value is defined as the total energy released in a given nuclear decay.",
"In beta decay, is therefore also the sum of the kinetic energies of the emitted beta particle, neutrino, and recoiling nucleus.",
"(Because of the large mass of the nucleus compared to that of the beta particle and neutrino, the kinetic energy of the recoiling nucleus can generally be neglected.)",
"Beta particles can therefore be emitted with any kinetic energy ranging from 0 to .",
"A typical is around 1 MeV, but can range from a few keV to a few tens of MeV.Since the rest mass of the electron is 511 keV, the most energetic beta particles are ultrarelativistic, with speeds very close to the speed of light.In the case of Re, the maximum speed of the beta particle is only 9.8% of the speed of light.The following table gives some examples:+ Examples of beta decay energies Isotope Energy(keV) Decay mode Comments freeNeutron 782.33 β− 3H(Tritium) 18.59 β− Second lowest known β− energy, being used in the KATRIN experiment.",
"11C 960.41982.4 β+ε 14C 156.475 β− 20F 5390.86 β− 37K 5125.486147.48 β+ε 163Ho 2.555 ε 187Re 2.467 β− Lowest known β− energy, being used in the Microcalorimeter Arrays for a Rhenium Experiment experiment 210Bi 1162.2 β− ===β− decay===Consider the generic equation for beta decay: → + + .The value for this decay is:,where is the mass of the nucleus of the atom, is the mass of the electron, and is the mass of the electron antineutrino.",
"In other words, the total energy released is the mass energy of the initial nucleus, minus the mass energy of the final nucleus, electron, and antineutrino.",
"The mass of the nucleus is related to the standard atomic mass byThat is, the total atomic mass is the mass of the nucleus, plus the mass of the electrons, minus the sum of all ''electron'' binding energies for the atom.",
"This equation is rearranged to find , and is found similarly.",
"Substituting these nuclear masses into the -value equation, while neglecting the nearly-zero antineutrino mass and the difference in electron binding energies, which is very small for high- atoms, we haveThis energy is carried away as kinetic energy by the electron and antineutrino.Because the reaction will proceed only when the value is positive, β− decay can occur when the mass of atom is greater than the mass of atom .===β+ decay===The equations for β+ decay are similar, with the generic equation: → + + givingHowever, in this equation, the electron masses do not cancel, and we are left withBecause the reaction will proceed only when the value is positive, β+ decay can occur when the mass of atom exceeds that of by at least twice the mass of the electron.===Electron capture===The analogous calculation for electron capture must take into account the binding energy of the electrons.",
"This is because the atom will be left in an excited state after capturing the electron, and the binding energy of the captured innermost electron is significant.",
"Using the generic equation for electron capture: + → + we havewhich simplifies towhere is the binding energy of the captured electron.Because the binding energy of the electron is much less than the mass of the electron, nuclei that can undergo β+ decay can always also undergo electron capture, but the reverse is not true."
],
[
"Beta emission spectrum",
"Beta spectrum of 210Bi.",
"''E''max = ''Q'' = 1.16 MeV is the maximum energyBeta decay can be considered as a perturbation as described in quantum mechanics, and thus Fermi's Golden Rule can be applied.",
"This leads to an expression for the kinetic energy spectrum of emitted betas as follows:where is the kinetic energy, is a shape function that depends on the forbiddenness of the decay (it is constant for allowed decays), is the Fermi Function (see below) with ''Z'' the charge of the final-state nucleus, is the total energy, is the momentum, and is the Q value of the decay.",
"The kinetic energy of the emitted neutrino is given approximately by minus the kinetic energy of the beta.As an example, the beta decay spectrum of 210Bi (originally called RaE) is shown to the right.===Fermi function===The Fermi function that appears in the beta spectrum formula accounts for the Coulomb attraction / repulsion between the emitted beta and the final state nucleus.",
"Approximating the associated wavefunctions to be spherically symmetric, the Fermi function can be analytically calculated to be:where is the final momentum, Γ the Gamma function, and (if is the fine-structure constant and the radius of the final state nucleus) , (+ for electrons, − for positrons), and .For non-relativistic betas (), this expression can be approximated by:Other approximations can be found in the literature.===Kurie plot===A '''Kurie plot''' (also known as a '''Fermi–Kurie plot''') is a graph used in studying beta decay developed by Franz N. D. Kurie, in which the square root of the number of beta particles whose momenta (or energy) lie within a certain narrow range, divided by the Fermi function, is plotted against beta-particle energy.",
"It is a straight line for allowed transitions and some forbidden transitions, in accord with the Fermi beta-decay theory.",
"The energy-axis (x-axis) intercept of a Kurie plot corresponds to the maximum energy imparted to the electron/positron (the decay's value).",
"With a Kurie plot one can find the limit on the effective mass of a neutrino."
],
[
"Helicity (polarization) of neutrinos, electrons and positrons emitted in beta decay",
"After the discovery of parity non-conservation (see History), it was found that, in beta decay, electrons are emitted mostly with negative helicity, i.e., they move, naively speaking, like left-handed screws driven into a material (they have negative longitudinal polarization).",
"Conversely, positrons have mostly positive helicity, i.e., they move like right-handed screws.",
"Neutrinos (emitted in positron decay) have negative helicity, while antineutrinos (emitted in electron decay) have positive helicity.The higher the energy of the particles, the higher their polarization."
],
[
"Types of beta decay transitions",
"Beta decays can be classified according to the angular momentum ( value) and total spin ( value) of the emitted radiation.",
"Since total angular momentum must be conserved, including orbital and spin angular momentum, beta decay occurs by a variety of quantum state transitions to various nuclear angular momentum or spin states, known as \"Fermi\" or \"Gamow–Teller\" transitions.",
"When beta decay particles carry no angular momentum (), the decay is referred to as \"allowed\", otherwise it is \"forbidden\".Other decay modes, which are rare, are known as bound state decay and double beta decay.===Fermi transitions===A '''Fermi transition''' is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron (positron) and anti-neutrino (neutrino) couple to total spin , leading to an angular momentum change between the initial and final states of the nucleus (assuming an allowed transition).",
"In the non-relativistic limit, the nuclear part of the operator for a Fermi transition is given bywith the weak vector coupling constant, the isospin raising and lowering operators, and running over all protons and neutrons in the nucleus.===Gamow–Teller transitions===A '''Gamow–Teller transition''' is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron (positron) and anti-neutrino (neutrino) couple to total spin , leading to an angular momentum change between the initial and final states of the nucleus (assuming an allowed transition).In this case, the nuclear part of the operator is given bywith the weak axial-vector coupling constant, and the spin Pauli matrices, which can produce a spin-flip in the decaying nucleon.===Forbidden transitions===When , the decay is referred to as \"forbidden\".",
"Nuclear selection rules require high values to be accompanied by changes in nuclear spin () and parity ().",
"The selection rules for the th forbidden transitions are:where corresponds to no parity change or parity change, respectively.",
"The special case of a transition between isobaric analogue states, where the structure of the final state is very similar to the structure of the initial state, is referred to as \"superallowed\" for beta decay, and proceeds very quickly.",
"The following table lists the Δ and Δ values for the first few values of : Forbiddenness Δ ΔSuperallowed 0 Allowed 0, 1 First forbidden 0, 1, 2 Second forbidden 1, 2, 3 Third forbidden 2, 3, 4"
],
[
"Rare decay modes",
"===Bound-state β− decay===A very small minority of free neutron decays (about four per million) are so-called \"two-body decays\", in which the proton, electron and antineutrino are produced, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV energy necessary to escape the proton, and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral hydrogen atom.",
"In this type of beta decay, in essence all of the neutron decay energy is carried off by the antineutrino.For fully ionized atoms (bare nuclei), it is possible in likewise manner for electrons to fail to escape the atom, and to be emitted from the nucleus into low-lying atomic bound states (orbitals).",
"This cannot occur for neutral atoms with low-lying bound states which are already filled by electrons.Bound-state β decays were predicted by Daudel, Jean, and Lecoin in 1947, and the phenomenon in fully ionized atoms was first observed for 163Dy66+ in 1992 by Jung et al.",
"of the Darmstadt Heavy-Ion Research Center.",
"Although neutral is a stable isotope, the fully ionized 163Dy66+ undergoes β decay into the K and L shells with a half-life of 47 days.",
"The resulting nucleus - - is stable only in the fully ionized state and will decay via electron capture into in the neutral state.",
"The half life for neutral is 4750 years.Another possibility is that a fully ionized atom undergoes greatly accelerated β decay, as observed for 187Re by Bosch et al., also at Darmstadt.",
"Neutral 187Re does undergo β decay with a half-life of years, but for fully ionized 187Re75+ this is shortened to only 32.9 years.",
"For comparison the variation of decay rates of other nuclear processes due to chemical environment is less than 1%.",
"Due to the difference in the price of rhenium and osmium and the high share of in rhenium samples found on earth, this could some day be of commercial interest in the synthesis of precious metals.===Double beta decay===Some nuclei can undergo double beta decay (ββ decay) where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units.",
"Double beta decay is difficult to study, as the process has an extremely long half-life.",
"In nuclei for which both β decay and ββ decay are possible, the rarer ββ decay process is effectively impossible to observe.",
"However, in nuclei where β decay is forbidden but ββ decay is allowed, the process can be seen and a half-life measured.",
"Thus, ββ decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei.",
"Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change ; thus, at least one of the nuclides with some given has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay.",
"\"Ordinary\" double beta decay results in the emission of two electrons and two antineutrinos.",
"If neutrinos are Majorana particles (i.e., they are their own antiparticles), then a decay known as neutrinoless double beta decay will occur.",
"Most neutrino physicists believe that neutrinoless double beta decay has never been observed."
],
[
"See also",
"* Common beta emitters*Neutrino*Betavoltaics*Particle radiation*Radionuclide*Tritium illumination, a form of fluorescent lighting powered by beta decay*Pandemonium effect*Total absorption spectroscopy"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Image:Ndslivechart.png ''' The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA ''' with filter on decay type*'''Beta decay simulation'''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blitzkrieg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Tanks and mechanised infantry of the 24th Panzer Division advancing through Ukraine, June 1942, typifying fast-moving combined arms forces of classic blitzkrieg'''Blitzkrieg''' ( , ; from \"lightning\" + \"war\") or '''Bewegungskrieg''' is a word used to describe a combined arms surprise attack using a rapid, overwhelming force concentration that may consist of armored and motorized or mechanized infantry formations; together with artillery, air assault, and close air support; with intent to break through the opponent's lines of defense, dislocate the defenders, unbalance the enemies by making it difficult to respond to the continuously changing front, and defeat them in a decisive : a battle of annihilation.During the interwar period, aircraft and tank technologies matured and were combined with systematic application of the traditional German tactic of (maneuver warfare): deep penetrations and the bypassing of enemy strong points to encircle and destroy enemy forces in a (cauldron battle/battle of encirclement).",
"During the invasion of Poland, Western journalists adopted the term ''blitzkrieg'' to describe that form of armored warfare.",
"The term had appeared in 1935, in the German military periodical (\"German Defence\"), in connection to quick or lightning warfare.German maneuver operations were successful in the campaigns of 1939–1941, and by 1940, the term ''blitzkrieg'' was extensively used in Western media.",
"Blitzkrieg operations capitalised on surprise penetrations such as that of the Ardennes forest region, the general Allies' unreadiness, and their inability to match the pace of the German attack.",
"During the Battle of France, the French made attempts to reform defensive lines along rivers but were frustrated when German forces arrived first and pressed on.Despite being common in German and English-language journalism during World War II, the word was never used by the Wehrmacht as an official military term except for propaganda.",
"According to David Reynolds, \"Hitler himself called the term Blitzkrieg 'A completely idiotic word' ()\".",
"Some senior officers, including Kurt Student, Franz Halder and Johann Adolf von Kielmansegg, even disputed the idea that it was a military concept.",
"Kielmansegg asserted that what many regarded as blitzkrieg was nothing more than \"ad hoc solutions that simply popped out of the prevailing situation\".",
"Student described it as ideas that \"naturally emerged from the existing circumstances\" as a response to operational challenges.",
"The Wehrmacht never officially adopted it as a concept or doctrine.In 2005, the historian Karl-Heinz Frieser summarized blitzkrieg as the result of German commanders using the latest technology in the most advantageous way according to traditional military principles and employing \"the right units in the right place at the right time\".",
"Modern historians now understand blitzkrieg as the combination of the traditional German military principles, methods and doctrines of the 19th century with the military technology of the interwar period.",
"Modern historians use the term casually as a generic description for the style of maneuver warfare practiced by Germany during the early part of World War II, rather than as an explanation.",
"According to Frieser, in the context of the thinking of Heinz Guderian on mobile combined arms formations, blitzkrieg can be used as a synonym for modern maneuver warfare on the operational level."
],
[
"Definition",
"===Common interpretation===The traditional meaning of \"blitzkrieg\" is that of German tactical and operational methodology during the first half of the Second World War that is often hailed as a new method of warfare.",
"The word, meaning \"lightning war\" or \"lightning attack\" in its strategic sense describes a series of quick and decisive short battles to deliver a knockout blow to an enemy state before it can fully mobilize.",
"Tactically, blitzkrieg is a coordinated military effort by tanks, motorized infantry, artillery and aircraft, to create an overwhelming local superiority in combat power, to defeat the opponent and break through its defences.",
"''Blitzkrieg'' as used by Germany had considerable psychological or \"terror\" elements, such as the ''Jericho Trompete'', a noise-making siren on the Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber, to affect the morale of enemy forces.",
"The devices were largely removed when the enemy became used to the noise after the Battle of France in 1940, and instead, bombs sometimes had whistles attached.",
"It is also common for historians and writers to include psychological warfare by using fifth columnists to spread rumours and lies among the civilian population in the theatre of operations.===Origin of term===The origin of the term ''blitzkrieg'' is obscure.",
"It was never used in the title of a military doctrine or handbook of the German Army or Air Force, and no \"coherent doctrine\" or \"unifying concept of blitzkrieg\" existed; German High Command mostly referred to the group of tactics as \"Bewegungskrieg\" (Maneuver Warfare).",
"The term seems to have been rarely used in the German military press before 1939, and recent research at the German ''Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt'', at Potsdam, found it in only two military articles from the 1930s.",
"Both used the term to mean a swift strategic knockout, rather than a radically new military doctrine or approach to war.The first article (1935) dealt primarily with supplies of food and materiel in wartime.",
"The term ''blitzkrieg'' was used in reference to German efforts to win a quick victory in the First World War but was not associated with the use of armored, mechanized or air forces.",
"It argued that Germany must develop self-sufficiency in food because it might again prove impossible to deal a swift knockout to its enemies, which would lead to a long war.In the second article (1938), launching a swift strategic knockout was described as an attractive idea for Germany but difficult to achieve on land under modern conditions (especially against systems of fortification like the Maginot Line) unless an exceptionally high degree of surprise could be achieved.",
"The author vaguely suggested that a massive strategic air attack might hold out better prospects, but the topic was not explored in detail.A third relatively early use of the term in German occurred in ''Die Deutsche Kriegsstärke'' (German War Strength) by Fritz Sternberg, a Jewish Marxist political economist and refugee from Nazi Germany, published in 1938 in Paris and in London as ''Germany and a Lightning War''.",
"Sternberg wrote that Germany was not prepared economically for a long war but might win a quick war (''\"Blitzkrieg\"'').",
"He did not go into detail about tactics or suggest that the German armed forces had evolved a radically new operational method.",
"His book offered scant clues as to how German lightning victories might be won.Ju 87 Bs over Poland, September–October 1939In English and other languages, the term had been used since the 1920s.",
"The term was first used in the publications of Ferdinand Otto Miksche, first in the magazine \"Army Quarterly\", and in his 1941 book ''Blitzkrieg'', in which he defined the concept.",
"In September 1939, ''Time'' magazine termed the German military action as a \"war of quick penetration and obliteration – ''Blitzkrieg'', lightning war\".",
"After the invasion of Poland, the British press commonly used the term to describe German successes in that campaign.",
"J. P. Harris called the term \"a piece of journalistic sensationalism – a buzz-word with which to label the spectacular early successes of the Germans in the Second World War\".",
"The word was later applied to the bombing of Britain, particularly London, hence \"The Blitz\".The German popular press followed suit nine months later, after the Fall of France in 1940; thus, although the word had first been used in Germany, it was popularized by British journalism.",
"Heinz Guderian referred to it as a word coined by the Allies: \"as a result of the successes of our rapid campaigns our enemies ... coined the word ''Blitzkrieg''\".",
"After the German failure in the Soviet Union in 1941, the use of the term began to be frowned upon in Nazi Germany, and Hitler then denied ever using the term and said in a speech in November 1941, \"I have never used the word ''Blitzkrieg'', because it is a very silly word\".",
"In early January 1942, Hitler dismissed it as \"Italian phraseology\"."
],
[
"Military evolution, 1919–1939",
"===Germany===In 1914, German strategic thinking derived from the writings of Carl von Clausewitz (1 June 1780 – 16 November 1831), Helmuth von Moltke the Elder (26 October 1800 – 24 April 1891) and Alfred von Schlieffen (28 February 1833 – 4 January 1913), who advocated maneuver, mass and envelopment to create the conditions for a decisive battle ().",
"During the war, officers such as Willy Rohr developed tactics to restore maneuver on the battlefield.",
"Specialist light infantry (''Stosstruppen'', \"storm troops\") were to exploit weak spots to make gaps for larger infantry units to advance with heavier weapons, exploit the success and leave isolated strong points to the troops that were following up.",
"Infiltration tactics were combined with short hurricane artillery bombardments, which used massed artillery.",
"Devised by Colonel Georg Bruchmüller, the attacks relied on speed and surprise, rather than on weight of numbers.",
"The tactics met with great success in Operation Michael, the German spring offensive of 1918 and restored temporarily the war of movement once the Allied trench system had been overrun.",
"The German armies pushed on towards Amiens and then Paris and came within before supply deficiencies and Allied reinforcements halted the advance.The historian James Corum criticised the German leadership for failing to understand the technical advances of the First World War, conducting no studies of the machine gun prior to the war and giving tank production the lowest priority during the war.",
"After Germany's defeat, the Treaty of Versailles limited the Reichswehr to a maximum of 100,000 men, which prevented the deployment of mass armies.",
"The German General Staff was abolished by the treaty but continued covertly as the ''Truppenamt'' (Troop Office) and was disguised as an administrative body.",
"Committees of veteran staff officers were formed within the ''Truppenamt'' to evaluate 57 issues of the war to revise German operational theories.",
"By the time of the Second World War, their reports had led to doctrinal and training publications, including H. Dv.",
"487, ''Führung und Gefecht der verbundenen Waffen'' (\"Command and Battle of the Combined Arms)\", known as ''Das Fug'' (1921–1923) and ''Truppenführung'' (1933–1934), containing standard procedures for combined-arms warfare.",
"The ''Reichswehr'' was influenced by its analysis of pre-war German military thought, particularly infiltration tactics since at the end of the war, they had seen some breakthroughs on the Western Front and the maneuver warfare which dominated the Eastern Front.On the Eastern Front, the war did not bog down into trench warfare since the German and the Russian Armies fought a war of maneuver over thousands of miles, which gave the German leadership unique experience that was unavailable to the trench-bound Western Allies.",
"Studies of operations in the East led to the conclusion that small and coordinated forces possessed more combat power than large uncoordinated forces.After the war, the ''Reichswehr'' expanded and improved infiltration tactics.",
"The commander in chief, Hans von Seeckt, argued that there had been an excessive focus on encirclement and emphasised speed instead.",
"Seeckt inspired a revision of ''Bewegungskrieg'' (maneuver warfare) thinking and its associated ''Auftragstaktik'' in which the commander expressed his goals to subordinates and gave them discretion in how to achieve them.",
"The governing principle was \"the higher the authority, the more general the orders were\"; it was the responsibility of the lower echelons to fill in the details.",
"Implementation of higher orders remained within limits that were determined by the training doctrine of an elite officer corps.Delegation of authority to local commanders increased the tempo of operations, which had great influence on the success of German armies in the early war period.",
"Seeckt, who believed in the Prussian tradition of mobility, developed the German army into a mobile force and advocated technical advances that would lead to a qualitative improvement of its forces and better coordination between motorized infantry, tanks, and planes.===Britain===British armoured car and motorcycle at the Battle of Megiddo (1918)The British Army took lessons from the successful infantry and artillery offensives on the Western Front in late 1918.To obtain the best co-operation between all arms, emphasis was placed on detailed planning, rigid control and adherence to orders.",
"Mechanization of the army, as part of a combined-arms theory of war, was considered a means to avoid mass casualties and the indecisive nature of offensives.",
"The four editions of ''Field Service Regulations'' that were published after 1918 held that only combined-arms operations could create enough fire power to enable mobility on a battlefield.",
"That theory of war also emphasised consolidation and recommended caution against overconfidence and ruthless exploitation.During the Sinai and Palestine campaign, operations involved some aspects of what would later be called blitzkrieg.",
"The decisive Battle of Megiddo included concentration, surprise and speed.",
"Success depended on attacking only in terrain favouring the movement of large formations around the battlefield and tactical improvements in the British artillery and infantry attack.",
"General Edmund Allenby used infantry to attack the strong Ottoman front line in co-operation with supporting artillery, augmented by the guns of two destroyers.",
"Through constant pressure by infantry and cavalry, two Ottoman armies in the Judean Hills were kept off-balance and virtually encircled during the Battles of Sharon and Nablus (Battle of Megiddo).The British methods induced \"strategic paralysis\" among the Ottomans and led to their rapid and complete collapse.",
"In an advance of , captures were estimated to be \"at least prisoners and 260 guns\".",
"Liddell Hart considered that important aspects of the operation had been the extent to which Ottoman commanders were denied intelligence on the British preparations for the attack through British air superiority and air attacks on their headquarters and telephone exchanges, which paralyzed attempts to react to the rapidly-deteriorating situation.===France===Norman Stone detects early blitzkrieg operations in offensives by French Generals Charles Mangin and Marie-Eugène Debeney in 1918.However, French doctrine in the interwar years became defence-oriented.",
"Colonel Charles de Gaulle advocated concentration of armor and airplanes.",
"His opinions appeared in his 1934 book ''Vers l'Armée de métier'' (\"Towards the Professional Army\").",
"Like von Seeckt, de Gaulle concluded that France could no longer maintain the huge armies of conscripts and reservists that had fought the First World War, and he sought to use tanks, mechanized forces and aircraft to allow a smaller number of highly trained soldiers to have greater impact in battle.",
"His views endeared him little to the French high command but are claimed by some to have influenced Heinz Guderian.===Russia and Soviet Union===In 1916, General Alexei Brusilov had used surprise and infiltration tactics during the Brusilov Offensive.",
"Later, Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky (1893-1937), (1898-1976) and other members of the Red Army developed a concept of deep battle from the experience of the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1920.Those concepts would guide the Red Army doctrine throughout the Second World War.",
"Realising the limitations of infantry and cavalry, Tukhachevsky advocated mechanized formations and the large-scale industrialisation that they required.",
"Robert Watt (2008) wrote that blitzkrieg has little in common with Soviet deep battle.",
"In 2002, H. P. Willmott had noted that deep battle contained two important differences from blitzkrieg by being a doctrine of total war, not of limited operations, and rejecting decisive battle in favour of several large simultaneous offensives.The ''Reichswehr'' and the Red Army began a secret collaboration in the Soviet Union to evade the Treaty of Versailles occupational agent, the Inter-Allied Commission.",
"In 1926 war games and tests began at Kazan and Lipetsk, in the Soviet Russia.",
"The centers served to field-test aircraft and armored vehicles up to the battalion level and housed aerial- and armoured-warfare schools through which officers rotated.===Nazi Germany===After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Adolf Hitler ignored the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles Treaty.",
"Within the Wehrmacht, which was established in 1935, the command for motorized armored forces was named the ''Panzerwaffe'' in 1936.The ''Luftwaffe'', the German air force, was officially established in February 1935, and development began on ground-attack aircraft and doctrines.",
"Hitler strongly supported the new strategy.",
"He read Guderian's 1937 book ''Achtung – Panzer!''",
"and upon observing armored field exercises at Kummersdorf, he remarked, \"That is what I want – and that is what I will have\".====Guderian====Heinz GuderianGuderian summarized combined-arms tactics as the way to get the mobile and motorized armored divisions to work together and support each other to achieve decisive success.",
"In his 1950 book, ''Panzer Leader'', he wrote:Guderian believed that developments in technology were required to support the theory, especially by equipping armored divisions, tanks foremost, with wireless communications.",
"Guderian insisted in 1933 to the high command that every tank in the German armored force must be equipped with a radio.",
"At the start of World War II, only the German Army was thus prepared with all tanks being \"radio-equipped\".",
"That proved critical in early tank battles in which German tank commanders exploited the organizational advantage over the Allies that radio communication gave them.All Allied armies would later copy that innovation.",
"During the Polish campaign, the performance of armored troops, under the influence of Guderian's ideas, won over a number of skeptics who had initially expressed doubt about armored warfare, such as von Rundstedt and Rommel.====Rommel====According to David A. Grossman, by the Twelfth Battle of Isonzo (October–November 1917), while he was conducting a light-infantry operation, Rommel had perfected his maneuver-warfare principles, which were the very same ones that were applied during the blitzkrieg against France in 1940 and were repeated in the Coalition ground offensive against Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War.",
"During the Battle of France and against his staff advisor's advice, Hitler ordered that everything should be completed in a few weeks.",
"Fortunately for the Germans, Rommel and Guderian disobeyed the General Staff's orders (particularly those of General Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist) and forged ahead making quicker progress than anyone had expected, on the way \"inventing the idea of Blitzkrieg\".It was Rommel who created the new archetype of Blitzkrieg by leading his division far ahead of flanking divisions.",
"MacGregor and Williamson remark that Rommel's version of blitzkrieg displayed a significantly better understanding of combined-arms warfare than that of Guderian.",
"General Hermann Hoth submitted an official report in July 1940 which declared that Rommel had \"explored new paths in the command of Panzer divisions\"."
],
[
"Methods of operations",
"===''Schwerpunkt''===''Schwerpunktprinzip'' was a heuristic device (conceptual tool or thinking formula) that was used in the German Army since the nineteenth century to make decisions from tactics to strategy about priority.",
"''Schwerpunkt'' has been translated as ''center of gravity'', ''crucial'', ''focal point'' and ''point of main effort''.",
"None of those forms is sufficient to describe the universal importance of the term and the concept of ''Schwerpunktprinzip''.",
"Every unit in the army, from the company to the supreme command, decided on a ''Schwerpunkt'' by ''schwerpunktbildung'', as did the support services, which meant that commanders always knew what was the most important and why.",
"The German army was trained to support the ''Schwerpunkt'' even when risks had to be taken elsewhere to support the point of main effort and to attack with overwhelming firepower.",
"''Schwerpunktbildung'' allowed the German Army to achieve superiority at the ''Schwerpunkt'', whether attacking or defending, to turn local success at the ''Schwerpunkt'' into the progressive disorganisation of the opposing force and to create more opportunities to exploit that advantage even if the Germans were numerically and strategically inferior in general.",
"In the 1930s, Guderian summarized that as ''Klotzen, nicht kleckern!''",
"(\"Kick, don't spatter them!",
"\")===Pursuit===Having achieved a breakthrough of the enemy's line, units comprising the ''Schwerpunkt'' were not supposed to become decisively engaged with enemy front line units to the right and the left of the breakthrough area.",
"Units pouring through the hole were to drive upon set objectives behind the enemy front line.",
"During the Second World War, German Panzer forces used their motorized mobility to paralyze the opponent's ability to react.",
"Fast-moving mobile forces seized the initiative, exploited weaknesses and acted before the opposing forces could respond.",
"Central to that was the decision cycle (tempo).",
"Through superior mobility and faster decision-making cycles, mobile forces could act faster than the forces opposing them.Directive control was a fast and flexible method of command.",
"Rather than receiving an explicit order, a commander would be told of his superior's intent and the role that his unit was to fill in that concept.",
"The method of execution was then a matter for the discretion of the subordinate commander.",
"The staff burden was reduced at the top and spread among tiers of command with knowledge about their situation.",
"Delegation and the encouragement of initiative aided implementation, and important decisions could be taken quickly and communicated verbally or with only brief written orders.===Mopping-up===The last part of an offensive operation was the destruction of unsubdued pockets of resistance, which had been enveloped earlier and bypassed by the fast-moving armored and motorized spearheads.",
"The ''Kesselschlacht'' (\"cauldron battle\") was a concentric attack on such pockets.",
"It was there that most losses were inflicted upon the enemy, primarily through the mass capture of prisoners and weapons.",
"During Operation Barbarossa, huge encirclements in 1941 produced nearly 3.5 million Soviet prisoners, along with masses of equipment.===Air power===Ju 87 \"Stuka\" dive-bomber was used in blitzkrieg operations.Close air support was provided in the form of the dive bomber and medium bomber, which would support the focal point of attack from the air.",
"German successes are closely related to the extent to which the German ''Luftwaffe'' could control the air war in early campaigns in Western and Central Europe and in the Soviet Union.",
"However, the ''Luftwaffe'' was a broadly based force with no constricting central doctrine other than its resources should be used generally to support national strategy.",
"It was flexible and could carry out both operational-tactical, and strategic bombing.Flexibility was the strength of the ''Luftwaffe'' in 1939 to 1941.Paradoxically, that became its weakness.",
"While Allied Air Forces were tied to the support of the Army, the ''Luftwaffe'' deployed its resources in a more general operational way.",
"It switched from air superiority missions to medium-range interdiction, to strategic strikes to close support duties, depending on the need of the ground forces.",
"In fact, far from it being a specialist panzer spearhead arm, less than 15 percent of the ''Luftwaffe'' was intended for close support of the army in 1939.===Stimulants===Methamphetamine, known as \"pervitin,\" use is believed to have played a role in the speed of Germany's initial Blitzkrieg since military success with combined arms demanded long hours of continuous operations with minimal rest."
],
[
"Limitations and countermeasures",
"===Environment===The concepts associated with the term ''blitzkrieg'' (deep penetrations by armor, large encirclements, and combined arms attacks) were largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions.",
"Wherever the ability for rapid movement across \"tank country\" was not possible, armored penetrations often were avoided or resulted in failure.",
"The terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways.",
"If it were instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, armor would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to break out at full speed.",
"Additionally, units could be halted by mud (thawing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow.",
"Operation Barbarossa helped confirm that armor effectiveness and the requisite aerial support depended on weather and terrain.",
"It should, however, be noted that the disadvantages of terrain could be nullified if surprise was achieved over the enemy by an attack in areas that had been considered natural obstacles, as occurred during the Battle of France in which the German blitzkrieg-style attack went through the Ardennes.",
"Since the French thought that the Ardennes unsuitable for massive troop movement, particularly for tanks, the area was left with only light defences, which were quickly overrun by the ''Wehrmacht''.",
"The Germans quickly advanced through the forest and knocked down the trees that the French had thought would impede that tactic.===Air superiority===The Hawker Typhoon, especially when armed with eight RP-3 rockets, posed a threat to German armour and motor vehicles during Operation Overlord in 1944.The influence of air forces over forces on the ground changed significantly over the course of the Second World War.",
"Early German successes were conducted when Allied aircraft could not make a significant impact on the battlefield.",
"In May 1940, there was near parity in numbers of aircraft between the ''Luftwaffe'' and the Allies, but the ''Luftwaffe'' had been developed to support Germany's ground forces, had liaison officers with the mobile formations and operated a higher number of sorties per aircraft.",
"In addition, the Germans' air parity or superiority allowed the unencumbered movement of ground forces, their unhindered assembly into concentrated attack formations, aerial reconnaissance, aerial resupply of fast moving formations and close air support at the point of attack.",
"The Allied air forces had no close air support aircraft, training or doctrine.",
"The Allies flew 434 French and 160 British sorties a day but methods of attacking ground targets had yet to be developed and so Allied aircraft caused negligible damage.",
"Against the Allies' 600 sorties, the ''Luftwaffe'' on average flew 1,500 sorties a day.On 13 May, ''Fliegerkorps'' VIII flew 1,000 sorties in support of the crossing of the Meuse.",
"The following day the Allies made repeated attempts to destroy the German pontoon bridges, but German fighter aircraft, ground fire and ''Luftwaffe'' flak batteries with the panzer forces destroyed 56 percent of the attacking Allied aircraft, and the bridges remained intact.Allied air superiority became a significant hindrance to German operations during the later years of the war.",
"By June 1944, the Western Allies had the complete control of the air over the battlefield, and their fighter-bomber aircraft were very effective at attacking ground forces.",
"On D-Day, the Allies flew 14,500 sorties over the battlefield area alone, not including sorties flown over Northwestern Europe.",
"Against them the ''Luftwaffe'' flew some 300 sorties on 6 June.",
"Though German fighter presence over Normandy increased over the next days and weeks, it never approached the numbers that the Allies commanded.",
"Fighter-bomber attacks on German formations made movement during daylight almost impossible.Subsequently, shortages soon developed in food, fuel and ammunition and severely hampered the German defenders.",
"German vehicle crews and even flak units experienced great difficulty moving during daylight.",
"Indeed, the final German offensive operation in the west, Operation Wacht am Rhein, was planned to take place during poor weather to minimise interference by Allied aircraft.",
"Under those conditions, it was difficult for German commanders to employ the \"armored idea\", if at all.===Counter-tactics===Blitzkrieg is vulnerable to an enemy that is robust enough to weather the shock of the attack and does not panic at the idea of enemy formations in its rear area.",
"That is especially true if the attacking formation lacks the reserve to keep funnelling forces into the spearhead or the mobility to provide infantry, artillery and supplies into the attack.",
"If the defender can hold the shoulders of the breach, it has the opportunity to counter-attack into the flank of the attacker and potentially to cut it off the van, as what happened to Kampfgruppe Peiper in the Ardennes.During the Battle of France in 1940, the 4th Armoured Division (Major-General Charles de Gaulle) and elements of the 1st Army Tank Brigade (British Expeditionary Force) made probing attacks on the German flank and pushed into the rear of the advancing armored columns at times.",
"That may have been a reason for Hitler to call a halt to the German advance.",
"Those attacks combined with Maxime Weygand's hedgehog tactic would become the major basis for responding to blitzkrieg attacks in the future.",
"Deployment in depth, or permitting enemy or \"shoulders\" of a penetration, was essential to channelling the enemy attack; artillery, properly employed at the shoulders, could take a heavy toll of attackers.",
"Allied forces in 1940 lacked the experience to develop those strategies successfully, which resulted in the French armistice with heavy losses, those strategies characterized later Allied operations.At the Battle of Kursk, the Red Army used a combination of defence in great depth, extensive minefields and tenacious defense of breakthrough shoulders.",
"In that way, they depleted German combat power even as German forces advanced.",
"The reverse can be seen in the Russian summer offensive of 1944, Operation Bagration, which resulted in the destruction of Army Group Center.",
"German attempts to weather the storm and fight out of encirclements failed because of the Soviets' ability to continue to feed armored units into the attack, maintain the mobility and strength of the offensive and arrive in force deep in the rear areas faster than the Germans could regroup.===Logistics===Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France, mobile operations could not be sustained by Germany in later years.",
"Strategies based on maneuver have the inherent danger of the attacking force overextending its supply lines and can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing and able to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm, as the Soviets did on the Eastern Front, as opposed to, for example, the Dutch, who had no territory to sacrifice.",
"Tank and vehicle production was a constant problem for Germany.",
"Indeed, late in the war, many panzer \"divisions\" had no more than a few dozen tanks.As the end of the war approached, Germany also experienced critical shortages in fuel and ammunition stocks as a result of Anglo-American strategic bombing and blockade.",
"Although the production of ''Luftwaffe'' fighter aircraft continued, they could not fly because of lack of fuel.",
"What fuel there was went to panzer divisions, and even then, they could not operate normally.",
"Of the Tiger tanks lost against the US Army, nearly half of them were abandoned for lack of fuel."
],
[
"Military operations",
"===Spanish Civil War===German volunteers first used armor in live field-conditions during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).",
"Armor commitment consisted of Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of Panzer I tanks that functioned as a training cadre for Spain's Nationalists.",
"The Luftwaffe deployed squadrons of fighters, dive-bombers and transport aircraft as the ''Condor Legion''.",
"Guderian said that the tank deployment was \"on too small a scale to allow accurate assessments to be made\".",
"(The true test of his \"armored idea\" would have to wait for the Second World War.)",
"However, the ''Luftwaffe'' also provided volunteers to Spain to test both tactics and aircraft in combat, including the first combat use of the ''Stuka''.During the war, the ''Condor Legion'' undertook the 1937 bombing of Guernica, which had a tremendous psychological effect on the populations of Europe.",
"The results were exaggerated, and the Western Allies concluded that the \"city-busting\" techniques were now part of the German way in war.",
"The targets of the German aircraft were actually the rail lines and bridges, but lacking the ability to hit them with accuracy (only three or four Ju 87s saw action in Spain), the ''Luftwaffe'' chose a method of carpet bombing, resulting in heavy civilian casualties.===Poland, 1939===In Poland, fast-moving armies encircled Polish forces (blue circles) but not by independent armored operations.",
"Combined tank, artillery, infantry and air forces were used.Although journalists popularized the term ''Blitzkrieg'' during the September 1939 invasion of Poland, the historians Matthew Cooper and J. P. Harris have written that German operations during the campaign were consistent with traditional methods.",
"The Wehrmacht strategy was more in line with ''Vernichtungsgedanke'', a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation.",
"The German generals dispersed Panzer forces among the three German concentrations with little emphasis on independent use.",
"They deployed tanks to create or destroy close pockets of Polish forces and to seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely-unmotorized infantry, which followed.The Wehrmacht used available models of tanks, Stuka dive-bombers and concentrated forces in the Polish campaign, but the majority of the fighting involved conventional infantry and artillery warfare, and most Luftwaffe action was independent of the ground campaign.",
"Matthew Cooper wrote:John Ellis wrote that \"there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of ''strategic'' mission that was to characterize authentic armored blitzkrieg, and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies\".",
"Steven Zaloga wrote, \"Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzer and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery on Polish units.",
"Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht.",
"\"===Low Countries and France, 1940===German advances during the Battle of BelgiumThe German invasion of France, with subsidiary attacks on Belgium and the Netherlands, consisted of two phases, Operation Yellow (''Fall Gelb'') and Operation Red (''Fall Rot'').",
"Yellow opened with a feint conducted against the Netherlands and Belgium by two armored corps and paratroopers.",
"Most of the German armored forces were placed in Panzer Group Kleist, which attacked through the Ardennes, a lightly defended sector that the French planned to reinforce if necessary before the Germans could bring up heavy and siege artillery.",
"There was no time for the French to send such reinforcement, as the Germans did not wait for siege artillery but reached the Meuse and achieved a breakthrough at the Battle of Sedan in three days.Panzer Group Kleist raced to the English Channel, reached the coast at Abbeville and cut off the BEF, the Belgian Army and some of the best-equipped divisions of the French Army in northern France.",
"Armored and motorized units under Guderian, Rommel and others advanced far beyond the marching and horse-drawn infantry divisions and far in excess of what Hitler and the German high command had expected or wished.",
"When the Allies counter-attacked at Arras by using the heavily armored British Matilda I and Matilda II tanks, a brief panic ensued in the German High Command.Hitler halted his armored and motorized forces outside the port of Dunkirk, which the Royal Navy had started using to evacuate the Allied forces.",
"Hermann Göring promised that the Luftwaffe would complete the destruction of the encircled armies, but aerial operations failed to prevent the evacuation of the majority of the Allied troops.",
"In Operation Dynamo, some French and British troops escaped.Case Yellow surprised everyone by overcoming the Allies' 4,000 armored vehicles, many of which were better than their German equivalents in armor and gunpower.",
"The French and British frequently used their tanks in the dispersed role of infantry support, rather than by concentrating force at the point of attack, to create overwhelming firepower.German advances during the Battle of FranceThe French armies were much reduced in strength and the confidence of their commanders shaken.",
"With much of their own armor and heavy equipment lost in Northern France, they lacked the means to fight a mobile war.",
"The Germans followed their initial success with Operation Red, a triple-pronged offensive.",
"The XV Panzer Corps attacked towards Brest, XIV Panzer Corps attacked east of Paris, towards Lyon and the XIX Panzer Corps encircled the Maginot Line.",
"The French, hard pressed to organise any sort of counter-attack, were continually ordered to form new defensive lines and found that German forces had already bypassed them and moved on.",
"An armored counter-attack, organized by Colonel Charles de Gaulle, could not be sustained, and he had to retreat.Prior to the German offensive in May, Winston Churchill had said, \"Thank God for the French Army\".",
"The same French Army collapsed after barely two months of fighting.",
"That was in shocking contrast to the four years of trench warfare on which French forces had engaged during the First World War.",
"French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud, analyzed the collapse in a speech on 21 May 1940:The Germans had not used paratroopry attacks in France and made only one large drop in the Netherlands to capture three bridges; some small glider-landings were conducted in Belgium to take bottlenecks on routes of advance before the arrival of the main force (the most renowned being the landing on Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium).===Eastern Front, 1941–44===After 1941–1942, the Wehrmacht increasingly used armoured formations as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs.",
"The blue arrows depict armoured counter-attacks.Use of armored forces was crucial for both sides on the Eastern Front.",
"Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, involved a number of breakthroughs and encirclements by motorized forces.",
"Its goal, according to Führer Directive 21 (18 December 1940), was \"to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia\".",
"The Red Army was to be destroyed west of the Dvina and Dnieper rivers, which were about east of the Soviet border, to be followed by a mopping-up operation.",
"The surprise attack resulted in the near annihilation of the Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS, Soviet Air Force) by simultaneous attacks on airfields, allowing the Luftwaffe to achieve total air supremacy over all the battlefields within the first week.",
"On the ground, four German panzer groups outflanked and encircled disorganized Red Army units, and the marching infantry completed the encirclements and defeated the trapped forces.",
"In late July, after 2nd Panzer Group (commanded by Guderian) captured the watersheds of the Dvina and Dnieper rivers near Smolensk, the panzers had to defend the encirclement, because the marching infantry divisions remained hundreds of kilometers to the west.The Germans conquered large areas of the Soviet Union, but their failure to destroy the Red Army before the winter of 1941-1942 was a strategic failure and made German tactical superiority and territorial gains irrelevant.",
"The Red Army had survived enormous losses and regrouped with new formations far to the rear of the front line.",
"During the Battle of Moscow (October 1941 to January 1942), the Red Army defeated the German Army Group Center and for the first time in the war seized the strategic initiative.In the summer of 1942, Germany launched another offensive and this time focusing on Stalingrad and the Caucasus in the southern Soviet Union.",
"The Soviets again lost tremendous amounts of territory, only to counter-attack once more during winter.",
"The German gains were ultimately limited because Hitler diverted forces from the attack on Stalingrad and drove towards the Caucasus oilfields simultaneously.",
"The ''Wehrmacht'' became overstretched.",
"Although it won operationally, it could not inflict a decisive defeat as the durability of the Soviet Union's manpower, resources, industrial base and aid from the Western Allies began to take effect.In July 1943, the ''Wehrmacht'' conducted Operation Zitadelle (Citadel) against a salient at Kursk, which Soviet troop heavily defended.",
"Soviet defensive tactics had by now hugely improved, particularly in the use of artillery and air support.",
"By April 1943, the Stavka had learned of German intentions through intelligence supplied by front-line reconnaissance and Ultra intercepts.",
"In the following months, the Red Army constructed deep defensive belts along the paths of the planned German attack.",
"The Soviets made a concerted effort to disguise their knowledge of German plans and the extent of their own defensive preparations, and the German commanders still hoped to achieve operational surprise when the attack commenced.The Germans did not achieve surprise and could not outflank or break through into enemy rear areas during the operation.",
"Several historians assert that Operation Citadel was planned and intended to be a blitzkrieg operation.",
"Many of the German participants who wrote about the operation after the war, including Erich von Manstein, make no mention of blitzkrieg in their accounts.",
"In 2000, Niklas Zetterling and Anders Frankson characterised only the southern pincer of the German offensive as a \"classical blitzkrieg attack\".",
"Pier Battistelli wrote that the operational planning marked a change in German offensive thinking away from blitzkrieg and that more priority was given to brute force and fire power than to speed and maneuver.In 1995, David Glantz stated that blitzkrieg was at Kursk for the first time defeated in summer, and the opposing Soviet forces mounted a successful counter-offensive.",
"The Battle of Kursk ended with two Soviet counter-offensives and the revival of deep operations.",
"In the summer of 1944, the Red Army destroyed Army Group Centre in Operation Bagration by using combined-arms tactics for armor, infantry and air power in a coordinated strategic assault, known as deep operations, which led to an advance of in six weeks.===Western Front, 1944–1945===Allied armies began using combined-arms formations and deep-penetration strategies that Germany had used in the opening years of the war.",
"Many Allied operations in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front, relied on firepower to establish breakthroughs by fast-moving armored units.",
"The artillery-based tactics were also decisive in Western Front operations after 1944's Operation Overlord, and the British Commonwealth and American armies developed flexible and powerful systems for using artillery support.",
"What the Soviets lacked in flexibility, they made up for in number of rocket launchers, guns and mortars.",
"The Germans never achieved the kind of fire concentrations that their enemies were achieving 1944.After the Allied landings in Normandy (June 1944), the Germans began a counter-offensive to overwhelm the landing force with armored attacks, but they failed because of a lack of co-ordination and to Allied superiority in anti-tank defense and in the air.",
"The most notable attempt to use deep-penetration operations in Normandy was Operation Luttich at Mortain, which only hastened the Falaise Pocket and the destruction of German forces in Normandy.",
"The Mortain counter-attack was defeated by the American 12th Army Group with little effect on its own offensive operations.The last German offensive on the Western front, the Battle of the Bulge (Operation Wacht am Rhein), was an offensive launched towards the port of Antwerp in December 1944.Launched in poor weather against a thinly-held Allied sector, it achieved surprise and initial success as Allied air-power was grounded due to cloud cover.",
"Determined defense by American troops in places throughout the Ardennes, the lack of good roads and German supply shortages caused delays.",
"Allied forces deployed to the flanks of the German penetration, and as soon as the skies cleared, Allied aircraft returned to the battlefield.",
"Allied counter-attacks soon forced back the Germans, who abandoned much equipment for lack of fuel."
],
[
"Post-war controversy",
"Blitzkrieg had been called a Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA), but many writers and historians have concluded that the Germans did not invent a new form of warfare but applied new technologies to traditional ideas of ''Bewegungskrieg'' (maneuver warfare) to achieve decisive victory.===Strategy===In 1965, Captain Robert O'Neill, Professor of the History of War at the University of Oxford produced an example of the popular view.",
"In ''Doctrine and Training in the German Army 1919–1939'', O'Neill wrote:Other historians wrote that blitzkrieg was an operational doctrine of the German armed forces and a strategic concept on which the leadership of Nazi Germany based its strategic and economic planning.",
"Military planners and bureaucrats in the war economy appear rarely, if ever, to have employed the term ''blitzkrieg'' in official documents.",
"That the German army had a \"blitzkrieg doctrine\" was rejected in the late 1970s by Matthew Cooper.",
"The concept of a blitzkrieg ''Luftwaffe'' was challenged by Richard Overy in the late 1970s and by Williamson Murray in the mid-1980s.",
"That Nazi Germany went to war on the basis of \"blitzkrieg economics\" was criticized by Richard Overy in the 1980s, and George Raudzens described the contradictory senses in which historians have used the word.",
"The notion of a German blitzkrieg concept or doctrine survives in popular history and many historians still support the thesis.Frieser wrote that after the failure of the Schlieffen Plan in 1914, the German army concluded that decisive battles were no longer possible in the changed conditions of the twentieth century.",
"Frieser wrote that the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), which was created in 1938 had intended to avoid the decisive battle concepts of its predecessors and planned for a long war of exhaustion (''Ermattungskrieg'').",
"It was only after the improvised plan for the Battle of France in 1940 was unexpectedly successful that the German General Staff came to believe that ''Vernichtungskrieg'' was still feasible.",
"German thinking reverted to the possibility of a quick and decisive war for the Balkan campaign and Operation Barbarossa.===Doctrine===Most academic historians regard the notion of blitzkrieg as military doctrine to be a myth.",
"Shimon Naveh wrote, \"The striking feature of the blitzkrieg concept is the complete absence of a coherent theory which should have served as the general cognitive basis for the actual conduct of operations\".",
"Naveh described it as an \"ad hoc solution\" to operational dangers, thrown together at the last moment.",
"Overy disagreed with the idea that Hitler and the Nazi regime ever intended a blitzkrieg war because the once-popular belief that the Nazi state organized its economy to carry out its grand strategy in short campaigns was false.",
"Hitler had intended for a rapid unlimited war to occur much later than 1939, but Germany's aggressive foreign policy forced the state into war before it was ready.",
"The planning of Hitler and the ''Wehrmacht'' in the 1930s did not reflect a blitzkrieg method but the opposite.",
"J. P. Harris wrote that the Wehrmacht never used the word, and it did not appear in German army or air force field manuals.",
"The word was coined in September 1939 by a ''Times'' newspaper reporter.",
"Harris also found no evidence that German military thinking developed a blitzkrieg mentality.",
"Karl-Heinz Frieser and Adam Tooze reached similar conclusions to Overy and Naveh that the notions of blitzkrieg economy and strategy are myths.",
"Frieser wrote that surviving German economists and General Staff officers denied that Germany went to war with a blitzkrieg strategy.",
"Robert M. Citino argues:The historian Victor Davis Hanson states that ''Blitzkrieg'' \"played on the myth of German technological superiority and industrial dominance\" and adds that German successes, particularly that of its Panzer divisions were \"instead predicated on the poor preparation and morale of Germany's enemies\".",
"Hanson also reports that at a Munich public address in November 1941, Hitler had \"disowned\" the concept of ''Blitzkrieg'' by calling it an \"idiotic word\".",
"Further, successful ''Blitzkrieg'' operations were predicated on superior numbers, air support and were possible for only short periods of time without sufficient supply lines.",
"For all intents and purposes, ''Blitzkrieg'' ended at the Eastern Front once the German forces had given up Stalingrad, after they faced hundreds of new T-34 tanks, when the Luftwaffe became unable to assure air dominance, and after the stalemate at Kursk.",
"To that end, Hanson concludes that German military success was not accompanied by the adequate provisioning of its troops with food and materiel far from the source of supply, which contributed to its ultimate failures.",
"Despite its later disappointments as German troops extended their lines at too great a distance, the very specter of armored ''Blitzkrieg'' forces initially proved victorious against the Polish, Dutch, Belgian and French Armies early in the war.===Economics===In the 1960s, Alan Milward developed a theory of blitzkrieg economics: Germany could not fight a long war and chose to avoid comprehensive rearmament and armed in breadth to win quick victories.",
"Milward described an economy positioned between a full war economy and a peacetime economy.",
"The purpose of the blitzkrieg economy was to allow the German people to enjoy high living standards in the event of hostilities and avoid the economic hardships of the First World War.Overy wrote that blitzkrieg as a \"coherent military and economic concept has proven a difficult strategy to defend in light of the evidence\".",
"Milward's theory was contrary to Hitler's and German planners' intentions.",
"The Germans, aware of the errors of the First World War, rejected the concept of organizing its economy to fight only a short war.",
"Therefore, focus was given to the development of armament in depth for a long war, instead of armament in breadth for a short war.",
"Hitler claimed that relying on surprise alone was \"criminal\" and that \"we have to prepare for a long war along with surprise attack\".",
"During the winter of 1939–1940, Hitler demobilized many troops from the army to return as skilled workers to factories because the war would be decided by production, not a quick \"Panzer operation\".In the 1930s, Hitler had ordered rearmament programs that cannot be considered limited.",
"In November 1937, he had indicated that most of the armament projects would be completed by 1943–1945.The rearmament of the ''Kriegsmarine'' was to have been completed in 1949 and the ''Luftwaffe'' rearmament program was to have matured in 1942, with a force capable of strategic bombing with heavy bombers.",
"The construction and the training of motorized forces and a full mobilization of the rail networks would not begin until 1943 and 1944, respectively.",
"Hitler needed to avoid war until these projects were complete but his misjudgements in 1939 forced Germany into war before rearmament was complete.After the war, Albert Speer claimed that the German economy achieved greater armaments output not because of diversions of capacity from civilian to military industry but by streamlining of the economy.",
"Overy pointed out some 23 percent of German output was military by 1939.Between 1937 and 1939, 70 percent of investment capital went into the rubber, synthetic fuel, aircraft and shipbuilding industries.",
"Hermann Göring had consistently stated that the task of the Four Year Plan was to rearm Germany for total war.",
"Hitler's correspondence with his economists also reveals that his intent was to wage war in 1943–1945, when the resources of central Europe had been absorbed into Nazi Germany.Living standards were not high in the late 1930s.",
"Consumption of consumer goods had fallen from 71 percent in 1928 to 59 percent in 1938.The demands of the war economy reduced the amount of spending in non-military sectors to satisfy the demand for the armed forces.",
"On 9 September, Göring, as Head of the ''Reich Defense Council'', called for complete \"employment\" of living and fighting power of the national economy for the duration of the war.",
"Overy presents that as evidence that a \"blitzkrieg economy\" did not exist.Adam Tooze wrote that the German economy was being prepared for a long war.",
"The expenditure for the war was extensive and put the economy under severe strain.",
"The German leadership were concerned less with how to balance the civilian economy and the needs of civilian consumption but to figure out how to best prepare the economy for total war.",
"Once war had begun, Hitler urged his economic experts to abandon caution and expend all available resources on the war effort, but the expansion plans only gradually gained momentum in 1941.Tooze wrote that the huge armament plans in the pre-war period did not indicate any clear-sighted blitzkrieg economy or strategy.===''Heer''===Frieser wrote that the () was not ready for blitzkrieg at the start of the war.",
"A blitzkrieg method called for a young, highly skilled mechanized army.",
"In 1939–1940, 45 percent of the army was 40 years old and 50 percent of the soldiers had only a few weeks' training.",
"The German Army, contrary to the blitzkrieg legend, was not fully motorized and had only 120,000 vehicles, compared to the 300,000 of the French Army.",
"The British also had an \"enviable\" contingent of motorized forces.",
"Thus, \"the image of the German 'Blitzkrieg' army is a figment of propaganda imagination\".",
"During the First World War, the German army used 1.4 million horses for transport and in the Second World War 2.7 million horses.",
"Only ten percent of the army was motorized in 1940.Half of the German divisions available in 1940 were combat ready, but they were less well-equipped than the British and French or the Imperial German Army of 1914.In the spring of 1940, the German army was semi-modern in which a small number of well-equipped and \"elite\" divisions were offset by many second and third rate divisions\".",
"In 2003, John Mosier wrote that while the French soldiers in 1940 were better trained than German soldiers, as were the Americans later and that the German Army was the least mechanized of the major armies, its leadership cadres were larger and better and that the high standard of leadership was the main reason for the successes of the German army in World War II, as it had been in World War I.===''Luftwaffe''===James Corum wrote that it was a myth that the ''Luftwaffe'' had a doctrine of terror bombing in which civilians were attacked to break the will or aid the collapse of an enemy by the ''Luftwaffe'' in ''blitzkrieg'' operations.",
"After the bombing of Guernica in 1937 and the Rotterdam Blitz in 1940, it was commonly assumed that terror bombing was a part of ''Luftwaffe'' doctrine.",
"During the interwar period, the ''Luftwaffe'' leadership rejected the concept of terror bombing in favour of battlefield support and interdiction operations:Corum continued: General Walther Wever compiled a doctrine known as ''The Conduct of the Aerial War''.",
"This document, which the ''Luftwaffe'' adopted, rejected Giulio Douhet's theory of terror bombing.",
"Terror bombing was deemed to be \"counter-productive\", increasing rather than destroying the enemy's will to resist.",
"Such bombing campaigns were regarded as diversion from the ''Luftwaffe's'' main operations; destruction of the enemy armed forces.",
"The bombings of Guernica, Rotterdam and Warsaw were tactical missions in support of military operations and were not intended as strategic terror attacks.J.",
"P. Harris wrote that most Luftwaffe leaders from Goering through the general staff believed, as did their counterparts in Britain and the United States, that strategic bombing was the chief mission of the air force and that given such a role, the Luftwaffe would win the next war and thatThe Luftwaffe ended up with an air force consisting mainly of relatively short-range aircraft, but that does not prove that the German air force was solely interested in \"tactical\" bombing.",
"It happened because the German aircraft industry lacked the experience to build a long-range bomber fleet quickly and because Hitler was insistent on the very rapid creation of a numerically large force.",
"It is also significant that Germany's position in the centre of Europe to a large extent obviated the need to make a clear distinction between bombers suitable only for \"tactical\" purposes and those necessary for strategic purposes in the early stages of a likely future war.===Fuller and Liddell Hart===The British theorists John Frederick Charles Fuller and Captain Basil Henry Liddell Hart have often been associated with the development of blitzkrieg, but that is a matter of controversy.",
"In recent years historians have uncovered that Liddell Hart distorted and falsified facts to make it appear as if his ideas has been adopted.",
"After the war Liddell Hart imposed his own perceptions after the event by claiming that the mobile tank warfare has been practiced by the ''Wehrmacht'' was a result of his influence.",
"By manipulation and contrivance, Liddell Hart distorted the actual circumstances of the blitzkrieg formation, and he obscured its origins.",
"By his indoctrinated idealization of an ostentatious concept, he reinforced the myth of blitzkrieg.",
"Imposing retrospectively his own perceptions of mobile warfare upon the shallow concept of blitzkrieg, he \"created a theoretical imbroglio that has taken 40 years to unravel\".",
"Blitzkrieg was not an official doctrine, and historians in recent times have come to the conclusion that it did not exist as such:The early 1950s literature transformed blitzkrieg into a historical military doctrine, which carried the signature of Liddell Hart and Guderian.",
"The main evidence of Liddell Hart's deceit and \"tendentious\" report of history can be found in his letters to Erich von Manstein, Heinz Guderian, and the relatives and associates of Erwin Rommel.",
"Liddell Hart, in letters to Guderian, \"imposed his own fabricated version of blitzkrieg on the latter and compelled him to proclaim it as original formula\".",
"Kenneth Macksey found Liddell Hart's original letters to Guderian in the latter's papers.",
"Liddell Hart requested Guderian to give him credit for \"impressing him\" with his ideas of armored warfare.",
"When Liddell Hart was questioned about this in 1968 and the discrepancy between the English and German editions of Guderian's memoirs, \"he gave a conveniently unhelpful though strictly truthful reply.",
"('There is nothing about the matter in my file of correspondence with Guderian himself except... that I thanked him... for what he said in that additional paragraph'.",
")\".During the First World War, Fuller had been a staff officer attached to the new tank corps.",
"He developed Plan 1919 for massive independent tank operations, which he claimed were subsequently studied by the German military.",
"It is variously argued that Fuller's wartime plans and post-war writings were inspirations or that his readership was low and German experiences during the war received more attention.",
"The German view of themselves as the losers of the war may be linked to the senior and experienced officers' undertaking a thorough review in studying and rewriting of all of their Army doctrine and training manuals.Fuller and Liddell Hart were \"outsiders\".",
"Liddell Hart was unable to serve as a soldier after 1916 after being gassed on the Somme, and Fuller's abrasive personality resulted in his premature retirement in 1933.Their views had limited impact in the British army; the War Office permitted the formation of an Experimental Mechanized Force on 1 May 1927, composed of tanks, motorized infantry, self-propelled artillery and motorized engineers but the force was disbanded in 1928 on the grounds that it had served its purpose.",
"A new experimental brigade was intended for the next year and became a permanent formation in 1933, during the cuts of the financial years.===Continuity===It has been argued that blitzkrieg was not and thae that the Germans did not invent something called blitzkrieg in the 1920s and 1930s.",
"Rather, the German concept of wars of movement and concentrated force were seen in wars of Prussia and the German Wars of Unification.",
"The first European general to introduce rapid movement, concentrated power and integrated military effort was Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus during the Thirty Years' War.",
"The appearance of the aircraft and tank in the First World War, called an RMA, offered the German military a chance to get back to the traditional war of movement as practiced by Moltke the Elder.",
"The so-called \"blitzkrieg campaigns\" of 1939 to around 1942 were well within that operational context.At the outbreak of war, the German army had no radically new theory of war.",
"The operational thinking of the German army had not changed significantly since the First World War or since the late 19th century.",
"J. P. Harris and Robert M. Citino point out that the Germans had always had a marked preference for short decisive campaigns but were unable to achieve short-order victories in First World War conditions.",
"The transformation from the stalemate of the First World War into tremendous initial operational and strategic success in the Second World War was partly the employment of a relatively-small number of mechanized divisions, most importantly the Panzer divisions, and the support of an exceptionally powerful air force.===Guderian===Heinz Guderian is widely regarded as being highly influential in developing the military methods of warfare used by Germany's tank men at the start of the Second World War.",
"That style of warfare brought the maneuver back to the fore and placed an emphasis on the offensive.",
"Along with the shockingly-rapid collapse in the armies that opposed it, that came to be branded as blitzkrieg warfare.Aftee Germany's military reforms of the Guderian emerged as a strong proponent of mechanized forces.",
"Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work.",
"Guderian met with opposition from some in the General Staff, who were distrustful of the new weapons and who continued to view the infantry as the primary weapon of the army.",
"Among them, Guderian claimed, was Chief of the General Staff Ludwig Beck (1935–1938), who he alleged was skeptical that armored forces could be decisive.",
"That claim has been disputed by later historians.",
"James Corum wrote:By Guderian's account, he single-handedly created the German tactical and operational methodology.",
"Between 1922 and 1928 Guderian wrote a number of articles concerning military movement.",
"As the ideas of making use of the combustible engine in a protected encasement to bring mobility back to warfare developed in the German army, Guderian was a leading proponent of the formations that would be used for this purpose.",
"He was later asked to write an explanatory book, which was titled ''Achtung Panzer!''",
"(1937) in which he explained the theories of the tank men and defended them.Guderian argued that the tank would be the decisive weapon of the next war.",
"\"If the tanks succeed, then victory follows\", he wrote.",
"In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote that \"until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for land attack\".Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that \"since reserve forces will now be motorized, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war.\"",
"He continued, \"We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made\".",
"Guderian additionally required for tactical radios to be widely used to facilitate coordination and command by having one installed in all tanks.Guderian's leadership was supported, fostered and institutionalized by his supporters in the Reichswehr General Staff system, which worked the Army to greater and greater levels of capability through massive and systematic Movement Warfare war games in the 1930s.",
"Guderian's book incorporated the work of theorists such as , whose book, ''The Tank War'' (''Der Kampfwagenkrieg'') (1934) gained a wide audience in the German Army.",
"Another German theorist, Ernst Volckheim, wrote a huge amount on tank and combined arms tactics and was influential to German thinking on the use of armored formations, but his work was not acknowledged in Guderian's writings."
],
[
"See also",
"* AirLand Battle, blitzkrieg-like doctrine of US Army in 1980s* Armoured warfare* Maneuver warfare* Shock and awe, the 21st century US military doctrine.",
"* ''Vernichtungsgedanke'', or \"annihilation concept\".",
"* Mission-type tactics* Deep Battle, Soviet Red Army Military Doctrine from the 1930s often confused with blitzkrieg.",
"* ''Battleplan'' (documentary TV series)* ''Vernichtungsschlacht'', Battle of annihilation"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Conferences===* ===Journals===* * * * * * ===Websites===* *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * Raudzens, George.",
"\"Blitzkrieg Ambiguities: Doubtful Usage of a Famous Word.\"",
"''War & Society'' 7.2 (1989): 77–94.https://doi.org/10.1179/106980489790305551"
],
[
"External links",
"* Armstrong, G. P. The Controversy over Tanks in the British Army 1919 to 1933 (PhD 1976)* Sinesi, Michael.",
"Patrick.",
"Modern Bewegungskrieg: German Battle Doctrine, 1920–1940 (2001)* Vardi, Gil-Li.",
"The Enigma of German Operational Theory: the Evolution of Military Thought in Germany, 1919–1938 (PhD 2008)* Spiegel Online: The Nazi Death Machine, Hitler's Drugged Soldiers"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Beano"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''The Beano ''''' (formerly '''''The Beano Comic''''', also known as '''''Beano''''') is a British anthology comic magazine created by Scottish publishing company DC Thomson.",
"Its first issue was published on 30 July 1938, and it published its 4000th issue in August 2019.Popular and well-known comic strips and characters include ''Dennis the Menace'', ''Minnie the Minx'', ''The Bash Street Kids'', ''Roger the Dodger'', ''Billy Whizz'', ''Lord Snooty and His Pals'', ''Ivy the Terrible'', ''General Jumbo'', ''Jonah'', and ''Biffo the Bear''.",
"''The Beano'' was planned as a pioneering children's magazine that contained mostly comic strips, in the style of American newspaper gag-a-days, as opposed to the more text story based Story papers that were immensely popular before the Second World War.",
"In the present, its legacy is its misbehaving characters, escapist tales and anarchic humour with an audience of all ages.",
"''Beano'' is a multimedia franchise with spin-off books and Christmas annuals, a website, theme park rides, games, cartoon adaptations, and a production company.The Beano has been running weekly for 85 years alongside its competitor, the Dandy.",
"It has had three main characters throughout the years: Big Eggo (1938-1949), Biffo the Bear (1949-1975), and the current, Dennis the Menace and Gnasher (1975-present day).",
"''Beano'' also featured the characters Smudge, Grandpa, Colonel Crackpot's Circus, Tin Can Tommy and Pansy Potter."
],
[
"History",
"===Creation (1920s–1939)===Throughout the 1920s, DC Thomson dominated the British comics industry.",
"Dubbed \"the big five\", the publisher's most successful comics were ''Adventure'' (1921), ''The Rover'' and ''The Wizard'' (1922), ''The Skipper'' (1930) and ''The Hotspur'' (1933).",
"These were weekly issued boys' magazines for preteen males, containing anthologies by DC Thomson's creator staff designed in various formats and genres.",
"They became popular throughout the United Kingdom, notably in English industrial cities, helped through the company's ability to view sales and promotions in the areas much easier than the rival publishers in London.",
"Although many were about \"super men\" the young readers could idolise, the rest of the stories would be comic strips inspired by the gag-a-day strips in American newspapers full of stylised characters, slapstick and puns.Overseeing the magazines was the Managing Editor of Children's Publications, R. D. Low, who first joined the company in 1913.Almost a decade into the big five's success, the stories shifted to comedic and included more comic strips, which gave Low an idea of creating a new \"big five\" which focused on the funnies more than drama.",
"The suggestion was approved; editors Bill Blain and (sub-editor) Albert Barnes of ''The Wizard'' and ''The Hotspur'', respectively, joined Low's project.",
"The new team placed a newspaper advertisement into ''The Daily Telegraph'' asking for artists and/or comic ideas.",
"With the help of the advertisement responses and employed artists at DC Thomson, ''The Dandy'' was published in 1937, the New Big Five's first member.",
"For ''The Beano'' (initially called \"The Beano Comic\" until issue 412), Low received comic strip suggestions by Reg Carter, an English illustrator in Sussex who had created funnies for several British comics and designed humorous postcards.",
"After an in-person interview, Low and Carter planned the front cover for ''The Beano'' first issue, eventually creating the character Big Eggo (originally named Oswald the Ostrich).",
"It would be in colour whilst the inside of the magazine would be black and white, a tactic used for ''The Dandy'' first issue (black and white stories inside, colourful Korky the Cat strip on the front).",
"Joining the ''Big Eggo'' strip would be many funnies, such as Hugh McNeill's ''Ping the Elastic Man'', James Jewell's ''Wee Peem'', Allan Morley's ''Big Fat Joe'', Eric Roberts' ''Rip Van Wink'', Dudley D. Watkins' ''Lord Snooty and His Pals'', and Roland Davies' ''Contrary Mary''.",
"Despite the aim to make a new comic series full of American-inspired comic strips, ''The Beano'' also contained short stories, serial fiction and adventure stories similar to the Big Five's magazines; ''Morgyn the Mighty'' was previously in ''The Rover''.",
"''Tin-Can Tommy'' and ''Brave Captain Kipper'' were reprints, co-produced by the Italian art agency Torelli Bros.Worth 2d with a free prize of a \"whoopee mask\", issue 1 of ''The Beano'' was released on 26 July 1938 for the 30th, selling roughly 443,000 copies.",
"Like ''The Dandy'', its name is from a Low-led DC Thomson office party called The DB Club (The Dandy Beano Club).",
"DC Thomson had several office party clubs that hosted different types of staff gatherings to choose from (e.g.",
"The Prancers would hike hills), but Low's DB Club preferred playing golf and dining throughout Dundee.",
"The two magazines also followed the one-word titles of other comics by rival companies, such as Amalgamated Press' ''Crackers'', ''Sparkler'', ''Puck'' and some books from its ''Union Jack'' series (''The Marvel'', ''The Magnet'' and ''The Gem''); and Target Publications' ''Chuckler'', ''Rattler'' and ''Dazzler''.",
"''Beano'' editor-in-chief was George Moonie, former sub-editor of ''The Wizard'', who would be editor until the summer of 1959.He later explained DC Thomson was a competitive company that wanted to make the best children's literature in the United Kingdom, but there was also competition within itself as ''Beano'' offices was determined to beat ''The Dandy'' popularity.===World War Two, reaching million sales (1939–1945)===Drastic changes occurred behind the scenes of ''The Beano'' during the Second World War: George Moonie and editing partner Ron Fraser left to join the Royal Marines and Air Force, respectively, both not returning until c. 1946.Stuart Gilchrist became sole editor-in-chief after Moonie's other sub-editor Freddie Simpson became ill and resigned.",
"Contact was also lost with Torelli Bros. so in-house creations of ''Tin-Can Tommy'' began from issue 69 by Sam Fair.",
"Paper rationing caused the rest of Low's New Big Five to be cancelled (it stopped at three published, the third member being ''The Magic Comic'' (1939), which ended with 80 issues in 1941), and ''The Beano'' to fluctuate its page count instead of its usual 28.Eventually, ''The Beano'' became a fortnightly magazine (alternating with The Dandy comic) until 23 July 1949.Comic strips would encourage readers to help their parents and other adults with the war effort, and to be optimistic about the war's outcome.",
"New comic strips mocked Mussolini and propagandist William Joyce, ''Lord Snooty and His Pals'' stories would be about the protagonists outsmarting the Axis leaders, and other stories would be about characters recycling paper.",
"''Big Eggo'' front covers were often about Eggo pranking servicemen during the Blitz, and Pansy Potter received a medal for single-handedly capturing a Nazi U-boat.",
"Issue 192 would debut a 16-part prose story about a boy and his mother being evacuated to the United States and becoming the enemy of a Chicago gangster's widow.Issues published weekly every Tuesday in 1938, and when the magazine changed distribution to every two weeks, the day remained unchanged.",
"From issue 366, the day changed to Friday until issue 375 which began the Thursday publication day schedule.===Post-war changes (1945–1988)===December 1945 marked a milestone: issue 272 became the first ''Beano'' issue to sell over a million copies.",
"The end of the war also ushered in a new era for the comic, debuting superhero Jack Flash, the debut of Biffo the Bear as new cover star and a new generation of trouble-making kids: Dennis the Menace, Minnie the Minx, The Bash Street Kids, and Roger the Dodger.",
"DC Thomson also introduced new comic magazines like ''The Beezer'' and ''The Topper'' that a few ''Beano'' artists also created characters and stories for.After the war saw a drift away from text stories and adventure comics, with the last text story published in 1955; adventure comics lasted longer with 1975 being the last year to feature them as ''General Jumbo'' eighth series drew to a close in issue 1734.George Moonie resigned as editor-in-chief in 1959 to develop comics for girls.",
"Sub-editor of ''The Beezer'' Harry Cramond succeeded Moonie until retiring in 1984, described as the most influential editor in ''The Beano'' history.",
"He oversaw new merchandising, high sales, and the thousandth and two thousandth issues.",
"Behind the scenes of the magazine became humanised throughout the years as DC Thomson's ''Beano'' offices featured on documentary television and Cramond's successor Euan Kerr guest-starred on television for the magazine's 50th anniversary.===Move to full colour (1988–present)===''The Beano'' began to advertise outside of DC Thomson's products in 1988 in order to keep both it and ''The Dandy'' \"pocket money\" cheap, beginning with issue 2407.Issue 2674 in 1993 was the first issue to feature every page in colour.A notable revamp was the 50th birthday issue, which had an abnormally larger page count with more coloured sections and printed on wider sheets.",
"A decade later, issues gained eight extra pages with computer-based art.",
"In the 21st century, there were seven changes within a five-year span: logo updates, fonts assigned for certain design roles, and the magazine started using glossy paper.From issue 3442 in 2008 (and as of 2020), the day the comic was released was changed to Wednesday.Outside of the magazine, ''Beano''s brand expanded into a multimedia franchise.",
"Theme park tie-ins, a website, spin-off magazines, and animated television programmes starring the popular comic characters (several for Dennis the Menace) became common, keeping ''The Beano'' in popular culture.",
"The turn of the millennium began a sales decline and led to friendly rival ''The Dandy'' to discontinue in 2012.Eventually, ''The Beano'' recovered after the creation of its magazine subscription service, which also shipped internationally."
],
[
"Stories",
"''Jimmy and his Magic Patch'' was a popular text comic adventure that would have eight series (three of them reprints) between 1944 and 1959.Plots and dialogue are written into a script by an (often) uncredited DC Thomson writer, a formerly common practice for DC Thomson magazines.",
"Uncredited artists assigned to a strip(s) will design all its stories into a \"series\" that the chief editor will arrange into an order to publish for each issue.",
"Strips are sometimes ghostwritten by other artists who imitate the original designer's style, which is helpful if artists retire or die unexpectedly, otherwise the strip is discontinued.",
"\"When I started I was drawing two pages a week and thinking 'Phew, that's quite a lot'.",
"Now I do 10 or 12 pages a week.",
"You have to do more all the time to stay where you are,\" explained Nigel Parkinson.",
"From March 2016, authors and illustrators are now credited in issues.There have been over a thousand stories throughout the magazine's history told through various ways.",
"Since November 1975, the magazine has contained only comic strips in the style of American newspaper \"funnies\", but it began with other genres.",
"The last genre to leave ''Beano'' was adventure stories: short tales eleven-pictures long in text comics format.",
"The stories were either dramatic or dramedies, but heavily featured hobbies and interests young boys had (war and the military, hunting, sailing, jungle men).",
"They also stood out because the illustrations of backgrounds, animals and human characters were photorealistic.",
"Although artists like Dudley D. Watkins drew for a few series, the most prolific illustrator was Irish artist Paddy Brennan, who notably drew for ''The Daring Deeds of Sinbad the Sailor'', ''Red Rory of the Eagles'' and ''General Jumbo'' in the 1950s.",
"Comic adventure stories were a hybrid: adventure stories presented as a comic strip.Prose stories were a page of text with an illustration at the top.",
"Some stories were about animals with artwork by former Big Five illustrator Richard \"Toby\" Baines, but the longest-running prose character in the magazine's history was Prince Ivor, who first starred in ''Follow the Secret Hand''.",
"The last prose story to appear was ''Ace From Space'' in 1955.Although comic strips have featured in ''The Beano'' since issue 1, their contents has changed throughout.",
"Anthropomorphic animals were common stars that would partake in human activities, and the punchlines occurred from the failures to do so.",
"Misbehaving children showed most popular with ''Lord Snooty and His Pals'' becoming the first longest-running strip when it concluded in 1991, but the most well known that continue to appear in issues are ''Dennis the Menace'', ''Minnie the Minx'', ''The Bash Street Kids'', and ''Roger the Dodger''.",
"Some adult-starring characters also misbehaved but they were usually portrayed as incompetent, notably Jonah.",
"In the late 20th century, merging comic strip characters in the same vicinity became common in the franchise, such as the video game ''Beanotown Racing'', but characters living together in \"Beanotown\" became a prominent feature of comic strips into the present.Due to the initial target audience of ''The Beano'' being schoolboys, masculine interests, hobbies, and values dominated issues constantly.",
"Aside from aforementioned adventure stories and comedic characters, there were cowboys, aliens, kings, the supernatural, fantasy creatures (and talking animals), and men whose lifestyle or jobs require physical strength (despite the story making their careers incidental).",
"''The Beano'' alternated between mocking or idolising these characters through story formats; wealthy characters causing mischief, caring about their families or being shown underprivileged lives made the working-class audience relate and sympathise with them.",
"Female characters were usually supporting a male character, joint protagonist with a male character, or the antagonist.",
"Prose stories starring girls and women were about the protagonist searching out the truth to a secret, usually over a friend's/family disappearance, or they were witches cursing or tormenting the male protagonists.",
"Female comic characters were also in supporting roles with or join-protagonist with a male character, but the starring characters notably had binary stereotypical traits: drawn as tall and flowy, ''Swanky, Lanky Liz'' is obsessed with fashion and makeup and acts vain and snobbish, whereas Pansy Potter, Minnie the Minx and Toots from ''The Bash Street Kids'' share the round-faced and snub-nosed art style of the boys in their stories and are unruly tomboys (in Pansy Potter's case, showcases the strength she inherited from her father).",
"Non-White characters starred in their stories either set in Africa, Asia, or South America, or were about the character adapting to a new life in the United Kingdom.Stories used to vary in length and layout, but in 2012, ''The Beano'' debuted a chapter called Funsize Funnies where shorter comic strips shared some pages.",
"In some instances, these extremely short strips were brand new (''Stunt Gran'', ''BamBeanos'', ''BSK CCTV'', ''Gnash Gnews'', ''Winston''), but others were tiny reboots of older comic strips that the new audience could not recall reading before.",
"Quiet reboots included ''Simply Smiffy'' (cancelled 1987), ''Rasher'' (cancelled 1995), ''Little Plum'' (cancelled 2007), ''Les Pretend'' (cancelled 2007), ''Baby Face Finlayson'' (cancelled 2005), ''Biffo the Bear'' (cancelled 1999), ''Pansy Potter'' (cancelled 1993), and ''Lord Snooty'' (cancelled 1991).===Crossovers===The 80th-anniversary comic memorably features characters from the first issue and the rest of 1938.",
"'''Left to right:''' Wee Peem, Tin-Can Tommy, Pansy Potter, Lord Snooty, and Big Fat Joe.",
"''The Beano'' allows its characters from different strips to interact with each other.",
"Reprinting old stories or redistributing characters into other magazines is common throughout DC Thomson's history, as if the stories are set in the same universe.",
"The ''Lord Snooty'' series discontinued old characters and replaced them with ''Beano'' strip characters of the past; ''Dennis the Menace'' featured in DC Thomson's ''Champ'' magazine in the mid-1980s and ''The Weekly News'' tabloid-magazine for four years in the 1950s.",
"''Morgyn the Mighty'', ''Tricky Dicky'', ''Bananaman'' and ''Corporal Clott'' were stories previously from ''The Rover'', ''The Topper'', ''Nutty'' and ''The Dandy'', respectively, whereas one of Gnasher's puppies had her own strip in ''The Beezer and Topper'' and ''Jackie'' magazine.=== Anniversary issues ===Along with guest editors, anniversary issues are frequently contained with crossovers.",
"The 2000th issue had the \"Hall of Fame\" strip which showed framed portraits of characters from the past, and issue 3443's ''Fred's Bed'' featured Fred crawling under his bed and time travelling through the magazine's comic strips.",
"For the 80th anniversary, issue 3945 was guest edited by actor-turned children's author David Walliams and had a large crossover story about Bash Street School opening the Beanotown's 1938 time capsule and discovering a map, which leads to robots and a giant tentacle monster breaking out to attack the residents.",
"There was also a flashback panel of the time capsule being sealed which featured a handful of comic strip characters from the first issue, later helping the present day characters discover how to defeat the tentacle monster, named Simon.",
"Issue 4000's crossover was a time travel story where the Beanotown characters of the present helped their future selves save the world."
],
[
"Creators",
"===Chief Editor history===As of 2020, there have been seven official chief editors:*George Moonie (1938–1939, c. 1946–1959)*Harold Cramond (1959–1984)*Euan Kerr (1984–2006)*Alan Digby (2006–2011)*Michael Stirling (2011–2012)*Craig Graham (2012–2016)*John Anderson (2016–present)Temporary chief editors:*Stuart Gilchrist (1939–c.",
"1946) stood in as editor when George Moonie joined the Navy for World War Two.",
"*Dick and Dom (2006) edited issue 3311 and chose their favourite strips from the available 2005 waiting list.",
"*Nick Park (2008) edited issue 3443 to celebrate ''Beano'' 70th anniversary.",
"*Harry Hill (published 6 March 2013) edited the 2013 Red Nose Day special.",
"*Andy Murray (28 June 2014) edited the Wimbledon special.",
"*David Walliams (2018) edited issue 3945 to celebrate the 80th anniversary.",
"*Joe Sugg (2021) edited issue 4077 for ''Dennis the Menace'' 70th anniversary.",
"*Marcus Rashford (2022) edited issue 4146 following the release of his book, ''You Can Do It: How to Find Your Voice and Make a Difference.",
"''*Leah Williamson (2023) edited issue 4212 to celebrate ''Minnie The Mix'' 70th anniversary.===Notable artists==="
],
[
"Merchandise",
"The now-defunct ''Beanoland'' at Chessington World of Adventures in the UK.From the first issue, readers have received free gifts from ''The Beano'': toy masks, sweets, posters, and toys.",
"Originally, free gifts would be attached inside the cover or strategically on the front so that it could distract the buyer from other comics next to ''The Beano'' on the shelves, hopefully excited for the next issue after reading it and eating/playing with the toys.",
"Gifts were intentionally sporadic, especially during the Christmas period when families' money would be saved for food and presents.",
"Issue 90 would be the last issue with a gift (licorice \"black eye\") due to rationing, the next free gift being the Flying Snorter Balloon in issue 953.The most popular free gift was issue 2201's Gnasher Snapper, a prank toy that would make a bang sound when unfolded, and was re-gifted occasionally in later issues, as well as the 60th anniversary.During the 25th anniversary of ''Dennis the Menace'', The Dennis the Menace Fan Club was formed.",
"The fan club was instantly popular, recalls Euan Kerr in 1984; \"The club enrolled over 2000 new members every week, well into the 90s.\"",
"Membership was 30p, and new members received a membership card full of classified communication tactics and two badges: a red one with Dennis' face on the front and a furry one of a googly-eyed Gnasher face—the latter was the most sought-after badge in the club's history.",
"For two years, there was a tie-in agony aunt page called ''Dear Dennis'' (issue 1679–1767) where fan club members sent Dennis their problems that Dennis would reply to in the following issue; thousands of letters would arrive at DC Thomson per week and the authors of the messages would receive prizes.",
"The club would be renamed The Beano Club, which ended in 2010, but had over 1.5 million members.",
"A spin-off was introduced called Gnasher's Fang Club, and Gnasher would ask readers to send him stories about their pets' adventures which could be printed into the next issue.",
"\"The mailbag of little drawings of pets was several thousand per week,\" remembers sub-editor Morris Heggie.",
"\"And the popularity lasted and lasted.",
"\"The 21st century celebrated anniversaries with more memorabilia.",
"For ''The Beano'' 70th birthday, DC Thomson published ''The Beano Special Collectors Edition: 70 Years of Fun'' (2008), and ''The History of The Beano'' (2008) was published by Waverly Books, both documenting the magazine's history; two exhibitions at the University of Dundee (''Happy Birthday, Beano!'')",
"and The Cartoon Museum (''Beano and Dandy Birthday Bash!'')",
"showed the public private DC Thomson artwork and the history of the magazine.",
"For 2018, readers could buy a box for the 80th anniversary containing posters, reprints of selected older issues, and two books updating the previous documentation of the magazine's history, as well as ''Minnie the Minx'' origins.",
"Both anniversaries had tie-in museum exhibitions that also told their audiences the magazine's history.",
"Limited-edition figurines from Robert Harrop were available to buy from their official website in late 2008.The 21st century also began ''Beano'' branching into different mediums: their first website, Beanotown.com, formed in 2000, and Chessington World of Adventures opened Beanoland in the same year.",
"Both would later discontinue but Beanotown.com would be revamped as beano.com, a website full of games, ''Beano'' secrets and other activities for children.",
"Gulliver's Travels opened the Beano 6 Super Ride in May 2021.",
"''The Beano'' was also the face of the United Kingdom's 2018 Summer Reading Challenge, called Mischief Makers, which included a special Dennis the Menace novel tie-in called ''Dennis the Menace and the Chamber of Mischief'' by Beano artist Nigel Auchterlounie.",
"The Dennis the Menace Fan Club was re-launched as a phone app, rebranded as The Dennis and Gnasher Fan Club, and allowed readers free membership, printable badges, and pranks.",
"On television, the Sky Kids show ''SO Beano!''",
"aired; a TV show with special guests, children presenters, and fun and games, in a similar style to ''Friday Download'' and ''Scrambled!",
"''===Annuals===The first Beano annual hardcover book was published as far back as 1939, a year after the first weekly comic was published.",
"In 2018, it was estimated that an original first issue Beano annual in relatively good condition could fetch between £1,200 to £1,500.===Spin-off comics=======Comic libraries====Since 1982 the comic, along with ''The Dandy'', has also run \"Comic Library\" titles.",
"Released monthly, these titles are a feature-length (usually about 64-page) adventure, featuring a character from the comic itself.",
"They are available in A5 size only.",
"In 1998, these were replaced by the ''Fun Size Beano''.",
"Fun Size Comics were discontinued in late 2010.====''Beano Specials''====The comic also ran A4-sized ''Beano Specials'' in 1987 with full coloured pages, which later were replaced by ''Beano Superstars'' which ran for 121 issues from 1992 to 2002.These were similar to the Comic Library series.",
"Some of the last issues were printed versions of episodes from the 1996–1998 ''Dennis and Gnasher'' animated TV series.",
"A ''Beano Poster Comic'' series was also printed in the early 1990s.The Beano Specials returned in 2003, and are now published seasonally.",
"The issues were numbered, and the first one was a Dennis and Friends special, the last a Christmas reprint special.",
"These were replaced by BeanoMAX in early 2007.====BeanoMAX====On 15 February 2007, the first issue of a monthly comic entitled ''BeanoMAX'' was published.",
"The sister comic features many of the same characters; however, the stories in ''BeanoMAX'' are written in a longer format meant for 10- to 13-year-olds.",
"The first issue was a Comic Relief special featuring assorted celebrity guests.",
"The magazine has been rebranded several times since 2013, and is currently known as ''EPIC Magazine''.====''Plug''====''Plug'' was a comic based on the eponymous character from ''The Bash Street Kids'' that began with issue dated 24 September 1977, and is notable for being the first comic to make use of rotogravure printing.",
"The magazine similar in style to I.P.C's ''Krazy'' which had started the previous year.",
"It contained uncharacteristically outlandish material for D C. Thomson, as well as later including celebrity appearances in the comic.The comic revealed Plug's full name to be Percival Proudfoot Plugsley and also gave him a pet monkey by the name of Chumkee.",
"Plug's strip was mostly drawn by Vic Neill but other artists, including Dave Gudgeon drew some later strips.",
"Other strips included ''Antchester United'', ''Violent Elizabeth'', ''Eebagoom'', ''Hugh's Zoo'' and ''D'ye Ken John Squeal and his Hopeless Hounds''.The venture was unsuccessful, in part because the comic cost 9p, with the ''Beano'' at the time only costing 4p and most of its rivals priced similarly.",
"It merged with ''The Beezer'' on 24 February 1979.====''Dennis and Gnasher''====The brand new ''Dennis and Gnasher'' was launched separately from ''The Beano'' in September 2009.It coincided with their new cartoon on CBBC of the same name.====''BeanOLD''====44-page special issue 4062, with cover date 21 November 2020, during a lockdown in the COVID-19 pandemic had an eight-page adult pullout named ''BeanOLD'', with cartoons poking fun at British politicians such as Boris Johnson and Dominic Cummings, and with appearances by Greta Thunberg, Captain Tom, and footballer Marcus Rashford.",
"The slogan was \"2020 has been tough.",
"So tough that even grown-ups need ''Beano''\"."
],
[
"Beano Studios",
"In June 2016, DC Thomson launched Beano Studios, a spin-off media studio (based in both London and Dundee) with the intention of creating media appropriate for children and expanding ''The Beano'' franchise.",
"Its introduction to the readers came in ''The Beano'' issue 3854 with a revamp of the cover's layout and the logo, removing \"The\" to make it coincide with the studio, and unveiling the website beano.com.",
"Former chief-editor Michael Stirling (who stepped down in 2012) became head of the Dundee studio and the franchise's spokesman.",
"Jodie Morris became Head of Digital Content, James Neal stood as Director of Content, Nigel Pickard joined as non-executive director and Emma Scott stood as CEO until 2020, succeeded by David Guppy.As well as expanding ''Beano'' franchise through games and merchandise, Beano.com also contains other activities and interests for children to enjoy, such as news about popular celebrities, and miscellaneous videos and articles.",
"Neal described it as \"a fun but trusted babysitter who lets the kids stay up a bit late\".",
"For parents who formerly read ''The Beano'' during childhood, Beano Studios invites them to also participate on their nostalgia, once sending a cease and desist letter to politician Jacob Rees-Mogg for copyright infringement against Walter the Softy.",
"The website became a continuing success worldwide with over two million visitors per year, and is credited for increasing comic sales by 10% in 2018.A similar approach had been planned for years through the first website Beanotown.com, which DC Thomson hoped would attract an international audience to ''The Beano'', especially the United States.",
"''The Guardian'' noted ''The Beano'' success in North America was plausible because of ''Chicken Run'', Monty Python, and Benny Hill's American popularity.Soon after the launch announcement, Beano Studios revealed it had a new ''Dennis the Menace'' adaptation in production: a 52-episode 3D-animated cartoon for CBBC co-produced by Jellyfish Pictures and distributed by Jetpack.",
"The new programme, ''Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed!",
"'', aired on the CBBC Channel in November 2017 and became one of the most popular children's series on the channel.",
"Jetpack sold the cartoon to over 90 territories worldwide in 2018 through television deals and streaming services, and it received an Emmy nomination for Best International Animated Program at the 2019 International Emmy Kids Awards.",
"Chief Creative Officer Mark Talbot explained his plans to look to Hollywood for ''Beano'' branching, noting: \"what's been interesting with the Americans, they don't have ''The Beano'' but what they see is the archive with over 2,000 characters and storylines sat in a warehouse in Dundee waiting to be reimagined by new writers and established writers.\"",
"In November 2020, ''Deadline'' reported Talbot was in the midst of pitching another adaptation of ''Dennis the Menace'', rumoured to be about a reckless teenaged Dennis with a pilot script written by former ''Chilling Adventures of Sabrina'' writer Matthew Barry.",
"Beano Studios and Lime Pictures announced a live-action ''Minnie the Minx'' children's programme in 2018 called ''The Magnificent Misadventures of Minnie'', and Fox Entertainment announced a ''Bananaman'' cartoon, the second cartoon adapting the comic strip after the BBC adaptation from 1983."
],
[
"Reception and legacy",
"''Beano'' stamp issued by Royal Mail in 2012.",
"''The Beano'' was an instant success upon release, and became the longest-running, weekly-issued comic of all time in 2018.Although interest in comic magazines dwindled, it survived surrounding setbacks.",
"In the 1950s, it (and ''The Dandy'') were unaffected by DC Thomson's magazine cancellations (selling over 100 million per year) that were caused by both paper rationing and public lack of interest.",
"Alan Digby's attempt to boost sales with the 8-week \"Missing Gnasher\" plot in ''Dennis the Menace'' failed, but the story featured in newspapers and on radio broadcasts, causing people of all ages to contact ''Beano'' offices to voice their concerns.",
"Roughly 31,000–41,000 copies are sold per week in the present day, but an estimated 2 billion ''Beano'' comic magazines have been sold in its lifetime.",
"A 1997 television poll by the National Comics Awards selected it for the Best British Comic Ever award.",
"Dennis the Menace would represent the comic when Royal Mail launched a special stamp collection in 2012, celebrating Britain's rich comic book history.",
"''The Dandy'', ''Eagle'', ''The Topper'', ''Roy of the Rovers'', ''Bunty'', ''Buster'', ''Valiant'', ''Twinkle'' and ''2000 AD'' were also featured.Like ''The Dandy'', ''The Beano'' is a definitive part of British pop culture.",
"\"It's refreshing to see how the zany principles that made it such a hit all those years ago have remained to this day.\"",
"writes ''Coventry Evening Telegraph''.",
"''Beano'' annuals are the most popular Christmas annual sold, and old issues sell for thousands at auctions.",
"Lord Snooty is often used as a pejorative in British politics.",
"DC Thomson considers the 1950s ''Beano'' golden age possibly because of many commemorations based on the strips that first appeared from that decade: Dennis became the literal and metaphorical mascot of the magazine, his increasing popularity making him the last consistent cover star and his strips spawning three BBC animated adaptations; Minnie and the Bash Street Kids have a statue and a street named after the strip, respectively.",
"The \"anarchic\" humour is credited as the key to the magazine's longevity, as well as its refusal to be condescending to its readers: \"''The Beano'' may have changed since the '30s but has always maintained its anti-authoritarian stance and steadfast refusal to treat children like idiots,\" theorised Morris Heggie.The magazine is cited as an inspiration to many readers.",
"''Beano'' artists Emily McGorman-Bruce, Zoom Rockman, Jess Bradley, and Barrie Appleby were avid readers of the magazine and/or its annuals before they became creators of its new strips.",
"Meanwhile, ''The Beano'' inspired comic artists Jay Stephens, Carolyn Edwards (Titan Comics) and webcomic creator Sarah Millman (''NPC Tea'', ''The Heart of Time'') to either work in the creative industry or create their own stories.",
"Alan Moore theorised the magazine influenced numerous British comic artists into reimagining American comics in the 1980s by pioneering the Dark Age.",
"Guest chief-editors Nick Park, David Walliams, Joe Sugg, and Harry Hill are also fans of ''The Beano'', with Park admitting \"My dream job was always to work on ''The Beano'' and it's such an honour for me to be Guest Editor.",
"\"Notable famous members of the old Dennis the Menace/Beano Club include Auberon Waugh, Mike Read, and Mark Hamill, as well as honorary members Paul Gascoigne, and Princes William and Harry.",
"Chris Tarrant cited Dennis as his role model when he was a child, and Paul Rudd revealed ''Roger the Dodger'' was his favourite strip.",
"Stella McCartney created tribute fashion to both ''The Beano'' and ''The Dandy'', explaining they were \"a huge part of my childhood\" and wanted to celebrate \"the next generation of ''Beano'' fans with a sustainable and practical range for kids who still share that ‘Beano’ spirit of these iconic characters\".",
"In music pop culture, the album ''Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton'' is nicknamed \"The Beano Album\" because Eric Clapton is holding issue 1242 on its cover.===Audience participation===Interaction with the audience is a historic practice in ''The Beano'' history.",
"Excluding fan clubs and merchandise, ''Comic Idol'' is a sporadic election in which readers vote for their favourite strips to keep in the magazine.",
"Cancelled strips with the least votes include ''Little Plum'', ''Baby Face Finlayson'', ''Les Pretend'', ''Calamity James'', ''Crazy for Daisy'', and ''Lord Snooty''.",
"''Super School'' and ''Meebo and Zuky'' were nominees who won polls and became official strips in the following issues.",
"Readers would find a voting slip covered with the candidates printed in an issue that they would fill out and mail to DC Thomson, but the creation of ''Beano'' websites would allow real-time opinions from readers.",
"''Pets' Picture Gallery'' invited readers to send drawings of their pets to feature in the following issue.Readers participated in the magazine's record-breaking stunts.",
"In 1988, 100 children helped Euan Kerr and ''Beano'' scriptwriter Al Bernard recreate the front cover of issue 2396 on Scarborough Beach with Hann-Made Productions.",
"It was awarded the Largest Comic Strip at 39950 square feet.",
"''Beano'' 2018 comic competition to celebrate the opening of V&A Dundee was awarded the biggest competition to finish a comic strip with 650 participants.Along with Nick Park's guest editor issue, the 70th anniversary coincided with Gnashional Menace Day, a CLIC Sargent-partnered event where readers could be sponsored \"behaving like Dennis\" for charity.===Controversy===''The Beano'' has had a few controversies throughout its lifetime, but aspects have either been discontinued, phased out or changed to not cause offence.",
"Its infamous changes are the removal of corporal punishment (e.g.",
"Dennis the Menace often depicted receiving bottom spanks with a slipper by his furious father) and misbehaving characters abandoning slingshots—the latter irritating former readers for being a \"politically correct\" notion, usually highlighted with claim \"Dennis has lost his menace\".Peanut stands to the masthead's left holding a slice of watermelon.Racist depictions and terminology have been removed through the years as well.",
"''Little Plum'' sub-title \"Your redskin chum\" was not included in its 2002 revival.",
"The first masthead character was a caricatured design of a black boy named Peanut, mascot of the ''Little Peanut's Page of Fun'' joke page (appeared from issues 1 to 112), usually eating watermelon.",
"His last masthead feature was in December 1947, but subsequent reprints of the first issues have removed him.",
"''Hard-Nut the Nigger'' and ''Musso the Wop'' have not had reprints since their last appearances, the latter being printed during “World War II”, when Britain was at war with Fascist Italy.Some changes were to not convince readers bullying was acceptable.",
"Dennis and Gnasher's constant targeting of passive, diligent Walter \"the Softy\" (who was also a knitting and flower-picking hobbyist) was accused of encouraging playground homophobia, so it was toned down.",
"Walter was also rewritten to be a bit less soft, becoming more antagonistic and stood up to Dennis sometimes, eventually having his first girlfriend.",
"Fatty from the Bash Street Kids was renamed Freddy (his real name) in 2021, causing backlash from former readers, including then government minister Jacob Rees-Mogg who accused the change of being \"publicity-seeking\".",
"Former chief-editor Mike Stirling explained it was due to fan letters from young readers asking why he was nicknamed so: \"although it's always been used affectionately, and never pejoratively, we agreed it's time it changed.\"",
"A ''News of the World'' report contained accusations of ''Uh Oh, Si Co!''",
"encouraging readers to mock children with anger issues or mental illness, which caused the strip to be cancelled."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''The Beano Summer Special''* ''The Beano Annual''* List of magazines published in Scotland*MAD magazine* British comics* List of ''Beano'' comic strips* List of ''Beano'' comic strips by annual* ''The Beano'' timeline"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"****"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website* Official Beano shop* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bee"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bees''' are winged insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their roles in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the western honey bee, for producing honey.",
"Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea.",
"They are currently considered a clade, called '''Anthophila'''.",
"There are over 20,000 known species of bees in seven recognized biological families.",
"Some speciesincluding honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless beeslive socially in colonies while most species (>90%)including mason bees, carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, and sweat beesare solitary.Bees are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants.",
"The most common bees in the Northern Hemisphere are the Halictidae, or sweat bees, but they are small and often mistaken for wasps or flies.",
"Bees range in size from tiny stingless bee species, whose workers are less than long, to ''Megachile pluto'', the largest species of leafcutter bee, whose females can attain a length of .Bees feed on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients.",
"Most pollen is used as food for their larvae.",
"Vertebrate predators of bees include primates and birds such as bee-eaters; insect predators include beewolves and dragonflies.Bee pollination is important both ecologically and commercially, and the decline in wild bees has increased the value of pollination by commercially managed hives of honey bees.",
"The analysis of 353 wild bee and hoverfly species across Britain from 1980 to 2013 found the insects have been lost from a quarter of the places they inhabited in 1980.Human beekeeping or apiculture (meliponiculture for stingless bees) has been practised for millennia, since at least the times of Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece.",
"Bees have appeared in mythology and folklore, through all phases of art and literature from ancient times to the present day, although primarily focused in the Northern Hemisphere where beekeeping is far more common.",
"In Mesoamerica, the Mayans have practiced large-scale intensive meliponiculture since pre-Columbian times."
],
[
"Evolution",
"The immediate ancestors of bees were stinging wasps in the family Crabronidae, which were predators of other insects.",
"The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of prey insects which were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae.",
"This same evolutionary scenario may have occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the pollen wasps evolved from predatory ancestors.Based on phylogenetic analysis, bees are thought to have originated during the Early Cretaceous (about 124 million years ago) on the supercontinent of West Gondwana, just prior to its breakup into South America and Africa.",
"The supercontinent is thought to have been a largely xeric environment at this time; modern bee diversity hotspots are also in xeric and seasonal temperate environments, suggesting strong niche conservatism among bees ever since their origins.Genomic analysis indicates that despite only appearing much later in the fossil record, all modern bee families had already diverged from one another by the end of the Cretaceous.",
"The Melittidae, Apidae, and Megachilidae had already evolved on the supercontinent prior to its fragmentation.",
"Further divergences were facilitated by West Gondwana's breakup around 100 million years ago, leading to a deep Africa-South America split within both the Apidae and Megachilidae, the isolation of the Melittidae in Africa, and the origins of the Colletidae, Andrenidae and Halictidae in South America.",
"The rapid radiation of the South American bee families is thought to have followed the concurrent radiation of flowering plants in the same region.",
"Later in the Cretaceous (80 million years ago), colletid bees colonized Australia from South America (with an offshoot lineage evolving into the Stenotritidae), and by the end of the Cretaceous, South American bees had also colonized North America.",
"The North American fossil taxon ''Cretotrigona'' belongs to a group that is no longer found in North America, suggesting that many bee lineages went extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.Following the K-Pg extinction, surviving bee lineages continued to spread into the Northern Hemisphere, colonizing Europe from Africa by the Paleocene, and then spreading east to Asia.",
"This was facilitated by the warming climate around the same time, allowing bees to move to higher latitudes following the spread of tropical and subtropical habitats.",
"By the Eocene (~45 mya) there was already considerable diversity among eusocial bee lineages.",
"A second extinction event among bees is thought to have occurred due to rapid climatic cooling around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, leading to the extinction of some bee lineages such as the tribe Melikertini.",
"Over the Paleogene and Neogene, different bee lineages continued to spread all over the world, and the shifting habitats and connectedness of continents led to the isolation and evolution of many new bee tribes.=== Fossils ===The oldest non-compression bee fossil is ''Cretotrigona prisca'', a corbiculate bee of Late Cretaceous age (~70 mya) found in New Jersey amber.",
"A fossil from the early Cretaceous (~100 mya), ''Melittosphex burmensis'', was initially considered \"an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees\", but subsequent research has rejected the claim that ''Melittosphex'' is a bee, or even a member of the superfamily Apoidea to which bees belong, instead treating the lineage as ''incertae sedis'' within the Aculeata.The Allodapini (within the Apidae) appeared around 53 Mya.The Colletidae appear as fossils only from the late Oligocene (~25 Mya) to early Miocene.The Melittidae are known from ''Palaeomacropis eocenicus'' in the Early Eocene.The Megachilidae are known from trace fossils (characteristic leaf cuttings) from the Middle Eocene.The Andrenidae are known from the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, around 34 Mya, of the Florissant shale.The Halictidae first appear in the Early Eocene with species found in amber.",
"The Stenotritidae are known from fossil brood cells of Pleistocene age.===Coevolution===coevolved, like this ''Amegilla '' species (Apidae) on ''Acanthus ilicifolius''.The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were shallow, cup-shaped blooms pollinated by insects such as beetles, so the syndrome of insect pollination was well established before the first appearance of bees.",
"The novelty is that bees are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that specifically enhance pollination, and are the most efficient pollinating insects.",
"In a process of coevolution, flowers developed floral rewards such as nectar and longer tubes, and bees developed longer tongues to extract the nectar.",
"Bees also developed structures known as scopal hairs and pollen baskets to collect and carry pollen.",
"The location and type differ among and between groups of bees.",
"Most species have scopal hairs on their hind legs or on the underside of their abdomens.",
"Some species in the family Apidae have pollen baskets on their hind legs, while very few lack these and instead collect pollen in their crops.",
"The appearance of these structures drove the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, bees themselves.",
"Bees coevolved not only with flowers but it is believed that some species coevolved with mites.",
"Some provide tufts of hairs called acarinaria that appear to provide lodgings for mites; in return, it is believed that mites eat fungi that attack pollen, so the relationship in this case may be mutualistic.===Phylogeny=======External====This phylogenetic tree is based on Debevic ''et al'', 2012, which used molecular phylogeny to demonstrate that the bees (Anthophila) arose from deep within the Crabronidae, which is therefore paraphyletic.",
"The placement of the Heterogynaidae is uncertain.",
"The small family Mellinidae was not included in this analysis.====Internal====This cladogram of the bee families is based on Hedtke et al., 2013, which places the former families Dasypodaidae and Meganomiidae as subfamilies inside the Melittidae.",
"English names, where available, are given in parentheses."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"mouthparts of a honey bee, showing labium and maxillaeBees differ from closely related groups such as wasps by having branched or plume-like setae (hairs), combs on the forelimbs for cleaning their antennae, small anatomical differences in limb structure, and the venation of the hind wings; and in females, by having the seventh dorsal abdominal plate divided into two half-plates.Bees have the following characteristics:* A pair of large compound eyes which cover much of the surface of the head.",
"Between and above these are three small simple eyes (ocelli) which provide information on light intensity.",
"* The antennae usually have 13 segments in males and 12 in females, and are geniculate, having an elbow joint part way along.",
"They house large numbers of sense organs that can detect touch (mechanoreceptors), smell and taste; and small, hairlike mechanoreceptors that can detect air movement so as to \"hear\" sounds.",
"* The mouthparts are adapted for both chewing and sucking by having both a pair of mandibles and a long proboscis for sucking up nectar.",
"* The thorax has three segments, each with a pair of robust legs, and a pair of membranous wings on the hind two segments.",
"The front legs of corbiculate bees bear combs for cleaning the antennae, and in many species the hind legs bear pollen baskets, flattened sections with incurving hairs to secure the collected pollen.",
"The wings are synchronised in flight, and the somewhat smaller hind wings connect to the forewings by a row of hooks along their margin which connect to a groove in the forewing.",
"* The abdomen has nine segments, the hindermost three being modified into the sting.Head-on view of a male carpenter bee, showing antennae, three ocelli, compound eyes, and mouthpartsThe largest species of bee is thought to be Wallace's giant bee ''Megachile pluto'', whose females can attain a length of .",
"The smallest species may be dwarf stingless bees in the tribe Meliponini whose workers are less than in length."
],
[
"Sociality",
"===Haplodiploid breeding system===Willing to die for their sisters: worker honey bees killed defending their hive against yellowjackets, along with a dead yellowjacket.",
"Such altruistic behaviour may be favoured by the haplodiploid sex determination system of bees.According to inclusive fitness theory, organisms can gain fitness not just through increasing their own reproductive output, but also that of close relatives.",
"In evolutionary terms, individuals should help relatives when ''Cost < Relatedness * Benefit''.",
"The requirements for eusociality are more easily fulfilled by haplodiploid species such as bees because of their unusual relatedness structure.In haplodiploid species, females develop from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs.",
"Because a male is haploid (has only one copy of each gene), his daughters (which are diploid, with two copies of each gene) share 100% of his genes and 50% of their mother's.",
"Therefore, they share 75% of their genes with each other.",
"This mechanism of sex determination gives rise to what W. D. Hamilton termed \"supersisters\", more closely related to their sisters than they would be to their own offspring.",
"Workers often do not reproduce, but they can pass on more of their genes by helping to raise their sisters (as queens) than they would by having their own offspring (each of which would only have 50% of their genes), assuming they would produce similar numbers.",
"This unusual situation has been proposed as an explanation of the multiple (at least nine) evolutions of eusociality within Hymenoptera.Haplodiploidy is neither necessary nor sufficient for eusociality.",
"Some eusocial species such as termites are not haplodiploid.",
"Conversely, all bees are haplodiploid but not all are eusocial, and among eusocial species many queens mate with multiple males, creating half-sisters that share only 25% of each other's genes.",
"But, monogamy (queens mating singly) is the ancestral state for all eusocial species so far investigated, so it is likely that haplodiploidy contributed to the evolution of eusociality in bees.===Eusociality===A Western honey bee swarmWestern honey bee nest in the trunk of a spruceBees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities.",
"Eusociality appears to have originated from at least three independent origins in halictid bees.",
"The most advanced of these are species with eusocial colonies; these are characterised by cooperative brood care and a division of labour into reproductive and non-reproductive adults, plus overlapping generations.",
"This division of labour creates specialized groups within eusocial societies which are called castes.",
"In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labour within the group, they are considered semisocial.",
"The group is called eusocial if, in addition, the group consists of a mother (the queen) and her daughters (workers).",
"When the castes are purely behavioural alternatives, with no morphological differentiation other than size, the system is considered primitively eusocial, as in many paper wasps; when the castes are morphologically discrete, the system is considered highly eusocial.True honey bees (genus ''Apis'', of which eight species are currently recognized) are highly eusocial, and are among the best known insects.",
"Their colonies are established by swarms, consisting of a queen and several thousand workers.",
"There are 29 subspecies of one of these species, ''Apis mellifera'', native to Europe, the Middle East, and Africa.",
"Africanized bees are a hybrid strain of ''A.",
"mellifera'' that escaped from experiments involving crossing European and African subspecies; they are extremely defensive.Stingless bees are also highly eusocial.",
"They practise mass provisioning, with complex nest architecture and perennial colonies also established via swarming.A bumblebee carrying pollen in its pollen baskets (corbiculae)Many bumblebees are eusocial, similar to the eusocial Vespidae such as hornets in that the queen initiates a nest on her own rather than by swarming.",
"Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer.",
"Nest architecture is simple, limited by the size of the pre-existing nest cavity, and colonies rarely last more than a year.",
"In 2011, the International Union for Conservation of Nature set up the Bumblebee Specialist Group to review the threat status of all bumblebee species worldwide using the IUCN Red List criteria.There are many more species of primitively eusocial than highly eusocial bees, but they have been studied less often.",
"Most are in the family Halictidae, or \"sweat bees\".",
"Colonies are typically small, with a dozen or fewer workers, on average.",
"Queens and workers differ only in size, if at all.",
"Most species have a single season colony cycle, even in the tropics, and only mated females hibernate.",
"A few species have long active seasons and attain colony sizes in the hundreds, such as ''Halictus hesperus''.",
"Some species are eusocial in parts of their range and solitary in others, or have a mix of eusocial and solitary nests in the same population.",
"The orchid bees (Apidae) include some primitively eusocial species with similar biology.",
"Some allodapine bees (Apidae) form primitively eusocial colonies, with progressive provisioning: a larva's food is supplied gradually as it develops, as is the case in honey bees and some bumblebees.===Solitary and communal bees===A leafcutting bee, ''Megachile rotundata'', cutting circles from acacia leavesMost other bees, including familiar insects such as carpenter bees, leafcutter bees and mason bees are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile, and typically inhabits a nest she constructs herself.",
"There is no division of labor so these nests lack queens and ''worker'' bees for these species.",
"Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor beeswax.",
"Bees collect pollen to feed their young, and have the necessary adaptations to do this.",
"However, certain wasp species such as pollen wasps have similar behaviours, and a few species of bee scavenge from carcases to feed their offspring.",
"Solitary bees are important pollinators; they gather pollen to provision their nests with food for their brood.",
"Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency.",
"Some solitary bees have advanced types of pollen-carrying structures on their bodies.",
"Very few species of solitary bee are being cultured for commercial pollination.",
"Most of these species belong to a distinct set of genera which are commonly known by their nesting behavior or preferences, namely: carpenter bees, sweat bees, mason bees, plasterer bees, squash bees, dwarf carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, alkali bees and digger bees.A solitary bee, ''Anthidium florentinum'' (family Megachilidae), visiting ''Lantana''Most solitary bees are fossorial, digging nests in the ground in a variety of soil textures and conditions, while others create nests in hollow reeds or twigs, or holes in wood.",
"The female typically creates a compartment (a \"cell\") with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off.",
"A nest may consist of numerous cells.",
"When the nest is in wood, usually the last (those closer to the entrance) contain eggs that will become males.",
"The adult does not provide care for the brood once the egg is laid, and usually dies after making one or more nests.",
"The males typically emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge.",
"Solitary bees are very unlikely to sting (only in self-defense, if ever), and some (esp.",
"in the family Andrenidae) are stingless.The mason bee ''Osmia cornifrons'' nests in a hole in dead wood.",
"Bee \"hotels\" are often sold for this purpose.While solitary, females each make individual nests.",
"Some species, such as the European mason bee ''Hoplitis anthocopoides'', and the Dawson's Burrowing bee, ''Amegilla dawsoni,'' are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, and giving the appearance of being social.",
"Large groups of solitary bee nests are called ''aggregations'', to distinguish them from colonies.",
"In some species, multiple females share a common nest, but each makes and provisions her own cells independently.",
"This type of group is called \"communal\" and is not uncommon.",
"The primary advantage appears to be that a nest entrance is easier to defend from predators and parasites when multiple females use that same entrance regularly."
],
[
"Biology",
"===Life cycle===The life cycle of a bee, be it a solitary or social species, involves the laying of an egg, the development through several moults of a legless larva, a pupation stage during which the insect undergoes complete metamorphosis, followed by the emergence of a winged adult.",
"The number of eggs laid by a female during her lifetime can vary from eight or less in some solitary bees, to more than a million in highly social species.",
"Most solitary bees and bumble bees in temperate climates overwinter as adults or pupae and emerge in spring when increasing numbers of flowering plants come into bloom.",
"The males usually emerge first and search for females with which to mate.",
"Like the other members of Hymenoptera bees are haplodiploid; the sex of a bee is determined by whether or not the egg is fertilised.",
"After mating, a female stores the sperm, and determines which sex is required at the time each individual egg is laid, fertilised eggs producing female offspring and unfertilised eggs, males.",
"Tropical bees may have several generations in a year and no diapause stage.The egg is generally oblong, slightly curved and tapering at one end.",
"Solitary bees, lay each egg in a separate cell with a supply of mixed pollen and nectar next to it.",
"This may be rolled into a pellet or placed in a pile and is known as mass provisioning.",
"Social bee species provision progressively, that is, they feed the larva regularly while it grows.",
"The nest varies from a hole in the ground or in wood, in solitary bees, to a substantial structure with wax combs in bumblebees and honey bees.In most species, larvae are whitish grubs, roughly oval and bluntly-pointed at both ends.",
"They have 15 segments and spiracles in each segment for breathing.",
"They have no legs but move within the cell, helped by tubercles on their sides.",
"They have short horns on the head, jaws for chewing food and an appendage on either side of the mouth tipped with a bristle.",
"There is a gland under the mouth that secretes a viscous liquid which solidifies into the silk they use to produce a cocoon.",
"The cocoon is semi-transparent and the pupa can be seen through it.",
"Over the course of a few days, the larva undergoes metamorphosis into a winged adult.",
"When ready to emerge, the adult splits its skin dorsally and climbs out of the exuviae and breaks out of the cell.File:Apoidea.jpg|Nest of common carder bumblebee, wax canopy removed to show winged workers and pupae in irregularly placed wax cellsFile:Carpenter Bee Galleries.jpeg|Carpenter bee nests in a cedar wood beam (sawn open)File:Bienen mit Brut 2.jpg|Honeybees on brood comb with eggs and larvae in cells===Flight===Honeybee in flight carrying pollen in pollen basketAntoine Magnan's 1934 book says that he and André Sainte-Laguë had applied the equations of air resistance to insects and found that their flight could not be explained by fixed-wing calculations, but that \"One shouldn't be surprised that the results of the calculations don't square with reality\".",
"This has led to a common misconception that bees \"violate aerodynamic theory\".",
"In fact it merely confirms that bees do not engage in fixed-wing flight, and that their flight is explained by other mechanics, such as those used by helicopters.",
"In 1996 it was shown that vortices created by many insects' wings helped to provide lift.",
"High-speed cinematography and robotic mock-up of a bee wing showed that lift was generated by \"the unconventional combination of short, choppy wing strokes, a rapid rotation of the wing as it flops over and reverses direction, and a very fast wing-beat frequency\".",
"Wing-beat frequency normally increases as size decreases, but as the bee's wing beat covers such a small arc, it flaps approximately 230 times per second, faster than a fruitfly (200 times per second) which is 80 times smaller.===Navigation, communication, and finding food===Karl von Frisch (1953) discovered that honey bee workers can navigate, indicating the range and direction to food to other workers with a waggle dance.The ethologist Karl von Frisch studied navigation in the honey bee.",
"He showed that honey bees communicate by the waggle dance, in which a worker indicates the location of a food source to other workers in the hive.",
"He demonstrated that bees can recognize a desired compass direction in three different ways: by the Sun, by the polarization pattern of the blue sky, and by the Earth's magnetic field.",
"He showed that the Sun is the preferred or main compass; the other mechanisms are used under cloudy skies or inside a dark beehive.",
"Bees navigate using spatial memory with a \"rich, map-like organization\".=== Digestion ===The gut of bees is relatively simple, but multiple metabolic strategies exist in the gut microbiota.",
"Pollinating bees consume nectar and pollen, which require different digestion strategies by somewhat specialized bacteria.",
"While nectar is a liquid of mostly monosaccharide sugars and so easily absorbed, pollen contains complex polysaccharides: branching pectin and hemicellulose.",
"Approximately five groups of bacteria are involved in digestion.",
"Three groups specialize in simple sugars (''Snodgrassella'' and two groups of ''Lactobacillus''), and two other groups in complex sugars (''Gilliamella'' and ''Bifidobacterium'').",
"Digestion of pectin and hemicellulose is dominated by bacterial clades ''Gilliamella'' and ''Bifidobacterium'' respectively.",
"Bacteria that cannot digest polysaccharides obtain enzymes from their neighbors, and bacteria that lack certain amino acids do the same, creating multiple ecological niches.Although most bee species are nectarivorous and palynivorous, some are not.",
"Particularly unusual are vulture bees in the genus ''Trigona,'' which consume carrion and wasp brood, turning meat into a honey-like substance."
],
[
"Ecology",
"=== Floral relationships ===Most bees are polylectic (generalist) meaning they collect pollen from a range of flowering plants, but some are oligoleges (specialists), in that they only gather pollen from one or a few species or genera of closely related plants.",
"In Melittidae and Apidae we also find a few genera that are highly specialized for collecting plant oils both in addition to, and instead of, nectar, which is mixed with pollen as larval food.",
"Male orchid bees in some species gather aromatic compounds from orchids, which is one of the few cases where male bees are effective pollinators.",
"Bees are able to sense the presence of desirable flowers through ultraviolet patterning on flowers, floral odors, and even electromagnetic fields.",
"Once landed, a bee then uses nectar quality and pollen taste to determine whether to continue visiting similar flowers.In rare cases, a plant species may only be effectively pollinated by a single bee species, and some plants are endangered at least in part because their pollinator is also threatened.",
"But, there is a pronounced tendency for oligolectic bees to be associated with common, widespread plants visited by multiple pollinator species.",
"For example, the creosote bush in the arid parts of the United States southwest is associated with some 40 oligoleges.===As mimics and models===The bee-fly ''Bombylius major'', a Batesian mimic of bees, taking nectar and pollinating a flowerBee orchid lures male bees to attempt to mate with the flower's lip, which resembles a bee perched on a pink flower.Many bees are aposematically coloured, typically orange and black, warning of their ability to defend themselves with a powerful sting.",
"As such they are models for Batesian mimicry by non-stinging insects such as bee-flies, robber flies and hoverflies, all of which gain a measure of protection by superficially looking and behaving like bees.Bees are themselves Müllerian mimics of other aposematic insects with the same colour scheme, including wasps, lycid and other beetles, and many butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) which are themselves distasteful, often through acquiring bitter and poisonous chemicals from their plant food.",
"All the Müllerian mimics, including bees, benefit from the reduced risk of predation that results from their easily recognised warning coloration.Bees are also mimicked by plants such as the bee orchid which imitates both the appearance and the scent of a female bee; male bees attempt to mate (pseudocopulation) with the furry lip of the flower, thus pollinating it.===As brood parasites===''Bombus vestalis'', a brood parasite of the bumblebee ''Bombus terrestris''Brood parasites occur in several bee families including the apid subfamily Nomadinae.",
"Females of these species lack pollen collecting structures (the scopa) and do not construct their own nests.",
"They typically enter the nests of pollen collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells provisioned by the host bee.",
"When the \"cuckoo\" bee larva hatches, it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and often the host egg also.",
"In particular, the Arctic bee species, ''Bombus hyperboreus'' is an aggressive species that attacks and enslaves other bees of the same subgenus.",
"However, unlike many other bee brood parasites, they have pollen baskets and often collect pollen.In Southern Africa, hives of African honeybees (''A.",
"mellifera scutellata'') are being destroyed by parasitic workers of the Cape honeybee, ''A.",
"m. capensis''.",
"These lay diploid eggs (\"thelytoky\"), escaping normal worker policing, leading to the colony's destruction; the parasites can then move to other hives.The cuckoo bees in the ''Bombus'' subgenus ''Psithyrus'' are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts in looks and size.",
"This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle \"Emery's rule\".",
"Others parasitize bees in different families, like ''Townsendiella'', a nomadine apid, two species of which are cleptoparasites of the dasypodaid genus ''Hesperapis'', while the other species in the same genus attacks halictid bees.=== Nocturnal bees ===Four bee families (Andrenidae, Colletidae, Halictidae, and Apidae) contain some species that are crepuscular.",
"Most are tropical or subtropical, but some live in arid regions at higher latitudes.",
"These bees have greatly enlarged ocelli, which are extremely sensitive to light and dark, though incapable of forming images.",
"Some have refracting superposition compound eyes: these combine the output of many elements of their compound eyes to provide enough light for each retinal photoreceptor.",
"Their ability to fly by night enables them to avoid many predators, and to exploit flowers that produce nectar only or also at night.===Predators, parasites and pathogens===The bee-eater, ''Merops apiaster'', specialises in feeding on bees; here a male catches a nuptial gift for his mate.Vertebrate predators of bees include bee-eaters, shrikes and flycatchers, which make short sallies to catch insects in flight.",
"Swifts and swallows fly almost continually, catching insects as they go.",
"The honey buzzard attacks bees' nests and eats the larvae.",
"The greater honeyguide interacts with humans by guiding them to the nests of wild bees.",
"The humans break open the nests and take the honey and the bird feeds on the larvae and the wax.",
"Among mammals, predators such as the badger dig up bumblebee nests and eat both the larvae and any stored food.The beewolf ''Philanthus triangulum'' paralysing a bee with its stingSpecialist ambush predators of visitors to flowers include crab spiders, which wait on flowering plants for pollinating insects; predatory bugs, and praying mantises, some of which (the flower mantises of the tropics) wait motionless, aggressive mimics camouflaged as flowers.",
"Beewolves are large wasps that habitually attack bees; the ethologist Niko Tinbergen estimated that a single colony of the beewolf ''Philanthus triangulum'' might kill several thousand honeybees in a day: all the prey he observed were honeybees.",
"Other predatory insects that sometimes catch bees include robber flies and dragonflies.",
"Honey bees are affected by parasites including tracheal and ''Varroa'' mites.",
"However, some bees are believed to have a mutualistic relationship with mites.Some mites of genus ''Tarsonemus'' are associated with bees.",
"They live in bee nests and ride on adult bees for dispersal.",
"They are presumed to feed on fungi, nest materials or pollen.",
"However, the impact they have on bees remains uncertain.=== Symbiosis of Mycelium and Bees ======= Fungus properties ====Recent studies have shown that mycelium provides honey bees and stingless bees with vital nutrients.",
"Specific fungi, such as Zygosaccharomyces sp, Candida sp., and Monascus ruber, produce chemicals that fight against bacteria, fungal infections from different species, and viruses.",
"Recently these types of bees have been observed eating mycelium, suggesting that honey bees have been “foraging mushrooms to collect antimicrobial medicine to boost their collective immunity”.",
"Without these vital nutrients, honey bee morbidity rates rise, and the possibility of fungal infections can spike, leading to unhealthy bee hives and honey shortage.",
"Fungal infections can also lead to colony collapse disorder, so the ingestion of mycelium lowers the morbidity rate of honey bees by preventing those fungal infections from happening.",
"Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is when worker bees abandon the queen bee and leave behind the brood and a few nurse bees.",
"This however is not enough to sustain a hive as workers are required to construct and maintain the hive structure as well as produce honey.",
"Colony collapse disorder can also happen when varroa mites infiltrate a hive.",
"These mites will attack and eat bees inside a hive, making it impossible for them to continue to reproduce and make honey.",
"The presence of varroa mites results in a decrease in bee population, deformed bees, an inability to reproduce on the bees part, and overall weakening of the colony.",
"Varroa mites are only capable of reproducing inside of a honey bee colony, posing an even greater threat if they are able to infiltrate because it will destroy their home.",
"Mycelium has been shown to germinate inside of varroa mites and grow from the inside out, killing the mites and protecting the bees.",
"The extermination of mites by mycelium is a better alternative to pesticides that have shown to be toxic towards the bee colony.",
"Mycelium also plays a role in boosting anti-inflammatory and antibacterial resistance in bees due to the ecdysteroids and Zygosaccharomyces found in mycelium, which are then fed to larvae, boosting the next generations immunity and improving overall hive health.",
"Zygosaccharomyces are “spoilage yeasts that have an extreme resistance to acids and preservatives” and can “tolerate high concentrations of sugars and salts”.",
"Honey bees depend on this source of steroids to allow them to develop properly during insect pupation.==== Bee broods ====The symbiotic relationship between bees and mycelium is found primarily in Brazilian stingless bees and Malaysian stingless bees - or more commonly honey bees.",
"Bee broods are the larvae of honeybees.",
"They can typically be found inside of a bee hive, and in man made hives especially, the honeybees can be found developing at different stages (eggs, larvae, and pupae) inside a hexagonal shape.",
"Bee larvae are incapable of producing steroids at birth, so they ingest mycelium to receive vital nutrients they cannot create on their own such as ecdysteroids and Zygosaccharomyces sp.",
"Once the honey bee eggs hatch, a white microbial film starts to grow on the boundary between the brood cell and the larval food supply, and is then ingested by the larvae to complete their development.Gut microbiota play an immense role in the health of the entire bee colony.",
"Three studies were recently conducted and each introduced a new organism to the bees gut microbiota.",
"The bees were fed aged pollen, the assembly of the gut microbiota was disturbed, and antibiotic tetracycline entered their diet.",
"All three studies showed that the honey bees' ability to survive decreased drastically and they became more likely to contract parasites and fungal infections.",
"The introduction of certain mycelium to the honey bees gut microbiota has the opposite effect to what took place in these three studies, highlighting the importance of what bees ingest and the impacts it has on their survivability during both the development and adult stages.==== Bee-fungus symbiosis ====As mentioned above, honey bees cannot produce steroids themselves, they must be ingested through their diet, specifically in the early development process.",
"Larvae eat the fungus and the ecdysteroids and Zygosaccharomyces produced by the mycelium benefit the larvae.",
"Ecdysteroids are naturally occurring steroids found in mycelium and they help enhance performance and reproduction, boosting honey production and keeping the hive population running at a stable rate.",
"“Zygosaccharomyces sp.",
"is essential for S. depilis larvae”.",
"These sterols thus have a high impact on the survival rate of honey bees.",
"Their ingestion determines whether the honey bees will be able to protect themselves against fungal infections, viruses, and whether or not they will have sufficient strength to increase honey production and the ability to pollinate a larger area and more frequently.",
"Knowledge of how mycelium boosts honey bees immunity could be pivotal to the increase of a honey bee's lifespan and boost reproduction by helping implement new policies to prevent the use of harmful pesticides.==== Impact of pesticides ====Pesticides have been diminishing the bee population recently due to a lack of regulations regarding what can and cannot be sprayed on produce to protect it from being damaged during growth.",
"When honey bees collect pollen and nectar for nutrition and to make honey, they are also ingesting harmful chemicals.",
"Such chemicals take a toll on the honey bees' already sensitive gut microbiome and lead to a higher morbidity rate in honey bees.",
"\"These microbes can suffer with toxic pesticides applied in agriculture, causing dangerous changes in the colony fitness and perturbing bees' health.” (Yordanova, M. et al., 2022)With the research provided on the positive impact of mycelium on bees, the relationship between mycelium and honey bees is symbiotic in that the survival of bees and the mycelium's ability to help boost bee pollination, boosts the ability of the fungi to grow because bee pollination improves air and soil quality, thus boosting plant life.",
"Allowing for a higher survivability rate for both bees and mycelium if they are able to perform their environmental roles properly without the interruption of harmful government approved pesticides.",
"The recent studies done on the symbiotic relationship between mycelium and honey bees will prove to be vital in the argument towards lessening the types of chemicals legally allowed to be sprayed on produce.",
"The use of pesticides on lawns and for other agricultural uses destroy the livelihood of mycelium by killing the soil it grows in, inhibiting bees from ingesting the necessary nutrients mycelium provides to survive."
],
[
"Relationship with humans",
"===In mythology and folklore===Camiros, Rhodes.",
"7th century BC.Homer's ''Hymn to Hermes'' describes three bee-maidens with the power of divination and thus speaking truth, and identifies the food of the gods as honey.",
"Sources associated the bee maidens with Apollo and, until the 1980s, scholars followed Gottfried Hermann (1806) in incorrectly identifying the bee-maidens with the Thriae.",
"Honey, according to a Greek myth, was discovered by a nymph called Melissa (\"Bee\"); and honey was offered to the Greek gods from Mycenean times.",
"Bees were also associated with the Delphic oracle and the prophetess was sometimes called a bee.The image of a community of honey bees has been used from ancient to modern times, in Aristotle and Plato; in Virgil and Seneca; in Erasmus and Shakespeare; Tolstoy, and by political and social theorists such as Bernard Mandeville and Karl Marx as a model for human society.",
"In English folklore, bees would be told of important events in the household, in a custom known as \"Telling the bees\".===In art and literature===Beatrix Potter's illustration of Babbity Bumble in ''The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse'', 1910Some of the oldest examples of bees in art are rock paintings in Spain which have been dated to 15,000 BC.W.",
"B. Yeats's poem ''The Lake Isle of Innisfree'' (1888) contains the couplet \"Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee, / And live alone in the bee loud glade.\"",
"At the time he was living in Bedford Park in the West of London.",
"Beatrix Potter's illustrated book ''The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse'' (1910) features Babbity Bumble and her brood ''(pictured)''.",
"Kit Williams' treasure hunt book ''The Bee on the Comb'' (1984) uses bees and beekeeping as part of its story and puzzle.",
"Sue Monk Kidd's ''The Secret Life of Bees'' (2004), and the 2009 film starring Dakota Fanning, tells the story of a girl who escapes her abusive home and finds her way to live with a family of beekeepers, the Boatwrights.The 2007 animated comedy film ''Bee Movie'' used Jerry Seinfeld's first script and was his first work for children; he starred as a bee named Barry B. Benson, alongside Renée Zellweger.",
"Critics found its premise awkward and its delivery tame.",
"Dave Goulson's ''A Sting in the Tale'' (2014) describes his efforts to save bumblebees in Britain, as well as much about their biology.",
"The playwright Laline Paull's fantasy ''The Bees'' (2015) tells the tale of a hive bee named Flora 717 from hatching onwards.===Beekeeping===A commercial beekeeper at workWestern honey bee on a honeycombHumans have kept honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, for millennia.",
"Beekeepers collect honey, beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly from hives; bees are also kept to pollinate crops and to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers.Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years ago; efforts to domesticate them are shown in Egyptian art around 4,500 years ago.",
"Simple hives and smoke were used; jars of honey were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun.",
"Among Classical Era authors, beekeeping with the use of smoke is described in Aristotle's ''History of Animals'' Book 9.The account mentions that bees die after stinging; that workers remove corpses from the hive, and guard it; castes including workers and non-working drones, but \"kings\" rather than queens; predators including toads and bee-eaters; and the waggle dance, with the \"irresistible suggestion\" of (\"\", it waggles) and (\"\", they watch).Beekeeping is described in detail by Virgil in his ''Georgics''; it is also mentioned in his ''Aeneid'', and in Pliny's ''Natural History''.From the 18th century, European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be harvested without destroying the colony.===As commercial pollinators======= Role of bees ====Bees play an important role in pollinating flowering plants, and are the major type of pollinator in many ecosystems that contain flowering plants.",
"It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on pollination by insects, birds and bats, most of which is accomplished by bees, whether wild or domesticated.",
"Over the last half century, there has been a general decline in the species richness of wild bees and other pollinators, probably attributable to stress from increased parasites and disease, the use of pesticides, and a general decrease in the number of wild flowers.",
"Climate change probably exacerbates the problem.==== In the United States ====Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries.",
"After the introduction of Varroa mites, feral honey bees declined dramatically in the US, though their numbers have since recovered.",
"The number of colonies kept by beekeepers declined slightly, through urbanization, systematic pesticide use, tracheal and ''Varroa'' mites, and the closure of beekeeping businesses.",
"In 2006 and 2007 the rate of attrition increased, and was described as colony collapse disorder.",
"In 2010 invertebrate iridescent virus and the fungus ''Nosema ceranae'' were shown to be in every killed colony, and deadly in combination.",
"Winter losses increased to about 1/3.",
"''Varroa'' mites were thought to be responsible for about half the losses.==== In the European Union ====Apart from colony collapse disorder, losses outside the US have been attributed to causes including pesticide seed dressings, using neonicotinoids such as clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam.",
"From 2013 the European Union restricted some pesticides to stop bee populations from declining further.",
"In 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report warned that bees faced increased risk of extinction because of global warming.",
"In 2018 the European Union decided to ban field use of all three major neonicotinoids; they remain permitted in veterinary, greenhouse, and vehicle transport usage.==== Raising native plants ====Farmers have focused on alternative solutions to mitigate these problems.",
"By raising native plants, they provide food for native bee pollinators like ''Lasioglossum vierecki'' and ''L.",
"leucozonium'', leading to less reliance on honey bee populations.File:Peponapis pruinosaCane-12.JPG|Squash bees (Apidae) are important pollinators of squashes and cucumbers.File:A bee covered with pollen.jpg|Bee covered in pollen===As food producers===Honey is a natural product produced by bees and stored for their own use, but its sweetness has always appealed to humans.",
"Before domestication of bees was even attempted, humans were raiding their nests for their honey.",
"Smoke was often used to subdue the bees and such activities are depicted in rock paintings in Spain dated to 15,000 BC.Honey bees are used commercially to produce honey.",
"They also produce some substances used as dietary supplements with possible health benefits, pollen, propolis, and royal jelly, though all of these can also cause allergic reactions.===As food===Bees are considered edible insects.",
"People in some countries eat insects, including the larvae and pupae of bees, mostly stingless species.",
"They also gather larvae, pupae and surrounding cells, known as bee brood, for consumption.",
"In the Indonesian dish ''botok tawon'' from Central and East Java, bee larvae are eaten as a companion to rice, after being mixed with shredded coconut, wrapped in banana leaves, and steamed.Bee brood (pupae and larvae) although low in calcium, has been found to be high in protein and carbohydrate, and a useful source of phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, and trace minerals iron, zinc, copper, and selenium.",
"In addition, while bee brood was high in fat, it contained no fat soluble vitamins (such as A, D, and E) but it was a good source of most of the water-soluble B vitamins including choline as well as vitamin C. The fat was composed mostly of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids with 2.0% being polyunsaturated fatty acids.File:Botoktawon.jpg|Bee larvae as food in the Javanese dish ''botok tawon''File:Fried bees dish.jpg|Fried whole bees served in a Ukrainian restaurant=== As alternative medicine ===Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that uses honey bee products, including raw honey, royal jelly, pollen, propolis, beeswax and apitoxin (Bee venom).",
"The claim that apitherapy treats cancer, which some proponents of apitherapy make, remains unsupported by evidence-based medicine.=== Stings ===The painful stings of bees are mostly associated with the poison gland and the Dufour's gland which are abdominal exocrine glands containing various chemicals.",
"In ''Lasioglossum leucozonium'', the Dufour's Gland mostly contains octadecanolide as well as some eicosanolide.",
"There is also evidence of n-triscosane, n-heptacosane, and 22-docosanolide.",
"However, the secretions of these glands could also be used for nest construction."
],
[
"See also",
"* Australian native bees* Fear of bees (apiphobia)* Superorganism* World Bee Day"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * \"Apoidea\" at All Living Thingsimages, identification guides, and maps of bees* Bee Genera of the World* Anthophila (Apoidea) – BeesNorth American species of bees at BugGuide* Native Bees of North America at BugGuide* \"Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers\"''Science''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Basques"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Basques''' ( or ; ; ; ) are a Southwestern European ethnic group, characterised by the Basque language, a common culture and shared genetic ancestry to the ancient Vascones and Aquitanians.",
"Basques are indigenous to, and primarily inhabit, an area traditionally known as the Basque Country ()—a region that is located around the western end of the Pyrenees on the coast of the Bay of Biscay and straddles parts of north-central Spain and south-western France."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Barscunes coin, Roman periodThe English word ''Basque'' may be pronounced or and derives from the French ''Basque'' (), itself derived from Gascon ''Basco'' (pronounced ), cognate with Spanish ''Vasco ''(pronounced ).",
"Those, in turn, come from Latin ''Vascō'' (pronounced ; plural ''Vascōnēs''—see history section below).",
"The Latin generally evolved into the bilabials and in Gascon and Spanish, probably under the influence of Basque and the related Aquitanian (the Latin /w/ instead evolved into in French, Italian and other Romance languages).Several coins from the 2nd and the 1st centuries BC found in the Basque Country bear the inscription ''barscunes''.",
"The place in which they were minted is not certain but is thought to be somewhere near Pamplona, in the heartland of the area that historians believe was inhabited by the ''Vascones''.",
"Some scholars have suggested a Celtic etymology based on ''bhar-s-'', meaning \"summit\", \"point\" or \"leaves\", according to which ''barscunes'' may have meant \"the mountain people\", \"the tall ones\" or \"the proud ones\", and others have posited a relationship to a Proto-Indo-European root ''*bar-'' meaning \"border\", \"frontier\", \"march\".In Basque, people call themselves the ''euskaldunak'', singular ''euskaldun'', formed from ''euskal-'' (i.e.",
"\"Basque (language)\") and ''-dun'' (i.e.",
"\"one who has\"); ''euskaldun'' literally means a Basque-speaker.",
"Not all Basques are Basque-speakers.",
"Therefore, the neologism ''euskotar'', plural ''euskotarrak'', was coined in the 19th century to mean a Basque person, whether Basque-speaking or not.",
"Alfonso Irigoyen posits that the word ''euskara'' is derived from an ancient Basque verb ''enautsi'' \"to say\" (compare modern Basque ''esan'') and the suffix ''-(k)ara'' (\"way (of doing something)\").",
"Thus, ''euskara'' would mean literally \"way of saying\" or \"way of speaking\".",
"One item of evidence in favour of that hypothesis is found in the Spanish book ''Compendio Historial'', written in 1571 by the Basque writer Esteban de Garibay.",
"He records the name of the Basque language as ''enusquera''.",
"That may, however, be a writing mistake.In the 19th century, the Basque nationalist activist Sabino Arana posited an original root ''euzko'', which he thought came from ''eguzkiko'' (\"of the sun\", related to the assumption of an original solar religion).",
"On the basis of that putative root, Arana proposed the name Euzkadi for an independent Basque nation, composed of seven Basque historical territories.",
"Arana's neologism ''Euzkadi'' (in the regularized spelling ''Euskadi'') is still widely used in both Basque and Spanish since it is now the official name of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country."
],
[
"Genetic origins",
"MariEarly anthropological and genetic studies from the beginning and end of the 20th century theorized that the Basques are the descendants of the original Cro-Magnons.",
"Although they are genetically distinctive in some ways due to isolation, the Basques are still very typically European in terms of their Y-DNA and mtDNA sequences, and in terms of some other genetic loci.",
"These same sequences are widespread throughout the Western half of Europe, especially along the Western fringe of the continent.",
"The distinctiveness noted by studies of 'classical' genetic markers (such as blood groups) and the apparently \"pre-Indo-European\" nature of the Basque language has resulted in a popular and long-held misleading view that Basques are \"living fossils\" of the earliest modern humans who colonised Europe.However, studies of the Y-DNA haplogroups found that on their direct male lineages, the vast majority of modern Basques have a common ancestry with other Western Europeans, namely a marked predominance of Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%).",
"Although also initially theorised to be that a Palaeolithic marker, this theory encountered inconsistencies even prior to most recent chronological re-evaluations, as more recent studies instead conclude that R1b spread up to Western Europe from southwestern Eurasia in the Neolithic period or later, between 4,000 and 8,000 years ago.",
"The age of the subclade which Basque carry, R1b-DF27, \"is estimated at ~4,200 years ago, at the transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, when the Y chromosome landscape of Western Europe was thoroughly remodeled.",
"In spite of its high frequency in Basques, Y-STR internal diversity of R1b-DF27 is lower there, and results in more recent age estimates\", implying it was brought to the region from elsewhere.Next to the main lineage R1b, high frequencies of E-V65 were found among Basque autochthonous inhabitants of Álava province (17.3%), Biscay province (10.9%), and Gipuzkoa province (3.3%).",
"Several ancient DNA samples have been recovered and amplified from the Iberian and Basque region.",
"The collection of mtDNA and Y-DNA haplogroups sampled there differed significantly compared to their modern frequencies.",
"The authors concluded that there is \"discontinuity\" between ancient locals and modern Basques.",
"Thus, while Basques harbour some very archaic mtDNA lineages, they are not of \"undiluted Palaeolithic ancestry\" but of significantly early Neolithic origin with a connection to the isolate Sardinian people.",
"Rather, some 4500 years ago almost all Y-DNA heritage from Iberian admixture of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers was replaced by the R1b lineage of herders from the steppe, and the Basque genetic distinctiveness is a result of centuries of low population size, genetic drift, and endogamy.Autosomal genetic studies have confirmed that Basques share close genetic ties to other Europeans, especially with Spaniards, who have a common genetic identity of over 70% with Basques, a homogeneity amongst both their Spanish and French populations, according to high-density SNP genotyping study done in May 2010, and a genomic distinctiveness, relative to other European populations.In 2015, a new scientific study of Basque DNA was published which seems to indicate that Basques are descendants of Neolithic farmers who mixed with local Mesolithic hunters before becoming genetically isolated from the rest of Europe for millennia.",
"Mattias Jakobsson from Uppsala University in Sweden analysed genetic material from eight Stone Age human skeletons found in El Portalón Cavern in Atapuerca, northern Spain.",
"These individuals lived between 3,500 and 5,500 years ago, after the transition to farming in southwest Europe.",
"The results show that these early Iberian farmers are the closest ancestors to present-day Basques.",
"The findings were published in ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America''.",
"According to the study, the \"results show that the Basques trace their ancestry to early farming groups from Iberia, which contradicts previous views of them being a remnant population that trace their ancestry to Mesolithic hunter-gatherer groups.\"",
"These early Neolithic farmer ancestors of the Basques, however, additionally mixed with local southwestern hunter-gatherers, and \"the proportion of hunter gatherer-related admixture into early farmers also increased over the course of two millennia.\"",
"This admixed group was also found to be ancestral to other modern-day Iberian peoples, but while the Basques remained relatively isolated for millennia after this time, later migrations into Iberia led to distinct and additional admixture in all other Iberian groups.In 2019, a study was published in ''Science'' in which a more fine-tuned and deep time-transect of Iberian ancient populations including the Basque were analyzed.",
"From their abstract, it says: \"and we reveal that present-day Basques are best described as a typical Iron Age population without the admixture events that later affected the rest of Iberia.\"",
"This indicates Basques were isolated from admixture with outside groups since at least 1000 BC, or 3,000 years before the present.",
"In Iberia, these later admixture (interbreeding) events were with central European (Celtic), eastern Mediterranean (Phoenician, Greek and Roman), northern African (Carthaginian and Mauritanian) and northern European (Gothic and Frankish) populations, and genomic ancestry from them are found in varying degrees in all or most present-day Iberian populations, except – albeit to a limited extent even there – for the Basque."
],
[
"History",
"Charters in Pamplona (1903)Basque tribes were mentioned in Roman times by Strabo and Pliny, including the Vascones, Aquitani, and others.",
"There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time and later they spoke old varieties of the Basque language (see: Aquitanian language).In the Early Middle Ages, the territory between the Ebro and Garonne rivers was known as Vasconia, a vaguely defined ethnic area and political entity struggling to fend off pressure from the Iberian Visigothic kingdom and Arab rule to the south, as well as the Frankish push from the north.",
"By the turn of the first millennium, the territory of Vasconia had fragmented into different feudal regions, such as Soule and Labourd, while south of the Pyrenees the Castile, Pamplona and the Pyrenean counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, Ribagorça (later Kingdom of Aragon), and Pallars emerged as the main regional entities with Basque population in the 9th and 10th centuries.The Kingdom of Pamplona, a central Basque realm, later known as Navarre, underwent a process of feudalization and was subject to the influence of its much larger Aragonese, Castilian and French neighbours.",
"Castile deprived Navarre of its coastline by conquering key western territories (1199–1201), leaving the kingdom landlocked.",
"The Basques were ravaged by the War of the Bands, bitter partisan wars between local ruling families.",
"Weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies (1512–1524).",
"However, the Navarrese territory north of the Pyrenees remained beyond the reach of an increasingly powerful Spain.",
"Lower Navarre became a province of France in 1620.Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a great deal of self-government until the French Revolution (1790) and the Carlist Wars (1839, 1876), when the Basques supported heir apparent Carlos V and his descendants.",
"On either side of the Pyrenees, the Basques lost their native institutions and laws held during the ''Ancien régime''.",
"Since then, despite the current limited self-governing status of the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre as settled by the Spanish Constitution, many Basques have attempted higher degrees of self-empowerment (see Basque nationalism), sometimes by acts of violence.",
"Labourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule were integrated into the French department system (starting 1790), with Basque efforts to establish a region-specific political-administrative entity failing to take off to date.",
"However, in January 2017, a single agglomeration community was established for the Basque Country in France."
],
[
"Geography",
"===Political and administrative divisions===Mountains of the Basque CountryLeitza, in Navarre, Basque CountryThe Basque region is divided into at least three administrative units, namely the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre in Spain, and the arrondissement of Bayonne and the cantons of Mauléon-Licharre and Tardets-Sorholus in the ''département'' of Pyrénées Atlantiques, France.The autonomous community (a concept established in the Spanish Constitution of 1978) known as ''Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa'' or EAE in Basque and as ''Comunidad Autónoma Vasca'' or CAV in Spanish (in English: ''Basque Autonomous Community'' or BAC), is made up of the three Spanish provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa.",
"The corresponding Basque names of these territories are ''Araba'', ''Bizkaia'' and ''Gipuzkoa'', and their Spanish names are ''Álava'', ''Vizcaya'' and ''Guipúzcoa''.The BAC only includes three of the seven provinces of the currently called historical territories.",
"It is sometimes referred to simply as \"the Basque Country\" (or ''Euskadi'') by writers and public agencies only considering those three western provinces, but also on occasions merely as a convenient abbreviation when this does not lead to confusion in the context.",
"Others reject this usage as inaccurate and are careful to specify the BAC (or an equivalent expression such as \"the three provinces\", up to 1978 referred to as \"Provincias Vascongadas\" in Spanish) when referring to this entity or region.",
"Likewise, terms such as \"the Basque Government\" for \"the government of the BAC\" are commonly though not universally employed.",
"In particular in common usage the French term ''Pays Basque'' (\"Basque Country\"), in the absence of further qualification, refers either to the whole Basque Country (\"Euskal Herria\" in Basque), or not infrequently to the northern (or \"French\") Basque Country specifically.Under Spain's present constitution, Navarre (''Nafarroa'' in present-day Basque, ''Navarra'' historically in Spanish) constitutes a separate entity, called in present-day Basque ''Nafarroako Foru Erkidegoa'', in Spanish ''Comunidad Foral de Navarra'' (the autonomous community of Navarre).",
"The government of this autonomous community is the Government of Navarre.",
"In historical contexts Navarre may refer to a wider area, and that the present-day northern Basque province of Lower Navarre may also be referred to as (part of) ''Nafarroa'', while the term \"High Navarre\" (''Nafarroa Garaia'' in Basque, ''Alta Navarra'' in Spanish) is also encountered as a way of referring to the territory of the present-day autonomous community.There are three other historic provinces parts of the Basque Country: Labourd, Lower Navarre and Soule (''Lapurdi, Nafarroa Beherea'' and ''Zuberoa'' in Basque; ''Labourd, Basse-Navarre'' and ''Soule'' in French), devoid of official status within France's present-day political and administrative territorial organization, and only minor political support to the Basque nationalists.",
"A large number of regional and local nationalist and non-nationalist representatives have waged a campaign for years advocating for the creation of a separate Basque département, while these demands have gone unheard by the French administration.===Population, main cities, and languages===Olentzero in Gipuzkoa, Basque CountryThere are 2,123,000 people living in the Basque Autonomous Community (279,000 in Alava, 1,160,000 in Biscay and 684,000 in Gipuzkoa).",
"The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centers, are Bilbao (in Biscay), San Sebastián (in Gipuzkoa), and Vitoria-Gasteiz (in Álava).",
"The official languages are Basque and Spanish.",
"Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory under the Spanish constitution (article no.",
"3), and knowledge and usage of Basque is a right under the Statute of Autonomy (article no.",
"6), so only knowledge of Spanish is virtually universal.",
"Knowledge of Basque, after declining for many years during Franco's dictatorship owing to official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.",
"Currently about 33 percent of the population in the Basque Autonomous Community speaks Basque.Navarre has a population of 601,000; its administrative capital and main city, also regarded by many nationalist Basques as the Basques' historical capital, is Pamplona (''Iruñea'' in modern Basque).",
"Only Spanish is an official language of Navarre, and the Basque language is only co-official in the province's northern region, where most Basque-speaking Navarrese are concentrated.About a quarter of a million people live in the French Basque Country.",
"Nowadays Basque-speakers refer to this region as ''Iparralde'' (Basque for North), and to the Spanish provinces as ''Hegoalde'' (South).",
"Much of this population lives in or near the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) urban belt on the coast (in Basque these are ''Baiona'', ''Angelu'' and ''Miarritze'').",
"The Basque language, which was traditionally spoken by most of the region's population outside the BAB urban zone, is today rapidly losing ground to French.",
"The French Basque Country's lack of self-government within the French state is coupled with the absence of official status for the Basque language in the region.",
"Attempts to introduce bilingualism in local administration have so far met direct refusal from French officials."
],
[
"Basque diaspora",
"Basque festival in Buenos Aires, ArgentinaBasque festival in Winnemucca, Nevada, USLarge numbers of Basques have left the Basque Country to settle in the rest of Spain, France or other parts of the world in different historical periods, often for economic or political reasons.",
"Historically the Basques abroad were often employed in shepherding and ranching and by maritime fisheries and merchants.",
"Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American and Basque Canadian) live in North America (the United States; Canada, mainly in the provinces of Newfoundland and Quebec), all over Latin America, South Africa, and Australia.===Latin America===Miguel de Unamuno said: \"There are at least two things that clearly can be attributed to Basques: the Society of Jesus and the Republic of Chile.\"",
"Chilean historian Luis Thayer Ojeda estimated that 48 percent of immigrants to Chile in the 17th and 18th centuries were Basque.",
"Estimates range between 2.5 and 5 million Basque descendants live in Chile; the Basque have been a major if not the strongest influence in the country's cultural and economic development.Basque place names are to be found, such as Nueva Vizcaya (now Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico), New Navarre (now Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico), Biscayne Bay (United States), and Aguereberry Point (United States).",
"Nueva Vizcaya was the first province in the north of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) to be explored and settled by the Spanish.",
"It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango (the original Durango is a known city in Biscay).In Mexico most descendants of Basque emigrees are concentrated in the cities of Monterrey, Saltillo, Reynosa, Camargo, and the states of Jalisco, Durango, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, Coahuila, and Sonora.",
"The Basques were important in the mining industry; many were ranchers and vaqueros (cowboys), and the rest opened small shops in major cities such as Mexico City, Guadalajara and Puebla.",
"In Guatemala, most Basques have been concentrated in Sacatepequez Department, Antigua Guatemala, Jalapa for six generations now, while some have migrated to Guatemala City.In Colombia, a large number of Basques settled mainly in Antioquia and the Coffee Axis.",
"In 1955, Joaquín Ospina said: \"Is there something more similar to the Basque people than the \"''antioqueños''\".",
"Also, writer Arturo Escobar Uribe said in his book \"''Mitos de Antioquia''\" (Myths of Antioquia) (1950): \"Antioquia, which in its clean ascendance predominates the peninsular farmer of the Basque provinces, inherited the virtues of its ancestors.",
"...",
"Despite the predominance of the white race, its extension in the mountains ... has projected over Colombia's map the prototype of its race; in Medellín with the industrial paisa, entrepreneur, strong and steady ... in its towns, the adventurer, arrogant, world-explorer.",
"... Its myths, which are an evidence of their deep credulity and an indubitable proof of their Iberian ancestor, are the sequel of the conqueror's blood which runs through their veins\".",
"Bambuco, a Colombian folk music, has Basque roots.===United States===The largest of several important Basque communities in the United States is in the area around Boise, Idaho, home to the Basque Museum and Cultural Center, host to an annual Basque festival, as well as a festival for the Basque diaspora every five years.",
"Reno, Nevada, where the Center for Basque Studies and the Basque Studies Library are located at the University of Nevada, is another significant nucleus of Basque population.",
"Elko, Nevada, sponsors an annual Basque festival that celebrates the dance, cuisine and cultures of the Basque peoples of Spanish, French and Mexican nationalities who have arrived in Nevada since the late 19th century.Texas has a large percentage of Hispanics descended from Basques who participated in the conquest of New Spain.",
"Many of the original Tejanos had Basque blood, including those who fought in the Battle of the Alamo alongside many of the other Texans.",
"Along the Mexican/Texan border, many Basque surnames can be found.",
"The largest concentration of Basques who settled on Mexico's north-eastern \"frontera\", including the states of Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas, also settled along Texas' Rio Grande from South Texas to West Texas.",
"Many of the historic ''hidalgos'', or noble families from this area, had gained their titles and land grants from Spain and Mexico; they still value their land.",
"Some of North America's largest ranches, which were founded under these colonial land grants, can be found in this region.California has a major concentration of Basques, most notably in the San Joaquin Valley between Stockton, Fresno and Bakersfield.",
"The city of Bakersfield has a large Basque community and the city has several Basque restaurants, including Noriega's which won the 2011 James Beard Foundation America's Classic Award.",
"There is a history of Basque culture in Chino, California.",
"In Chino, two annual Basque festivals celebrate the dance, cuisine, and culture of the peoples.",
"The surrounding area of San Bernardino County has many Basque descendants as residents.",
"They are mostly descendants of settlers from Spain and Mexico.",
"These Basques in California are grouped in the group known as ''Californios''.Basques of European Spanish-French and Latin American nationalities also settled throughout the western U.S. in states like Louisiana, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Oregon, and Washington."
],
[
"Culture",
"Cover of the first Basque language book, written by Bernard EtxepareCultural identity according to the 1981 and 1991 census based on the question ''Do you consider yourself Basque?''",
"1 - Yes2 - Yes, in some ways 3 - No4 - Don't know / Don't answer===Language===The identifying language of the Basques is called Basque or ''Euskara'', spoken today by 25%-30% of the region's population.",
"An idea of the central place the language has in cultural terms is given by the fact that Basques identify themselves by the term ''euskaldun'' and their country as ''Euskal Herria'', literally \"Basque speaker\" and \"Country of the Basque Language\" respectively.",
"The language has been made a political issue by official Spanish and French policies restricting its use either historically or currently; however, this has not stopped the teaching, speaking, writing, and cultivating of this increasingly vibrant minority language.",
"This sense of Basque identity tied to the local language does not only exist in isolation.",
"For many Basques, it is juxtaposed with a sense of either Spanish or French identity tied with the use of the Spanish and French languages among other Basques, especially in the French Basque Country.",
"Regarding the Spanish Basque Country, Basques that don't have a sense of Spanish identity make up an important part of the population.",
"As with many European states, a regional identity, be it linguistically derived or otherwise, is not mutually exclusive with the broader national one.",
"For example, Basque rugby union player for France, Imanol Harinordoquy, has said about his national identity:\"I am French and Basque.",
"There is no conflict, I am proud of both.",
"...",
"I have friends who are involved in the political side of things but that is not for me.",
"My only interest is the culture, the Euskera language, the people, our history and ways.",
"\"As a result of state language promotion, school policies, the effects of mass media and migration, today virtually all Basques (except for some children below school age) speak the official language of their state (Spanish or French).",
"There are extremely few Basque monolingual speakers: essentially all Basque speakers are bilingual on both sides of the border.",
"Spanish or French is typically the first language of citizens from other regions (who often feel no need to learn Basque), and Spanish or French is also the first language of many Basques, all of which maintains the dominance of the state tongues of both France and Spain.",
"Recent Basque Government policies aim to change this pattern, as they are viewed as potential threats against mainstream usage of the minority tongue.The Basque language is thought to be a genetic language isolate in contrast with other European languages, vast majority of which belong to the broad Indo-European language family.",
"Another peculiarity of Basque is that it has probably been spoken continuously ''in situ'', in and around its present territorial location, for longer than most other modern European languages, which are typically thought to have been introduced in historic or prehistoric times through population migrations or other processes of cultural transmission.However, popular stereotypes characterizing Basque as \"the oldest language in Europe\" and \"unique among the world's languages\" may be misunderstood and lead to erroneous assumptions.",
"Over the centuries, Basque has remained in continuous contact with neighboring western European languages with which it has come to share numerous lexical properties and typological features; it is therefore misleading to exaggerate the \"outlandish\" character of Basque.",
"Basque is also a modern language, and is established as a written and printed one used in present-day forms of publication and communication, as well as a language spoken and used in a very wide range of social and cultural contexts, styles, and registers.===Land and inheritance===The Aranguren baserri in Orozko, converted from a fortified towerThe Lizarralde baserri (Bergara)Basques have a close attachment to their home (''etxe(a)'' 'house, home'), especially when this consists of the traditional self-sufficient, family-run farm or ''baserri(a)''.",
"Home in this context is synonymous with family roots.",
"Some Basque surnames were adapted from old ''baserri'' or habitation names.",
"They typically related to a geographical orientation or other locally meaningful identifying features.",
"Such surnames provide even those Basques whose families may have left the land generations ago with an important link to their rural family origins: ''Bengoetxea'' \"the house of further down\", ''Goikoetxea'' \"the house above\", ''Landaburu'' \"top of the field\", ''Errekondo'' \"next to the stream\", ''Elizalde'' \"by the church\", ''Mendizabal'' \"wide hill\", ''Usetxe'' \"house of birds\" ''Ibarretxe'' \"house in the valley\", ''Etxeberria'' \"the new house\", and so on.In contrast to surrounding regions, ancient Basque inheritance patterns, recognised in the ''fueros,'' favoured survival of the unity of inherited land holdings.",
"In a kind of primogeniture, these usually were inherited by the eldest male or female child.",
"As in other cultures, the fate of other family members depended on the assets of a family: wealthy Basque families tended to provide for all children in some way, while less-affluent families may have had only one asset to provide to one child.",
"However, this heir often provided for the rest of the family (unlike in England, with strict primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited everything and often did not provide for others).",
"Even though they were provided for in some way, younger siblings had to make much of their living by other means.",
"Mostly after the advent of industrialisation, this system resulted in the emigration of many rural Basques to Spain, France or the Americas.",
"Harsh by modern standards, this custom resulted in a great many enterprising figures of Basque origin who went into the world to earn their way, from Spanish conquistadors such as Lope de Aguirre and Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, to explorers, missionaries and saints of the Catholic Church, such as Francis Xavier.A widespread belief that Basque society was originally matriarchal is at odds with the current, clearly patrilineal kinship system and inheritance structures.",
"Some scholars and commentators have attempted to reconcile these points by assuming that patrilineal kinship represents an innovation.",
"In any case, the social position of women in both traditional and modern Basque society is somewhat better than in neighbouring cultures, and women have a substantial influence in decisions about the domestic economy.",
"In the past, some women participated in collective magical ceremonies.",
"They were key participants in a rich folklore, today largely forgotten.===Cuisine===Basque cuisine is at the heart of Basque culture, influenced by the neighboring communities and produce from the sea and the land.",
"A 20th-century feature of Basque culture is the phenomenon of gastronomical societies (called ''txoko'' in Basque), food clubs where men gather to cook and enjoy their own food.",
"Until recently, women were allowed entry only one day in the year.",
"Cider houses (Sagardotegiak) are popular restaurants in Gipuzkoa open for a few months while the cider is in season.===Cultural production===Artzaiak eta inudeak festival, Donostia, Basque Country.At the end of the 20th century, despite ETA violence (ended in 2010) and the crisis of heavy industries, the Basque economic condition recovered remarkably.",
"They emerged from the Franco regime with a revitalized language and culture.",
"The Basque language expanded geographically led by large increases in the major urban centers of Pamplona, Bilbao, and Bayonne, where only a few decades ago the Basque language had all but disappeared.",
"Nowadays, the number of Basque speakers is maintaining its level or increasing slightly.===Music===Basque dance===Religion===Traditionally Basques have been mostly Catholics.",
"In the 19th century and well into the 20th, Basques as a group remained notably devout and churchgoing.",
"In recent years church attendance has fallen off, as in most of Western Europe.",
"The region has been a source of missionaries like Francis Xavier and Michel Garicoïts.",
"Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, was a Basque.",
"California Franciscan Fermín Lasuén was born in Vitoria.",
"Lasuén was the successor to Franciscan Padre Junípero Serra and founded 9 of the 21 extant California Missions along the coast.A sprout of Protestantism in the continental Basque Country produced the first translation of the new Testament into Basque by Joanes Leizarraga.",
"Queen Jeanne III of Navarre, a devout Huguenot, commissioned the translation of the New Testament into Basque and Béarnese for the benefit of her subjects.",
"By the time Henry III of Navarre converted to Catholicism in order to become king of France, Protestantism virtually disappeared from the Basque community.Bayonne held a Jewish community composed mainly of Sephardi Jews fleeing from the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions.",
"There were also important Jewish and Muslim communities in Navarre before the Castilian invasion of 1512–21.Nowadays, according to one single opinion poll, only slightly more than 50% of Basques profess some kind of belief in God, while the rest are either agnostic or atheist.",
"The number of religious skeptics increases noticeably for the younger generations, while the older ones are more religious.",
"Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Basque Country.",
"In 2019, the proportion of Basques that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 60%, while it is one of the most secularized communities of Spain: 24.6% were non-religious and 12.3% of Basques were atheist.====Pre-Christian religion and mythology====Anboto mountain is one of sites where Mari was believed to dwellThe Christianisation of the Basque Country has been the topic of some discussion.",
"There are, broadly speaking, two views.",
"According to one, Christianity arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th centuries but according to the other, it did not take place until the 12th and 13th centuries.",
"The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' says that the Basques were not Christianized until the tenth century, however, and that their earlier animism survives in their folklore.",
"The main issue lies in the different interpretations of what is considered Christianisation.",
"Early traces of Christianity can be found in the major urban areas from the 4th century onwards, a bishopric from 589 in Pamplona and three hermit cave concentrations (two in Álava, one in Navarre) that were in use from the 6th century onwards.",
"In this sense, Christianity arrived \"early\".Pre-Christian belief seems to have focused on a goddess called Mari.",
"A number of place-names contain her name, which would suggest these places were related to worship of her such as ''Anbotoko Mari'' who appears to have been related to the weather.",
"According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on Mount Anboto and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in Aloña, or Supelegor, or Gorbea.",
"One of her names, ''Mari Urraca'' possibly ties her to an historical Navarrese princess of the 11th and 12th century, with other legends giving her a brother or cousin who was a Roman Catholic priest.",
"So far the discussions about whether the name Mari is original and just happened to coincide closely with the Christian name María or if Mari is an early Basque attempt to give a Christian veneer to pagan worship have remained speculative.",
"At any rate, Mari (Andramari) is one of the oldest worshipped Christian icons in Basque territories.Mari's consort is Sugaar.",
"This chthonic couple seems to bear the superior ethical power and the power of creation and destruction.",
"It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms.",
"These meetings typically happened on Friday nights, the day of historical akelarre or coven.",
"Mari was said to reside in Mount Anboto; periodically she crossed the skies as a bright light to reach her other home at Mount Txindoki.Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like ''jentilak'' (equivalent to giants), ''lamiak'' (equivalent to nymphs), ''mairuak'' (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally Moors), ''iratxoak'' (imps), ''sorginak'' (witches, priestess of Mari), and so on.",
"Basajaun is a Basque version of the Woodwose.",
"There is a trickster named ''San Martin Txiki'' (\"St Martin the Lesser\").It is unclear whether Neolithic stone structures called dolmens have a religious significance or were built to house animals or resting shepherds.",
"Some of the dolmens and cromlechs are burial sites serving also as border markers.",
"''Ioaldunak'' dancers of Navarre.",
"The ''jentilak'' ('Giants'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of Stone Age culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of iron.",
"Many legends about them tell that they were bigger and taller, with a great force, but were displaced by the ''ferrons'', or workers of ironworks foundries, until their total fade-out.",
"They were pagans, but one of them, Olentzero, accepted Christianity and became a sort of Basque Santa Claus.",
"They gave name to several toponyms, as ''Jentilbaratza''.===Society===Senior Basque women during the 16th century; the attire was forbidden on Pierre de Lancre's intervention in the Basque Country (1609–1612)Historically, Basque society can be described as being somewhat at odds with Roman and later European societal norms.",
"Strabo's account of the north of Spain in his ''Geographica'' (written between approximately 20 BC and 20 AD) makes a mention of \"a sort of woman-rule—not at all a mark of civilization\" (Hadington 1992), a first mention of the—for the period—unusual position of women: \"Women could inherit and control property as well as officiate in churches.\"",
"The evidence for this assertion is rather sparse however.This preference for female dominance existed well into the 20th century:... matrilineal inheritance laws, and agricultural work performed by women continued in Basque country until the early twentieth century.",
"For more than a century, scholars have widely discussed the high status of Basque women in law codes, as well as their positions as judges, inheritors, and arbitrators through ante-Roman, medieval, and modern times.",
"The system of laws governing succession in the French Basque region reflected total equality between the sexes.",
"Up until the eve of the French Revolution, the Basque woman was truly 'the mistress of the house', hereditary guardian, and head of the lineage.While women continued to have a higher position in Basque than other western European societies, it is highly unlikely that any point the society was 'matriarchal', as is often falsely claimed about pre-Indo-European peoples in general.",
"The 'Basque matriarchy' argument is typically tied to 20th century nationalism and is at odds with earlier accounts of the society.Although the Kingdom of Navarre did adopt feudalism, most Basques also possessed unusual social institutions different from those of the rest of feudal Europe.",
"Some aspects of this include the elizate tradition where local house-owners met in front of the church to elect a representative to send to the ''juntas'' and ''Juntas Generales'' (such as the ''Juntas Generales de Vizcaya'' or ''Guipúzcoa'') which administered much larger areas.",
"Another example was that in the medieval period most land was owned by the farmers, not the Church or a king."
],
[
"Sports in the Basque Country",
"wood-chopping contest (1949)===Pelota===The great family of ball games has its unique offspring among Basque ball games, known generically as pilota (Spanish: ''pelota'').",
"Some variants have been exported to the United States and Macau under the name of Jai Alai.===Rural sports===Bilbao estuary''Barrenatzaileak'' in Barakaldo.There are several sports derived by Basques from everyday chores.",
"Heavy workers were challenged and bets placed upon them.",
"Examples are:* ''estropadak'' rowing regattas: from fishermen activities.",
"* ''sokatira'': tug-of-war.",
"* ''harri-jasotzea'': stone-lifting, from quarry works.",
"* ''aizkolaritza'' and ''trontzalaritza'': wood-chopping and log sawing.",
"* ''sega jokoa'': cutting grass with a scythe.",
"* ''Giza-abere probak'': stone block pulling, from construction works:** ''idi probak'' with teams of oxen.",
"** ''asto probak'' with donkeys.",
"** ''zaldi probak'' with horses.",
"** ''gizon probak'' with human teams.",
"* ''txinga eramatea'': carrying of weights, one in each hand, representing milk canisters.",
"* ''ahari topaketa'': ram fights.",
"* ''harri zulaketa'' competitions: drilling stone blocks with a metal bar, only in the former mining areas of West Biscay.",
"* Basque sheepdog trials competitions.===Bull runs and bullock games===The encierro (bull run) in Pamplona's fiestas ''Sanfermines'' started as a transport of bulls to the ring.",
"These encierros, as well as other bull and bullock related activities are not exclusive to Pamplona but are traditional in many towns and villages of the Basque country.===Football===There are several clubs within the Basque Country, such as Athletic Bilbao, Real Sociedad, Deportivo Alavés, SD Eibar and, as Navarre club, the CA Osasuna (the only club in La Liga that has a Basque name—''osasuna'' means \"health\").",
"In the 2016–17 season these five clubs played together in La Liga, the first instance where five Basque clubs have reached that level at the same time.",
"Athletic's recruitment policy has meant the club refuses to sign any non-Basque players, with \"Basque\" currently defined to include either ethnic Basques or players of any ethnicity trained by a Basque club.",
"Real Sociedad also previously employed such a policy.===Basketball===The Basque Country also features several professional basketball teams, the most notable of which is Saski Baskonia from Vitoria-Gasteiz, one of the 11 clubs that own stakes in Euroleague Basketball, the company that operates the continent-wide EuroLeague and EuroCup.",
"They are currently joined in the Spanish top flight, Liga ACB, by Bilbao Basket, with the two clubs involved in a longstanding rivalry.",
"Another club from the Basque Country, Gipuzkoa Basket from Donostia, currently plays in the second-level LEB Oro.===Rugby union===Rugby union is a popular sport among French Basques, with major clubs Biarritz Olympique and Aviron Bayonnais traditional powerhouses in the premier division of French Rugby (the Top 14).",
"Biarritz regularly play Champions Cup matches, especially knockout matches, at Estadio Anoeta in San Sebastian.",
"Games between the Basque clubs and Catalan club USA Perpignan are always hard fought.===Professional cycling===Cycling is popular and the professional cycling team, partly sponsored by the Basque Government participated in the UCI World Tour division until 2014.Known for their orange tops and hill-climbing ability, their fans were famous for lining the famous Pyrenean climbs in the Tour de France, in support of their compatriots.Each April the week-long Tour of the Basque Country showcases the beautiful rolling Basque countryside.",
"Miguel Indurain, born in Villava is one of the most celebrated cyclists in the world having won 5 consecutive Tours de France."
],
[
"Politics",
"human chain for the Basque Country's right to self-determinationDemonstration in Bilbao in solidarity with Catalan independence referendum, September 2017While there is no independent Basque state, Spain's autonomous community of the Basque Country, made up of the provinces of Álava (Araba), Biscay (Bizkaia) and Gipuzkoa, is primarily a historical consequence and an answer to the wide autonomy claim of its population.Navarre has a separate statute of autonomy, a contentious arrangement designed during Spanish transition to democracy (the ''Amejoramiento'', an 'upgrade' of its previous status during dictatorship).",
"It refers back to the kingdom status of Navarre (up to 1841) and their traditional institutional and legal framework (charters).",
"Basque, the original and main language of Navarre up to the late 18th century, has kept family transmission especially in the northern part of Navarre and central areas to a lesser extent, designated as Basque speaking or mixed area in Navarrese law.",
"Questions of political, linguistic and cultural allegiance and identity are highly complex in Navarre.",
"Politically some Basque nationalists would like to integrate with the Basque Autonomous Community.The French Basque Country today does not exist as a formal political entity and is officially simply part of the French department of Pyrénées Atlantiques, centered in Béarn.",
"In recent years the number of mayors of the region supporting the creation of a separate Basque department has grown to 63.87%.",
"So far, their attempts have been unsuccessful."
],
[
"Political conflicts",
"===Language===Both the Spanish and French governments have, at times, suppressed Basque linguistic and cultural identity.",
"The French Republics, the epitome of the nation-state, have a long history of attempting the complete cultural absorption of cultural minority groups.",
"Spain has, at most points in its history, granted some degree of linguistic, cultural, and even political autonomy to its Basques, but under the regime of Francisco Franco, the Spanish government reversed the advances of Basque nationalism, as it had fought in the opposite side of the Spanish Civil War: cultural activity in Basque was limited to folkloric issues and the Catholic Church.Today, the Southern Basque Country within Spain enjoys an extensive cultural and political autonomy.",
"The majority of schools under the jurisdiction of the Basque education system use Basque as the primary medium of teaching.",
"However, the situation is more delicate in the Northern Basque Country within France, where Basque is not officially recognized, and where lack of autonomy and monolingual public schooling in French exert great pressure on the Basque language.In Navarre, Basque has been declared an endangered language, since the anti-Basque and conservative government of Navarrese People's Union opposes the symbols of Basque culture, highlighting a Spanish identity for Navarre.Basque is also spoken by immigrants in the major cities of Spain and France, in Australia, in many parts of Latin America, and in the United States, especially in Nevada, Idaho, and California.===Political status and violence===A republican mural in Belfast showing solidarity with Basque nationalism.Since its articulation by Sabino Arana in the late 19th century, the more radical currents of Basque nationalism have demanded the right of self-determination and even independence.",
"Within the Basque country, this element of Basque politics is often in balance with the conception of the Basque Country as just another part of the Spanish state, a view more commonly espoused on the right of the political spectrum.",
"In contrast, the desire for greater autonomy or independence is particularly common among leftist Basque nationalists.",
"The right of self-determination was asserted by the Basque Parliament in 2002 and 2006.Since self-determination is not recognized in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, a wide majority of Basques abstained (55%) and some even voted against it (23.5%) in the ratification referendum of December 6 of that year.",
"However, it was approved by clear majority overall in Spain (87%).",
"The autonomous regime for the Basque Country was approved in a 1979 referendum but the autonomy of Navarre (''Amejoramiento del Fuero'': \"improvement of the charter\") was never subject to a referendum but only approved by the Navarrese Cortes (parliament).====Political violence===="
],
[
"Classification",
"As with their language, the Basques are clearly a distinct cultural group in their region.",
"They regard themselves as culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbours.",
"Some Basques identify themselves as Basques only whereas others identify themselves both as Basque and Spanish.",
"Many Basques regard the designation as a \"cultural minority\" as incomplete, favouring instead the definition as a nation, the commonly accepted designation for the Basque people up to the rise of the nation-states and the definition imposed by the 1812 Spanish Constitution.In modern times, as a European people living in a highly industrialized area, cultural differences from the rest of Europe are inevitably blurred, although a conscious cultural identity as a people or nation remains very strong, as does an identification with their homeland, even among many Basques who have emigrated to other parts of Spain or France, or to other parts of the world.The strongest distinction between the Basques and their traditional neighbours is linguistic.",
"Surrounded by Romance-language speakers, the Basques traditionally spoke (and many still speak) a language that was not only non-Romance but non-Indo-European.",
"The prevailing belief amongst Basques, and forming part of their national identity, is that their language has continuity with the people who were in this region since not only pre-Roman and pre-Celtic times, but since the Stone Age."
],
[
"Notable Basques",
"Among the most notable Basque people are Juan Sebastián Elcano (who led the first successful expedition to circumnavigate the globe after Ferdinand Magellan died mid-journey); Sancho III of Navarre; and Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier, founders of the Society of Jesus.Don Diego María de Gardoqui y Arriquibar (1735–1798) was also a Basque who became Spain's first Ambassador to the United States, and Miguel de Unamuno was a noted novelist and philosopher of the late 19th and the 20th century, was also a Basque.Another well-known Basque was Father Alberto Hurtado, S.J.",
"(1901–1952), a Jesuit priest who founded the charitable housing system Hogar de Cristo, meaning hearth, or home, of Christ, in Chile.",
"El Hogar provided a home-like milieu for the homeless.",
"Hurtado also founded the Chilean Trade Union Association to promote a union movement based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church.",
"He was a friend and savior to all the poor and homeless, and was beatified by Pope John Paul II on October 16, 1994.He was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI on October 23, 2005."
],
[
"See also",
"* Aberri Eguna* Aquitani* Basque code talkers* Cro-Magnon* Duchy of Vasconia* French people* Genetic history of Europe* Iberians* Late Basquisation* List of Basques* National and regional identity in Spain* Spanish people* Vascones"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"* Allières, Jacques.",
"''The Basques'' 1977; online 2016 reprint.",
"* ''The Basques, the Catalans and Spain'', Daniele Conversi, 2000, .",
"* ''The Basque History of the World'', Mark Kurlansky, 1999, .",
"* ''The Oldest Europeans'', J. F. del Giorgio, A. J.",
"Place, 2006, .",
"* Ethnologue report for France for population statistics in France.",
"* ''Euskal Herria en la Prehistoria'', Xabier Peñalver Iribarren, 1996, .",
"* Gimbutas, Marija, ''The Living Goddesses'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Basque Autonomous Government* 8 Probintziak.",
"Non profit association working with the basques in the world* Oroitzapenak Voices From Basque America, University of Nevada, Reno, Special Collections.",
"* Basque Digital Collection, University of Nevada, Reno Special Collections* Sheepherders of Northern Nevada, University of Nevada, Reno, Special Collections* Basque Posters, University of Nevada, Reno, Special Collections* Voices from Basque America University of Nevada, Reno Libraries"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blot"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Blot''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Surname",
"*Guillaume Blot (born 1985), French racing cyclist*Harold W. Blot (born 1938), served as United States Deputy Chief of Staff for Aviation*Jean-François Joseph Blot (1781–1857), French soldier and politician*Yvan Blot (1948–2018), French conservative political figure, founder and president of the Club de l'Horloge*Jean Blot (1923–2019), French writer, translator, and senior civil servant of Russian origin* (born 1983), French judoka"
],
[
"Religion",
"*Blót, a sacrifice to the gods or other beings in Germanic paganism and modern Germanic paganism**''Blot'' (album), a 2003 album by Einherjer** \"Hefja Blot\", a song by Danheim for his album ''Friðr''** \"Blotjarl\", a song by Danheim and Heldom for his album ''Skapanir''** \"Vetrnátta Blot\", a song by Danheim and Heldom for his album ''Skapanir''"
],
[
"Other",
"*Blot (biology), method of transferring proteins, DNA, RNA or a protein onto a carrier*''The Blot'', a 1921 silent film*Another name of a trick-taking card game Belot*Blot (Transformers), a character from the Transformers franchise*Ink blots, as used in the Rorschach test* ''Blot'' (1994 film), a 1994 film"
],
[
"See also",
"*Phantom Blot, a character made by the Walt Disney Company*Saint-Rémy-de-Blot, commune in the Puy-de-Dôme department in Auvergne in central France*''The Blot on the Shield'', 1915 short film directed by B. Reeves Eason*Blott (disambiguation)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bookkeeping"
],
[
"Introduction",
" ''Portrait of the Italian Luca Pacioli'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte).",
"Pacioli is regarded as the Father of Accounting.",
"'''Bookkeeping''' is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business and other organizations.",
"It involves preparing source documents for all transactions, operations, and other events of a business.",
"Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts and payments by an individual person or an organization/corporation.",
"There are several standard methods of bookkeeping, including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems.",
"While these may be viewed as \"real\" bookkeeping, any process for recording financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.The person in an organisation who is employed to perform bookkeeping functions is usually called the '''bookkeeper''' (or book-keeper).",
"They usually write the ''daybooks'' (which contain records of sales, purchases, receipts, and payments), and document each financial transaction, whether cash or credit, into the correct daybook—that is, petty cash book, suppliers ledger, customer ledger, etc.—and the general ledger.",
"Thereafter, an accountant can create financial reports from the information recorded by the bookkeeper.",
"The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial balance stage, from which an accountant may prepare financial reports for the organisation, such as the income statement and balance sheet."
],
[
"History",
"The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent research indicates that methods of keeping accounts have existed from the remotest times of human life in cities.",
"Babylonian records written with styli on small slabs of clay have been found dating to 2600 BC.",
"Mesopotamian bookkeepers kept records on clay tablets that may date back as far as 7,000 years.",
"Use of the modern double entry bookkeeping system was described by Luca Pacioli in 1494.The term \"waste book\" was used in colonial America, referring to the documenting of daily transactions of receipts and expenditures.",
"Records were made in chronological order, and for temporary use only.",
"Daily records were then transferred to a daybook or account ledger to balance the accounts and to create a permanent journal; then the waste book could be discarded, hence the name."
],
[
"Process",
"The primary purpose of bookkeeping is to record the ''financial effects'' of transactions.",
"An important difference between a manual and an electronic accounting system is the former's latency between the recording of a financial transaction and its posting in the relevant account.",
"This delay, which is absent in electronic accounting systems due to nearly instantaneous posting to relevant accounts, is characteristic of manual systems, and gave rise to the primary books of accounts—cash book, purchase book, sales book, etc.—for immediately documenting a financial transaction.In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs.",
"Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts.",
"Historically, deposit slips were produced when lodgements (deposits) were made to a bank account; and checks (spelled \"cheques\" in the UK and several other countries) were written to pay money out of the account.",
"Nowadays such transactions are mostly made electronically.",
"Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these ''source documents'' into multi-column ''journals'' (also known as ''books of first entry'' or ''daybooks'').",
"For example, all credit sales are recorded in the sales journal; all cash payments are recorded in the cash payments journal.",
"Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account.",
"In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once.",
"Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, and most personal-finance software follows this approach.After a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period.",
"Using the rules of double-entry, these journal summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, or ''account book''.",
"For example, the entries in the Sales Journal are taken and a debit entry is made in each customer's account (showing that the customer now owes us money), and a credit entry might be made in the account for \"Sale of class 2 widgets\" (showing that this activity has generated revenue for us).",
"This process of transferring summaries or individual transactions to the ledger is called ''posting''.",
"Once the posting process is complete, accounts kept using the \"T\" format (debits on the left side of the \"T\" and credits on the right side) undergo ''balancing'', which is simply a process to arrive at the balance of the account.As a partial check that the posting process was done correctly, a working document called an ''unadjusted trial balance'' is created.",
"In its simplest form, this is a three-column list.",
"Column One contains the names of those accounts in the ledger which have a non-zero balance.",
"If an account has a ''debit'' balance, the balance amount is copied into Column Two (the ''debit column''); if an account has a ''credit'' balance, the amount is copied into Column Three (the ''credit column'').",
"The debit column is then totalled, and then the credit column is totalled.",
"The two totals must agree—which is not by chance—because under the double-entry rules, whenever there is a posting, the debits of the posting equal the credits of the posting.",
"If the two totals do not agree, an error has been made, either in the journals or during the posting process.",
"The error must be located and rectified, and the totals of the debit column and the credit column recalculated to check for agreement before any further processing can take place.",
"Businesses that use automated bookkeeping tools are able to minimize manual errors and reduce the time spent on data entry.Once the accounts balance, the accountant makes a number of adjustments and changes the balance amounts of some of the accounts.",
"These adjustments must still obey the double-entry rule: for example, the ''inventory'' account and asset account might be changed to bring them into line with the actual numbers counted during a stocktake.",
"At the same time, the ''expense'' account associated with use of inventory is adjusted by an equal and opposite amount.",
"Other adjustments such as posting depreciation and prepayments are also done at this time.",
"This results in a listing called the ''adjusted trial balance''.",
"It is the accounts in this list, and their corresponding debit or credit balances, that are used to prepare the financial statements.Finally financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:* the income statement, also known as the ''statement of financial results'', ''profit and loss account'', or ''P&L''* the balance sheet, also known as the ''statement of financial position''* the cash flow statement* the statement of changes in equity, also known as the ''statement of total recognised gains and losses''===Single-entry system===The primary bookkeeping record in single-entry bookkeeping is the ''cash book'', which is similar to a checking account register (in UK: cheque account, current account), except all entries are allocated among several categories of income and expense accounts.",
"Separate account records are maintained for petty cash, accounts payable and accounts receivable, and other relevant transactions such as inventory and travel expenses.",
"To save time and avoid the errors of manual calculations, single-entry bookkeeping can be done today with do-it-yourself bookkeeping software.===Double-entry system===A ''double-entry bookkeeping system'' is a set of rules for recording financial information in a financial accounting system in which every transaction or event changes at least two different nominal ledger accounts."
],
[
"Daybooks",
"A ''daybook'' is a descriptive and chronological (diary-like) record of day-to-day financial transactions; it is also called a ''book of original entry''.",
"The daybook's details must be transcribed formally into journals to enable posting to ledgers.",
"Daybooks include:*Sales daybook, for recording sales invoices.",
"*Sales credits daybook, for recording sales credit notes.",
"*Purchases daybook, for recording purchase invoices.",
"*Purchases debits daybook, for recording purchase debit notes.",
"*Cash daybook, usually known as the cash book, for recording all monies received and all monies paid out.",
"It may be split into two daybooks: a receipts daybook documenting every money-amount received, and a payments daybook recording every payment made.",
"*General Journal daybook, for recording journal entries."
],
[
"Petty cash book",
"A ''petty cash'' book is a record of small-value purchases before they are later transferred to the ledger and final accounts; it is maintained by a petty or junior cashier.",
"This type of cash book usually uses the imprest system: a certain amount of money is provided to the petty cashier by the senior cashier.",
"This money is to cater for minor expenditures (hospitality, minor stationery, casual postage, and so on) and is reimbursed periodically on satisfactory explanation of how it was spent.The balance of petty cash book is Asset."
],
[
"Journals",
"''Journals'' are recorded in the general journal daybook.",
"A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are accounted for in the general ledger as debits and credits.",
"A company can maintain one journal for all transactions, or keep several journals based on similar activity (e.g., sales, cash receipts, revenue, etc.",
"), making transactions easier to summarize and reference later.",
"For every debit journal entry recorded, there must be an equivalent credit journal entry to maintain a balanced accounting equation."
],
[
"Ledgers",
"A ''ledger'' is a record of accounts.",
"The ledger is a permanent summary of all amounts entered in supporting Journals which list individual transactions by date.",
"These accounts are recorded separately, showing their beginning/ending balance.",
"A journal lists financial transactions in chronological order, without showing their balance but showing how much is going to be charged in each account.",
"A ledger takes each financial transaction from the journal and records it into the corresponding account for every transaction listed.",
"The ledger also sums up the total of every account, which is transferred into the balance sheet and the income statement.",
"There are three different kinds of ledgers that deal with book-keeping:*Sales ledger, which deals mostly with the accounts receivable account.",
"This ledger consists of the records of the financial transactions made by customers to the business.",
"*Purchase ledger is the record of the company's purchasing transactions; it goes hand in hand with the Accounts Payable account."
],
[
"Abbreviations used in bookkeeping"
],
[
"Chart of accounts",
"A chart of accounts is a list of the accounts codes that can be identified with numeric, alphabetical, or alphanumeric codes allowing the account to be located in the general ledger.",
"The equity section of the chart of accounts is based on the fact that the legal structure of the entity is of a particular legal type.",
"Possibilities include ''sole trader'', ''partnership'', ''trust'', and ''company''."
],
[
"Computerized bookkeeping",
"Computerized bookkeeping removes many of the paper \"books\" that are used to record the financial transactions of a business entity; instead, relational databases are used today, but typically, these still enforce the norms of bookkeeping including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems.",
"Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) supervise the internal controls for computerized bookkeeping systems, which serve to minimize errors in documenting the numerous activities a business entity may initiate or complete over an accounting period."
],
[
"See also",
"* Accounting* Comparison of accounting software* POS system: records sales and updates stock levels* Bookkeeping Associations* coordinate bookkeeper"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Guide to the Account Book from Italy 1515–1520"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bézier curve"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Cubic Bézier curve with four control pointsThe basis functions on the range for cubic Bézier curves:,,, and.A '''Bézier curve''' ( ) is a parametric curve used in computer graphics and related fields.",
"A set of discrete \"control points\" defines a smooth, continuous curve by means of a formula.",
"Usually the curve is intended to approximate a real-world shape that otherwise has no mathematical representation or whose representation is unknown or too complicated.",
"The Bézier curve is named after French engineer Pierre Bézier (1910–1999), who used it in the 1960s for designing curves for the bodywork of Renault cars.",
"Other uses include the design of computer fonts and animation.",
"Bézier curves can be combined to form a Bézier spline, or generalized to higher dimensions to form Bézier surfaces.",
"The Bézier triangle is a special case of the latter.In vector graphics, Bézier curves are used to model smooth curves that can be scaled indefinitely.",
"\"Paths\", as they are commonly referred to in image manipulation programs, are combinations of linked Bézier curves.",
"Paths are not bound by the limits of rasterized images and are intuitive to modify.Bézier curves are also used in the time domain, particularly in animation, user interface design and smoothing cursor trajectory in eye gaze controlled interfaces.",
"For example, a Bézier curve can be used to specify the velocity over time of an object such as an icon moving from A to B, rather than simply moving at a fixed number of pixels per step.",
"When animators or interface designers talk about the \"physics\" or \"feel\" of an operation, they may be referring to the particular Bézier curve used to control the velocity over time of the move in question.This also applies to robotics where the motion of a welding arm, for example, should be smooth to avoid unnecessary wear."
],
[
"Invention",
"The mathematical basis for Bézier curves—the Bernstein polynomials—was established in 1912, but the polynomials were not applied to graphics until some 50 years later when mathematician Paul de Casteljau in 1959 developed de Casteljau's algorithm, a numerically stable method for evaluating the curves, and became the first to apply them to computer-aided design at French automaker Citroën.",
"De Casteljau's method was patented in France but not published until the 1980s while the Bézier polynomials were widely publicised in the 1960s by the French engineer Pierre Bézier, who discovered them independently and used them to design automobile bodies at Renault."
],
[
"Specific cases",
"A Bézier curve is defined by a set of ''control points'' '''P'''0 through '''P'''''n'', where ''n'' is called the order of the curve (''n'' = 1 for linear, 2 for quadratic, 3 for cubic, etc.).",
"The first and last control points are always the endpoints of the curve; however, the intermediate control points generally do not lie on the curve.",
"The sums in the following sections are to be understood as affine combinations – that is, the coefficients sum to 1.===Linear Bézier curves===Given distinct points '''P'''0 and '''P'''1, a linear Bézier curve is simply a line between those two points.",
"The curve is given by:This is the simplest and is equivalent to linear interpolation.",
"The quantity represents the displacement vector from the start point to the end point.===Quadratic Bézier curves===Quadratic Béziers in string art: The end points ('''•''') and control point ('''×''') define the quadratic Bézier curve ('''⋯''').A quadratic Bézier curve is the path traced by the function '''B'''(''t''), given points '''P'''0, '''P'''1, and '''P'''2,: ,which can be interpreted as the linear interpolant of corresponding points on the linear Bézier curves from '''P'''0 to '''P'''1 and from '''P'''1 to '''P'''2 respectively.",
"Rearranging the preceding equation yields:: This can be written in a way that highlights the symmetry with respect to '''P'''1:: Which immediately gives the derivative of the Bézier curve with respect to ''t'':: from which it can be concluded that the tangents to the curve at '''P'''0 and '''P'''2 intersect at '''P'''1.As ''t'' increases from 0 to 1, the curve departs from '''P'''0 in the direction of '''P'''1, then bends to arrive at '''P'''2 from the direction of '''P'''1.The second derivative of the Bézier curve with respect to ''t'' is: ===Cubic Bézier curves===Four points '''P'''0, '''P'''1, '''P'''2 and '''P'''3 in the plane or in higher-dimensional space define a cubic Bézier curve.The curve starts at '''P'''0 going toward '''P'''1 and arrives at '''P'''3 coming from the direction of '''P'''2.Usually, it will not pass through '''P'''1 or '''P'''2; these points are only there to provide directional information.",
"The distance between '''P'''1 and '''P'''2 determines \"how far\" and \"how fast\" the curve moves towards '''P'''1 before turning towards '''P'''2.Writing '''B''''''P'''''i'','''P'''''j'','''P'''''k''(''t'') for the quadratic Bézier curve defined by points '''P'''''i'', '''P'''''j'', and '''P'''''k'', the cubic Bézier curve can be defined as an affine combination of two quadratic Bézier curves::The explicit form of the curve is::For some choices of '''P'''1 and '''P'''2 the curve may intersect itself, or contain a cusp.Any series of 4 distinct points can be converted to a cubic Bézier curve that goes through all 4 points in order.Given the starting and ending point of some cubic Bézier curve, and the points along the curve corresponding to ''t'' = 1/3 and ''t'' = 2/3, the control points for the original Bézier curve can be recovered.The derivative of the cubic Bézier curve with respect to ''t'' is: The second derivative of the Bézier curve with respect to ''t'' is:"
],
[
"General definition",
"Bézier curves can be defined for any degree ''n''.===Recursive definition===A recursive definition for the Bézier curve of degree ''n'' expresses it as a point-to-point linear combination (linear interpolation) of a pair of corresponding points in two Bézier curves of degree ''n'' − 1.Let denote the Bézier curve determined by any selection of points '''P'''0, '''P'''1, ..., '''P'''''k''.",
"Then to start,::This recursion is elucidated in the animations below.===Explicit definition===The formula can be expressed explicitly as follows (where t0 and (1-t)0 are extended continuously to be 1 throughout 0,1)::where are the binomial coefficients.For example, when ''n'' = 5::===Terminology===Some terminology is associated with these parametric curves.",
"We have:where the polynomials:are known as Bernstein basis polynomials of degree ''n''.",
"''t''0 = 1, (1 − ''t'')0 = 1, and the binomial coefficient, , is::The points '''P'''''i'' are called ''control points'' for the Bézier curve.",
"The polygon formed by connecting the Bézier points with lines, starting with '''P'''0 and finishing with '''P'''''n'', is called the ''Bézier polygon'' (or ''control polygon'').",
"The convex hull of the Bézier polygon contains the Bézier curve.===Polynomial form===Sometimes it is desirable to express the Bézier curve as a polynomial instead of a sum of less straightforward Bernstein polynomials.",
"Application of the binomial theorem to the definition of the curve followed by some rearrangement will yield:where:This could be practical if can be computed prior to many evaluations of ; however one should use caution as high order curves may lack numeric stability (de Casteljau's algorithm should be used if this occurs).",
"Note that the empty product is 1.===Properties===A cubic Bézier curve (yellow) can be made identical to a quadratic one (black) by1.copying the end points, and2.placing its 2 middle control points (yellow circles) 2/3 along line segments from the end points to the quadratic curve's middle control point (black rectangle).",
"* The curve begins at and ends at ; this is the so-called ''endpoint interpolation'' property.",
"* The curve is a line if and only if all the control points are collinear.",
"* The start and end of the curve is tangent to the first and last section of the Bézier polygon, respectively.",
"* A curve can be split at any point into two subcurves, or into arbitrarily many subcurves, each of which is also a Bézier curve.",
"* Some curves that seem simple, such as the circle, cannot be described exactly by a Bézier or piecewise Bézier curve; though a four-piece cubic Bézier curve can approximate a circle (see composite Bézier curve), with a maximum radial error of less than one part in a thousand, when each inner control point (or offline point) is the distance horizontally or vertically from an outer control point on a unit circle.",
"More generally, an ''n''-piece cubic Bézier curve can approximate a circle, when each inner control point is the distance from an outer control point on a unit circle, where (i.e.",
"), and .",
"* Every quadratic Bézier curve is also a cubic Bézier curve, and more generally, every degree ''n'' Bézier curve is also a degree ''m'' curve for any ''m'' > ''n''.",
"In detail, a degree ''n'' curve with control points is equivalent (including the parametrization) to the degree ''n'' + 1 curve with control points , where , and define , .",
"* Bézier curves have the variation diminishing property.",
"What this means in intuitive terms is that a Bézier curve does not \"undulate\" more than the polygon of its control points, and may actually \"undulate\" less than that.",
"* There is no local control in degree ''n'' Bézier curves—meaning that any change to a control point requires recalculation of and thus affects the aspect of the entire curve, \"although the further that one is from the control point that was changed, the smaller is the change in the curve.",
"\"* A Bézier curve of order higher than two may intersect itself or have a cusp for certain choices of the control points.===Second-order curve is a parabolic segment===Equivalence of a quadratic Bézier curve and a parabolic segmentA quadratic Bézier curve is also a segment of a parabola.",
"As a parabola is a conic section, some sources refer to quadratic Béziers as \"conic arcs\".",
"With reference to the figure on the right, the important features of the parabola can be derived as follows:# Tangents to the parabola at the endpoints of the curve (A and B) intersect at its control point (C).# If D is the midpoint of AB, the tangent to the curve which is perpendicular to CD (dashed cyan line) defines its vertex (V).",
"Its axis of symmetry (dash-dot cyan) passes through V and is perpendicular to the tangent.# E is either point on the curve with a tangent at 45° to CD (dashed green).",
"If G is the intersection of this tangent and the axis, the line passing through G and perpendicular to CD is the directrix (solid green).# The focus (F) is at the intersection of the axis and a line passing through E and perpendicular to CD (dotted yellow).",
"The latus rectum is the line segment within the curve (solid yellow).===Derivative===The derivative for a curve of order ''n'' is:"
],
[
"Constructing Bézier curves",
"===Linear curves===Let ''t'' denote the fraction of progress (from 0 to 1) the point '''B'''(''t'') has made along its traversal from '''P'''0 to '''P'''1.For example, when ''t''=0.25, '''B'''(''t'') is one quarter of the way from point '''P'''0 to '''P'''1.As ''t'' varies from 0 to 1, '''B'''(''t'') draws a line from '''P'''0 to '''P'''1.Animation of a linear Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1Animation of a linear Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1===Quadratic curves===For quadratic Bézier curves one can construct intermediate points '''Q'''0 and '''Q'''1 such that as ''t'' varies from 0 to 1:* Point '''Q'''0(''t'') varies from '''P'''0 to '''P'''1 and describes a linear Bézier curve.",
"* Point '''Q'''1(''t'') varies from '''P'''1 to '''P'''2 and describes a linear Bézier curve.",
"* Point '''B'''(''t'') is interpolated linearly between '''Q'''0(''t'') to '''Q'''1(''t'') and describes a quadratic Bézier curve.Construction of a quadratic Bézier curveAnimation of a quadratic Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1Construction of a quadratic Bézier curveAnimation of a quadratic Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1===Higher-order curves===For higher-order curves one needs correspondingly more intermediate points.",
"For cubic curves one can construct intermediate points '''Q'''0, '''Q'''1, and '''Q'''2 that describe linear Bézier curves, and points '''R'''0 and '''R'''1 that describe quadratic Bézier curves:Construction of a cubic Bézier curveAnimation of a cubic Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1Construction of a cubic Bézier curveAnimation of a cubic Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1For fourth-order curves one can construct intermediate points '''Q'''0, '''Q'''1, '''Q'''2 and '''Q'''3 that describe linear Bézier curves, points '''R'''0, '''R'''1 and '''R'''2 that describe quadratic Bézier curves, and points '''S'''0 and '''S'''1 that describe cubic Bézier curves:Construction of a quartic Bézier curveAnimation of a quartic Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1Construction of a quartic Bézier curveAnimation of a quartic Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1For fifth-order curves, one can construct similar intermediate points.Animation of the construction of a fifth-order Bézier curveAnimation of a fifth-order Bézier curve, ''t'' in 0,1 in red.",
"The Bézier curves for each of the lower orders are also shown.These representations rest on the process used in De Casteljau's algorithm to calculate Bézier curves.===Offsets (or stroking) of Bézier curves===The curve at a fixed offset from a given Bézier curve, called an offset or parallel curve in mathematics (lying \"parallel\" to the original curve, like the offset between rails in a railroad track), cannot be exactly formed by a Bézier curve (except in some trivial cases).",
"In general, the two-sided offset curve of a cubic Bézier is a 10th-order algebraic curve and more generally for a Bézier of degree ''n'' the two-sided offset curve is an algebraic curve of degree 4''n'' − 2.However, there are heuristic methods that usually give an adequate approximation for practical purposes.In the field of vector graphics, painting two symmetrically distanced offset curves is called ''stroking'' (the Bézier curve or in general a path of several Bézier segments).",
"The conversion from offset curves to filled Bézier contours is of practical importance in converting fonts defined in Metafont, which require stroking of Bézier curves, to the more widely used PostScript type 1 fonts, which only require (for efficiency purposes) the mathematically simpler operation of filling a contour defined by (non-self-intersecting) Bézier curves."
],
[
"Degree elevation",
"A Bézier curve of degree ''n'' can be converted into a Bézier curve of degree ''n'' + 1 ''with the same shape''.",
"This is useful if software supports Bézier curves only of specific degree.",
"For example, systems that can only work with cubic Bézier curves can implicitly work with quadratic curves by using their equivalent cubic representation.To do degree elevation, we use the equality Each component is multiplied by (1 − ''t'') and ''t'', thus increasing a degree by one, without changing the value.",
"Here is the example of increasing degree from 2 to 3.:In other words, the original start and end points are unchanged.",
"The new control points are and .For arbitrary ''n'' we use equalities:Therefore::introducing arbitrary and .Therefore, new control points are: ===Repeated degree elevation===The concept of degree elevation can be repeated on a control polygon '''R''' to get a sequence of control polygons '''R''', '''R'''1, '''R'''2, and so on.",
"After ''r'' degree elevations, the polygon '''R'''''r'' has the vertices '''P'''0,''r'', '''P'''1,''r'', '''P'''2,''r'', ..., '''P'''''n''+''r'',''r'' given by :It can also be shown that for the underlying Bézier curve ''B'',:===Degree reduction===Degree reduction can only be done exactly when the curve in question is originally elevated from a lower degree.",
"A number of approximation algorithms have been proposed and used in practice."
],
[
"Rational Bézier curves",
"Segments of conic sections represented exactly by rational Bézier curvesThe rational Bézier curve adds adjustable weights to provide closer approximations to arbitrary shapes.",
"The numerator is a weighted Bernstein-form Bézier curve and the denominator is a weighted sum of Bernstein polynomials.",
"Rational Bézier curves can, among other uses, be used to represent segments of conic sections exactly, including circular arcs.Given ''n'' + 1 control points '''P'''0, ..., '''P'''''n'', the rational Bézier curve can be described by:or simply:The expression can be extended by using number systems besides reals for the weights.",
"In the complex plane the points {1}, {-1}, and {1} with weights {}, {1}, and {} generate a full circle with radius one.",
"For curves with points and weights on a circle, the weights can be scaled without changing the curve's shape.",
"Scaling the central weight of the above curve by 1.35508 gives a more uniform parameterization."
],
[
"Applications",
"===Computer graphics===Bézier path in Adobe Illustrator Bézier curves are widely used in computer graphics to model smooth curves.",
"As the curve is completely contained in the convex hull of its control points, the points can be graphically displayed and used to manipulate the curve intuitively.",
"Affine transformations such as translation and rotation can be applied on the curve by applying the respective transform on the control points of the curve.Quadratic and cubic Bézier curves are most common.",
"Higher degree curves are more computationally expensive to evaluate.",
"When more complex shapes are needed, low order Bézier curves are patched together, producing a composite Bézier curve.",
"A composite Bézier curve is commonly referred to as a \"path\" in vector graphics languages (like PostScript), vector graphics standards (like SVG) and vector graphics programs (like Artline, Timeworks Publisher, Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw, Inkscape, and Allegro).",
"In order to join Bézier curves into a composite Bézier curve without kinks, a property called ''G1 continuity'' suffices to force the control point at which two constituent Bézier curves meet to lie on the line defined by the two control points on either side.Abstract composition of cubic Bézier curves ray-traced in 3D.",
"Ray intersection with swept volumes along curves is calculated with Phantom Ray-Hair Intersector algorithm.The simplest method for scan converting (rasterizing) a Bézier curve is to evaluate it at many closely spaced points and scan convert the approximating sequence of line segments.",
"However, this does not guarantee that the rasterized output looks sufficiently smooth, because the points may be spaced too far apart.",
"Conversely it may generate too many points in areas where the curve is close to linear.",
"A common adaptive method is recursive subdivision, in which a curve's control points are checked to see if the curve approximates a line to within a small tolerance.",
"If not, the curve is subdivided parametrically into two segments, 0 ≤ ''t'' ≤ 0.5 and 0.5 ≤ ''t'' ≤ 1, and the same procedure is applied recursively to each half.",
"There are also forward differencing methods, but great care must be taken to analyse error propagation.Analytical methods where a Bézier is intersected with each scan line involve finding roots of cubic polynomials (for cubic Béziers) and dealing with multiple roots, so they are not often used in practice.The rasterisation algorithm used in Metafont is based on discretising the curve, so that it is approximated by a sequence of \"rook moves\" that are purely vertical or purely horizontal, along the pixel boundaries.",
"To that end, the plane is first split into eight 45° sectors (by the coordinate axes and the two lines ), then the curve is decomposed into smaller segments such that the ''direction'' of a curve segment stays within one sector; since the curve velocity is a second degree polynomial, finding the values where it is parallel to one of these lines can be done by solving quadratic equations.",
"Within each segment, either horizontal or vertical movement dominates, and the total number of steps in either direction can be read off from the endpoint coordinates; in for example the 0–45° sector horizontal movement to the right dominates, so it only remains to decide between which steps to the right the curve should make a step up.There is also a modified curve form of Bresenham's line drawing algorithm by Zingl that performs this rasterization by subdividing the curve into rational pieces and calculating the error at each pixel location such that it either travels at a 45° angle or straight depending on compounding error as it iterates through the curve.",
"This reduces the next step calculation to a series of integer additions and subtractions.===Animation===In animation applications, such as Adobe Flash and Synfig, Bézier curves are used to outline, for example, movement.",
"Users outline the wanted path in Bézier curves, and the application creates the needed frames for the object to move along the path.In 3D animation, Bézier curves are often used to define 3D paths as well as 2D curves for keyframe interpolation.",
"Bézier curves are now very frequently used to control the animation easing in CSS, JavaScript, JavaFx and Flutter SDK.===Fonts===TrueType fonts use composite Bézier curves composed of '''quadratic''' Bézier curves.",
"Other languages and imaging tools (such as PostScript, Asymptote, Metafont, and SVG) use composite Béziers composed of '''cubic''' Bézier curves for drawing curved shapes.",
"OpenType fonts can use either kind of curve, depending on which font technology underlies the OpenType wrapper.Font engines, like FreeType, draw the font's curves (and lines) on a pixellated surface using a process known as font rasterization.",
"Typically font engines and vector graphics engines render Bézier curves by splitting them recursively up to the point where the curve is flat enough to be drawn as a series of linear or circular segments.",
"The exact splitting algorithm is implementation dependent, only the flatness criteria must be respected to reach the necessary precision and to avoid non-monotonic local changes of curvature.",
"The \"smooth curve\" feature of charts in Microsoft Excel also uses this algorithm.Because arcs of circles and ellipses cannot be exactly represented by Bézier curves, they are first approximated by Bézier curves, which are in turn approximated by arcs of circles.",
"This is inefficient as there exists also approximations of all Bézier curves using arcs of circles or ellipses, which can be rendered incrementally with arbitrary precision.",
"Another approach, used by modern hardware graphics adapters with accelerated geometry, can convert exactly all Bézier and conic curves (or surfaces) into NURBS, that can be rendered incrementally without first splitting the curve recursively to reach the necessary flatness condition.",
"This approach also preserves the curve definition under all linear or perspective 2D and 3D transforms and projections.===Robotics===Because the control polygon allows to tell whether or not the path collides with any obstacles, Bézier curves are used in producing trajectories of the end effectors.",
"Furthermore, joint space trajectories can be accurately differentiated using Bézier curves.",
"Consequently, the derivatives of joint space trajectories are used in the calculation of the dynamics and control effort (torque profiles) of the robotic manipulator."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bézier surface* B-spline* GEM/4 and GEM/5* Hermite curve* NURBS* String art – Bézier curves are also formed by many common forms of string art, where strings are looped across a frame of nails.",
"* Variation diminishing property of Bézier curves"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Sources===* * * Excellent discussion of implementation details; available for free as part of the TeX distribution.",
"* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* A Primer on Bézier Curves an open source online book explaining Bézier curves and associated graphics algorithms, with interactive graphics* Cubic Bezier Curves – Under the Hood (video) video showing how computers render a cubic Bézier curve, by Peter Nowell* From Bézier to Bernstein Feature Column from American Mathematical Society* * * This book is out of print and freely available from the author.",
"* * * (60 pages)* * * * Hovey, Chad (2022).",
"Formulation and Python Implementation of Bézier and B-Spline Geometry.",
"SAND2022-7702C.",
"(153 pages)"
],
[
"External links",
"; Computer code* TinySpline: Open source C-library for NURBS, B-splines and Bézier curves with bindings for various languages* C++ library to generate Bézier functions at compile time* Simple Bézier curve implementation via recursive method in Python"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Banach algebra"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematics, especially functional analysis, a '''Banach algebra''', named after Stefan Banach, is an associative algebra over the real or complex numbers (or over a non-Archimedean complete normed field) that at the same time is also a Banach space, that is, a normed space that is complete in the metric induced by the norm.",
"The norm is required to satisfyThis ensures that the multiplication operation is continuous.A Banach algebra is called ''unital'' if it has an identity element for the multiplication whose norm is and ''commutative'' if its multiplication is commutative.Any Banach algebra (whether it has an identity element or not) can be embedded isometrically into a unital Banach algebra so as to form a closed ideal of .",
"Often one assumes ''a priori'' that the algebra under consideration is unital: for one can develop much of the theory by considering and then applying the outcome in the original algebra.",
"However, this is not the case all the time.",
"For example, one cannot define all the trigonometric functions in a Banach algebra without identity.The theory of real Banach algebras can be very different from the theory of complex Banach algebras.",
"For example, the spectrum of an element of a nontrivial complex Banach algebra can never be empty, whereas in a real Banach algebra it could be empty for some elements.Banach algebras can also be defined over fields of -adic numbers.",
"This is part of -adic analysis."
],
[
"Examples",
"The prototypical example of a Banach algebra is , the space of (complex-valued) continuous functions, defined on a locally compact Hausdorff space , that vanish at infinity.",
"is unital if and only if is compact.",
"The complex conjugation being an involution, is in fact a C*-algebra.",
"More generally, every C*-algebra is a Banach algebra by definition.",
"* The set of real (or complex) numbers is a Banach algebra with norm given by the absolute value.",
"* The set of all real or complex -by- matrices becomes a unital Banach algebra if we equip it with a sub-multiplicative matrix norm.",
"* Take the Banach space (or ) with norm and define multiplication componentwise: * The quaternions form a 4-dimensional real Banach algebra, with the norm being given by the absolute value of quaternions.",
"* The algebra of all bounded real- or complex-valued functions defined on some set (with pointwise multiplication and the supremum norm) is a unital Banach algebra.",
"* The algebra of all bounded continuous real- or complex-valued functions on some locally compact space (again with pointwise operations and supremum norm) is a Banach algebra.",
"* The algebra of all continuous linear operators on a Banach space (with functional composition as multiplication and the operator norm as norm) is a unital Banach algebra.",
"The set of all compact operators on is a Banach algebra and closed ideal.",
"It is without identity if * If is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and is its Haar measure, then the Banach space of all -integrable functions on becomes a Banach algebra under the convolution for * Uniform algebra: A Banach algebra that is a subalgebra of the complex algebra with the supremum norm and that contains the constants and separates the points of (which must be a compact Hausdorff space).",
"* Natural Banach function algebra: A uniform algebra all of whose characters are evaluations at points of * C*-algebra: A Banach algebra that is a closed *-subalgebra of the algebra of bounded operators on some Hilbert space.",
"* Measure algebra: A Banach algebra consisting of all Radon measures on some locally compact group, where the product of two measures is given by convolution of measures.",
"* The algebra of the quaternions is a real Banach algebra, but it is not a complex algebra (and hence not a complex Banach algebra) for the simple reason that the center of the quaternions is the real numbers, which cannot contain a copy of the complex numbers.",
"* An affinoid algebra is a certain kind of Banach algebra over a nonarchimedean field.",
"Affinoid algebras are the basic building blocks in rigid analytic geometry."
],
[
"Properties",
"Several elementary functions that are defined via power series may be defined in any unital Banach algebra; examples include the exponential function and the trigonometric functions, and more generally any entire function.",
"(In particular, the exponential map can be used to define abstract index groups.)",
"The formula for the geometric series remains valid in general unital Banach algebras.",
"The binomial theorem also holds for two commuting elements of a Banach algebra.The set of invertible elements in any unital Banach algebra is an open set, and the inversion operation on this set is continuous (and hence is a homeomorphism), so that it forms a topological group under multiplication.If a Banach algebra has unit then cannot be a commutator; that is, for any This is because and have the same spectrum except possibly The various algebras of functions given in the examples above have very different properties from standard examples of algebras such as the reals.",
"For example:* Every real Banach algebra that is a division algebra is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.",
"Hence, the only complex Banach algebra that is a division algebra is the complexes.",
"(This is known as the Gelfand–Mazur theorem.",
")* Every unital real Banach algebra with no zero divisors, and in which every principal ideal is closed, is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.",
"* Every commutative real unital Noetherian Banach algebra with no zero divisors is isomorphic to the real or complex numbers.",
"* Every commutative real unital Noetherian Banach algebra (possibly having zero divisors) is finite-dimensional.",
"* Permanently singular elements in Banach algebras are topological divisors of zero, that is, considering extensions of Banach algebras some elements that are singular in the given algebra have a multiplicative inverse element in a Banach algebra extension Topological divisors of zero in are permanently singular in any Banach extension of"
],
[
"Spectral theory",
"Unital Banach algebras over the complex field provide a general setting to develop spectral theory.",
"The ''spectrum'' of an element denoted by , consists of all those complex scalars such that is not invertible in The spectrum of any element is a closed subset of the closed disc in with radius and center and thus is compact.",
"Moreover, the spectrum of an element is non-empty and satisfies the spectral radius formula:Given the holomorphic functional calculus allows to define for any function holomorphic in a neighborhood of Furthermore, the spectral mapping theorem holds:When the Banach algebra is the algebra of bounded linear operators on a complex Banach space (for example, the algebra of square matrices), the notion of the spectrum in coincides with the usual one in operator theory.",
"For (with a compact Hausdorff space ), one sees that:The norm of a normal element of a C*-algebra coincides with its spectral radius.",
"This generalizes an analogous fact for normal operators.Let be a complex unital Banach algebra in which every non-zero element is invertible (a division algebra).",
"For every there is such that is not invertible (because the spectrum of is not empty) hence this algebra is naturally isomorphic to (the complex case of the Gelfand–Mazur theorem)."
],
[
"Ideals and characters",
"Let be a unital ''commutative'' Banach algebra over Since is then a commutative ring with unit, every non-invertible element of belongs to some maximal ideal of Since a maximal ideal in is closed, is a Banach algebra that is a field, and it follows from the Gelfand–Mazur theorem that there is a bijection between the set of all maximal ideals of and the set of all nonzero homomorphisms from to The set is called the \"structure space\" or \"character space\" of and its members \"characters\".A character is a linear functional on that is at the same time multiplicative, and satisfies Every character is automatically continuous from to since the kernel of a character is a maximal ideal, which is closed.",
"Moreover, the norm (that is, operator norm) of a character is one.",
"Equipped with the topology of pointwise convergence on (that is, the topology induced by the weak-* topology of ), the character space, is a Hausdorff compact space.For any where is the Gelfand representation of defined as follows: is the continuous function from to given by The spectrum of in the formula above, is the spectrum as element of the algebra of complex continuous functions on the compact space Explicitly,As an algebra, a unital commutative Banach algebra is semisimple (that is, its Jacobson radical is zero) if and only if its Gelfand representation has trivial kernel.",
"An important example of such an algebra is a commutative C*-algebra.",
"In fact, when is a commutative unital C*-algebra, the Gelfand representation is then an isometric *-isomorphism between and"
],
[
"Banach *-algebras",
"A Banach *-algebra is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map that has the following properties:# for all (so the map is an involution).# for all # for every and every here, denotes the complex conjugate of # for all In other words, a Banach *-algebra is a Banach algebra over that is also a *-algebra.In most natural examples, one also has that the involution is isometric, that is, Some authors include this isometric property in the definition of a Banach *-algebra.A Banach *-algebra satisfying is a C*-algebra."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * *"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boris Pasternak"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Boris Leonidovich Pasternak''' (; ; 30 May 1960) was a Russian poet, novelist, composer, and literary translator.Composed in 1917, Pasternak's first book of poems, ''My Sister, Life'', was published in Berlin in 1922 and soon became an important collection in the Russian language.",
"Pasternak's translations of stage plays by Goethe, Schiller, Calderón de la Barca and Shakespeare remain very popular with Russian audiences.Pasternak was the author of ''Doctor Zhivago'' (1957), a novel that takes place between the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the Second World War.",
"''Doctor Zhivago'' was rejected for publication in the USSR, but the manuscript was smuggled to Italy and was first published there in 1957.Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1958, an event that enraged the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which forced him to decline the prize.",
"In 1989, Pasternak's son Yevgeny finally accepted the award on his father's behalf.",
"''Doctor Zhivago'' has been part of the main Russian school curriculum since 2003."
],
[
"Early life",
"Boris (left) with his brother Alex; painting by their father, Leonid PasternakPasternak was born in Moscow on 10 February (Gregorian), 1890 (29 January, Julian) into a wealthy, assimilated Jewish family.",
"His father was the post-Impressionist painter Leonid Pasternak, who taught as a professor at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture.",
"His mother was Rosa Kaufman, a concert pianist and the daughter of Odessa industrialist Isadore Kaufman and his wife.",
"Pasternak had a younger brother, Alex, and two sisters, Lydia and Josephine.",
"The family claimed descent on the paternal line from Isaac Abarbanel, the famous 15th-century Sephardic Jewish philosopher, Bible commentator, and treasurer of Portugal.=== Early education ===From 1904 to 1907, Boris Pasternak was the cloister-mate of Peter Minchakievich (1890–1963) in Holy Dormition Pochayev Lavra (now in Ukraine).",
"Minchakievich came from an Orthodox Ukrainian family and Pasternak came from a Jewish family.",
"Some confusion has arisen as to Pasternak attending a military academy in his boyhood years.",
"The uniforms of their monastery Cadet Corp were only similar to those of The Czar Alexander the Third Military Academy, as Pasternak and Minchakievich never attended any military academy.",
"Most schools used a distinctive military-looking uniform particular to them as was the custom of the time in Eastern Europe and Russia.",
"Boyhood friends, they parted in 1908, friendly but with different politics, never to see each other again.",
"Pasternak went to the Moscow Conservatory to study music (later Germany to study philosophy), and Minchakievich went to Lvov University to study history and philosophy.",
"The good dimension of the character Strelnikov in ''Dr.",
"Zhivago'' is based upon Peter Minchakievich.",
"Several of Pasternak's characters are composites.",
"After World War One and the Revolution, fighting for the Provisional or Republican government under Kerensky, and then escaping a Communist jail and execution, Minchakievich trekked across Siberia in 1917 and became an American citizen.",
"Pasternak stayed in Russia.In a 1959 letter to Jacqueline de Proyart, Pasternak recalled:Shortly after his birth, Pasternak's parents had joined the Tolstoyan Movement.",
"Novelist Leo Tolstoy was a close family friend, as Pasternak recalled, \"my father illustrated his books, went to see him, revered him, and ...the whole house was imbued with his spirit.",
"\"Pasternak c. 1908In a 1956 essay, Pasternak recalled his father's feverish work creating illustrations for Tolstoy's novel ''Resurrection''.",
"The novel was serialized in the journal ''Niva'' by the publisher Fyodor Marx, based in St Petersburg.",
"The sketches were drawn from observations in such places as courtrooms, prisons and on trains, in a spirit of realism.",
"To ensure that the sketches met the journal deadline, train conductors were enlisted to personally collect the illustrations.",
"Pasternak wrote,According to Max Hayward, \"In November 1910, when Tolstoy fled from his home and died in the stationmaster's house at Astapovo, Leonid Pasternak was informed by telegram and he went there immediately, taking his son Boris with him, and made a drawing of Tolstoy on his deathbed.",
"\"Regular visitors to the Pasternaks' home also included Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Scriabin, Lev Shestov, Rainer Maria Rilke.",
"Pasternak aspired first to be a musician.",
"Inspired by Scriabin, Pasternak briefly was a student at the Moscow Conservatory.",
"In 1910 he abruptly left for the University of Marburg in Germany, where he studied under neo-Kantian philosophers Hermann Cohen, Nicolai Hartmann and Paul Natorp."
],
[
"Life and career",
"=== Olga Freidenberg ===In 1910 Pasternak was reunited with his cousin Olga Freidenberg (1890–1955).",
"They had shared the same nursery but been separated when the Freidenberg family moved to Saint Petersburg.",
"They fell in love immediately but were never lovers.",
"The romance, however, is made clear from their letters, Pasternak writing:You do not know how my tormenting feeling grew and grew until it became obvious to me and to others.",
"As you walked beside me with complete detachment, I could not express it to you.",
"It was a rare sort of closeness, as if we two, you and I, were in love with something that was utterly indifferent to both of us, something that remained aloof from us by virtue of its extraordinary inability to adapt to the other side of life.The cousins' initial passion developed into a lifelong close friendship.",
"From 1910 Pasternak and Freidenberg exchanged frequent letters, and their correspondence lasted over 40 years until 1954.The cousins last met in 1936.=== Ida Wissotzkaya ===''Boris Pasternak in 1910,'' by his father Leonid PasternakPasternak fell in love with Ida Wissotzkaya, a girl from a notable Moscow Jewish family of tea merchants, whose company Wissotzky Tea was the largest tea company in the world.",
"Pasternak had tutored her in the final class of high school.",
"He helped her prepare for finals.",
"They met in Marburg during the summer of 1912 when Boris' father, Leonid Pasternak, painted her portrait.Although Professor Cohen encouraged him to remain in Germany and to pursue a Philosophy doctorate, Pasternak decided against it.",
"He returned to Moscow around the time of the outbreak of the First World War.",
"In the aftermath of events, Pasternak proposed marriage to Ida.",
"However, the Wissotzky family was disturbed by Pasternak's poor prospects and persuaded Ida to refuse him.",
"She turned him down and he told of his love and rejection in the poem \"Marburg\" (1917):I quivered.",
"I flared up, and then was extinguished.I shook.",
"I had made a proposal—but late,Too late.",
"I was scared, and she had refused me.I pity her tears, am more blessed than a saint.Around this time, when he was back in Russia, he joined the Russian Futurist group Centrifuge (Tsentrifuga) as a pianist: poetry was just a hobby for him then.",
"It was in their group journal, ''Lirika'', where some of his earliest poems were published.",
"His involvement with the Futurist movement as a whole reached its peak when, in 1914, he published a satirical article in ''Rukonog'', which attacked the jealous leader of the \"Mezzanine of Poetry\", Vadim Shershenevich, who was criticizing ''Lirika'' and the Ego-Futurists because Shershenevich himself was barred from collaborating with Centrifuge, the reason being that he was such a talentless poet.",
"The action eventually caused a verbal battle amongst several members of the groups, fighting for recognition as the first, truest Russian Futurists; these included the Cubo-Futurists, who were by that time already notorious for their scandalous behaviour.",
"Pasternak's first and second books of poetry were published shortly after these events.Another failed love affair in 1917 inspired the poems in his third and first major book, ''My Sister, Life''.",
"His early verse cleverly dissimulates his preoccupation with Immanuel Kant's philosophy.",
"Its fabric includes striking alliterations, wild rhythmic combinations, day-to-day vocabulary, and hidden allusions to his favourite poets such as Rilke, Lermontov, Pushkin and German-language Romantic poets.During World War I, Pasternak taught and worked at a chemical factory in Vsevolodo-Vilva near Perm, which undoubtedly provided him with material for ''Dr.",
"Zhivago'' many years later.",
"Unlike the rest of his family and many of his closest friends, Pasternak chose not to leave Russia after the October Revolution of 1917.According to Max Hayward,Pasternak (second from left) in 1924, with friends including Lilya Brik, Sergei Eisenstein (third from left) and Vladimir Mayakovsky (centre)When it finally was published in 1922, Pasternak's ''My Sister, Life'' revolutionised Russian poetry.",
"It made Pasternak the model for younger poets, and decisively changed the poetry of Osip Mandelshtam, Marina Tsvetayeva and others.Following ''My Sister, Life'', Pasternak produced some hermetic pieces of uneven quality, including his masterpiece, the lyric cycle ''Rupture'' (1921).",
"Both Pro-Soviet writers and their White émigré equivalents applauded Pasternak's poetry as pure, unbridled inspiration.In the late 1920s, he also participated in the much celebrated tripartite correspondence with Rilke and Tsvetayeva.",
"As the 1920s wore on, however, Pasternak increasingly felt that his colourful style was at odds with a less educated readership.",
"He attempted to make his poetry more comprehensible by reworking his earlier pieces and starting two lengthy poems on the Russian Revolution of 1905.He also turned to prose and wrote several autobiographical stories, notably \"The Childhood of Luvers\" and \"Safe Conduct\".",
"(The collection ''Zhenia's Childhood and Other Stories'' would be published in 1982.",
")Pasternak with Evgeniya Lurye and sonIn 1922 Pasternak married Evgeniya Lurye (Евгения Лурье), a student at the Art Institute.",
"The following year their son Yevgenii was born.Evidence of Pasternak's support of still-revolutionary members of the leadership of the Communist Party as late as 1926 is indicated by his poem \"In Memory of Reissner\" presumably written upon the premature death from typhus of Bolshevik leader Larisa Reisner aged 30 in February of that year.By 1927, Pasternak's close friends Vladimir Mayakovsky and Nikolai Aseyev were advocating the complete subordination of the arts to the needs of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.",
"In a letter to his sister Josephine, Pasternak wrote of his intentions to \"break off relations\" with both of them.",
"Although he expressed that it would be deeply painful, Pasternak explained that it could not be prevented.",
"He explained:By 1932, Pasternak had strikingly reshaped his style to make it more understandable to the general public and printed the new collection of poems, aptly titled ''The Second Birth''.",
"Although its Caucasian pieces were as brilliant as the earlier efforts, the book alienated the core of Pasternak's refined audience abroad, which was largely composed of anti-communist émigrés.In 1932 Pasternak fell in love with Zinaida Neuhaus, the wife of the Russian pianist Heinrich Neuhaus.",
"They both got divorces and married two years later.He continued to change his poetry, simplifying his style and language through the years, as expressed in his next book, ''Early Trains'' (1943).===Stalin Epigram===In April 1934 Osip Mandelstam recited his \"Stalin Epigram\" to Pasternak.",
"After listening, Pasternak told Mandelstam: \"I didn't hear this, you didn't recite it to me, because, you know, very strange and terrible things are happening now: they've begun to pick people up.",
"I'm afraid the walls have ears and perhaps even these benches on the boulevard here may be able to listen and tell tales.",
"So let's make out that I heard nothing.",
"\"On the night of 14 May 1934, Mandelstam was arrested at his home based on a warrant signed by NKVD boss Genrikh Yagoda.",
"Devastated, Pasternak went immediately to the offices of ''Izvestia'' and begged Nikolai Bukharin to intercede on Mandelstam's behalf.Soon after his meeting with Bukharin, the telephone rang in Pasternak's Moscow apartment.",
"A voice from the Kremlin said, \"Comrade Stalin wishes to speak with you.\"",
"According to Ivinskaya, Pasternak was struck dumb.",
"\"He was totally unprepared for such a conversation.",
"But then he heard ''his'' voice, the voice of Stalin, coming over the line.",
"The Leader addressed him in a rather bluff uncouth fashion, using the familiar ''thou'' form: 'Tell me, what are they saying in your literary circles about the arrest of Mandelstam?",
"Flustered, Pasternak denied that there was any discussion or that there were any literary circles left in Soviet Russia.",
"Stalin went on to ask him for his own opinion of Mandelstam.",
"In an \"eager fumbling manner\" Pasternak explained that he and Mandelstam each had a completely different philosophy about poetry.",
"Stalin finally said, in a mocking tone of voice: \"I see, you just aren't able to stick up for a comrade\", and put down the receiver.===Great Purge===According to Pasternak, during the 1937 show trial of General Iona Yakir and Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky, the Union of Soviet Writers requested all members to add their names to a statement supporting the death penalty for the defendants.",
"Pasternak refused to sign, even after leadership of the Union visited and threatened him.Soon after, Pasternak appealed directly to Stalin, describing his family's strong Tolstoyan convictions and putting his own life at Stalin's disposal; he said that he could not stand as a self-appointed judge of life and death.",
"Pasternak was certain that he would be arrested, but instead Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off an execution list, reportedly declaring, \"Do not touch this cloud dweller\" (or, in another version, \"Leave that holy fool alone!",
"\").Pasternak's close friend Titsian Tabidze did fall victim to the Great Purge.",
"In an autobiographical essay published in the 1950s, Pasternak described the execution of Tabidze and the suicides of Marina Tsvetaeva and Paolo Iashvili.Ivinskaya wrote, \"I believe that between Stalin and Pasternak there was an incredible, silent duel.",
"\"===World War II===When the Luftwaffe began bombing Moscow, Pasternak immediately began to serve as a fire warden on the roof of the writer's building on Lavrushinski Street.",
"According to Ivinskaya, he repeatedly helped to dispose of German bombs which fell on it.In 1943, Pasternak was finally granted permission to visit the soldiers at the front.",
"He bore it well, considering the hardships of the journey (he had a weak leg from an old injury), and he wanted to go to the most dangerous places.",
"He read his poetry and talked extensively with the active and injured troops.Pasternak later said, \"If, in a bad dream, we had seen all the horrors in store for us after the war, we should not have been sorry to see Stalin fall, together with Hitler.",
"Then, an end to the war in favour of our allies, civilized countries with democratic traditions, would have meant a hundred times less suffering for our people than that which Stalin again inflicted on it after his victory.",
"\"===Olga Ivinskaya===In October 1946, the twice-married Pasternak met Olga Ivinskaya, a 34 year old single mother employed by ''Novy Mir''.",
"Deeply moved by her resemblance to his first love Ida Vysotskaya, Pasternak gave Ivinskaya several volumes of his poetry and literary translations.",
"Although Pasternak never left his wife Zinaida, he started an extramarital relationship with Ivinskaya that would last for the remainder of Pasternak's life.",
"Ivinskaya later recalled, \"He phoned almost every day and, instinctively fearing to meet or talk with him, yet dying of happiness, I would stammer out that I was 'busy today.'",
"But almost every afternoon, toward the end of working hours, he came in person to the office and often walked with me through the streets, boulevards, and squares all the way home to Potapov Street.",
"'Shall I make you a present of this square?'",
"he would ask.",
"\"She gave him the phone number of her neighbour Olga Volkova who resided below.",
"In the evenings, Pasternak would phone and Volkova would signal by Olga banging on the water pipe which connected their apartments.When they first met, Pasternak was translating the verse of the Hungarian national poet, Sándor Petőfi.",
"Pasternak gave his lover a book of Petőfi with the inscription, \"Petőfi served as a code in May and June 1947, and my close translations of his lyrics are an expression, adapted to the requirements of the text, of my feelings and thoughts for you and about you.",
"In memory of it all, B.P., 13 May 1948.",
"\"Pasternak later noted on a photograph of himself: \"Petőfi is magnificent with his descriptive lyrics and picture of nature, but you are better still.",
"I worked on him a good deal in 1947 and 1948, when I first came to know you.",
"Thank you for your help.",
"I was translating both of you.\"",
"Ivinskaya would later describe the Petőfi translations as \"a first declaration of love\".According to Ivinskaya, Zinaida Pasternak was infuriated by her husband's infidelity.",
"Once, when his younger son Leonid fell seriously ill, Zinaida extracted a promise from her husband, as they stood by the boy's sickbed, that he would end his affair with Ivinskaya.",
"Pasternak asked Luisa Popova, a mutual friend, to tell Ivinskaya about his promise.",
"Popova told him that he must do it himself.",
"Soon after, Ivinskaya happened to be ill at Popova's apartment, when suddenly Zinaida Pasternak arrived and confronted her.Ivinskaya later recalled,In 1948, Pasternak advised Ivinskaya to resign her job at ''Novy Mir'', which was becoming extremely difficult due to their relationship.",
"In the aftermath, Pasternak began to instruct her in translating poetry.",
"In time, they began to refer to her apartment on Potapov Street as, \"Our Shop\".On the evening of 6 October 1949, Ivinskaya was arrested at her apartment by the KGB.",
"Ivinskaya relates in her memoirs that, when the agents burst into her apartment, she was at her typewriter working on translations of the Korean poet Won Tu-Son.",
"Her apartment was ransacked and all items connected with Pasternak were piled up in her presence.",
"Ivinskaya was taken to the Lubyanka Prison and repeatedly interrogated, where she refused to say anything incriminating about Pasternak.",
"At the time, she was pregnant with Pasternak's child and had a miscarriage early in her ten-year sentence in the GULAG.Upon learning of his mistress' arrest, Pasternak telephoned Liuisa Popova and asked her to come at once to Gogol Boulevard.",
"She found him sitting on a bench near the Palace of Soviets Metro Station.",
"Weeping, Pasternak told her, \"Everything is finished now.",
"They've taken her away from me and I'll never see her again.",
"It's like death, even worse.",
"\"According to Ivinskaya, \"After this, in conversation with people he scarcely knew, he always referred to Stalin as a 'murderer.'",
"Talking with people in the offices of literary periodicals, he often asked: 'When will there be an end to this freedom for lackeys who happily walk over corpses to further their own interests?'",
"He spent a good deal of time with Akhmatova—who in those years was given a very wide berth by most of the people who knew her.",
"He worked intensively on the second part of ''Doctor Zhivago''.",
"\"In a 1958 letter to a friend in West Germany, Pasternak wrote, \"She was put in jail on my account, as the person considered by the secret police to be closest to me, and they hoped that by means of a gruelling interrogation and threats they could extract enough evidence from her to put me on trial.",
"I owe my life, and the fact that they did not touch me in those years, to her heroism and endurance.",
"\"===Translating Goethe===Pasternak's translation of the first part of ''Faust'' led him to be attacked in the August 1950 edition of ''Novy Mir''.",
"The critic accused Pasternak of distorting Goethe's \"progressive\" meanings to support \"the reactionary theory of 'pure art, as well as introducing aesthetic and individualist values.",
"In a subsequent letter to the daughter of Marina Tsvetaeva, Pasternak explained that the attack was motivated by the fact that the supernatural elements of the play, which ''Novy Mir'' considered, \"irrational\", had been translated as Goethe had written them.",
"Pasternak further declared that, despite the attacks on his translation, his contract for the second part had not been revoked.===Khrushchev thaw===When Stalin died of a stroke on 5 March 1953, Ivinskaya was still imprisoned in the Gulag, and Pasternak was in Moscow.",
"Across the nation, there were waves of panic, confusion, and public displays of grief.",
"Pasternak wrote, \"Men who are not free... always idealize their bondage.",
"\"After her release, Pasternak's relationship with Ivinskaya picked up where it had left off.",
"Soon after he confided in her, \"For so long we were ruled over by a madman and a murderer, and now by a fool and a pig.",
"The madman had his occasional flights of fancy, he had an intuitive feeling for certain things, despite his wild obscurantism.",
"Now we are ruled over by mediocrities.\"",
"During this period, Pasternak delighted in reading a clandestine copy of George Orwell's ''Animal Farm'' in English.",
"In conversation with Ivinskaya, Pasternak explained that the pig dictator Napoleon, in the novel, \"vividly reminded\" him of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev.===''Doctor Zhivago''===Pasternak, 1958Although it contains passages written in the 1910s and 1920s, ''Doctor Zhivago'' was not completed until 1955.Pasternak submitted the novel to ''Novy Mir'' in 1956, which refused publication due to its rejection of socialist realism.",
"The author, like his protagonist Yuri Zhivago, showed more concern for the welfare of individual characters than for the \"progress\" of society.",
"Censors also regarded some passages as anti-Soviet, especially the novel's criticisms of Stalinism, Collectivisation, the Great Purge, and the Gulag.Pasternak's fortunes were soon to change, however.",
"In March 1956, the Italian Communist Party sent a journalist, Sergio D'Angelo, to work in the Soviet Union, and his status as a journalist as well as his membership in the Italian Communist Party allowed him to have access to various aspects of the cultural life in Moscow at the time.",
"A Milan publisher, the communist Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, had also given him a commission to find new works of Soviet literature that would be appealing to Western audiences, and upon learning of ''Doctor Zhivago''s existence, D'Angelo travelled immediately to Peredelkino and offered to submit Pasternak's novel to Feltrinelli's company for publication.",
"At first Pasternak was stunned.",
"Then he brought the manuscript from his study and told D'Angelo with a laugh, \"You are hereby invited to watch me face the firing squad.",
"\"According to Lazar Fleishman, Pasternak was aware that he was taking a huge risk.",
"No Soviet author had attempted to deal with Western publishers since the 1920s, when such behavior led the Soviet State to declare war on Boris Pilnyak and Evgeny Zamyatin.",
"Pasternak, however, believed that Feltrinelli's Communist affiliation would not only guarantee publication, but might even force the Soviet State to publish the novel in Russia.In a rare moment of agreement, both Olga Ivinskaya and Zinaida Pasternak were horrified by the submission of ''Doctor Zhivago'' to a Western publishing house.",
"Pasternak, however, refused to change his mind and informed an emissary from Feltrinelli that he was prepared to undergo any sacrifice in order to see ''Doctor Zhivago'' published.In 1957, Feltrinelli announced that the novel would be published by his company.",
"Despite repeated demands from visiting Soviet emissaries, Feltrinelli refused to cancel or delay publication.",
"According to Ivinskaya, \"He did not believe that we would ever publish the manuscript here and felt he had no right to withhold a masterpiece from the world – this would be an even greater crime.\"",
"The Soviet government forced Pasternak to cable the publisher to withdraw the manuscript, but he sent separate, secret letters advising Feltrinelli to ignore the telegrams.Helped considerably by the Soviet campaign against the novel (as well as by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's secret purchase of hundreds of copies of the book as it came off the presses around the world – see \"Nobel Prize\" section below), ''Doctor Zhivago'' became an instant sensation throughout the non-Communist world upon its release in November 1957.In the State of Israel, however, Pasternak's novel was sharply criticized for its assimilationist views towards the Jewish people.",
"When informed of this, Pasternak responded, \"No matter.",
"I am above race...\" According to Lazar Fleishman, Pasternak had written the disputed passages prior to Israeli independence.",
"At the time, Pasternak had also been regularly attending Russian Orthodox Divine Liturgy.",
"Therefore, he believed that Soviet Jews converting to Christianity was preferable to assimilating into atheism and Stalinism.The first English translation of ''Doctor Zhivago'' was hastily produced by Max Hayward and Manya Harari in order to coincide with overwhelming public demand.",
"It was released in August 1958, and remained the only edition available for more than fifty years.",
"Between 1958 and 1959, the English language edition spent 26 weeks at the top of ''The New York Times''' bestseller list.Ivinskaya's daughter Irina circulated typed copies of the novel in Samizdat.",
"Although no Soviet critics had read the banned novel, ''Doctor Zhivago'' was pilloried in the State-owned press.",
"Similar attacks led to a humorous Russian saying, \"I haven't read Pasternak, but I condemn him\".During the aftermath of the Second World War, Pasternak had composed a series of poems on Gospel themes.",
"According to Ivinskaya, Pasternak had regarded Stalin as a \"giant of the pre-Christian era.\"",
"Therefore, Pasternak's decision to write Christian poetry was \"a form of protest\".On 9 September 1958, the ''Literary Gazette'' critic Viktor Pertsov retaliated by denouncing \"the decadent religious poetry of Pasternak, which reeks of mothballs from the Symbolist suitcase of 1908–10 manufacture.\"",
"Furthermore, the author received much hate mail from Communists both at home and abroad.",
"According to Ivinskaya, Pasternak continued to receive such letters for the remainder of his life.In a letter written to his sister Josephine, however, Pasternak recalled the words of his friend Ekaterina Krashennikova upon reading ''Doctor Zhivago''.",
"She had said, \"Don't forget yourself to the point of believing that it was you who wrote this work.",
"It was the Russian people and their sufferings who created it.",
"Thank God for having expressed it through your pen.",
"\"===Nobel Prize===According to Yevgeni Borisovich Pasternak, \"Rumors that Pasternak was to receive the Nobel Prize started right after the end of World War II.",
"According to the former Nobel Committee head Lars Gyllensten, his nomination was discussed every year from 1946 to 1950, then again in 1957 (it was finally awarded in 1958).",
"Pasternak guessed at this from the growing waves of criticism in USSR.",
"Sometimes he had to justify his European fame: 'According to the Union of Soviet Writers, some literature circles of the West see unusual importance in my work, not matching its modesty and low productivity…'Meanwhile, Pasternak wrote to Renate Schweitzer and his sister, Lydia Pasternak Slater.",
"In both letters, the author expressed hope that he would be passed over by the Nobel Committee in favour of Alberto Moravia.",
"Pasternak wrote that he was wracked with torments and anxieties at the thought of placing his loved ones in danger.On 23 October 1958, Boris Pasternak was announced as the winner of the Nobel Prize.",
"The citation credited Pasternak's contribution to Russian lyric poetry and for his role in \"continuing the great Russian epic tradition.\"",
"On 25 October, Pasternak sent a telegram to the Swedish Academy: \"Infinitely grateful, touched, proud, surprised, overwhelmed.\"",
"That same day, the Literary Institute in Moscow demanded that all its students sign a petition denouncing Pasternak and his novel.",
"They were further ordered to join a \"spontaneous\" demonstration demanding Pasternak's exile from the Soviet Union.",
"Also on that day, the ''Literary Gazette'' published a letter which was sent to B. Pasternak in September 1956 by the editors of the Soviet literary journal Novy Mir to justify their rejection of Doctor Zhivago.",
"In publishing this letter the Soviet authorities wished to justify the measures they had taken against the author and his work.",
"On 26 October, the ''Literary Gazette'' ran an article by David Zaslavski entitled, ''Reactionary Propaganda Uproar over a Literary Weed''.According to Solomon Volkov:Furthermore, Pasternak was informed that, if he traveled to Stockholm to collect his Nobel Medal, he would be refused re-entry to the Soviet Union.",
"As a result, on 29 October Pasternak sent a second telegram to the Nobel Committee: \"In view of the meaning given the award by the society in which I live, I must renounce this undeserved distinction which has been conferred on me.",
"Please do not take my voluntary renunciation amiss.\"",
"The Swedish Academy announced: \"This refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award.",
"There remains only for the Academy, however, to announce with regret that the presentation of the Prize cannot take place.",
"\"According to Yevgenii Pasternak, \"I couldn't recognize my father when I saw him that evening.",
"Pale, lifeless face, tired painful eyes, and only speaking about the same thing: 'Now it all doesn't matter, I declined the Prize.===Deportation plans===Despite his decision to decline the award, the Union of Soviet Writers continued to demonise Pasternak in the State-owned press.",
"Furthermore, he was threatened at the very least with formal exile to the West.",
"In response, Pasternak wrote directly to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev,In ''The Oak and the Calf'', Alexander Solzhenitsyn sharply criticized Pasternak, both for declining the Nobel Prize and for sending such a letter to Khrushchev.",
"In her own memoirs, Olga Ivinskaya blames herself for pressuring her lover into making both decisions.According to Yevgenii Pasternak, \"She accused herself bitterly for persuading Pasternak to decline the Prize.",
"After all that had happened, open shadowing, friends turning away, Pasternak's suicidal condition at the time, one can... understand her: the memory of Stalin's camps was too fresh, and she tried to protect him.",
"\"On 31 October 1958, the Union of Soviet Writers held a trial behind closed doors.",
"According to the meeting minutes, Pasternak was denounced as an internal émigré and a Fascist fifth columnist.",
"Afterwards, the attendees announced that Pasternak had been expelled from the Union.",
"They further signed a petition to the Politburo, demanding that Pasternak be stripped of his Soviet citizenship and exiled to \"his Capitalist paradise.\"",
"According to Yevgenii Pasternak, however, author Konstantin Paustovsky refused to attend the meeting.",
"Yevgeny Yevtushenko did attend, but walked out in disgust.According to Yevgenii Pasternak, his father would have been exiled had it not been for Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who telephoned Khrushchev and threatened to organize a Committee for Pasternak's protection.It is possible that the 1958 Nobel Prize prevented Pasternak's imprisonment due to the Soviet State's fear of international protests.",
"Yevgenii Pasternak believes, however, that the resulting persecution fatally weakened his father's health.Meanwhile, Bill Mauldin produced a cartoon about Pasternak that won the 1959 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning.",
"The cartoon depicts Pasternak as a GULAG inmate splitting trees in the snow, saying to another inmate: \"I won the Nobel Prize for Literature.",
"What was your crime?",
"\"===Last years===Boris Pasternak's dacha in Peredelkino, where he lived between 1936 and 1960Pasternak at Peredelkino in 1958Pasternak at Peredelkino in 1959Pasternak's post-''Zhivago'' poetry probes the universal questions of love, immortality, and reconciliation with God.",
"Boris Pasternak wrote his last complete book, ''When the Weather Clears'', in 1959.According to Ivinskaya, Pasternak continued to stick to his daily writing schedule even during the controversy over ''Doctor Zhivago''.",
"He also continued translating the writings of Juliusz Słowacki and Pedro Calderón de la Barca.",
"In his work on Calderon, Pasternak received the discreet support of Nikolai Mikhailovich Liubimov, a senior figure in the Party's literary apparatus.",
"Ivinskaya describes Liubimov as, \"a shrewd and enlightened person who understood very well that all the mudslinging and commotion over the novel would be forgotten, but that there would always be a Pasternak.\"",
"In a letter to his sisters in Oxford, England, Pasternak claimed to have finished translating one of Calderon's plays in less than a week.During the summer of 1959, Pasternak began writing ''The Blind Beauty'', a trilogy of stage plays set before and after Alexander II's abolition of serfdom in Russia.",
"In an interview with Olga Carlisle from ''The Paris Review'', Pasternak enthusiastically described the play's plot and characters.",
"He informed Olga Carlisle that, at the end of ''The Blind Beauty'', he wished to depict \"the birth of an enlightened and affluent middle class, open to occidental influences, progressive, intelligent, artistic\".",
"However, Pasternak fell ill with terminal lung cancer before he could complete the first play of the trilogy."
],
[
"Death",
"Boris Pasternak died of lung cancer in his dacha in Peredelkino on the evening of 30 May 1960.He first summoned his sons, and in their presence said, \"Who will suffer most because of my death?",
"Who will suffer most?",
"Only Oliusha will, and I haven't had time to do anything for her.",
"The worst thing is that she will suffer.\"",
"Pasternak's last words were, \"I can't hear very well.",
"And there's a mist in front of my eyes.",
"But it will go away, won't it?",
"Don't forget to open the window tomorrow.",
"\"===Funeral demonstration===Despite only a small notice appearing in the ''Literary Gazette'', handwritten notices carrying the date and time of the funeral were posted throughout the Moscow subway system.",
"As a result, thousands of admirers braved Militia and KGB surveillance to attend Pasternak's funeral in Peredelkino.Before Pasternak's civil funeral, Ivinskaya had a conversation with Konstantin Paustovsky.",
"According to her,Then, in the presence of a large number of foreign journalists, the body of Pasternak was removed to the cemetery.",
"According to Ivinskaya,To the horror of the assembled Party officials, however, someone with \"a young and deeply anguished voice\" began reciting Pasternak's banned poem ''Hamlet''.According to Ivinskaya,The final speaker at the graveside service said,As the spectators cheered, the bells of Peredelkino's Church of the Transfiguration began to toll.",
"Written prayers for the dead were then placed upon Pasternak's forehead and the coffin was closed and buried.",
"Pasternak's gravesite would go on to become a major shrine for members of the Soviet dissident movement."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Pasternak on a 1990 Soviet stampAfter Pasternak's death, Ivinskaya was arrested for the second time, with her daughter, Irina Emelyanova.",
"Both were accused of being Pasternak's link with Western publishers and of dealing in hard currency for ''Doctor Zhivago''.",
"All of Pasternak's letters to Ivinskaya, as well as many other manuscripts and documents, were seized by the KGB.",
"The KGB quietly released them, Irina after one year, in 1962, and Olga in 1964.By this time, Ivinskaya had served four years of an eight-year sentence, in retaliation for her role in ''Doctor Zhivago'''s publication.",
"In 1978, her memoirs were smuggled abroad and published in Paris.",
"An English translation by Max Hayward was published the same year under the title ''A Captive of Time: My Years with Pasternak''.Ivinskaya was rehabilitated only in 1988.After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ivinskaya sued for the return of the letters and documents seized by the KGB in 1961.The Russian Supreme Court ultimately ruled against her, stating that \"there was no proof of ownership\" and that the \"papers should remain in the state archive\".",
"Ivinskaya died of cancer on 8 September 1995.A reporter on NTV compared her role to that of other famous muses for Russian poets: \"As Pushkin would not be complete without Anna Kern, and Yesenin would be nothing without Isadora, so Pasternak would not be Pasternak without Olga Ivinskaya, who was his inspiration for ''Doctor Zhivago''.",
"\".Meanwhile, Boris Pasternak continued to be pilloried by the Soviet State until Mikhail Gorbachev proclaimed Perestroika during the 1980s.In 1980, an asteroid was named 3508 Pasternak after Boris Pasternak.In 1988, after decades of circulating in Samizdat, ''Doctor Zhivago'' was serialized in the literary journal ''Novy Mir''.In December 1989, Yevgenii Borisovich Pasternak was permitted to travel to Stockholm in order to collect his father's Nobel Medal.",
"At the ceremony, acclaimed cellist and Soviet dissident Mstislav Rostropovich performed a Bach serenade in honor of his deceased countryman.The Pasternak family papers are stored at the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.",
"They contain correspondence, drafts of ''Doctor Zhivago'' and other writings, photographs, and other material, of Boris Pasternak and other family members.Since 2003, during the first presidency of Vladimir Putin, the novel ''Doctor Zhivago'' has entered the Russian school curriculum, where it is read in the 11th grade of secondary school.===Commemoration===In October 1984 by decision of a court, Pasternak's dacha in Peredelkino was taken from the writer's relatives and transferred to state ownership.",
"Two years later, in 1986, the House-Museum of Boris Pasternak was founded (the first house-museum in the USSR).In 1990, the year of the poet's 100th anniversary, the Pasternak Museum opened its doors in Chistopol, in the house where the poet evacuated to during the Great Patriotic War (1941–1943), and in Peredelkino, where he lived for many years until his death.",
"The head of the poet's house-museum is Natalia Pasternak, his daughter-in-law (widow of the youngest son Leonid).In 2008 a museum was opened in Vsevolodo-Vilva in the house where the budding poet lived from January to June 1916.In 2009 on the City Day in Perm the first Russian monument to Pasternak was erected in the square near the Opera Theater (sculptor: Elena Munc).Boris Pasternak Street Zoetermeer, NetherlandsA memorial plaque was installed on the house where Pasternak was born.In memory of the poet's three-time stay in Tula, on 27 May 2005 a marble memorial plaque to Pasternak was installed on the Wörmann hotel's wall, as Pasternak was a Nobel laureate and dedicated several of his works to Tula.On 20 February 2008, in Kyiv, a memorial plaque was put up on the house №9 on Lipinsky Street, but seven years later it was stolen by vandals.In 2012 a monument to Boris Pasternak was erected in the district center of Muchkapsky by Z. Tsereteli.In 1990, as part of the series \"Nobel Prize Winners\", the USSR and Sweden (\"Nobel Prize Winners – Literature\") issued stamps depicting Boris Pasternak.In 2015, as part of the series \"125th Annive.",
"of the Birth of Boris Pasternak, 1890–1960\", Mozambique issued a miniature sheet depicting Boris Pasternak.",
"Although this issue was acknowledged by the postal administration of Mozambique, the issue was not placed on sale in Mozambique, and was only distributed to the new issue trade by Mozambique's philatelic agent.In 2015, as part of the series \"125th Birth Anniversary of Boris Pasternak\", Maldives issued a miniature sheet depicting Boris Pasternak.",
"The issue was acknowledged by the Maldive postal authorities, but only distributed by the Maldive philatelic agent for collecting purposes.On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of B. Pasternak's Nobel Prize, the Principality of Monaco issued a postage stamp in his memory.On 27 January 2015, in honor of the poet's 125th birthday, the Russian Post issued an envelope with the original stamp.On 1 October 2015, a monument to Pasternak was erected in Chistopol.On 10 February 2020, a celebration of the 130th birthday anniversary was held at Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy in Moscow.On 10 February 2021, Google celebrated his 131st birthday with a Google Doodle.",
"The Doodle was displayed in Russia, Sweden, some Middle Eastern countries and some Mediterranean countries.===Cultural influence===Portrait by Yury Annenkov, 1921*A minor planet (3508 Pasternak) discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1980 is named after him.",
"*Russian-American singer and songwriter Regina Spektor recites a verse from \"Black Spring\", a 1912 poem by Pasternak in her song \"Apres Moi\" from her album ''Begin to Hope''.",
"*Russian-Dutch composer Fred Momotenko (Alfred Momotenko) wrote a companion composition to Sergej Rachmaninov's All-Night Vigil Op 37.based on the eponymous poem from the diptych Doktor Zhivago ''Na Strastnoy''===Adaptations===The first screen adaptation of ''Doctor Zhivago'', adapted by Robert Bolt and directed by David Lean, appeared in 1965.The film, which toured in the roadshow tradition, starred Omar Sharif, Geraldine Chaplin, and Julie Christie.",
"Concentrating on the love triangle aspects of the novel, the film became a worldwide blockbuster, but was unavailable in Russia until perestroika.In 2002, the novel was adapted as a television miniseries.",
"Directed by Giacomo Campiotti, the serial starred Hans Matheson, Alexandra Maria Lara, Keira Knightley, and Sam Neill.The Russian TV version of 2006, directed by Aleksandr Proshkin and starring Oleg Menshikov as Zhivago, is considered more faithful to Pasternak's novel than David Lean's 1965 film."
],
[
"Work",
"===Poetry=======Thoughts on poetry====According to Olga Ivinskaya:For this reason, Pasternak regularly avoided literary cafes where young poets regularly invited them to read their verse.",
"According to Ivinskaya, \"It was this sort of thing that moved him to say: 'Who started the idea that I love poetry?",
"I can't stand poetry.Also according to Ivinskaya, \" 'The way they could write!'",
"he once exclaimed – by 'they' he meant the Russian classics.",
"And immediately afterward, reading or, rather, glancing through some verse in the ''Literary Gazette'': 'Just look how tremendously well they've learned to rhyme!",
"But there's actually nothing there – it would be better to say it in a news bulletin.",
"What has poetry got to do with this?'",
"By 'they' in this case, he meant the poets writing today.",
"\"====Translation====Reluctant to conform to socialist realism, Pasternak turned to translation in order to provide for his family.",
"He soon produced acclaimed translations of Sándor Petőfi, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Rainer Maria Rilke, Paul Verlaine, Taras Shevchenko, and Nikoloz Baratashvili.",
"Osip Mandelstam, however, privately warned him, \"Your collected works will consist of twelve volumes of translations, and only one of your own work.",
"\"In a 1942 letter, Pasternak declared, \"I am completely opposed to contemporary ideas about translation.",
"The work of Lozinski, Radlova, Marshak, and Chukovski is alien to me, and seems artificial, soulless, and lacking in depth.",
"I share the nineteenth-century view of translation as a literary exercise demanding insight of a higher kind than that provided by a merely philological approach.",
"\"According to Ivinskaya, Pasternak believed in not being too literal in his translations, which he felt could confuse the meaning of the text.",
"He instead advocated observing each poem from afar to plumb its true depths.Pasternak's translations of William Shakespeare (''Romeo and Juliet'', ''Antony and Cleopatra'', ''Othello'', ''King Henry IV'' (Part I) and (Part II), ''Hamlet'', ''Macbeth'', ''King Lear'') remain deeply popular with Russian audiences because of their colloquial, modernised dialogues.",
"Pasternak's critics, however, accused him of \"pasternakizing\" Shakespeare.",
"In a 1956 essay, Pasternak wrote: \"Translating Shakespeare is a task which takes time and effort.",
"Once it is undertaken, it is best to divide it into sections long enough for the work to not get stale and to complete one section each day.",
"In thus daily progressing through the text, the translator finds himself reliving the circumstances of the author.",
"Day by day, he reproduces his actions and he is drawn into some of his secrets, not in theory, but practically, by experience.",
"\"According to Ivinskaya:While they were both collaborating on translating Rabindranath Tagore from Bengali into Russian, Pasternak advised Ivinskaya: \"1) Bring out the theme of the poem, its subject matter, as clearly as possible; 2) tighten up the fluid, non-European form by rhyming internally, not at the end of the lines; 3) use loose, irregular meters, mostly ternary ones.",
"You may allow yourself to use assonances.",
"\"Later, while she was collaborating with him on a translation of Vítězslav Nezval, Pasternak told Ivinskaya:According to Ivinskaya, however, translation was not a genuine vocation for Pasternak.",
"She later recalled:===Music===Boris Pasternak was also a composer, and had a promising musical career as a musician ahead of him, had he chosen to pursue it.",
"He came from a musical family: his mother was a concert pianist and a student of Anton Rubinstein and Theodor Leschetizky, and Pasternak's early impressions were of hearing piano trios in the home.",
"The family had a dacha (country house) close to one occupied by Alexander Scriabin.",
"Sergei Rachmaninoff, Rainer Maria Rilke and Leo Tolstoy were all visitors to the family home.",
"His father Leonid was a painter who produced one of the most important portraits of Scriabin, and Pasternak wrote many years later of witnessing with great excitement the creation of Scriabin's Symphony No.",
"3 (''The Divine Poem''), in 1903.Pasternak began to compose at the age of 13.The high achievements of his mother discouraged him from becoming a pianist, but – inspired by Scriabin – he entered the Moscow Conservatory, but left abruptly in 1910 at the age of twenty, to study philosophy in Marburg University.",
"Four years later he returned to Moscow, having finally decided on a career in literature, publishing his first book of poems, influenced by Aleksandr Blok and the Russian Futurists, the same year.Pasternak's early compositions show the clear influence of Scriabin.",
"His single-movement Piano Sonata of 1909 shows a more mature and individual voice.",
"Nominally in B minor, it moves freely from key to key with frequent changes of key-signature and a chromatic dissonant style that defies easy analysis.",
"Although composed during his time at the Conservatory, the Sonata was composed at Rayki, some 40 km north-east of Moscow, where Leonid Pasternak had his painting studio and taught his students."
],
[
"Selected books by Pasternak",
"===Poetry collections===*''Twin in the Clouds'' (1914)*''Over the Barriers'' (1916)*''Themes and Variations'' (1917)*''My Sister, Life'' (1922)*''Second Birth'' (1932)*''On Early Trains'' (1944)*''Selected Poems'' (1946)*''Poems'' (1954)*''When the Weather Clears'' (1959)*''In The Interlude: Poems 1945–1960'' (1962)===Books of prose===*''Safe Conduct'' (1931)*''The Last Summer'' (1934)*''Childhood'' (1941)*''Selected Writings'' (1949)*''Collected Works'' (1945)*''Goethe's Faust'' (1952)*''Essay in Autobiography'' (1956)*''Doctor Zhivago'' (1957)"
],
[
"See also",
"*List of Jewish Nobel laureates"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * .",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Conquest, Robert.",
"(1979).",
"''The Pasternak Affair: Courage of Genius :A Documentary Report.''",
"New York, NY: Octagon Books.",
"** ** *Paolo Mancosu, ''Inside the Zhivago Storm: The Editorial Adventures of Pasternak's Masterpiece,'' Milan: Feltrinelli, 2013** Mossman, Elliott (ed.)",
"(1982) ''The Correspondence of Boris Pasternak and Olga Freidenberg 1910 – 1954'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, *Peter Finn and Petra Couvee, ''The Zhivago Affair: The Kremlin, the CIA, and the Battle Over a Forbidden Book,'' New York: Pantheon Books, 2014*Paolo Mancosu, ''Zhivago's Secret Journey: From Typescript to Book,'' Stanford: Hoover Press, 2016*Anna Pasternak, ''Lara: The Untold Love Story and the Inspiration for Doctor Zhivago'', Ecco, 2017; .",
"*Paolo Mancosu, ''Moscow has Ears Everywhere: New Investigations on Pasternak and Ivinskaya,'' Stanford: Hoover Press, 2019"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Read Pasternak's interview with ''The Paris Review'' Summer-Fall 1960 No.",
"24* * Pasternak profile at Poets.org* PBS biography of Pasternak * Register of the Pasternak Family Papers at the Hoover Institution Archives* profile and images at the Pasternak Trust* pp.",
"36–39: Pasternak as a student at Marburg University, Germany* Boris Pasternak poetry* The Poems by Boris Pasternak (English)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Binomial coefficient"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The binomial coefficients can be arranged to form Pascal's triangle, in which each entry is the sum of the two immediately above.Visualisation of binomial expansion up to the 4th powerIn mathematics, the '''binomial coefficients''' are the positive integers that occur as coefficients in the binomial theorem.",
"Commonly, a binomial coefficient is indexed by a pair of integers and is written It is the coefficient of the term in the polynomial expansion of the binomial power ; this coefficient can be computed by the multiplicative formula: which using factorial notation can be compactly expressed as: For example, the fourth power of is: and the binomial coefficient is the coefficient of the term.Arranging the numbers in successive rows for gives a triangular array called Pascal's triangle, satisfying the recurrence relation: The binomial coefficients occur in many areas of mathematics, and especially in combinatorics.",
"The symbol is usually read as \" choose \" because there are ways to choose an (unordered) subset of elements from a fixed set of elements.",
"For example, there are ways to choose elements from , namely , , , , and .The binomial coefficients can be generalized to for any complex number and integer , and many of their properties continue to hold in this more general form."
],
[
"History and notation",
"Andreas von Ettingshausen introduced the notation in 1826, although the numbers were known centuries earlier (see Pascal's triangle).",
"In about 1150, the Indian mathematician Bhaskaracharya gave an exposition of binomial coefficients in his book ''Līlāvatī''.Alternative notations include , , , , , and , in all of which the stands for ''combinations'' or ''choices''.",
"Many calculators use variants of the because they can represent it on a single-line display.",
"In this form the binomial coefficients are easily compared to -permutations of , written as , etc."
],
[
"Definition and interpretations",
" 0 1 2 3 4 ⋯ 0 1 ⋯ 1 1 1 ⋯ 2 1 2 1 ⋯ 3 1 3 3 1 ⋯ 4 1 4 6 4 1 ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱The first few binomial coefficientson a left-aligned Pascal's triangleFor natural numbers (taken to include 0) ''n'' and ''k'', the binomial coefficient can be defined as the coefficient of the monomial ''X''''k'' in the expansion of .",
"The same coefficient also occurs (if ) in the binomial formula(valid for any elements ''x'', ''y'' of a commutative ring),which explains the name \"binomial coefficient\".Another occurrence of this number is in combinatorics, where it gives the number of ways, disregarding order, that objects can be chosen from among objects; more formally, the number of -element subsets (or -combinations) of an -element set.",
"This number can be seen as equal to the one of the first definition, independently of any of the formulas below to compute it: if in each of the factors of the power one temporarily labels the term with an index (running from to ), then each subset of indices gives after expansion a contribution , and the coefficient of that monomial in the result will be the number of such subsets.",
"This shows in particular that is a natural number for any natural numbers and .",
"There are many other combinatorial interpretations of binomial coefficients (counting problems for which the answer is given by a binomial coefficient expression), for instance the number of words formed of bits (digits 0 or 1) whose sum is is given by , while the number of ways to write where every is a nonnegative integer is given by .",
"Most of these interpretations can be shown to be equivalent to counting -combinations."
],
[
"Computing the value of binomial coefficients",
"Several methods exist to compute the value of without actually expanding a binomial power or counting -combinations.=== Recursive formula ===One method uses the recursive, purely additive formula for all integers such that with boundary valuesfor all integers .The formula follows from considering the set and counting separately (a) the -element groupings that include a particular set element, say \"\", in every group (since \"\" is already chosen to fill one spot in every group, we need only choose from the remaining ) and (b) all the ''k''-groupings that don't include \"\"; this enumerates all the possible -combinations of elements.",
"It also follows from tracing the contributions to ''X''''k'' in .",
"As there is zero or in , one might extend the definition beyond the above boundaries to include when either or .",
"This recursive formula then allows the construction of Pascal's triangle, surrounded by white spaces where the zeros, or the trivial coefficients, would be.=== Multiplicative formula ===A more efficient method to compute individual binomial coefficients is given by the formulawhere the numerator of the first fraction is expressed as a falling factorial power.This formula is easiest to understand for the combinatorial interpretation of binomial coefficients.The numerator gives the number of ways to select a sequence of distinct objects, retaining the order of selection, from a set of objects.",
"The denominator counts the number of distinct sequences that define the same -combination when order is disregarded.Due to the symmetry of the binomial coefficient with regard to and , calculation may be optimised by setting the upper limit of the product above to the smaller of and .=== Factorial formula ===Finally, though computationally unsuitable, there is the compact form, often used in proofs and derivations, which makes repeated use of the familiar factorial function:where denotes the factorial of .",
"This formula follows from the multiplicative formula above by multiplying numerator and denominator by ; as a consequence it involves many factors common to numerator and denominator.",
"It is less practical for explicit computation (in the case that is small and is large) unless common factors are first cancelled (in particular since factorial values grow very rapidly).",
"The formula does exhibit a symmetry that is less evident from the multiplicative formula (though it is from the definitions)which leads to a more efficient multiplicative computational routine.",
"Using the falling factorial notation,=== Generalization and connection to the binomial series ===The multiplicative formula allows the definition of binomial coefficients to be extended by replacing ''n'' by an arbitrary number ''α'' (negative, real, complex) or even an element of any commutative ring in which all positive integers are invertible:With this definition one has a generalization of the binomial formula (with one of the variables set to 1), which justifies still calling the binomial coefficients:This formula is valid for all complex numbers ''α'' and ''X'' with |''X''| < 1.It can also be interpreted as an identity of formal power series in ''X'', where it actually can serve as definition of arbitrary powers of power series with constant coefficient equal to 1; the point is that with this definition all identities hold that one expects for exponentiation, notablyIf ''α'' is a nonnegative integer ''n'', then all terms with are zero, and the infinite series becomes a finite sum, thereby recovering the binomial formula.",
"However, for other values of ''α'', including negative integers and rational numbers, the series is really infinite."
],
[
"Pascal's triangle",
"log-concave sequence.Pascal's rule is the important recurrence relationwhich can be used to prove by mathematical induction that is a natural number for all integer ''n'' ≥ 0 and all integer ''k'', a fact that is not immediately obvious from formula (1).",
"To the left and right of Pascal's triangle, the entries (shown as blanks) are all zero.Pascal's rule also gives rise to Pascal's triangle:0: 1 1: 1 1 2: 1 2 1 3: 1 3 3 1 4: 1 4 6 4 1 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1 6: 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 7: 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 8: 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 Row number contains the numbers for .",
"It is constructed by first placing 1s in the outermost positions, and then filling each inner position with the sum of the two numbers directly above.",
"This method allows the quick calculation of binomial coefficients without the need for fractions or multiplications.",
"For instance, by looking at row number 5 of the triangle, one can quickly read off that:"
],
[
"Combinatorics and statistics",
"Binomial coefficients are of importance in combinatorics, because they provide ready formulas for certain frequent counting problems:* There are ways to choose ''k'' elements from a set of ''n'' elements.",
"See Combination.",
"* There are ways to choose ''k'' elements from a set of ''n'' elements if repetitions are allowed.",
"See Multiset.",
"* There are strings containing ''k'' ones and ''n'' zeros.",
"* There are strings consisting of ''k'' ones and ''n'' zeros such that no two ones are adjacent.",
"* The Catalan numbers are * The binomial distribution in statistics is"
],
[
"Binomial coefficients as polynomials",
"For any nonnegative integer ''k'', the expression can be simplified and defined as a polynomial divided by :: this presents a polynomial in ''t'' with rational coefficients.As such, it can be evaluated at any real or complex number ''t'' to define binomial coefficients with such first arguments.",
"These \"generalized binomial coefficients\" appear in Newton's generalized binomial theorem.For each ''k'', the polynomial can be characterized as the unique degree ''k'' polynomial satisfying and .Its coefficients are expressible in terms of Stirling numbers of the first kind:: The derivative of can be calculated by logarithmic differentiation:: This can cause a problem when evaluated at integers from to , but using identities below we can compute the derivative as:: === Binomial coefficients as a basis for the space of polynomials ===Over any field of characteristic 0 (that is, any field that contains the rational numbers), each polynomial ''p''(''t'') of degree at most ''d'' is uniquely expressible as a linear combination of binomial coefficients.",
"The coefficient ''a''''k'' is the ''k''th difference of the sequence ''p''(0), ''p''(1), ..., ''p''(''k'').",
"Explicitly,=== Integer-valued polynomials ===Each polynomial is integer-valued: it has an integer value at all integer inputs .",
"(One way to prove this is by induction on ''k'', using Pascal's identity.)",
"Therefore, any integer linear combination of binomial coefficient polynomials is integer-valued too.",
"Conversely, () shows that any integer-valued polynomial is an integer linear combination of these binomial coefficient polynomials.",
"More generally, for any subring ''R'' of a characteristic 0 field ''K'', a polynomial in ''K''''t'' takes values in ''R'' at all integers if and only if it is an ''R''-linear combination of binomial coefficient polynomials.=== Example ===The integer-valued polynomial can be rewritten as:"
],
[
"Identities involving binomial coefficients",
"The factorial formula facilitates relating nearby binomial coefficients.",
"For instance, if ''k'' is a positive integer and ''n'' is arbitrary, thenand, with a little more work,: We can also get: Moreover, the following may be useful::For constant ''n'', we have the following recurrence:: To sum up, we have: === Sums of the binomial coefficients ===The formulasays that the elements in the th row of Pascal's triangle always add up to 2 raised to the th power.",
"This is obtained from the binomial theorem () by setting and .",
"The formula also has a natural combinatorial interpretation: the left side sums the number of subsets of {1, ..., ''n''} of sizes ''k'' = 0, 1, ..., ''n'', giving the total number of subsets.",
"(That is, the left side counts the power set of {1, ..., ''n''}.)",
"However, these subsets can also be generated by successively choosing or excluding each element 1, ..., ''n''; the ''n'' independent binary choices (bit-strings) allow a total of choices.",
"The left and right sides are two ways to count the same collection of subsets, so they are equal.The formulasand: follow from the binomial theorem after differentiating with respect to (twice for the latter) and then substituting .The Chu–Vandermonde identity, which holds for any complex values ''m'' and ''n'' and any non-negative integer ''k'', isand can be found by examination of the coefficient of in the expansion of using equation ().",
"When , equation () reduces to equation ().",
"In the special case , using (), the expansion () becomes (as seen in Pascal's triangle at right)where the term on the right side is a central binomial coefficient.Another form of the Chu–Vandermonde identity, which applies for any integers ''j'', ''k'', and ''n'' satisfying , isThe proof is similar, but uses the binomial series expansion () with negative integer exponents.When , equation () gives the hockey-stick identity: and its relative: Let ''F''(''n'') denote the ''n''-th Fibonacci number.Then: This can be proved by induction using () or by Zeckendorf's representation.",
"A combinatorial proof is given below.==== Multisections of sums ====For integers ''s'' and ''t'' such that series multisection gives the following identity for the sum of binomial coefficients:: For small , these series have particularly nice forms; for example,: : : : : : : ==== Partial sums ====Although there is no closed formula for partial sums: of binomial coefficients, one can again use () and induction to show that for ,: with special case: for .",
"This latter result is also a special case of the result from the theory of finite differences that for any polynomial ''P''(''x'') of degree less than ''n'',:Differentiating () ''k'' times and setting ''x'' = −1 yields this for,when 0 ≤ ''k'' nan''.The series is convergent for ''k'' ≥ 2.This formula is used in the analysis of the German tank problem.",
"It follows from which is proved by induction on ''M''.=== Identities with combinatorial proofs ===Many identities involving binomial coefficients can be proved by combinatorial means.",
"For example, for nonnegative integers , the identity: (which reduces to () when ''q'' = 1) can be given a double counting proof, as follows.",
"The left side counts the number of ways of selecting a subset of ''n'' = {1, 2, ..., ''n''} with at least ''q'' elements, and marking ''q'' elements among those selected.",
"The right side counts the same thing, because there are ways of choosing a set of ''q'' elements to mark, and to choose which of the remaining elements of ''n'' also belong to the subset.In Pascal's identity: both sides count the number of ''k''-element subsets of ''n'': the two terms on the right side group them into those that contain element ''n'' and those that do not.The identity () also has a combinatorial proof.",
"The identity reads: Suppose you have empty squares arranged in a row and you want to mark (select) ''n'' of them.",
"There are ways to do this.",
"On the other hand, you may select your ''n'' squares by selecting ''k'' squares from among the first ''n'' and squares from the remaining ''n'' squares; any ''k'' from 0 to ''n'' will work.",
"This gives:Now apply () to get the result.If one denotes by the sequence of Fibonacci numbers, indexed so that , then the identityhas the following combinatorial proof.",
"One may show by induction that counts the number of ways that a strip of squares may be covered by and tiles.",
"On the other hand, if such a tiling uses exactly of the tiles, then it uses of the tiles, and so uses tiles total.",
"There are ways to order these tiles, and so summing this coefficient over all possible values of gives the identity.==== Sum of coefficients row ====The number of ''k''-combinations for all ''k'', , is the sum of the ''n''th row (counting from 0) of the binomial coefficients.",
"These combinations are enumerated by the 1 digits of the set of base 2 numbers counting from 0 to , where each digit position is an item from the set of ''n''.=== Dixon's identity ===Dixon's identity is: or, more generally,: where ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are non-negative integers.=== Continuous identities ===Certain trigonometric integrals have values expressible in terms of binomial coefficients: For any : : : These can be proved by using Euler's formula to convert trigonometric functions to complex exponentials, expanding using the binomial theorem, and integrating term by term.=== Congruences ===If ''n'' is prime, then for every ''k'' with More generally, this remains true if ''n'' is any number and ''k'' is such that all the numbers between 1 and ''k'' are coprime to ''n''.Indeed, we have:"
],
[
"Generating functions",
"=== Ordinary generating functions ===For a fixed , the ordinary generating function of the sequence is: For a fixed , the ordinary generating function of the sequence is: The bivariate generating function of the binomial coefficients is: A symmetric bivariate generating function of the binomial coefficients is: which is the same as the previous generating function after the substitution .=== Exponential generating function ===A symmetric exponential bivariate generating function of the binomial coefficients is::"
],
[
"Divisibility properties",
"In 1852, Kummer proved that if ''m'' and ''n'' are nonnegative integers and ''p'' is a prime number, then the largest power of ''p'' dividing equals ''p''''c'', where ''c'' is the number of carries when ''m'' and ''n'' are added in base ''p''.Equivalently, the exponent of a prime ''p'' in equals the number of nonnegative integers ''j'' such that the fractional part of ''k''/''p''''j'' is greater than the fractional part of ''n''/''p''''j''.",
"It can be deduced from this that is divisible by ''n''/gcd(''n'',''k'').",
"In particular therefore it follows that ''p'' divides for all positive integers ''r'' and ''s'' such that .",
"However this is not true of higher powers of ''p'': for example 9 does not divide .A somewhat surprising result by David Singmaster (1974) is that any integer divides almost all binomial coefficients.",
"More precisely, fix an integer ''d'' and let ''f''(''N'') denote the number of binomial coefficients with ''n'' < ''N'' such that ''d'' divides .",
"Then: Since the number of binomial coefficients with ''n'' < ''N'' is ''N''(''N'' + 1) / 2, this implies that the density of binomial coefficients divisible by ''d'' goes to 1.Binomial coefficients have divisibility properties related to least common multiples of consecutive integers.",
"For example:: divides .",
": is a multiple of .Another fact:An integer is prime if and only ifall the intermediate binomial coefficients: are divisible by ''n''.Proof:When ''p'' is prime, ''p'' divides: for all because is a natural number and ''p'' divides the numerator but not the denominator.When ''n'' is composite, let ''p'' be the smallest prime factor of ''n'' and let .",
"Then and: otherwise the numerator has to be divisible by , this can only be the case when is divisible by ''p''.",
"But ''n'' is divisible by ''p'', so ''p'' does not divide and because ''p'' is prime, we know that ''p'' does not divide and so the numerator cannot be divisible by ''n''."
],
[
"Bounds and asymptotic formulas",
"The following bounds for hold for all values of ''n'' and ''k'' such that :The first inequality follows from the fact thatand each of these terms in this product is .",
"A similar argument can be made to show the second inequality.",
"The final strict inequality is equivalent to , that is clear since the RHS is a term of the exponential series .From the divisibility properties we can infer thatwhere both equalities can be achieved.The following bounds are useful in information theory:where is the binary entropy function.",
"It can be further tightened tofor all .=== Both ''n'' and ''k'' large ===Stirling's approximation yields the following approximation, valid when both tend to infinity:Because the inequality forms of Stirling's formula also bound the factorials, slight variants on the above asymptotic approximation give exact bounds.In particular, when is sufficiently large, one has and and, more generally, for and ,If ''n'' is large and ''k'' is linear in ''n'', various precise asymptotic estimates exist for the binomial coefficient .",
"For example, if thenwhere ''d'' = ''n'' − 2''k''.=== much larger than ===If is large and is (that is, if ), thenwhere again is the little o notation.=== Sums of binomial coefficients ===A simple and rough upper bound for the sum of binomial coefficients can be obtained using the binomial theorem:More precise bounds are given byvalid for all integers with .=== Generalized binomial coefficients ===The infinite product formula for the gamma function also gives an expression for binomial coefficientswhich yields the asymptotic formulasas .This asymptotic behaviour is contained in the approximationas well.",
"(Here is the ''k''-th harmonic number and is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.",
")Further, the asymptotic formulahold true, whenever and for some complex number ."
],
[
"Generalizations",
"=== Generalization to multinomials ===Binomial coefficients can be generalized to '''multinomial coefficients''' defined to be the number:: where: While the binomial coefficients represent the coefficients of , the multinomial coefficientsrepresent the coefficients of the polynomial: The case ''r'' = 2 gives binomial coefficients:: The combinatorial interpretation of multinomial coefficients is distribution of ''n'' distinguishable elements over ''r'' (distinguishable) containers, each containing exactly ''ki'' elements, where ''i'' is the index of the container.Multinomial coefficients have many properties similar to those of binomial coefficients, for example the recurrence relation:: and symmetry:: where is a permutation of (1, 2, ..., ''r'').=== Taylor series ===Using Stirling numbers of the first kind the series expansion around any arbitrarily chosen point is: === Binomial coefficient with ===The definition of the binomial coefficients can be extended to the case where is real and is integer.In particular, the following identity holds for any non-negative integer :: This shows up when expanding into a power series using the Newton binomial series :: === Products of binomial coefficients ===One can express the product of two binomial coefficients as a linear combination of binomial coefficients:: where the connection coefficients are multinomial coefficients.",
"In terms of labelled combinatorial objects, the connection coefficients represent the number of ways to assign labels to a pair of labelled combinatorial objects—of weight ''m'' and ''n'' respectively—that have had their first ''k'' labels identified, or glued together to get a new labelled combinatorial object of weight .",
"(That is, to separate the labels into three portions to apply to the glued part, the unglued part of the first object, and the unglued part of the second object.)",
"In this regard, binomial coefficients are to exponential generating series what falling factorials are to ordinary generating series.The product of all binomial coefficients in the ''n''th row of the Pascal triangle is given by the formula:: === Partial fraction decomposition ===The partial fraction decomposition of the reciprocal is given by: === Newton's binomial series ===Newton's binomial series, named after Sir Isaac Newton, is a generalization of the binomial theorem to infinite series:: The identity can be obtained by showing that both sides satisfy the differential equation .The radius of convergence of this series is 1.An alternative expression is: where the identity: is applied.=== Multiset (rising) binomial coefficient ===Binomial coefficients count subsets of prescribed size from a given set.",
"A related combinatorial problem is to count multisets of prescribed size with elements drawn from a given set, that is, to count the number of ways to select a certain number of elements from a given set with the possibility of selecting the same element repeatedly.",
"The resulting numbers are called ''multiset coefficients''; the number of ways to \"multichoose\" (i.e., choose with replacement) ''k'' items from an ''n'' element set is denoted .To avoid ambiguity and confusion with ''n'''s main denotation in this article, let and .Multiset coefficients may be expressed in terms of binomial coefficients by the ruleOne possible alternative characterization of this identity is as follows:We may define the falling factorial asand the corresponding rising factorial asso, for example,Then the binomial coefficients may be written aswhile the corresponding multiset coefficient is defined by replacing the falling with the rising factorial:==== Generalization to negative integers ''n'' ====For any ''n'',: In particular, binomial coefficients evaluated at negative integers ''n'' are given by signed multiset coefficients.",
"In the special case , this reduces to For example, if ''n'' = −4 and ''k'' = 7, then ''r'' = 4 and ''f'' = 10:: === Two real or complex valued arguments ===The binomial coefficient is generalized to two real or complex valued arguments using the gamma function or beta function via: This definition inherits these following additional properties from :: moreover,: The resulting function has been little-studied, apparently first being graphed in .",
"Notably, many binomial identities fail: but for ''n'' positive (so negative).",
"The behavior is quite complex, and markedly different in various octants (that is, with respect to the ''x'' and ''y'' axes and the line ), with the behavior for negative ''x'' having singularities at negative integer values and a checkerboard of positive and negative regions:* in the octant it is a smoothly interpolated form of the usual binomial, with a ridge (\"Pascal's ridge\").",
"* in the octant and in the quadrant the function is close to zero.",
"* in the quadrant the function is alternatingly very large positive and negative on the parallelograms with vertices * in the octant the behavior is again alternatingly very large positive and negative, but on a square grid.",
"* in the octant it is close to zero, except for near the singularities.=== Generalization to ''q''-series ===The binomial coefficient has a q-analog generalization known as the Gaussian binomial coefficient.=== Generalization to infinite cardinals ===The definition of the binomial coefficient can be generalized to infinite cardinals by defining:: where is some set with cardinality .",
"One can show that the generalized binomial coefficient is well-defined, in the sense that no matter what set we choose to represent the cardinal number , will remain the same.",
"For finite cardinals, this definition coincides with the standard definition of the binomial coefficient.Assuming the Axiom of Choice, one can show that for any infinite cardinal ."
],
[
"See also",
"* Binomial transform* Delannoy number* Eulerian number* Hypergeometric function* List of factorial and binomial topics* Macaulay representation of an integer* Motzkin number* Multiplicities of entries in Pascal's triangle* Narayana number* Star of David theorem* Sun's curious identity* Table of Newtonian series* Trinomial expansion"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bill Holbrook"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bill Holbrook''' (born 1958) is an American cartoonist and webcomic writer and artist, best known for his syndicated comic strip ''On the Fastrack''.Born in Los Angeles, Holbrook grew up in Huntsville, Alabama, and began drawing at an early age.",
"While majoring in illustration and visual design at Auburn University, Holbrook served as art director of the student newspaper, doing editorial cartoons and a weekly comic strip.",
"At the same time, his work was being published in the ''Huntsville Times'' and the ''Monroe Journal''.",
"After graduation in 1980, he joined the ''Atlanta Constitution'' as an editorial staff artist.During a 1982 visit to relatives on the West Coast, Holbrook met ''Peanuts'' creator, Charles Schulz.",
"Following his advice and encouragement, Holbrook created a strip in the fall of that year about a college graduate working in a rundown diner.",
"It did not stir syndicate interest, but what he learned on the strip helped him when he created ''On the Fastrack''.Eleven days before ''On the Fastrack'' made its syndicated debut (March 19, 1984), Holbrook met Teri Peitso on a blind date.",
"They were married on Pearl Harbor Day, 1985.They have two daughters, Chandler and Haviland.",
"Peitso-Holbrook's novels have been nominated for both Edgar Awards and Agatha Awards.",
"She is currently an assistant professor in literacy education at Georgia State University.",
"The family lives in the Atlanta area.On October 3, 1988, Holbrook began his second strip, ''Safe Havens'', and his third strip, ''Kevin and Kell'' was launched in September 1995."
],
[
"Comic strips",
"Every week Holbrook writes the story line for the next three weeks for one of his strips and draws the next three weeks' worth of strips for another.",
"In 2010, characters from ''On the Fastrack'' and ''Safe Havens'' began appearing in both strips.",
"* ''On the Fastrack'' - About the misadventures at Fastrack, Inc., ''On the Fastrack'' has been distributed by King Features Syndicate since 1984.It now appears in 75 newspapers nationwide.",
"* ''Safe Havens'' - Initially about a day care center, this strip evolved into the adventures of Samantha Argus and her friends and is now syndicated nationally to over 50 newspapers.",
"* ''Kevin and Kell'' - Originally an online-only strip but was also published in the ''Atlanta Journal-Constitution'' for some years, ''Kevin and Kell'' centers on the mixed marriage between a rabbit, Kevin and a grey wolf, Kell Dewclaw.",
"The plot revolves around species-related humor, satire, and interpersonal conflict.",
"* '' Duel In The Somme '' - Holbrook illustrated a story by Ben Bova and Rob Balder in this strip about a romantic rivalry between a computer-simulation designer and his boss."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bruce Campbell"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bruce Lorne Campbell''' (born June 22, 1958) is an American actor and moviemaker.",
"He is known best for his role as Ash Williams in Sam Raimi's ''Evil Dead'' horror series, beginning with the short movie ''Within the Woods'' (1978).",
"He has also featured in many low-budget cult movies such as ''Crimewave'' (1985), ''Maniac Cop'' (1988), ''Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat'' (1989), and ''Bubba Ho-Tep'' (2002).Campbell had the main roles of the television series ''The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.'' (1993–1994) and ''Jack of All Trades'' (2000), and a recurring role as Autolycus, King of Thieves in ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys'' (1995–1999) and ''Xena: Warrior Princess'' (1995–1999).",
"He played Sam Axe on the USA Network series ''Burn Notice'' (2007–2013) and reprised his role as Ash for the Starz series ''Ash vs.",
"Evil Dead'' (2015–2018).",
"He also appeared in ''The Escort'' (2015).Campbell directed, produced, and featured in the documentaries ''Fanalysis'' (2002) and ''A Community Speaks'' (2004); co-wrote, directed, produced, and featured in the movie ''Man with the Screaming Brain'' (2005); and directed, produced, and featured in a parody of his career ''My Name Is Bruce'' (2007).Campbell is known for frequent collaborations with the aforementioned Raimi, his brother Ted, Josh Becker, and Scott Spiegel."
],
[
"Early life",
"Bruce Lorne Campbell was born in Royal Oak, Michigan, on June 22, 1958, the son of advertising executive and college professor Charles Newton Campbell and homemaker Joanne Louise (née Pickens).",
"He is of English and Scottish ancestry, and has an older brother named Don and an older half-brother named Michael.",
"His father was also an actor and director for local theater.",
"Campbell began acting and making short Super 8 movies with friends as a teenager.",
"After meeting future moviemaker Sam Raimi while the two attended Wylie E. Groves High School, they became good friends and collaborators.",
"Campbell attended Western Michigan University and continued to pursue an acting career."
],
[
"Career",
"===Film===Campbell signing a VHS copy of ''The Evil Dead'' in 2009.Campbell and Raimi collaborated with a 30-minute Super 8 version of the first ''Evil Dead'' movie, titled ''Within the Woods'' (1978), which was initially used to attract investors.",
"He and Raimi got together with family and friends to begin working on ''The Evil Dead'' (1981).",
"While featuring as the protagonist, Campbell also participation with the production of the movie, receiving a co-executive producer credit.",
"Raimi wrote, directed, and edited the movie, while Rob Tapert produced.",
"After an endorsement by horror author Stephen King, the movie slowly began to receive attention and offers for distribution.",
"Four years after its original release, it became the most popular movie in the UK.",
"It was then distributed in the United States, resulting in the sequels ''Evil Dead II'' (1987) and ''Army of Darkness'' (1992).Campbell was also drawn in the Marvel Zombie comics as his character, Ash Williams.",
"He is featured in five comics, all in the series ''Marvel Zombies vs. Army of Darkness''.",
"In them, he fights alongside the Marvel heroes against the heroes and people who have become zombies (deadites) while in search of the Necronomicon (Book of the Names of the Dead).",
"Campbell also played as Coach Boomer in the movie “Sky High”.He has appeared in several of Raimi's movies other than the ''Evil Dead'' series, notably having cameo appearances in the director's ''Spider-Man'' film series.",
"Campbell also joined the cast of Raimi's movie ''Darkman'' and ''The Quick and the Dead'', though having no actual screen time in the latter movie's theatrical version.",
"In March 2022, Campbell was announced to have a cameo in Raimi's Marvel Cinematic Universe film ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness''.Campbell often performs quirky roles, such as Elvis Presley for the movie ''Bubba Ho-Tep''.",
"Along with ''Bubba Ho-Tep'', he played a supporting role in ''Maniac Cop'' and ''Maniac Cop 2'', and spoofed his career in the self-directed ''My Name is Bruce.",
"''Other mainstream movies for Campbell include supporting or featured roles in the Coen Brothers movie ''The Hudsucker Proxy'', the Michael Crichton adaptation ''Congo'', the movie version of ''McHale's Navy'', ''Escape From L.A.'' (the sequel to John Carpenter's ''Escape From New York''), the Jim Carrey drama ''The Majestic'' and the 2005 Disney movie ''Sky High''.Campbell had a major voice role for the 2009 animated adaptation of the children's book ''Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs'', and a supporting voice role for Pixar's ''Cars 2''.Campbell produced the 2013 remake of ''The Evil Dead'', along with Raimi and Rob Tapert, appearing in the movie's post-credits scene in a cameo role with the expectation he would reprise that role in ''Army of Darkness 2''.",
"The next year, the comedy metal band Psychostick released a song titled \"Bruce Campbell\" on their album ''IV: Revenge of the Vengeance'' that pays a comedic tribute to his past roles.Campbell worked as an executive producer for the 2023 movie ''Evil Dead Rise''.===Television===Campbell at WonderCon in 2013Other than cinema, Campbell has appeared in a number of television series.",
"He featured in ''The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.'' a boisterous science fiction comedy western created by Jeffrey Boam and Carlton Cuse that played for one season.",
"He played a lawyer turned bounty hunter who was trying to hunt down John Bly, the man who killed his father.",
"He featured in the television series ''Jack of All Trades'', set on a fictional island occupied by the French in 1801.Campbell was also credited as co-executive producer, among others.",
"The show was directed by Eric Gruendemann, and was produced by various people, including Sam Raimi.",
"The show was broadcast for two seasons, from 2000 to 2001.He had a recurring role as \"Bill Church Jr.\" based upon the character of Morgan Edge from the Superman comics on ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman''.From 1996 to 1997, Campbell was a recurring guest actor of the television series ''Ellen'' as Ed Billik, who becomes Ellen's boss when she sells her bookstore in season four.He is also known for his supporting role as the recurring character Autolycus (\"King of Thieves\") on both ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys'' and ''Xena: Warrior Princess'', which reunited him with producer Rob Tapert.",
"Campbell played ''Hercules''/''Xena'' series producer Tapert in two episodes of ''Hercules'' set in the present.",
"He directed a number of episodes of ''Hercules'' and ''Xena'', including the ''Hercules'' series finale.Campbell also obtained the main role of race car driver Hank Cooper for the Disney made-for-television remake of ''The Love Bug''.Campbell had a critically acclaimed dramatic guest role as a grief-stricken detective seeking revenge for his father's murder in a two-part episode of the fourth season of ''Homicide: Life on the Street''.",
"Campbell later played the part of a bigamous demon in ''The X-Files'' episode \"Terms of Endearment\".",
"He also featured as Agent Jackman in the episode \"Witch Way Now?\"",
"of the WB series ''Charmed'', as well as playing a state police officer in an episode of the short-lived series ''American Gothic'' titled \"Meet The Beetles\".Campbell co-featured in the television series ''Burn Notice'', which was broadcast from 2007 to 2013 by USA Network.",
"He portrayed Sam Axe, a beer-chugging, former Navy SEAL now working as an unlicensed private investigator and occasional mercenary with his old friend Michael Westen, the show's main character.",
"When working undercover, his character frequently used the alias Chuck Finley, which Bruce later revealed was the name of one of his father's old co-workers.",
"Campbell was the star of a 2011 ''Burn Notice'' made-for-television prequel focusing on Sam's Navy SEAL career, titled ''Burn Notice: The Fall of Sam Axe''.In 2014, Campbell played Santa Claus for an episode of ''The Librarians''.",
"Campbell played Ronald Reagan in season 2 of the FX original series ''Fargo''.",
"More recently Campbell reprised his role as Ashley \"Ash\" Williams in ''Ash vs Evil Dead'', a series based upon the ''Evil Dead'' series that began his career.",
"''Ash vs Evil Dead'' began airing on Starz on October 31, 2015, and was renewed by the cable channel for second and third seasons, before being cancelled.In January 2019, Travel Channel announced a new version of the ''Ripley's Believe It or Not!''",
"reality series, with Campbell serving as host and executive producer.",
"The 10-episode season debuted on June 9, 2019.===Voice acting===Campbell is featured as a voice actor for several video games.",
"He provides the voice of Ash in the four games based on the ''Evil Dead'' movies series: ''Evil Dead: Hail to the King'', ''Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick'', ''Evil Dead: Regeneration'' and ''Evil Dead: The Game''.",
"He also provided voice talent in other titles such as ''Pitfall 3D: Beyond the Jungle'', ''Spider-Man'', ''Spider-Man 2'', ''Spider-Man 3'', ''The Amazing Spider-Man'', and ''Dead by Daylight''.He provided the voice of main character Jake Logan for the PC game, ''Tachyon: The Fringe'', the voice of main character Jake Burton for the PlayStation game ''Broken Helix'' and the voice of Magnanimous for ''Megas XLR''.",
"Campbell voiced the pulp adventurer Lobster Johnson in ''Hellboy: The Science of Evil'' and has done voice-over work for the Codemaster's game ''Hei$t'', a game which was announced on January 28, 2010 to have been \"terminated\".",
"He also provided the voice of The Mayor for the 2009 movie ''Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs'', the voice of Rod \"Torque\" Redline in ''Cars 2'', the voice of Himcules in the 2003 Nickelodeon TV series ''My Life as a Teenage Robot'', and the voice of Fugax in the 2006 movie ''The Ant Bully''.Despite the inclusion of his character \"Ash Williams\" in Telltale Games' ''Poker Night 2'', Danny Webber voices the character in the game, instead of Bruce Campbell.He has a voice in the online MOBA game, ''Tome: Immortal Arena'' in 2014.Campbell also provided voice-over and motion capture for Sgt.",
"Lennox in the Exo Zombies mode of ''Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare''.===Writing===In addition to acting and occasionally directing, Campbell has become a writer, starting with an autobiography, ''If Chins Could Kill: Confessions of a B Movie Actor'', published in June 2001.The autobiography was a successful ''New York Times'' Best Seller.",
"It describes Campbell's career to date as an actor in low-budget movies and television, providing his insight into \"Blue-Collar Hollywood\".",
"The paperback version of the book adds details about the reactions of fans during book signings: \"Whenever I do mainstream stuff, I think they're pseudo-interested, but they're still interested in seeing weirdo, offbeat stuff, and that's what I'm attracted to\".Campbell's next book ''Make Love!",
"The Bruce Campbell Way'' was published on May 26, 2005.The book's plot involves him (depicted in a comical way) as the main character struggling to make it into the world of A-list movies.",
"He later recorded an audio play adaptation of ''Make Love'' with fellow Michigan actors, including longtime collaborator Ted Raimi.",
"This radio drama was released by the independent label Rykodisc and spans 6 discs with a 6-hour running time.In addition to his books, Campbell also wrote a column for ''X-Ray Magazine'' in 2001, an issue of the popular comic series ''The Hire'', and comic book adaptations of his ''Man with the Screaming Brain''.",
"Most recently he wrote the introduction to Josh Becker's ''The Complete Guide to Low-Budget Feature Filmmaking''.In late 2016, Campbell announced that he would be releasing a third book, ''Hail to the Chin: Further Confessions of a B Movie Actor,'' which will detail his life from where ''If Chins Could Kill'' ended.",
"''Hail to the Chin'' was released in August 2017, and accompanied by a book tour across the United States and Europe.Campbell maintained a weblog on his official website, where he posted mainly about politics and the movie industry, though it has since been deleted.===Bruce Campbell Horror Film Festival===Since 2014, the Bruce Campbell Horror Film Festival, narrated and organized by Campbell, was held in the Muvico Theater in Rosemont, Illinois.",
"The first festival was originally from August 21 to 25, 2014, presented by Wizard World, as part of the Chicago Comicon.",
"The second festival was from August 20 to 23, 2015, with guests Tom Holland and Eli Roth.",
"The third festival took place over four days in August 2016.Guests of the event were Sam Raimi, Robert Tapert and Doug Benson."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Campbell married Christine Deveau in 1983, and they had two children before divorcing in 1989.He met costume designer Ida Gearon while working on ''Mindwarp'', and they were married in 1992.They reside in Jacksonville, Oregon.Campbell is also ordained and has performed marriage ceremonies."
],
[
"Filmography",
"+Key Denotes works that have not yet been released===Film===YearFilm Role Director Notes 1977 ''It's Murder!''",
"Cop on Bicycle Sam Raimi 1978 ''Within the Woods'' Bruce Sam Raimi Short film; also executive producer ''Shemp Eats the Moon'' Shemp Malone John Cameron Short film; also producer 1979 ''Attack of the Helping Hand'' The Hamburger Helper Helping Hand / The Pillsbury Doughboy Scott Spiegel Uncredited rolesShort film; also cinematographer 1980 ''The Blind Waiter'' The Blind Waiter Josh Becker and Scott Spiegel Uncredited roleShort film 1981 ''The Evil Dead'' Ash Williams Sam Raimi Also executive producer 1982 ''Cleveland Smith: Bounty Hunter'' Cleveland Smith Josh Becker Short film ''Blood Simple'' investor trailer Julian Marty Joel and Ethan Coen Short film 1983 ''Going Back'' Brice Chapman Ron Teachworth 1985 ''Crimewave'' Renaldo 'The Heel' Sam Raimi Also co-producer ''Thou Shalt Not Kill...",
"Except'' Video newscaster Josh Becker Uncredited cameoAlso story writer 1987 ''Evil Dead II'' Ash Williams Sam Raimi Also co-producer 1988 ''Maniac Cop'' Jack Forrest William Lustig 1989 ''Intruder'' Officer Howard Scott Spiegel ''Moontrap'' Ray Tanner Robert Dyke ''Easy Wheels'' David O'Malley Producer ''The Dead Next Door'' Raimi & Commander Carpenter J. R. Bookwalter Voices 1990 ''Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat'' Robert Van Helsing Anthony Hickox ''Maniac Cop 2'' Jack Forrest William Lustig ''Darkman'' Final Shemp Sam Raimi Cameo 1991 ''Lunatics: A Love Story'' Ray Josh Becker Also producer 1992 ''Eddie Presley'' Asylum Attendant Jeff Burr Cameo ''Waxwork II: Lost in Time'' John Loftmore Anthony Hickox ''Mindwarp'' Stover Steve Barnett ''The Nutt House'' Adam Rifkin Writer ''Army of Darkness'' Ash Williams Sam Raimi Also co-producer 1994 ''The Hudsucker Proxy'' Smitty Joel and Ethan Coen 1995 ''Congo'' Charles Travis Frank Marshall ''The Quick and the Dead'' Wedding Shemp Sam Raimi Deleted scene ''The Demolitionist'' Raffle Winner Robert Kurtzman Uncredited cameo 1996 ''Fargo'' Soap opera actor on TV Joel and Ethan Coen Uncredited cameo ''Escape from L.A.'' Surgeon General of Beverly Hills John Carpenter 1997 ''In the Line of Duty: Blaze of Glory'' Jeff Erickson Dick Lowry ''Menno's Mind'' Mick Dourif Jon Kroll ''Running Time'' Carl Josh Becker ''McHale's Navy'' Virgil Bryan Spicer 1998 ''The Ice Rink'' Actor Jean-Philippe Toussaint 1999 ''From Dusk Till Dawn 2: Texas Blood Money'' Barry Scott Spiegel Direct-to-DVD 2000 ''Icebreaker'' Carl Greig David Giancola ''Timequest'' William Roberts Robert Dyke 2001 ''Hubert's Brain'' Thompson Phil Robinson VoiceShort film ''The Majestic'' Roland the Intrepid Explorer Frank Darabont Cameo 2002 ''Spider-Man'' Ring Announcer Sam Raimi Cameo ''Hatred of a Minute'' Michael Kallio Producer ''Bubba Ho-Tep'' Elvis Presley Don Coscarelli ''Serving Sara'' Gordon Moore Reginald Hudlin ''Fanalysis'' Himself Himself Documentary; also producer 2003 ''Drugs'' Bruce Chad Peter Direct-to-DVD ''Intolerable Cruelty'' Soap opera actor on TV Joel and Ethan Coen Uncredited cameo 2004 ''The Ladykillers'' Humane Society Worker Joel and Ethan Coen Uncredited cameo ''Comic Book: The Movie'' Himself Mark Hamill Direct-to-DVD ''A Community Speaks'' Himself Himself & Ida Gearon Documentary; also producer and editor ''Spider-Man 2'' Snooty Usher Sam Raimi Cameo 2005 ''Man with the Screaming Brain'' William Cole Himself Also writer and producer ''Sky High'' Tommy Boomowski / Coach Boomer / Sonic Boom Mike Mitchell 2006 ''The Woods'' Joe Fasulo Lucky McKee ''The Ant Bully'' Fugax John A. Davis Voice 2007 ''Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters'' Chicken Bittle Matt Maiellaro and Dave Willis Voice ''Spider-Man 3'' Maître d' Sam Raimi Cameo ''My Name Is Bruce'' Faux Bruce Campbell Himself Also producer 2009 ''Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs'' Mayor Shelbourne Phil Lord and Chris Miller Voice ''White on Rice'' Muramoto Dave Boyle Voice 2011 ''Cars 2'' Rod \"Torque\" Redline John Lasseter and Brad Lewis Voice 2012 ''The Color of Time'' Goody Various 2013 ''Oz the Great and Powerful'' Winkie Guard Sam Raimi Cameo ''Evil Dead'' Ash Williams Fede Álvarez Uncredited cameo; also producer 2015 ''The Escort'' Charles Cooper Will Slocombe 2021 ''Black Friday'' Jonathan Wexler Casey Tebo Also producer ''18½'' President Richard Nixon Dan Mirvish Voice 2022 ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness'' Pizza Poppa Guy Sam Raimi Cameo 2023 ''Evil Dead Rise'' Priest (Ash Williams) Lee Cronin Voice; uncredited cameo; also executive producer ''Highly Functional'' Chili Youngfield Marc Forby ''Post-production''===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1983 ''Generations'' Alan Stuart Soap opera 1987 ''Knots Landing'' Joel Benson Episode: \"Say Uncle\" 1993–1994 ''The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.'' Brisco County, Jr. 27 episodes 1995 ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' Bill Church Jr. 3 episodes ''American Gothic'' Lt. Drey Episode: \"Meet the Beetles\" 1995–1999 ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys'' Autolycus 10 episodes; also directed 7 episodes 1996 ''Homicide: Life on the Street'' Jake Rodzinsky Episodes: \"Justice Parts 1 & 2\" ''Tornado!''",
"Jake Thorne Television film ''Assault on Dome 4'' Alex Windham Television film 1996–1997 ''Ellen'' Ed Billik 8 episodes 1996–1999 ''Xena: Warrior Princess'' Autolycus 8 episodes; also directed 2 episodes 1997 ''Weird Science'' Gene the Genie Episode: \"I Dream of Gene\" ''The Love Bug'' Hank Cooper Television film ''Goldrush: A Real Life Alaskan Adventure'' Pierce Thomas 'PT' Madison 1998 ''Timecop'' Agent Tommy Maddox Episode: \"The Future, Jack, the Future\" 1998–1999 ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys'' Rob Tapert 2 episodes 1999 ''The X-Files'' Wayne Weinsider Episode: \"Terms of Endearment\" 2000 ''Jack of All Trades'' Jack Stiles / Daring Dragoon 22 episodes; also co-executive producer 2001 ''Beggars and Choosers'' Jack 2 episodes ''The Legend of Tarzan'' Max Liebling (voice) Episode: \"Tarzan and One Punch Mullargan\" 2002 ''Charmed'' FBI Agent Woody Jackman Episode: \"\" ''Terminal Invasion'' Jack Television film 2003 ''Duck Dodgers'' Pork Piggler (voice) Episode: \"K-9 Kaddy/Pig of Action\" ''My Life as a Teenage Robot'' Himcules (voice) Episode: \"Daydream Believer/This Time with Feeling\" 2004 ''Megas XLR'' Magnanimous (voice) 2 episodes 2005 ''Alien Apocalypse'' Dr. Ivan Hood Television film 2006 ''Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!''",
"Captain Shuggazoom (voice) 2 episodes ''Touch the Top of the World'' Ed Weihenmayer Television film ''Robot Chicken'' Himself / Red Power Ranger / Car Chase Reporter (voices) Episode: \"Dragon Nuts\" 2006–2009 ''The Replacements'' Phil Mygrave / Gordo Glideright (voices) 6 episodes 2007 ''El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera'' The Industrialist (voice) Episode: \"Burrito's Little Helper/Crouching Tigre, Hidden Dragon\" 2007–2013 ''Burn Notice'' Sam Axe 111 episodes 2011 ''Burn Notice: The Fall of Sam Axe'' Television film; also executive producer 2013 ''1600 Penn'' Doug Gilchrist Episode: \"Skip the Tour\" 2014 ''Psych'' Dr. Ashford N. Simpson Episode: \"A Nightmare on State Street\"''The Librarians'' Santa Claus Episode: \"And Santa's Midnight Run\"2015 ''Fargo'' Ronald Reagan 2 episodes ''Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja'' The Creep (voice) Episode; \"Ball's Well That Friend's Well\" 2015–2018 ''Ash vs Evil Dead'' Ash Williams 30 episodes; also executive producer 2018–2020 ''Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure'' King Edmund (voice) 7 episodes 2018 ''Lodge 49'' Gary Green 3 episodes 2019 ''Ripley's Believe It or Not!''",
"Himself (host) 10 episodes; also executive producer 2020–2021 ''The Last Kids on Earth'' Chef (voice) 11 episodes 2021 ''Adopted'' John Voss Unaired pilot''A.P.",
"Bio'' John Griffin Episode: \"Tons of Rue\"''Archer'' McGinley (voice) Episode: \"Dingo, Baby, et Cetera\" ''One December Night'' Steve Bedford Television film 2022 ''My Southern Family Christmas'' Everett Bergeron Television film 2023 ''Impractical Jokers'' Himself (guest host) Episode: \"Bruce Campbell\"2023DiscontinuedHimself (host)Streaming series, 2 episodes as of December 6th ''Hysteria!''",
"Chief Dandridge ===Video games=== Year Title Role Notes 1997 ''Broken Helix'' Jake Burton 1998 ''Pitfall 3D: Beyond the Jungle'' Pitfall Harry Jr 2000 ''Tachyon: The Fringe'' Protagonist ''Evil Dead: Hail to the King'' Ash Williams 2002 ''Spider-Man'' Tutorial Narrator 2003 ''Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick'' Ash Williams 2004 ''Spider-Man 2'' Tutorial Narrator 2005 ''Evil Dead: Regeneration'' Ash Williams 2006 ''The Ant Bully'' Fugax 2007 ''Spider-Man 3'' Tutorial Narrator 2011 ''Army of Darkness: Defense'' Ash Williams Game Closed ''Cars 2'' Rod \"Torque\" Redline 2012 ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' The Extreme Reporter 2014 ''TOME: Immortal Arena'' Tutorial Narrator Game Closed 2015 ''Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare'' Lennox Exo Zombies DLC 2019 ''Dead by Daylight'' Ash Williams ''Ash vs Evil Dead'' DLC 2022 ''Evil Dead: The Game'' Also producer 2023 ''Call of Duty: Modern Warfare II'' ''Call of Duty: Warzone 2.0''"
],
[
"Accolades",
" Year Award Category Title Result 1993 Fangoria Chainsaw Award Best Actor ''Army of Darkness'' 2003 DVD Exclusive Award Best Audio Commentary (Limited Edition) ''The Evil Dead'' The Comedy Festival Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Actor ''Bubba Ho-Tep'' 2004 Chlotrudis Award Best Actor Fangoria Chainsaw Award Best Actor 2005 Fantasporto Film Festival International Fantasy Film Award for Best Actor 2007 Ashland Independent Film Festival Rogue Award 2010 Satellite Awards Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film ''Burn Notice'' 2016 Fangoria Chainsaw Award Best Actor on Television ''Ash vs Evil Dead'' Saturn Awards Best Actor on Television 2017 Fangoria Chainsaw Award Best TV Actor Saturn Awards Best Actor on a Television Series 2018"
],
[
"See also",
"* ''Make Love!",
"The Bruce Campbell Way'' ()"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * \"Not My Job\" Bruce Campbell appears on ''Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Baron Aberdare"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Baron Aberdare''', of Duffryn in the County of Glamorgan, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.",
"It was created on 23 August 1873 for the Liberal politician Henry Bruce.",
"He served as Home Secretary from 1868 to 1873.His grandson, the third Baron, was a soldier, cricketer and tennis player and a member of the International Olympic Committee.",
"His son, the fourth Baron, held office in the Conservative administration of Edward Heath and was later a Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords.",
"Lord Aberdare was one of the ninety-two elected hereditary peers that were allowed to remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999.the title is held by his son, the fifth Baron, who succeeded in 2005 and was elected to the House of Lords in 2009."
],
[
"Coat of arms",
"The heraldic blazon for the coat of arms of the family is: ''Or, a saltire gules, on a chief of the last a martlet of the field''."
],
[
"Baron Aberdare (1873)",
"*Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare (1815–1895)*Henry Campbell Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare (1851–1929)** Hon.",
"Henry Lyndhurst Bruce (1881–1914), killed in action at Ypres*Clarence Napier Bruce, 3rd Baron Aberdare (1885–1957)*Morys George Lyndhurst Bruce, 4th Baron Aberdare (1919–2005)*Alastair John Lyndhurst Bruce, 5th Baron Aberdare (born 1947)The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon.",
"Hector Morys Napier Bruce (born 1974).===Male-line family tree==="
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*****"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boy band"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''boy band''' is loosely defined as a vocal group consisting of young male singers, usually in their teenage years or in their twenties at the time of formation.",
"Generally, boy bands perform love songs marketed towards girls and young women.",
"Many boy bands dance as well as sing, usually giving highly choreographed performances.",
"South Korean boy bands usually also have designated rappers.Some such bands are formed on their own, often evolving out of church choral or gospel music groups.",
"In contrast, others are created by talent managers or record producers who hold auditions.",
"Being vocal groups, most boy band members do not play musical instruments, either in recording sessions or on-stage.",
"They are similar in concept to their counterparts known as girl groups.",
"The popularity of boy bands has peaked three times: first in the 1960s to 70s (e.g., with the Jackson 5 and the Osmonds); the second time it peaked during the late 1980s, the 1990s and the 2000s, when acts such as New Kids on the Block, Take That, Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, Boyzone, Five, A1, O-Zone and Westlife dominated global pop charts; and last time in the 2010s up to the present, with the emergence of groups such as One Direction, The Wanted, Big Time Rush, The Vamps, Ballinciaga and K-pop acts such as BigBang, Seventeen and BTS."
],
[
"History",
"===Early history===The earliest forerunner of boy band music began in the late 19th century as a cappella barbershop quartets.",
"They were usually a group of males and sang in four-part harmonies.",
"Barbershop quartets were popular into the earlier part of the 20th century.",
"A revival of the male vocal group took place in the late 1940s and 1950s with the use of doo-wop music.",
"Doo-wop bands sang about topics such as love and other themes used in pop music.",
"The earliest traces of boy bands were in the mid-1950s although the term boy band was not used.",
"African American vocal group The Ink Spots was one of the first of what would now be called boy bands.",
"The term boy band was not established until the late 1980s as before that they were called male vocal groups or \"hep harmony singing groups\".Although generally described as a rock band, the highest-selling band in history (The Beatles) have been described by some journalists as \"the first\" or \"the original\" boy band, \"before anyone had thought of the term\", exclusively due to the enthusiastic response they received from their young female audience.Other critics, however, have pointed out that this assessment of the Beatles as a \"boy band\" could be applied to all other bands of the 1960s, saying, \"if they were a (boy band), so was everyone else\" and is countered by others, including Ringo Starr, who point out that, from the beginning, the Beatles wrote and exercised creative control over their own music, played their own instruments, were not manufactured by a record label, and did not feature the choreographed dance moves that later came to be associated with boy bands.",
"The Beatles did, however, inspire the production of the 1966 television series ''The Monkees'', which featured a music group of the same name, created for the show, that consisted of the four starring actors.",
"The Monkees had a career as a rock and pop band after their songs from the TV series were released as successful records.===Late 1960s and 1970s: The Jackson 5 and the Osmonds===The OsmondsAlthough the term \"boy band\" was not commonly used then, the earliest predecessors of this format were groups such as the Jackson 5 and the Osmonds which helped form the template for boy bands.",
"The Jackson 5 were a sibling group that established many musical conventions that boy bands follow.",
"For instance, their music featured close harmonies from soul music and catchy pop hooks influenced as much as they were by Motown and acts like the Supremes.",
"The group also incorporated choreographed dance moves to their performances.",
"All members of the band sang, which is a common convention of a boy band, as opposed to having a front man and the rest on instruments; thus, no one person dominated the stage.",
"Also a sibling group, The Osmonds first started singing barbershop music for local audiences, before being hired to perform at Disneyland early in their career.",
"Their appearance in a televised Disney special earned them additional TV spots, such as ''The Andy Williams Show'' and ''The Jerry Lewis Show''.===Late 1970s and 1980s: Menudo, New Edition, and New Kids on the Block===Other antecedents (apart from those already mentioned) exist throughout the history of pop music.",
"The genre has been copied into languages and cultures other than the Anglo-American.",
"The Puerto Rican boy band Menudo, appealing to young Latina audiences, was founded in 1977.Menudo had a convention unique among boy bands: when a member turned 16, became too tall, or their voice changed, they were replaced.",
"The members of Menudo were generally aged 12–16.The Bay City Rollers are a Scottish pop band who were most popular in the mid-1970s.",
"The ''British Hit Singles & Albums'' noted that they were \"tartan teen sensations from Edinburgh\", and were \"the first of many acts heralded as the 'Biggest Group since The Beatles' and one of the most screamed-at teeny-bopper acts of the 1970s\".",
"For a fairly brief but fervent period (nicknamed \"Rollermania\"), they were worldwide teen idols.",
"The group were one of the first bands, like the Monkees before them, to take the formula shown by the Beatles and apply it to a teen market.",
"The group achieved the same amount of success but for a limited period of time.",
"At the peak of their popularity in the UK, comparisons were being made to the Beatles.",
"Also by this time, Bay City Roller fans had a completely distinctive style of dress, the main elements of which were ankle-length tartan trousers and tartan scarves, the group using the benefit of merchandise and promotion.The German boy band formed in West Berlin, 1976, and had a couple of hits targeting young females, selling more than 5 million albums worldwide.",
"The band dissolved in 1982.New Kids on the Block in concert, November 2008In the US, the Cleveland-based power pop group Raspberries was generally interpreted as a \"teen act\", although all the band members played their own music.",
"Vocalist Eric Carmen later commented, \"It was not hip for people to like us, because their little sister liked us.",
"\"Boston group New Edition was formed in 1978 and reached their height of popularity in the 1980s, meaning they are often credited for starting the boy-band trend, even though the term \"boy band\" did not exist until the 1990s.",
"Maurice Starr was influenced by New Edition and popularized it with his protégé New Kids on the Block (NKOTB), the first commercially successful modern boy band, which formed in 1984 and found international success in 1988.Starr's idea was to take the traditional template from the R&B genre (in this case his teenage band New Edition) and apply it to a pop genre.Bros (abbreviation of the word \"brothers\") were a British boy band active in the late 1980s and early 1990s, consisting of twin brothers Matt and Luke Goss along with Craig Logan.",
"Formed in 1986, they scored multiple top 10 hits between 1987 and 1989 and in 1988 became the first modern era–style boy band to have a multiple platinum-selling album in the UK, with ''Push'', still one of the most successful boy-band albums in the UK.",
"Other big boy bands in Britain during the late 1980s were Big Fun and Brother Beyond.===1990s: Boyz II Men, Take That, Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, Westlife, Seo Taiji and Boys and the birth of modern K-pop ===The ongoing international success of New Kids on the Block inspired music managers in Europe to create their own acts, beginning with Nigel Martin-Smith's Take That in the UK (formed in 1990) and followed by Tom Watkins, who had success with Bros in the late 1980s and formed East 17 in 1991.East 17 were marketed and pitted against Take That as \"rivals\" with a rougher or harsher attitude, style and sound.",
"Take That reformed in 2006 after a decade-long hiatus and became one of the most successful groups in British music chart history, with renewed chart success internationally, especially in Europe.",
"Irish music manager Louis Walsh, who had witnessed the impact of these British boy bands, put out an advert for an \"Irish Take That\", thereby creating Boyzone in 1993.Let Loose (formed in 1993), MN8 and 911 (formed in 1995), and Damage (formed in 1996) were also successful boy bands in Britain; however, by the late 1990s all these bands had split up.All these artists were very successful on both the singles and albums charts domestically and internationally; however, with the emergence of Britpop and the commercial co-option of indie rock, many boy bands were ridiculed by the British music press as having no artistic credibility, although some, such as East 17 and Take That, did write most of their own material.",
"The media attention was then placed on the \"Battle of Britpop\", and the bands Oasis and Blur replaced the importance and rivalry of Take That and East 17 as the two new biggest bands in Britain.",
"However, boy bands continued to find success in the late 1990s, such as Five, Another Level, Point Break and Westlife.",
"In 1995 successful German music manager Frank Farian, who had been manager of Boney M and Milli Vanilli, put together Latin American band No Mercy who scored a few worldwide hits during the mid-90s.Although being American and the sons of Tito Jackson, a member of the Jackson 5, 3T had several hits singles across Europe in the mid-1990s, despite limited success in the US, and finished the second biggest selling act of 1996 in Europe behind the Spice Girls.",
"With the success of North American boy bands like New Kids on the Block in East Asia, Japanese entertainment company Johnny & Associates formed SMAP in 1992.The group enjoyed tremendous success, selling over 35 million records.In 1992, after the disbandment of the heavy metal band Sinawe, in which he had a brief stint, Seo Taiji formed the boy band Seo Taiji and Boys (Korean: 서태지와 아이들) together with dancers Lee Juno and Yang Hyun-suk, which went on to become highly successful and created a craze at the time.",
"Seo Taiji and Boys is credited with changing the South Korean music industry by pioneering the incorporation of rap and breakdance as well as the fusion of Korean music and various popular Western music genres in Korean popular music, and in turn creating the prototype for the modern hybrid K-pop genre or \"rap-dance\", as it was called at the time, and K-pop groups.",
"They also left a lasting impact by explicitly putting social criticism at the forefront of their music, as well as paving the way for artistic freedom in South Korea by challenging censorship laws and the television networks hegemony over the music market.",
"In 1995 the Korean Broadband is not 6 ft to a particular location casting Ethics Committee demanded that Seo Taiji and Boys change the lyrics for \"Regret of the Times\".",
"As a result, Seo decided to release the song as a purely instrumental track.",
"This incited protests and resulted in the abolishment of music pre-censorship in Korea.",
"Seo Taiji also did not have to rely on television networks due to the fact that he owned his own studio.",
"This autonomy allowed Seo to bring subcultures in Korea, such as heavy metal, to the forefront of popular culture and challenge pervasive social norms.",
"The band's independent success diminished the power of the television networks to dictate which artists appeared on shows, and gave rise to the influence of record labels and talent agencies.",
"In 1996, Seo Taiji and Boys disbanded.",
"In April 1996, Billboard reported that the band's first three albums had each sold over 1.6 million copies, with the fourth nearing two million, making all four some of the best-selling albums of all time in South Korea to this day.",
"Lee Juno became a record producer, and Yang Hyun-suk was successful in founding YG Entertainment, one of the three biggest record companies in the country.",
"Seo Taiji returned to music two years later with a successful solo career as a rock artist; he rose to become one of the most prominent and influential cultural icons in South Korea and was dubbed \"the President of culture\".",
"In 2017, Seo Taiji released a 25th Anniversary album with his greatest hits and remakes by prominent Korean artists, including the group BTS.",
"He also held a joint celebratory concert with the latter, in which he acknowledged them as his spiritual successors in K-pop due to the socially conscious thematic similarities in their music as well their shared hip hop leanings, and metaphorically passed the torch, saying \"This is your generation now\".Backstreet Boys sold over 100 million records.In the early 1990s in North America, with New Kids on the Block's continued success and Color Me Badd also having success, boy bands became a continued staple of the Billboard charts.",
"Continuing this success in the mid-1990s, most prominent boy bands were African American and had R&B and gospel elements, such as the groups All-4-One (formed in 1993) and Boyz II Men (formed in 1988).",
"Boyz II Men are also the most successful boy band act on the U.S.",
"Hot 100 as well as the Australian Singles Chart.",
"Although they had success on the Billboard charts, they were not marketed towards youth but more towards adults.",
"It was not until 1997 and the change to pop-oriented groups such as Backstreet Boys, 98 Degrees, NSYNC, the Moffatts, and Hanson that boy bands exploded commercially and dominated the market in the United States.",
"This late 1990s marked the height of boy band popularity in North America, which has not been seen since.Arguably the most successful boy band manager from the U.S. was Lou Pearlman, who founded commercially successful acts such as the Backstreet Boys in 1993, NSYNC and LFO in 1995, O-Town in 2000, and US5 in 2005.Backstreet Boys and NSYNC became the two biggest boy bands in the late 1990s until the early 2000s, and Backstreet Boys went on to become the best-selling boy band in history with over 100 million records sold.In the late 1990s in the UK, producer Simon Cowell (noted in the U.S. for the ''American Idol/The X Factor'' franchise) is also known for having managed British boyband Five (formed in 1997) and Irish boyband Westlife (formed in 1998).",
"Westlife was created by Irishman Louis Walsh as a replacement for Boyzone and was initially managed by a former member of the band Ronan Keating.",
"Westlife would eventually overtake Take That in number one's tally in the UK although Take That's overall UK sales are still higher.",
"In 2012, the Official Charts Company revealed the biggest selling singles artists in British music chart history with Take That placed 15th overall and the highest selling boyband act (9.3 million), followed by Boyzone at 29 (7.1 million) and Westlife at 34 (6.8 million).",
"Even though Cowell is known to have managed several successful boy bands, he is also infamous for passing on signing two of the biggest boybands to emerge from the 1990s and 2000s, Take That and Busted.===2000s: Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, Westlife, Jonas Brothers and F4===Jonas Brothers are described as a pop boy band.With the continued success of Backstreet Boys and *NSYNC, American and British groups like 98 Degrees, Westlife, O-Town, A1, Blue, and Busted gained quick popularity both domestically and internationally.",
"International boy bands would also occasionally spring up, such as the Moldovan band O-Zone (better known today as an Internet meme), and Overground.",
"American Christian boy band Plus One also enjoyed brief remarkable success during this time.At the height of boy band popularity in North America, MTV created their own parody boyband, 2gether.",
"Like the Monkees in the 1960s, they were a manufactured act composed of actors.",
"2gether played off of the idea that every successful boy band must have five distinct personality types: the bad boy, the shy one, the young one, the older brother type, and a heart throb.Since 2001, the dominance of traditional boy bands on pop charts began to fade in the western hemisphere, although Gil Kaufman of MTV has described \"new boy bands\" that are \"more likely to resemble My Chemical Romance, Sum 41, and Simple Plan.In 2001, Taiwanese boy band F4 (called JVKV since 2007) blew up big as a result of the success of their TV drama ''Meteor Garden''.",
"According to ''Forbes'', F4 has sold 3.5 million copies of their first two albums all over Asia as of July 2003.With their success, many other Taiwanese boy bands emerged around this time, such as 5566 and Fahrenheit.",
"In South Korea, Shinhwa also spread hallyu wave throughout Asia such as Japan, Thailand, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and China.",
"Also in 2001, a new all-male pop band and dance group boyband hailing from Japan called Exile debuted under Avex Group's label Rhythm Zone with 14 members, putting them on par with Super Junior, a South Korean boy band, who at the time, had had 13 members at its peak.Japanese boy band Arashi has sold over 30 million copies of their records since their first release in 1999.They had the yearly best-selling single in Japan in 2008 and 2009.In 2003 SMAP released the single \"Sekai ni Hitotsu Dake no Hana\" that has become the third best-selling single ever in Japan, with over three million copies sold.In North America, the Jonas Brothers rose to fame from promotion on the Disney Channel in 2008.Other boy bands like JLS and Mindless Behavior also emerged and experienced remarkable success around this time.",
"However, apart from them, boy bands have not seen the commercial boom experienced in the genre from the mid to late nineties in North America.The mid 2000s, especially the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe, saw the continued longevity of nineties boy bands such as Backstreet Boys and Westlife (before they disbanded in 2012), and the successful comeback of Take That in 2005, Boyzone in 2007, and New Kids on the Block in 2008.Some sections of the press have referred to these acts, particularly those who have reformed after a previous split, such as Take That, Boyzone, and 98 Degrees, as 'man bands'.===2010s and 2020s: Big Time Rush, One Direction and rise of K-pop ===One Direction rose to fame in 2011.In the early 2010s, there was somewhat of a resurgence of boy band popularity in countries where the trend had not maintained, with the emergence of new boy bands like Big Time Rush, the Wanted, and One Direction and the formation of supergroup NKOTBSB which comprised members of New Kids on the Block and Backstreet Boys.",
"NKOTBSB's success inspired boy bands who were fairly popular during the 1990s and 2000s to make a comeback, such as A1, Blue, 98 Degrees, Five, 911, and O-Town.",
"Like 2gether and the Monkees, Big Time Rush was a manufactured act created for a television show.",
"One Direction were often credited as sparking a resurgence in the popularity and interest boy bands alongside being credited with forming part of a new \"British Invasion\" in the United States.",
"Their Where We Are Tour was the highest-grossing tour by a vocal group in history and after the release of their fourth album, ''Four'', they became the only group in the 58-year history of the ''Billboard'' 200 to have their first four albums debut at number one.In Southeast Asia, local boy bands also emerged as a result of the continued success of Korean and Japanese boy bands.",
"After the debut of the Philippines supergroup SB19 in 2018, the group appeared at number six on Billboard Year-End Social 50 chart, making them the first Southeast Asian act to reach the top 10 of the magazine's annual chart.In South Korea, boy bands have been commercially successful.",
"On the Circle Chart year-end albums chart of 2022, 7 of the top 10 and 13 of the top 20 albums are by boy bands or by subunits/members of boy bands.",
"Seventeen's '' FML'' is the best-selling album of all time in South Korea, with more than 6.2 million copies sold, and BTS's ''Love Yourself: Her'' became the first album released since 2001 to sell more than 1 million copies.In 2013, Billboard started covering music releases in K-pop, though K-pop had been entering the charts as early as 2009.By 2017, BTS crossed into the international music market, furthering the Korean Wave in the United States and becoming the first Korean group to receive a certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) with their single \"Mic Drop\".",
"The band is the first Korean act to top the U.S. ''Billboard'' 200 with their studio album ''Love Yourself: Tear'' (2018) and have since hit the top of the U.S. charts with their albums ''Love Yourself: Answer'' (2018), ''Map of the Soul: Persona'' (2019), ''Map of the Soul: 7'' (2020), ''Be'' (2020) and ''Proof''.",
"''Love Yourself: Answer'' also broke South Korea's Gaon Album Chart's all-time monthly record previously set by ''Love Yourself: Tear'' and became the first Korean album certified Gold in the United States.",
"SuperM later became the first K-pop group to debut at No.",
"1 in the U.S. ''Billboard'' 200.In 2020, BTS \"Dynamite\" debuted atop the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, making them the first all-South Korean act in Hot 100 history to debut at number one.",
"It garnered the band their first Grammy nomination, for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, making them the first K-pop act to be nominated for one.In Japan, Arashi was the best-selling music artist in Japan from 2013 through 2017 by value of sales and also having the yearly best-selling album in the country in 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2016.Other successful Japanese boy bands in this decade include Sandaime J Soul Brothers, the second best-selling music artist of 2016 in the country and Kanjani Eight, the fifth best-selling music artist of that year in Japan.In Norway, the boy band Ballinciaga gained commercial success in 2022 with dance and party songs like \"Dans På Bordet\" and \"Beklager (Guttaklubben)\".",
"The group is also known for keeping their identities anonymous by wearing pink-colored masks in the public."
],
[
"Key factors of the concept",
"Seen as important to a \"boy band\" group's commercial success is the group's image, carefully controlled by managing all aspects of the group's attire, promotional materials (which are frequently supplied to teen magazines), and music videos.",
"The key factor of a boy band is being trendy.",
"This means that the band conforms to the most recent fashion and musical trends in the popular music scene.",
"Typically, each member of the group will have some distinguishing feature and be portrayed as having a particular personality stereotype, such as \"the baby\", \"the bad boy\", or \"the shy one\".",
"While managing the portrayal of popular musicians is as old as popular music, the particular pigeonholing of band members is a defining characteristic of boy and girl bands.",
"In K-pop, officially designated positions within the group are common, such as \"leader\", \"maknae\" (Korean: 막내, English: \"the youngest\"), \"visual\", \"center\" \"vocalist\", \"rapper\" and \"dancer\".",
"The latter three are based on the members' specialized skills and are further divided into \"main-\", \"lead-\" and \"sub-\" (vocalist/rapper/dancer) positions, with the members occupying the \"main\" positions often being considered the most skilled and having the most parts in songs or being highlighted during solo dance parts.",
"The \"leader\" is the spokesperson who represents the group in public, and is in charge of mediating between group members, as well as between the group and the label.In most cases, their music is written, arranged and produced by a producer who works with the band at all times and controls the group's sound – if necessary, to the point of hiring session singers to record guide vocals for each member of the group to sing individually if the members cannot harmonize well together.",
"However, for clarity of each voice, recording each voice individually is most commonly the norm with most modern vocal groups.",
"In recent years, auto-tune has become a popular tool in vocal producing, some boy bands have come under fire for that reason.",
"Some have also come under fire for lip syncing in their performances as well, for example New Kids on the Block.A typical boy band performance features elaborately choreographed dancing, with the members taking turns singing and/or rapping.",
"Boy bands generally do not compose or produce their own material, unless the members lobby hard enough for creative control.",
"However, some bands were created around the talent of a songwriter within the group like Gary Barlow of Take That or Tony Mortimer of East 17.It is not uncommon to find extra songs on an album written by one or more of the band members; however, their producers rarely use these as singles.Since the 21st century, however, boy bands have been expected to write or at least contribute in some part lyrically to songs.",
"Apart from the groups mentioned above who all had at least one primary songwriter from their beginning, other groups soon caught up.",
"At the close of the nineties, groups like Backstreet Boys and *NSYNC who had previously used writers like Max Martin during their early albums began writing their own songs.",
"Newer groups from late 2000s such as JLS have all made a point from early interviews that they write their own songs and hold their own image as this is an important part of marketing.",
"Some bands like The Wanted have even spent time learning the craft of songwriting.",
"There has also been a rising trend of so-called \"songwriter-\" or \"producer idols\" (Korean: ''Hangul'' 작곡돌, ''rev.",
"Rom.''",
"jakgok-dol) in K-pop since the early 2000s.",
"Nowadays, it is not uncommon for groups to have at least one member who is heavily involved in the songwriting and producing of the groups' music.",
"In many cases, these members are the rappers in the group, who have often gained songwriting and producing experience while being active as amateur or underground rappers before joining the group.",
"There is also a higher expectation for rappers to write their own lyrics due to self-expression being a core value of the hip-hop genre.",
"There are cases of \"producer idols\" writing or producing for other artists outside of their solo or respective group work as well, such as BIGBANG's G-Dragon, SHINee's Jonghyun, Block B's Zico, BTS' RM and Suga, or AB6IX' Lee Daehwi.Individuals can also go on to achieve greater success as a solo artist coming out of a boy band having used the groups popularity to build on.",
"Usually this signals the end of the group until potential future reunions.",
"Examples of this include Michael Jackson from The Jackson 5, Donny Osmond from The Osmonds, Ricky Martin from Menudo, Justin Timberlake from *NSYNC, and Ronan Keating from Boyzone.",
"Sometimes the most successful solo star from a band is not the most popular member such as Robbie Williams as opposed to lead singer Gary Barlow from Take That.",
"Some boy band members have gone on to successful careers elsewhere in the media.",
"Michael Dolenz of The Monkees went on to become a successful television producer, working for ITV franchises such as LWT and Television South.",
"In K-pop, it is expected and common practice for members to embark on solo endeavors as musical artists or in other entertainment sectors, such as acting, or as variety personalities, alongside their group career after a few years.",
"At the latest, this happens around the time the eldest member reaches the age of 28 (in exceptional cases 30) and is drafted for mandatory military service, forcing the group into a temporary hiatus of at least 18 months.",
"The other members then often go on to pursue solo endeavors and reconvene as a group while no member is serving, or after all members have completed their service, BTS and Exo being recent examples."
],
[
"Music genres",
"Although most boy bands consist of R&B or pop influences, other music genres, most notably country music and folk music, are also represented.",
"South 65 and Marshall Dyllon, for example, were both country music boy bands.",
"Il Divo, created by Simon Cowell in 2004, are a vocal group that performs operatic pop in several (mainly Italian) languages.",
"Since then operatic/classical boy bands have become quite popular and common, especially in the UK.",
"Since 2001, there has been some crossover with power pop and pop punk from bands that play live instruments.",
"Just recently some boy bands decided to go back to their original doo-wop roots, most notably, The Overtones."
],
[
"Controversy",
"Since the 2000s, groups such as Backstreet Boys and LFO have disliked the term \"boy band\" and have preferred to be known as a \"male vocal group\".",
"Being categorized among boy bands was also the main reason the Moffatts split up.",
"Boy bands have been accused by the music press of emphasizing the appearance and marketing of the group above the quality of music, deliberately trying to appeal to a preteen audience and for conforming to trends instead of being original.",
"Such criticisms can become extremely scathing.",
"Boy bands are often seen as being short-lived, although some acts such as The Jackson 5, Backstreet Boys, Human Nature, New Edition, SMAP, Shinhwa, Take That and Westlife have sustained lasting careers."
],
[
"Best-selling boy bands",
"The following is a list of the best-selling boy bands based on claimed sales figures of over 40 million records: Name Nationality Number of members Years active Genre Studio albums Claimed salesBackstreet Boys United States 5 → 4 → 5 1993–present (30 years) Pop 10 100 millionThe Jackson 5 United States 5 → 6 → 4 1964–1990, 2001, 2012–present (59 years) Pop/R&B 18 100 millionThe Osmonds United States 5 1958–1980 (22 years) Pop 22 77 millionNew Kids on the Block United States 5 → 4 → 5 1984–1994, 2008–present (37 years) Pop 6 70 million*NSYNC United States 5 1995–2002, 2023-present (28 years) Pop 4 70 millionOne Direction United Kingdom/Ireland 5 → 4 2010–2016 (6 years; on hiatus) Pop 5 70 millionBay City Rollers 5 1964–1981, 1982–1987, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present (59 years) Pop 16 70 millionBoyz II Men United States 5 → 4 → 3 1988–present (31 years) R&B 11 60 millionTake That United Kingdom 5 → 4 → 5 → 3 1990–1996, 2005–present (31 years) Pop 9 45 millionWestlife Ireland 5 → 4 1998–2012; 2018–present (23 years) Pop 12 45 million"
],
[
"See also",
"* All-female band* Girl group"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Boybands Radio – Only boy bands 24/7* Top 10 Boy Bands at About.com* The Best Boy Bands of All Time—''Rolling Stone''* Best Boy Bands—''The Washington Times''* 10 Biggest Boy Bands (1987–2012)—''Billboard''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"B-tree"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In computer science, a '''B-tree''' is a self-balancing tree data structure that maintains sorted data and allows searches, sequential access, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic time.",
"The B-tree generalizes the binary search tree, allowing for nodes with more than two children.",
"Unlike other self-balancing binary search trees, the B-tree is well suited for storage systems that read and write relatively large blocks of data, such as databases and file systems."
],
[
"History",
"B-trees were invented by Rudolf Bayer and Edward M. McCreight while working at Boeing Research Labs, for the purpose of efficiently managing index pages for large random-access files.",
"The basic assumption was that indices would be so voluminous that only small chunks of the tree could fit in main memory.",
"Bayer and McCreight's paper ''Organization and maintenance of large ordered indices'' was first circulated in July 1970 and later published in ''Acta Informatica''.Bayer and McCreight never explained what, if anything, the ''B'' stands for; ''Boeing'', ''balanced'', ''between'', ''broad'', ''bushy'', and ''Bayer'' have been suggested.",
"McCreight has said that \"the more you think about what the B in B-trees means, the better you understand B-trees\"."
],
[
"Definition",
"According to Knuth's definition, a B-tree of order ''m'' is a tree which satisfies the following properties:# Every node has at most ''m'' children.# Every internal node has at least ⌈''m''/2⌉ children.# The root node has at least two children unless it is a leaf.# All leaves appear on the same level.# A non-leaf node with ''k'' children contains ''k''−1 keys.Each internal node's keys act as separation values which divide its subtrees.",
"For example, if an internal node has 3 child nodes (or subtrees) then it must have 2 keys: ''a''1 and ''a''2.All values in the leftmost subtree will be less than ''a''1, all values in the middle subtree will be between ''a''1 and ''a''2, and all values in the rightmost subtree will be greater than ''a''2.",
";Internal nodes: Internal nodes (also known as inner nodes) are all nodes except for leaf nodes and the root node.",
"They are usually represented as an ordered set of elements and child pointers.",
"Every internal node contains a '''maximum''' of ''U'' children and a '''minimum''' of ''L'' children.",
"Thus, the number of elements is always 1 less than the number of child pointers (the number of elements is between ''L''−1 and ''U''−1).",
"''U'' must be either 2''L'' or 2''L''−1; therefore each internal node is at least half full.",
"The relationship between ''U'' and ''L'' implies that two half-full nodes can be joined to make a legal node, and one full node can be split into two legal nodes (if there's room to push one element up into the parent).",
"These properties make it possible to delete and insert new values into a B-tree and adjust the tree to preserve the B-tree properties.",
";The root node: The root node's number of children has the same upper limit as internal nodes, but has no lower limit.",
"For example, when there are fewer than ''L''−1 elements in the entire tree, the root will be the only node in the tree with no children at all.",
";Leaf nodes: In Knuth's terminology, the \"leaf\" nodes are the actual data objects / chunks.",
"The internal nodes that are one level above these leaves are what would be called the \"leaves\" by other authors: these nodes only store keys (at most ''m''-1, and at least ''m''/2-1 if they are not the root) and pointers (one for each key) to nodes carrying the data objects / chunks.A B-tree of depth ''n''+1 can hold about ''U'' times as many items as a B-tree of depth ''n'', but the cost of search, insert, and delete operations grows with the depth of the tree.",
"As with any balanced tree, the cost grows much more slowly than the number of elements.Some balanced trees store values only at leaf nodes, and use different kinds of nodes for leaf nodes and internal nodes.",
"B-trees keep values in every node in the tree except leaf nodes.===Differences in terminology===The literature on B-trees is not uniform in its terminology.Bayer and McCreight (1972), Comer (1979), and others define the '''order''' of B-tree as the minimum number of keys in a non-root node.",
"Folk and Zoellick points out that terminology is ambiguous because the maximum number of keys is not clear.",
"An order 3 B-tree might hold a maximum of 6 keys or a maximum of 7 keys.",
"Knuth (1998) avoids the problem by defining the '''order''' to be the maximum number of children (which is one more than the maximum number of keys).The term '''leaf''' is also inconsistent.",
"Bayer and McCreight (1972) considered the leaf level to be the lowest level of keys, but Knuth considered the leaf level to be one level below the lowest keys.",
"There are many possible implementation choices.",
"In some designs, the leaves may hold the entire data record; in other designs, the leaves may only hold pointers to the data record.",
"Those choices are not fundamental to the idea of a B-tree.For simplicity, most authors assume there are a fixed number of keys that fit in a node.",
"The basic assumption is the key size is fixed and the node size is fixed.",
"In practice, variable length keys may be employed."
],
[
"Informal description",
"A B-tree of order 5 .===Node structure===As with other trees, B-trees can be represented as a collection of three types of nodes: ''root'', ''internal'' (a.k.a.",
"interior), and ''leaf''.",
"Note the following variable definitions:* '''': Maximum number of potential search keys for each node in a B-tree.",
"(this value is constant over the entire tree).",
"* : The pointer to a child node which starts a sub-tree.",
"* : The pointer to a record which stores the data.",
"* : The search key at the zero-based node index .In B-trees, the following properties are maintained for these nodes:* If exists in any node in a B+ tree, then exists in that node where .",
"* All leaf nodes have the same number of ancestors (i.e., they are all at the same depth).Each internal node in a B-tree has the following format:+Internal node structurept0k0pt1pr0k1pt2pr1...kK-1ptKprK-1+Internal node pointer structure when exists when and exist when exists, and does not exist when and do not exist when exists when does not existPoints to subtree in which all search keys are less than .Points to subtree in which all search keys are greater than and are less than .Points to subtree in which all search keys are greater than .Here, is empty.Points to a record with a value equal to .Here, is empty.Each leaf node in a B-tree has the following format:+Leaf node structurepr0k0pr1k1...prk-1kK-1+Leaf node pointer structure when exists when does not existPoints to a record with a value equal to .Here, is empty.The node bounds are summarized in the table below:Node typeMin number of keysMax number of keysMin number of child nodesMax number of child nodesRoot node when it is a leaf node000Root node when it is an internal node12Internal node Leaf node00===Insertion and deletion===In order to maintain the pre-defined range of child nodes, internal nodes may be joined or split.Usually, the number of keys is chosen to vary between and , where is the minimum number of keys, and is the minimum degree or branching factor of the tree.",
"The factor of 2 will guarantee that nodes can be split or combined.If an internal node has keys, then adding a key to that node can be accomplished by splitting the hypothetical key node into two key nodes and moving the key that would have been in the middle to the parent node.",
"Each split node has the required minimum number of keys.",
"Similarly, if an internal node and its neighbor each have keys, then a key may be deleted from the internal node by combining it with its neighbor.",
"Deleting the key would make the internal node have keys; joining the neighbor would add keys plus one more key brought down from the neighbor's parent.",
"The result is an entirely full node of keys.A B-tree is kept balanced after insertion by splitting a would-be overfilled node, of keys, into two -key siblings and inserting the mid-value key into the parent.",
"Depth only increases when the root is split, maintaining balance.",
"Similarly, a B-tree is kept balanced after deletion by merging or redistributing keys among siblings to maintain the -key minimum for non-root nodes.",
"A merger reduces the number of keys in the parent potentially forcing it to merge or redistribute keys with its siblings, and so on.",
"The only change in depth occurs when the root has two children, of and (transitionally) keys, in which case the two siblings and parent are merged, reducing the depth by one.This depth will increase slowly as elements are added to the tree, but an increase in the overall depth is infrequent, and results in all leaf nodes being one more node farther away from the root.===Comparison to other trees===Because a range of child nodes is permitted, B-trees do not need re-balancing as frequently as other self-balancing search trees, but may waste some space, since nodes are not entirely full.B-trees have substantial advantages over alternative implementations when the time to access the data of a node greatly exceeds the time spent processing that data, because then the cost of accessing the node may be amortized over multiple operations within the node.",
"This usually occurs when the node data are in secondary storage such as disk drives.",
"By maximizing the number of keys within each internal node, the height of the tree decreases and the number of expensive node accesses is reduced.",
"In addition, rebalancing of the tree occurs less often.",
"The maximum number of child nodes depends on the information that must be stored for each child node and the size of a full disk block or an analogous size in secondary storage.",
"While 2–3 B-trees are easier to explain, practical B-trees using secondary storage need a large number of child nodes to improve performance.===Variants===The term '''B-tree''' may refer to a specific design or it may refer to a general class of designs.",
"In the narrow sense, a B-tree stores keys in its internal nodes but need not store those keys in the records at the leaves.",
"The general class includes variations such as the B+ tree, the B* tree and the B*+ tree.",
"* In the B+ tree, the internal nodes do not store any pointers to records, thus all pointers to records are stored in the leaf nodes.",
"In addition, a leaf node may include a pointer to the next leaf node to speed sequential access.",
"Because B+ tree internal nodes have fewer pointers, each node can hold more keys, causing the tree to be shallower, and thus, faster to search.",
"* The B* tree balances more neighboring internal nodes to keep the internal nodes more densely packed.",
"This variant ensures non-root nodes are at least 2/3 full instead of 1/2.As the most costly part of operation of inserting the node in B-tree is splitting the node, B*-trees are created to postpone splitting operation as long as they can.",
"To maintain this, instead of immediately splitting up a node when it gets full, its keys are shared with a node next to it.",
"This spill operation is less costly to do than split, because it requires only shifting the keys between existing nodes, not allocating memory for a new one.",
"For inserting, first it is checked whether the node has some free space in it, and if so, the new key is just inserted in the node.",
"However, if the node is full (it has keys, where is the order of the tree as maximum number of pointers to subtrees from one node), it needs to be checked whether the right sibling exists and has some free space.",
"If the right sibling has keys, then keys are redistributed between the two sibling nodes as evenly as possible.",
"For this purpose, keys from the current node, the new key inserted, one key from the parent node and keys from the sibling node are seen as an ordered array of keys.",
"The array becomes split by half, so that lowest keys stay in the current node, the next (middle) key is inserted in the parent and the rest go to the right sibling.",
"(The newly inserted key might end up in any of the three places.)",
"The situation when right sibling is full, and left isn't is analogous.",
"When both the sibling nodes are full, then the two nodes (current node and a sibling) are split into three and one more key is shifted up the tree, to the parent node.",
"If the parent is full, then spill/split operation propagates towards the root node.",
"Deleting nodes is somewhat more complex than inserting however.",
"* The B*+ tree combines the main B+ tree and B* tree features together.",
"* B-trees can be turned into order statistic trees to allow rapid searches for the Nth record in key order, or counting the number of records between any two records, and various other related operations."
],
[
"B-tree usage in databases",
"===Time to search a sorted file===Usually, sorting and searching algorithms have been characterized by the number of comparison operations that must be performed using order notation.",
"A binary search of a sorted table with records, for example, can be done in roughly comparisons.",
"If the table had 1,000,000 records, then a specific record could be located with at most 20 comparisons: .Large databases have historically been kept on disk drives.",
"The time to read a record on a disk drive far exceeds the time needed to compare keys once the record is available.",
"The time to read a record from a disk drive involves a seek time and a rotational delay.",
"The seek time may be 0 to 20 or more milliseconds, and the rotational delay averages about half the rotation period.",
"For a 7200 RPM drive, the rotation period is 8.33 milliseconds.",
"For a drive such as the Seagate ST3500320NS, the track-to-track seek time is 0.8 milliseconds and the average reading seek time is 8.5 milliseconds.",
"For simplicity, assume reading from disk takes about 10 milliseconds.Naively, then, the time to locate one record out of a million would take 20 disk reads times 10 milliseconds per disk read, which is 0.2 seconds.The time won't be that bad because individual records are grouped together in a disk '''block'''.",
"A disk block might be 16 kilobytes.",
"If each record is 160 bytes, then 100 records could be stored in each block.",
"The disk read time above was actually for an entire block.",
"Once the disk head is in position, one or more disk blocks can be read with little delay.",
"With 100 records per block, the last 6 or so comparisons don't need to do any disk reads—the comparisons are all within the last disk block read.To speed the search further, the first 13 to 14 comparisons (which each required a disk access) must be sped up.===An index speeds the search===A significant improvement in performance can be made with a B-tree index.",
"A B-tree index creates a multi-level tree structure that breaks a database down into fixed-size blocks or pages.",
"Each level of this tree can be used to link those pages via an address location, allowing one page (known as a node, or internal page) to refer to another with leaf pages at the lowest level.",
"One page is typically the starting point of the tree, or the \"root\".",
"This is where the search for a particular key would begin, traversing a path that terminates in a leaf.",
"Most pages in this structure will be leaf pages which ultimately refer to specific table rows.",
"Because each node (or internal page) can have more than two children, a B-tree index will usually have a shorter height (the distance from the root to the farthest leaf) than a Binary Search Tree.",
"In the example above, initial disk reads narrowed the search range by a factor of two.",
"That can be improved substantially by creating an auxiliary index that contains the first record in each disk block (sometimes called a sparse index).",
"This auxiliary index would be 1% of the size of the original database, but it can be searched more quickly.",
"Finding an entry in the auxiliary index would tell us which block to search in the main database; after searching the auxiliary index, we would have to search only that one block of the main database—at a cost of one more disk read.",
"The index would hold 10,000 entries, so it would take at most 14 comparisons.",
"Like the main database, the last six or so comparisons in the auxiliary index would be on the same disk block.",
"The index could be searched in about eight disk reads, and the desired record could be accessed in 9 disk reads.The trick of creating an auxiliary index can be repeated to make an auxiliary index to the auxiliary index.",
"That would make an aux-aux index that would need only 100 entries and would fit in one disk block.Instead of reading 14 disk blocks to find the desired record, we only need to read 3 blocks.",
"This blocking is the core idea behind the creation of the B-tree, where the disk blocks fill-out a hierarchy of levels to make up the index.",
"Reading and searching the first (and only) block of the aux-aux index which is the root of the tree identifies the relevant block in aux-index in the level below.",
"Reading and searching that aux-index block identifies the relevant block to read, until the final level, known as the leaf level, identifies a record in the main database.",
"Instead of 150 milliseconds, we need only 30 milliseconds to get the record.The auxiliary indices have turned the search problem from a binary search requiring roughly disk reads to one requiring only disk reads where is the blocking factor (the number of entries per block: entries per block in our example; reads).In practice, if the main database is being frequently searched, the aux-aux index and much of the aux index may reside in a disk cache, so they would not incur a disk read.",
"The B-tree remains the standard index implementation in almost all relational databases, and many nonrelational databases use them too.===Insertions and deletions===If the database does not change, then compiling the index is simple to do, and the index need never be changed.",
"If there are changes, then managing the database and its index becomes more complicated.Deleting records from a database is relatively easy.",
"The index can stay the same, and the record can just be marked as deleted.",
"The database remains in sorted order.",
"If there are a large number of lazy deletions, then searching and storage become less efficient.Insertions can be very slow in a sorted sequential file because room for the inserted record must be made.",
"Inserting a record before the first record requires shifting all of the records down one.",
"Such an operation is just too expensive to be practical.",
"One solution is to leave some spaces.",
"Instead of densely packing all the records in a block, the block can have some free space to allow for subsequent insertions.",
"Those spaces would be marked as if they were \"deleted\" records.Both insertions and deletions are fast as long as space is available on a block.",
"If an insertion won't fit on the block, then some free space on some nearby block must be found and the auxiliary indices adjusted.",
"The hope is that enough space is available nearby, such that a lot of blocks do not need to be reorganized.",
"Alternatively, some out-of-sequence disk blocks may be used.===Advantages of B-tree usage for databases===The B-tree uses all of the ideas described above.",
"In particular, a B-tree:* keeps keys in sorted order for sequential traversing* uses a hierarchical index to minimize the number of disk reads* uses partially full blocks to speed up insertions and deletions* keeps the index balanced with a recursive algorithmIn addition, a B-tree minimizes waste by making sure the interior nodes are at least half full.",
"A B-tree can handle an arbitrary number of insertions and deletions."
],
[
"Best case and worst case heights",
"Let be the height of the classic B-tree (see for the tree height definition).",
"Let be the number of entries in the tree.",
"Let ''m'' be the maximum number of children a node can have.",
"Each node can have at most keys.It can be shown (by induction for example) that a B-tree of height ''h'' with all its nodes completely filled has entries.",
"Hence, the best case height (i.e.",
"the minimum height) of a B-tree is:: Let be the minimum number of children an internal (non-root) node must have.",
"For an ordinary B-tree, Comer (1979) and Cormen et al.",
"(2001) give the worst case height (the maximum height) of a B-tree as:"
],
[
"Algorithms",
"===Search===Searching is similar to searching a binary search tree.",
"Starting at the root, the tree is recursively traversed from top to bottom.",
"At each level, the search reduces its field of view to the child pointer (subtree) whose range includes the search value.",
"A subtree's range is defined by the values, or keys, contained in its parent node.",
"These limiting values are also known as separation values.Binary search is typically (but not necessarily) used within nodes to find the separation values and child tree of interest.===Insertion===A B-tree insertion example with each iteration.",
"The nodes of this B-tree have at most 3 children (Knuth order 3).All insertions start at a leaf node.",
"To insert a new element, search the tree to find the leaf node where the new element should be added.",
"Insert the new element into that node with the following steps:# If the node contains fewer than the maximum allowed number of elements, then there is room for the new element.",
"Insert the new element in the node, keeping the node's elements ordered.# Otherwise the node is full, evenly split it into two nodes so:## A single median is chosen from among the leaf's elements and the new element that is being inserted.## Values less than the median are put in the new left node and values greater than the median are put in the new right node, with the median acting as a separation value.## The separation value is inserted in the node's parent, which may cause it to be split, and so on.",
"If the node has no parent (i.e., the node was the root), create a new root above this node (increasing the height of the tree).If the splitting goes all the way up to the root, it creates a new root with a single separator value and two children, which is why the lower bound on the size of internal nodes does not apply to the root.",
"The maximum number of elements per node is ''U''−1.When a node is split, one element moves to the parent, but one element is added.",
"So, it must be possible to divide the maximum number ''U''−1 of elements into two legal nodes.",
"If this number is odd, then ''U''=2''L'' and one of the new nodes contains (''U''−2)/2 = ''L''−1 elements, and hence is a legal node, and the other contains one more element, and hence it is legal too.",
"If ''U''−1 is even, then ''U''=2''L''−1, so there are 2''L''−2 elements in the node.",
"Half of this number is ''L''−1, which is the minimum number of elements allowed per node.An alternative algorithm supports a single pass down the tree from the root to the node where the insertion will take place, splitting any full nodes encountered on the way pre-emptively.",
"This prevents the need to recall the parent nodes into memory, which may be expensive if the nodes are on secondary storage.",
"However, to use this algorithm, we must be able to send one element to the parent and split the remaining ''U''−2 elements into two legal nodes, without adding a new element.",
"This requires ''U'' = 2''L'' rather than ''U'' = 2''L''−1, which accounts for why some textbooks impose this requirement in defining B-trees.===Deletion===There are two popular strategies for deletion from a B-tree.# Locate and delete the item, then restructure the tree to retain its invariants, '''OR'''# Do a single pass down the tree, but before entering (visiting) a node, restructure the tree so that once the key to be deleted is encountered, it can be deleted without triggering the need for any further restructuringThe algorithm below uses the former strategy.There are two special cases to consider when deleting an element:# The element in an internal node is a separator for its child nodes# Deleting an element may put its node under the minimum number of elements and childrenThe procedures for these cases are in order below.====Deletion from a leaf node====# Search for the value to delete.# If the value is in a leaf node, simply delete it from the node.# If underflow happens, rebalance the tree as described in section \"Rebalancing after deletion\" below.====Deletion from an internal node====Each element in an internal node acts as a separation value for two subtrees, therefore we need to find a replacement for separation.",
"Note that the largest element in the left subtree is still less than the separator.",
"Likewise, the smallest element in the right subtree is still greater than the separator.",
"Both of those elements are in leaf nodes, and either one can be the new separator for the two subtrees.",
"Algorithmically described below:# Choose a new separator (either the largest element in the left subtree or the smallest element in the right subtree), remove it from the leaf node it is in, and replace the element to be deleted with the new separator.# The previous step deleted an element (the new separator) from a leaf node.",
"If that leaf node is now deficient (has fewer than the required number of nodes), then rebalance the tree starting from the leaf node.====Rebalancing after deletion====Rebalancing starts from a leaf and proceeds toward the root until the tree is balanced.",
"If deleting an element from a node has brought it under the minimum size, then some elements must be redistributed to bring all nodes up to the minimum.",
"Usually, the redistribution involves moving an element from a sibling node that has more than the minimum number of nodes.",
"That redistribution operation is called a '''rotation'''.",
"If no sibling can spare an element, then the deficient node must be '''merged''' with a sibling.",
"The merge causes the parent to lose a separator element, so the parent may become deficient and need rebalancing.",
"The merging and rebalancing may continue all the way to the root.",
"Since the minimum element count doesn't apply to the root, making the root be the only deficient node is not a problem.",
"The algorithm to rebalance the tree is as follows:* If the deficient node's right sibling exists and has more than the minimum number of elements, then rotate left*# Copy the separator from the parent to the end of the deficient node (the separator moves down; the deficient node now has the minimum number of elements)*# Replace the separator in the parent with the first element of the right sibling (right sibling loses one node but still has at least the minimum number of elements)*# The tree is now balanced* Otherwise, if the deficient node's left sibling exists and has more than the minimum number of elements, then rotate right*# Copy the separator from the parent to the start of the deficient node (the separator moves down; deficient node now has the minimum number of elements)*# Replace the separator in the parent with the last element of the left sibling (left sibling loses one node but still has at least the minimum number of elements)*# The tree is now balanced* Otherwise, if both immediate siblings have only the minimum number of elements, then merge with a sibling sandwiching their separator taken off from their parent*# Copy the separator to the end of the left node (the left node may be the deficient node or it may be the sibling with the minimum number of elements)*# Move all elements from the right node to the left node (the left node now has the maximum number of elements, and the right node – empty)*# Remove the separator from the parent along with its empty right child (the parent loses an element)*#* If the parent is the root and now has no elements, then free it and make the merged node the new root (tree becomes shallower)*#* Otherwise, if the parent has fewer than the required number of elements, then rebalance the parent:'''Note''': The rebalancing operations are different for B+ trees (e.g., rotation is different because parent has copy of the key) and B*-tree (e.g., three siblings are merged into two siblings).===Sequential access===While freshly loaded databases tend to have good sequential behaviour, this behaviour becomes increasingly difficult to maintain as a database grows, resulting in more random I/O and performance challenges.===Initial construction===A common special case is adding a large amount of ''pre-sorted'' data into an initially empty B-tree.",
"While it is quite possible to simply perform a series of successive inserts, inserting sorted data results in a tree composed almost entirely of half-full nodes.",
"Instead, a special \"bulk loading\" algorithm can be used to produce a more efficient tree with a higher branching factor.When the input is sorted, all insertions are at the rightmost edge of the tree, and in particular any time a node is split, we are guaranteed that no more insertions will take place in the left half.",
"When bulk loading, we take advantage of this, and instead of splitting overfull nodes evenly, split them as ''unevenly'' as possible: leave the left node completely full and create a right node with zero keys and one child (in violation of the usual B-tree rules).At the end of bulk loading, the tree is composed almost entirely of completely full nodes; only the rightmost node on each level may be less than full.",
"Because those nodes may also be less than ''half'' full, to re-establish the normal B-tree rules, combine such nodes with their (guaranteed full) left siblings and divide the keys to produce two nodes at least half full.",
"The only node which lacks a full left sibling is the root, which is permitted to be less than half full."
],
[
"In filesystems",
"In addition to its use in databases, the B-tree (or ) is also used in filesystems to allow quick random access to an arbitrary block in a particular file.",
"The basic problem is turning the file block address into a disk block address.Some operating systems require the user to allocate the maximum size of the file when the file is created.",
"The file can then be allocated as contiguous disk blocks.",
"In that case, to convert the file block address into a disk block address, the operating system simply adds the file block address to the address of the first disk block constituting the file.",
"The scheme is simple, but the file cannot exceed its created size.Other operating systems allow a file to grow.",
"The resulting disk blocks may not be contiguous, so mapping logical blocks to physical blocks is more involved.MS-DOS, for example, used a simple File Allocation Table (FAT).",
"The FAT has an entry for each disk block, and that entry identifies whether its block is used by a file and if so, which block (if any) is the next disk block of the same file.",
"So, the allocation of each file is represented as a linked list in the table.",
"In order to find the disk address of file block , the operating system (or disk utility) must sequentially follow the file's linked list in the FAT.",
"Worse, to find a free disk block, it must sequentially scan the FAT.",
"For MS-DOS, that was not a huge penalty because the disks and files were small and the FAT had few entries and relatively short file chains.",
"In the FAT12 filesystem (used on floppy disks and early hard disks), there were no more than 4,080 entries, and the FAT would usually be resident in memory.",
"As disks got bigger, the FAT architecture began to confront penalties.",
"On a large disk using FAT, it may be necessary to perform disk reads to learn the disk location of a file block to be read or written.TOPS-20 (and possibly TENEX) used a 0 to 2 level tree that has similarities to a B-tree.",
"A disk block was 512 36-bit words.",
"If the file fit in a 512 (29) word block, then the file directory would point to that physical disk block.",
"If the file fit in 218 words, then the directory would point to an aux index; the 512 words of that index would either be NULL (the block isn't allocated) or point to the physical address of the block.",
"If the file fit in 227 words, then the directory would point to a block holding an aux-aux index; each entry would either be NULL or point to an aux index.",
"Consequently, the physical disk block for a 227 word file could be located in two disk reads and read on the third.Apple's filesystem HFS+ and APFS, Microsoft's NTFS, AIX (jfs2) and some Linux filesystems, such as Bcachefs, Btrfs and ext4, use B-trees.B*-trees are used in the HFS and Reiser4 file systems.DragonFly BSD's HAMMER file system uses a modified B+-tree."
],
[
"Performance",
"A B-tree grows slower with growing data amount, than the linearity of a linked list.",
"Compared to a skip list, both structures have the same performance, but the B-tree scales better for growing ''n''.",
"A T-tree, for main memory database systems, is similar but more compact."
],
[
"Variations",
"===Access concurrency===Lehman and Yao showed that all the read locks could be avoided (and thus concurrent access greatly improved) by linking the tree blocks at each level together with a \"next\" pointer.",
"This results in a tree structure where both insertion and search operations descend from the root to the leaf.",
"Write locks are only required as a tree block is modified.",
"This maximizes access concurrency by multiple users, an important consideration for databases and/or other B-tree-based ISAM storage methods.",
"The cost associated with this improvement is that empty pages cannot be removed from the btree during normal operations.",
"(However, see for various strategies to implement node merging, and source code at.",
")United States Patent 5283894, granted in 1994, appears to show a way to use a 'Meta Access Method' to allow concurrent B+ tree access and modification without locks.",
"The technique accesses the tree 'upwards' for both searches and updates by means of additional in-memory indexes that point at the blocks in each level in the block cache.",
"No reorganization for deletes is needed and there are no 'next' pointers in each block as in Lehman and Yao.===Parallel algorithms===Since B-trees are similar in structure to red-black trees, parallel algorithms for red-black trees can be applied to B-trees as well.===Maple tree===A Maple tree is a B-tree developed for use in the Linux kernel to reduce lock contention in virtual memory management."
],
[
"See also",
"* B+ tree* R-tree* Red–black tree* 2–3 tree* 2–3–4 tree"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* .",
"* .",
"* Chapter 18: B-Trees.",
"* .",
"* Section 6.2.4: Multiway Trees, pp.",
"481–491.Also, pp.",
"476–477 of section 6.2.3 (Balanced Trees) discusses 2–3 trees.===Original papers===* .",
"* ."
],
[
"External links",
"* B-tree lecture by David Scot Taylor, SJSU* B-Tree visualisation (click \"init\")* Animated B-Tree visualization* B-tree and UB-tree on Scholarpedia Curator: Dr Rudolf Bayer* B-Trees: Balanced Tree Data Structures* NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: B-tree* B-Tree Tutorial* The InfinityDB BTree implementation* Cache Oblivious B(+)-trees* Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures entry for B*-tree* Open Data Structures - Section 14.2 - B-Trees, Pat Morin* Counted B-Trees* B-Tree .Net, a modern, virtualized RAM & Disk implementation'''Bulk loading'''****"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"British Museum"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Great Court was developed in 2001 and surrounds the original Reading Room.The '''British Museum''' is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London.",
"Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world.",
"It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.",
"The British Museum was the first public national museum to cover all fields of knowledge.In 2022 the museum received 4,097,253 visitors, an increase of 209 per cent from 2021.It ranked third in the list of most-visited art museums in the world.The museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane.",
"It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building.",
"The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of British colonisation and resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, or independent spin-offs, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881.The right to ownership of some of its most well-known acquisitions, notably the Greek Elgin Marbles and the Egyptian Rosetta Stone, is subject to long-term disputes and repatriation claims.In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997.The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions."
],
[
"History",
"=== Sir Hans Sloane ===Sir Hans SloaneAlthough today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a \"universal museum\".",
"Its foundations lie in the will of the Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753), a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster.",
"During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter, Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities, and not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of £20,000.At that time, Sloane's collection consisted of around 71,000 objects of all kinds including some 40,000 printed books, 7,000 manuscripts, extensive natural history specimens including 337 volumes of dried plants, prints and drawings including those by Albrecht Dürer and antiquities from Sudan, Egypt, Greece, Rome, the Ancient Near and Far East and the Americas.===Foundation (1753)===On 7 June 1753, King George II gave his royal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum.",
"The British Museum Act 1753 also added two other libraries to the Sloane collection, namely the Cottonian Library, assembled by Sir Robert Cotton, dating back to Elizabethan times, and the Harleian Library, the collection of the Earls of Oxford.",
"They were joined in 1757 by the \"Old Royal Library\", now the Royal manuscripts, assembled by various British monarchs.",
"Together these four \"foundation collections\" included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving manuscript of ''Beowulf''.Montagu House, c. 1715The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public and aiming to collect everything.",
"Sloane's collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests.",
"The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary and antiquarian element, and meant that the British Museum now became both National Museum and library.===Cabinet of curiosities (1753–1778)===The Rosetta Stone on display in the British Museum in 1874The body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000.The trustees rejected Buckingham House, which was later converted into the present day Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost and the unsuitability of its location.With the acquisition of Montagu House, the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759.At this time, the largest parts of collection were the library, which took up the majority of the rooms on the ground floor of Montagu House, and the natural history objects, which took up an entire wing on the second state storey of the building.",
"In 1763, the trustees of the British Museum, under the influence of Peter Collinson and William Watson, employed the former student of Carl Linnaeus, Daniel Solander, to reclassify the natural history collection according to the Linnaean system, thereby making the museum a public centre of learning accessible to the full range of European natural historians.",
"In 1823, King George IV gave the King's Library assembled by George III, and Parliament gave the right to a copy of every book published in the country, thereby ensuring that the museum's library would expand indefinitely.",
"During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several further gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts and David Garrick's library of 1,000 printed plays.",
"The predominance of natural history, books and manuscripts began to lessen when in 1772 the museum acquired for £8,410 its first significant antiquities in Sir William Hamilton's \"first\" collection of Greek vases.===Indolence and energy (1778–1800)===Entrance ticket to the British Museum, London 3 March 1790From 1778, a display of objects from the South Seas brought back from the round-the-world voyages of Captain James Cook and the travels of other explorers fascinated visitors with a glimpse of previously unknown lands.",
"The bequest of a collection of books, engraved gems, coins, prints and drawings by Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode in 1800 did much to raise the museum's reputation; but Montagu House became increasingly crowded and decrepit and it was apparent that it would be unable to cope with further expansion.The museum's first notable addition towards its collection of antiquities, since its foundation, was by Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803), British Ambassador to Naples, who sold his collection of Greek and Roman artefacts to the museum in 1784 together with a number of other antiquities and natural history specimens.",
"A list of donations to the museum, dated 31 January 1784, refers to the Hamilton bequest of a \"Colossal Foot of an Apollo in Marble\".",
"It was one of two antiquities of Hamilton's collection drawn for him by Francesco Progenie, a pupil of Pietro Fabris, who also contributed a number of drawings of Mount Vesuvius sent by Hamilton to the Royal Society in London.===Growth and change (1800–1825)===Montagu House, Townley Gallery and Sir Robert Smirke's west wing under construction, July 1828Mausoleum of Halicarnassus Room, 1920sIn the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays.",
"After the defeat of the French campaign in the Battle of the Nile, in 1801, the British Museum acquired more Egyptian sculptures and in 1802 King George III presented the Rosetta Stone – key to the deciphering of hieroglyphs.",
"Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, laid the foundations of the collection of Egyptian Monumental Sculpture.",
"Many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman sculpture, in 1805.In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803 removed the large collection of marble sculptures from the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens and transferred them to the UK.",
"In 1816 these masterpieces of western art were acquired by the British Museum by Act of Parliament and deposited in the museum thereafter.",
"The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815.The Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich.In 1802 a buildings committee was set up to plan for expansion of the museum, and further highlighted by the donation in 1822 of the King's Library, personal library of King George III's, comprising 65,000 volumes, 19,000 pamphlets, maps, charts and topographical drawings.",
"The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an eastern extension to the museum \"... for the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it ...\" and put forward plans for today's quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today.",
"The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the King's Library Gallery began in 1823.The extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831.However, following the founding of the National Gallery, London in 1824, the proposed Picture Gallery was no longer needed, and the space on the upper floor was given over to the Natural history collections.The first Synopsis of the British Museum was published in 1808.This described the contents of the museum, and the display of objects room by room, and updated editions were published every few years.===The largest building site in Europe (1825–1850)===Grenville Library, 1875As Sir Robert Smirke's grand neo-classical building gradually arose, the museum became a construction site.",
"The King's Library, on the ground floor of the East Wing, was handed over in 1827, and was described as one of the finest rooms in London.",
"Although it was not fully open to the general public until 1857, special openings were arranged during The Great Exhibition of 1851.In 1840, the museum became involved in its first overseas excavations, Charles Fellows's expedition to Xanthos, in Asia Minor, whence came remains of the tombs of the rulers of ancient Lycia, among them the Nereid and Payava monuments.",
"In 1857, Charles Newton was to discover the 4th-century BC Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.",
"In the 1840s and 1850s the museum supported excavations in Assyria by A.H. Layard and others at sites such as Nimrud and Nineveh.",
"Of particular interest to curators was the eventual discovery of Ashurbanipal's great library of cuneiform tablets, which helped to make the museum a focus for Assyrian studies.Sir Thomas Grenville (1755–1846), a trustee of the British Museum from 1830, assembled a library of 20,240 volumes, which he left to the museum in his will.",
"The books arrived in January 1847 in twenty-one horse-drawn vans.",
"The only vacant space for this large library was a room originally intended for manuscripts, between the Front Entrance Hall and the Manuscript Saloon.",
"The books remained here until the British Library moved to St Pancras in 1998.===Collecting from the wider world (1850–1875)===The opening of the forecourt in 1852 marked the completion of Robert Smirke's 1823 plan, but already adjustments were having to be made to cope with the unforeseen growth of the collections.",
"Infill galleries were constructed for Assyrian sculptures and Sydney Smirke's Round Reading Room, with space for a million books, opened in 1857.Because of continued pressure on space the decision was taken to move natural history to a new building in South Kensington, which would later become the British Museum of Natural History.Roughly contemporary with the construction of the new building was the career of a man sometimes called the \"second founder\" of the British Museum, the Italian librarian Anthony Panizzi.",
"Under his supervision, the British Museum Library (now part of the British Library) quintupled in size and became a well-organised institution worthy of being called a national library, the largest library in the world after the National Library of Paris.",
"The quadrangle at the centre of Smirke's design proved to be a waste of valuable space and was filled at Panizzi's request by a circular Reading Room of cast iron, designed by Smirke's brother, Sydney Smirke.Until the mid-19th century, the museum's collections were relatively circumscribed but, in 1851, with the appointment to the staff of Augustus Wollaston Franks to curate the collections, the museum began for the first time to collect British and European medieval antiquities, prehistory, branching out into Asia and diversifying its holdings of ethnography.",
"A real coup for the museum was the purchase in 1867, over French objections, of the Duke of Blacas's wide-ranging and valuable collection of antiquities.",
"Overseas excavations continued and John Turtle Wood discovered the remains of the 4th century BC Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, another Wonder of the Ancient World.===Scholarship and legacies (1875–1900)===The natural history collections were an integral part of the British Museum until their removal to the new British Museum of Natural History in 1887, nowadays the Natural History Museum in South Kensington.",
"With the departure and the completion of the new White Wing (fronting Montague Street) in 1884, more space was available for antiquities and ethnography and the library could further expand.",
"This was a time of innovation as electric lighting was introduced in the Reading Room and exhibition galleries.The William Burges collection of armoury was bequeathed to the museum in 1881.In 1882, the museum was involved in the establishment of the independent Egypt Exploration Fund (now Society) the first British body to carry out research in Egypt.",
"A bequest from Miss Emma Turner in 1892 financed excavations in Cyprus.",
"In 1897 the death of the great collector and curator, A. W. Franks, was followed by an immense bequest of 3,300 finger rings, 153 drinking vessels, 512 pieces of continental porcelain, 1,500 netsuke, 850 inro, over 30,000 bookplates and miscellaneous items of jewellery and plate, among them the Oxus Treasure.In 1898 Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild bequeathed the Waddesdon Bequest, the glittering contents from his New Smoking Room at Waddesdon Manor.",
"This consisted of almost 300 pieces of ''objets d'art et de vertu'' which included exquisite examples of jewellery, plate, enamel, carvings, glass and maiolica, among them the Holy Thorn Reliquary, probably created in the 1390s in Paris for John, Duke of Berry.",
"The collection was in the tradition of a ''Schatzkammer'' such as those formed by the Renaissance princes of Europe.",
"Baron Ferdinand's will was most specific, and failure to observe the terms would make it void, the collection should be These terms are still observed, and the collection occupies room 2a.===New century, new building (1900–1925)===King Edward VII's Galleries, 1914Sir Leonard Woolley holding the excavated Sumerian Queen's Lyre, 1922By the last years of the 19th century, The British Museum's collections had increased to the extent that its building was no longer large enough.",
"In 1895 the trustees purchased the 69 houses surrounding the museum with the intention of demolishing them and building around the west, north and east sides of the museum.",
"The first stage was the construction of the northern wing beginning 1906.All the while, the collections kept growing.",
"Emil Torday collected in Central Africa, Aurel Stein in Central Asia, D. G. Hogarth, Leonard Woolley and T. E. Lawrence excavated at Carchemish.",
"Around this time, the American collector and philanthropist J. Pierpont Morgan donated a substantial number of objects to the museum, including William Greenwell's collection of prehistoric artefacts from across Europe which he had purchased for £10,000 in 1908.Morgan had also acquired a major part of Sir John Evans's coin collection, which was later sold to the museum by his son J. P. Morgan Jr. in 1915.In 1918, because of the threat of wartime bombing, some objects were evacuated via the London Post Office Railway to Holborn, the National Library of Wales (Aberystwyth) and a country house near Malvern.",
"On the return of antiquities from wartime storage in 1919 some objects were found to have deteriorated.",
"A conservation laboratory was set up in May 1920 and became a permanent department in 1931.It is today the oldest in continuous existence.",
"In 1923, the British Museum welcomed over one million visitors.===Disruption and reconstruction (1925–1950)===New mezzanine floors were constructed and book stacks rebuilt in an attempt to cope with the flood of books.",
"In 1931, the art dealer Sir Joseph Duveen offered funds to build a gallery for the Parthenon sculptures.",
"Designed by the American architect John Russell Pope, it was completed in 1938.The appearance of the exhibition galleries began to change as dark Victorian reds gave way to modern pastel shades.",
"Following the retirement of George Francis Hill as Director and Principal Librarian in 1936, he was succeeded by John Forsdyke.As tensions with Nazi Germany developed and it appeared that war may be imminent Forsdyke came to the view that with the likelihood of far worse air-raids than that experienced in World War I that the museum had to make preparations to remove its most valuable items to secure locations.",
"Following the Munich crisis Forsdyke ordered 3,300 No-Nail Boxes and stored them in the basement of Duveen Gallery.",
"At the same time he began identifying and securing suitable locations.",
"As a result, the museum was able to quickly commence relocating selected items on 24 August 1939, (a mere day after the Home Secretary advised them to do so), to secure basements, country houses, Aldwych Underground station and the National Library of Wales.",
"Many items were relocated in early 1942 from their initial dispersal locations to a newly developed facility at Westwood Quarry in Wiltshire.The evacuation was timely, for in 1940 the Duveen Gallery was severely damaged by bombing.",
"Meanwhile, prior to the war, the Nazis had sent a researcher to the British Museum for several years with the aim of \"compiling an anti-Semitic history of Anglo-Jewry\".After the war, the museum continued to collect from all countries and all centuries: among the most spectacular additions were the 2600 BC Mesopotamian treasure from Ur, discovered during Leonard Woolley's 1922–34 excavations.",
"Gold, silver and garnet grave goods from the Anglo-Saxon ship burial at Sutton Hoo (1939) and late Roman silver tableware from Mildenhall, Suffolk (1946).",
"The immediate post-war years were taken up with the return of the collections from protection and the restoration of the museum after the Blitz.",
"Work also began on restoring the damaged Duveen Gallery.===A new public face (1950–1975)===Duveen Gallery, 1980In 1953, the museum celebrated its bicentenary.",
"Many changes followed: the first full-time in-house designer and publications officer were appointed in 1964, the Friends organisation was set up in 1968, an Education Service established in 1970 and publishing house in 1973.In 1963, a new Act of Parliament introduced administrative reforms.",
"It became easier to lend objects, the constitution of the board of trustees changed and the Natural History Museum became fully independent.",
"By 1959 the Coins and Medals office suite, completely destroyed during the war, was rebuilt and re-opened, attention turned towards the gallery work with new tastes in design leading to the remodelling of Robert Smirke's Classical and Near Eastern galleries.",
"In 1962 the Duveen Gallery was finally restored and the Parthenon Sculptures were moved back into it, once again at the heart of the museum.By the 1970s the museum was again expanding.",
"More services for the public were introduced; visitor numbers soared, with the temporary exhibition \"Treasures of Tutankhamun\" in 1972, attracting 1,694,117 visitors, the most successful in British history.",
"In the same year the Act of Parliament establishing the British Library was passed, separating the collection of manuscripts and printed books from the British Museum.",
"This left the museum with antiquities; coins, medals and paper money; prints and drawings; and ethnography.",
"A pressing problem was finding space for additions to the library which now required an extra of shelving each year.",
"The Government suggested a site at St Pancras for the new British Library but the books did not leave the museum until 1997.===The Great Court emerges (1975–2000)===The departure of the British Library to a new site at St Pancras, finally achieved in 1998, provided the space needed for the books.",
"It also created the opportunity to redevelop the vacant space in Robert Smirke's 19th-century central quadrangle into the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court – the largest covered square in Europe – which opened in 2000.The ethnography collections, which had been housed in the short-lived Museum of Mankind at 6 Burlington Gardens from 1970, were returned to new purpose-built galleries in the museum in 2000.The museum again readjusted its collecting policies as interest in \"modern\" objects: prints, drawings, medals and the decorative arts reawakened.",
"Ethnographical fieldwork was carried out in places as diverse as New Guinea, Madagascar, Romania, Guatemala and Indonesia and there were excavations in the Near East, Egypt, Sudan and the UK.",
"The Weston Gallery of Roman Britain, opened in 1997, displayed a number of recently discovered hoards which demonstrated the richness of what had been considered an unimportant part of the Roman Empire.",
"The museum turned increasingly towards private funds for buildings, acquisitions and other purposes.",
"In 2000, the British Museum was awarded National Heritage Museum of the Year.===The British Museum today===Wide view of the Great CourtToday the museum no longer houses collections of natural history, and the books and manuscripts it once held now form part of the independent British Library.",
"The museum nevertheless preserves its universality in its collections of artefacts representing the cultures of the world, ancient and modern.",
"The original 1753 collection has grown to over 13 million objects at the British Museum, 70 million at the Natural History Museum and 150 million at the British Library.The Round Reading Room, which was designed by the architect Sydney Smirke, opened in 1857.For almost 150 years researchers came here to consult the museum's vast library.",
"The Reading Room closed in 1997 when the national library (the British Library) moved to a new building at St Pancras.",
"Today it has been transformed into the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Centre.With the bookstacks in the central courtyard of the museum empty, the demolition for Lord Foster's glass-roofed Great Court could begin.",
"The Great Court, opened in 2000, while undoubtedly improving circulation around the museum, was criticised for having a lack of exhibition space at a time when the museum was in serious financial difficulties and many galleries were closed to the public.",
"At the same time the African collections that had been temporarily housed in 6 Burlington Gardens were given a new gallery in the North Wing funded by the Sainsbury family – with the donation valued at £25 million.As part of its very large website, the museum has the largest online database of objects in the collection of any museum in the world, with nearly 4,500,000 individual object entries in 2,000,000 records, many of them illustrated, online at the start of 2023.There is also a \"Highlights\" database with longer entries on over 4,000 objects, and several specialised online research catalogues and online journals (all free to access).",
"In 2013 the museum's website received 19.5 millions visits, an increase of 47% from the previous year.In 2013 the museum received a record 6.7 million visitors, an increase of 20% from the previous year.",
"Popular exhibitions including \"Life and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum\" and \"Ice Age Art\" are credited with helping fuel the increase in visitors.",
"Plans were announced in September 2014 to recreate the entire building along with all exhibits in the video game ''Minecraft'' in conjunction with members of the public.",
"A number of films have been shot at the British Museum."
],
[
"Governance",
"=== Director ===The British Museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport through a three-year funding agreement.",
"Its head is the Director of the British Museum.",
"The British Museum was run from its inception by a 'principal librarian' (when the book collections were still part of the museum), a role that was renamed 'director and principal librarian' in 1898, and 'director' in 1973 (on the separation of the British Library).=== Trustees ===A board of 25 trustees (with the director as their accounting officer for the purposes of reporting to Government) is responsible for the general management and control of the museum, in accordance with the British Museum Act 1963 and the Museums and Galleries Act 1992.Prior to the 1963 Act, it was chaired by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker of the House of Commons.",
"The board was formed on the museum's inception to hold its collections in trust for the nation without actually owning them themselves, and now fulfil a mainly advisory role.",
"Trustee appointments are governed by the regulatory framework set out in the code of practice on public appointments issued by the Office of the Commissioner for Public Appointments."
],
[
"Building",
"The museum's main entranceThe Greek Revival façade facing Great Russell Street is a characteristic building of Sir Robert Smirke, with 44 columns in the Ionic order high, closely based on those of the temple of Athena Polias at Priene in Asia Minor.",
"The pediment over the main entrance is decorated by sculptures by Sir Richard Westmacott depicting ''The Progress of Civilisation'', consisting of fifteen allegorical figures, installed in 1852.The construction commenced around the courtyard with the East Wing (The King's Library) in 1823–1828, followed by the North Wing in 1833–1838, which originally housed among other galleries a reading room, now the Wellcome Gallery.",
"Work was also progressing on the northern half of the West Wing (The Egyptian Sculpture Gallery) 1826–1831, with Montagu House demolished in 1842 to make room for the final part of the West Wing, completed in 1846, and the South Wing with its great colonnade, initiated in 1843 and completed in 1847, when the Front Hall and Great Staircase were opened to the public.",
"The museum is faced with Portland stone, but the perimeter walls and other parts of the building were built using Haytor granite from Dartmoor in South Devon, transported via the unique Haytor Granite Tramway.The Enlightenment Gallery at museum, which formerly held the leftProposed British Museum Extension, 1906External view of the World Conservation and Exhibition Centre at the museum, 2015In 1846 Robert Smirke was replaced as the museum's architect by his brother Sydney Smirke, whose major addition was the Round Reading Room 1854–1857; at in diameter it was then the second widest dome in the world, the Pantheon in Rome being slightly wider.The next major addition was the White Wing 1882–1884 added behind the eastern end of the South Front, the architect being Sir John Taylor.In 1895, Parliament gave the museum trustees a loan of £200,000 to purchase from the Duke of Bedford all 69 houses which backed onto the museum building in the five surrounding streets – Great Russell Street, Montague Street, Montague Place, Bedford Square and Bloomsbury Street.",
"The trustees planned to demolish these houses and to build around the west, north and east sides of the museum new galleries that would completely fill the block on which the museum stands.",
"The architect Sir John James Burnet was petitioned to put forward ambitious long-term plans to extend the building on all three sides.",
"Most of the houses in Montague Place were knocked down a few years after the sale.",
"Of this grand plan only the Edward VII galleries in the centre of the North Front were ever constructed, these were built 1906–14 to the design by J.J. Burnet, and opened by King George V and Queen Mary in 1914.They now house the museum's collections of Prints and Drawings and Oriental Antiquities.",
"There was not enough money to put up more new buildings, and so the houses in the other streets are nearly all still standing.The Duveen Gallery, sited to the west of the Egyptian, Greek & Assyrian sculpture galleries, was designed to house the Elgin Marbles by the American Beaux-Arts architect John Russell Pope.",
"Although completed in 1938, it was hit by a bomb in 1940 and remained semi-derelict for 22 years, before reopening in 1962.Other areas damaged during World War II bombing included: in September 1940 two unexploded bombs hit the Edward VII galleries, the King's Library received a direct hit from a high explosive bomb, incendiaries fell on the dome of the Round Reading Room but did little damage; on the night of 10 to 11 May 1941 several incendiaries fell on the south-west corner of the museum, destroying the book stack and 150,000 books in the courtyard and the galleries around the top of the Great Staircase – this damage was not fully repaired until the early 1960s.Reading Room and Great Court roof, 2005The Queen Elizabeth II Great Court is a covered square at the centre of the British Museum designed by the engineers Buro Happold and the architects Foster and Partners.",
"The Great Court opened in December 2000 and is the largest covered square in Europe.",
"The roof is a glass and steel construction, built by an Austrian steelwork company, with 1,656 uniquely shaped panes of glass.",
"At the centre of the Great Court is the Reading Room vacated by the British Library, its functions now moved to St Pancras.Today, the British Museum has grown to become one of the largest museums in the world, covering an area of over 92,000 m2 (990,000 sq.",
"ft).",
"In addition to 21,600 m2 (232,000 sq.",
"ft) of on-site storage space, and 9,400 m2 (101,000 sq.",
"ft) of external storage space.",
"Altogether, the British Museum showcases on public display less than 1% of its entire collection, approximately 50,000 items.There are nearly one hundred galleries open to the public, representing of exhibition space, although the less popular ones have restricted opening times.",
"However, the lack of a large temporary exhibition space led to the £135 million World Conservation and Exhibitions Centre to provide one and to concentrate all the museum's conservation facilities into one centre.",
"This project was announced in July 2007, with the architects Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners.",
"It was granted planning permission in December 2009 and was completed in time for the Viking exhibition in March 2014.In 2017, the World Conservation and Exhibitions Centre was shortlisted for the Stirling Prize for excellence in architecture.Blythe House in West Kensington is used by the museum for off-site storage of small and medium-sized artefacts, and Franks House in East London is used for storage and work on the \"Early Prehistory\" – Palaeolithic and Mesolithic – and some other collections."
],
[
"Departments",
"===Department of Egypt and Sudan===Room 61 – The famous false fresco 'Pond in a Garden' from the Tomb of Nebamun, c. 1350 BCRoom 4 – The Rosetta Stone, key to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, 196 BCThe British Museum houses the world's largest and most comprehensive collection of Egyptian antiquities (with over 100,000 pieces) outside the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.",
"A collection of immense importance for its range and quality, it includes objects of all periods from virtually every site of importance in Egypt and the Sudan.",
"Together, they illustrate every aspect of the cultures of the Nile Valley (including Nubia), from the Predynastic Neolithic period (c. 10,000 BC) through Coptic (Christian) times (12th century AD), and up to the present day, a time-span over 11,000 years.Egyptian antiquities have formed part of the British Museum collection ever since its foundation in 1753 after receiving 160 Egyptian objects from Sir Hans Sloane.",
"After the defeat of the French forces under Napoleon at the Battle of the Nile in 1801, the Egyptian antiquities collected were confiscated by the British army and presented to the British Museum in 1803.These works, which included the famed Rosetta Stone, were the first important group of large sculptures to be acquired by the museum.",
"Thereafter, the UK appointed Henry Salt as consul in Egypt who amassed a huge collection of antiquities, some of which were assembled and transported with great ingenuity by the famous Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni.",
"Most of the antiquities Salt collected were purchased by the British Museum and the Musée du Louvre.By 1866 the collection consisted of some 10,000 objects.",
"Antiquities from excavations started to come to the museum in the latter part of the 19th century as a result of the work of the Egypt Exploration Fund under the efforts of E.A.",
"Wallis Budge.",
"Over the years more than 11,000 objects came from this source, including pieces from Amarna, Bubastis and Deir el-Bahari.",
"Other organisations and individuals also excavated and donated objects to the British Museum, including Flinders Petrie's Egypt Research Account and the British School of Archaeology in Egypt, as well as the University of Oxford Expedition to Kawa and Faras in Sudan.Room 4 – Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III, 1350 BCActive support by the museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in important acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported, although divisions still continue in Sudan.",
"The British Museum conducted its own excavations in Egypt where it received divisions of finds, including Asyut (1907), Mostagedda and Matmar (1920s), Ashmunein (1980s) and sites in Sudan such as Soba, Kawa and the Northern Dongola Reach (1990s).",
"The size of the Egyptian collections now stand at over 110,000 objects.In autumn 2001 the eight million objects forming the museum's permanent collection were further expanded by the addition of six million objects from the Wendorf Collection of Egyptian and Sudanese Prehistory.",
"These were donated by Professor Fred Wendorf of Southern Methodist University in Texas, and comprise the entire collection of artefacts and environmental remains from his excavations at Prehistoric sites in the Sahara Desert between 1963 and 1997.Other fieldwork collections have recently come from Dietrich and Rosemarie Klemm (University of Munich) and William Adams (University of Kentucky).The seven permanent Egyptian galleries at the British Museum, which include its largest exhibition space (Room 4, for monumental sculpture), can display only 4% of its Egyptian holdings.",
"The second-floor galleries have a selection of the museum's collection of 140 mummies and coffins, the largest outside Cairo.",
"A high proportion of the collection comes from tombs or contexts associated with the cult of the dead, and it is these pieces, in particular the mummies, that remain among the most eagerly sought-after exhibits by visitors to the museum.Highlights of the collections include:'''Predynastic and Early Dynastic period ()'''* Mummy of Ginger and five other individuals from Gebelein ()* Flint knife with an ivory handle (known as the ''Pit-Rivers Knife''), Sheikh Hamada, Egypt ()* The Battlefield Palette and Hunters Palette, two cosmetic palettes with complex decorative schemes ()* Ivory statuette of a king, from the early temple at Abydos, Egypt ()* King Den's sandal label from Abydos, mid-1st Dynasty ()* Stela of King Peribsen, Abydos ()'''Old Kingdom (2690–2181 BC)'''* Artefacts from the tomb of King Khasekhemwy from the 2nd Dynasty (2690 BC)* Granite statue of Ankhwa, the shipbuilder, Saqqara, Egypt, 3rd Dynasty (c. 2650 BC)* Several of the original casing stones from the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (c. 2570 BC)* Statue of Nenkheftka from Deshasha, 4th Dynasty (2500 BC)* Limestone false door of Ptahshepses, Saqqara (2440 BC)* Abusir Papyri, some of the oldest papyri from ancient Egypt, Abusir (2400 BC)* Wooden tomb statue of Tjeti, 5th to 6th Dynasty (c. 2345–2181 BC)'''Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC)'''* Inner and outer coffin of Sebekhetepi, Beni Hasan (c. 2125–1795 BC)* Quartzite statue of Ankhrekhu, 12th Dynasty (1985–1795 BC)* Limestone stela of Heqaib, Abydos, Egypt, 12th Dynasty (1990–1750 BC)* Block statue and stela of Sahathor, 12th Dynasty, reign of Amenemhat II (1922–1878 BC)* Limestone statue and stelae from the offering chapel of Inyotef, Abydos, 12th Dynasty (c. 1920 BC)* Stela of Samontu, Abydos (1910 BC)* Reliefs from the tomb of Djehutyhotep, Deir-el-Bersha (1878–1855 BC)* Three Granite statues of Senwosret III, Deir el-Bahri (1850 BC)* Statue of Rehuankh, Abydos (1850–1830 BC)* Colossal head of Amenemhat III, Bubastis (1800 BC)* Stela of Nebipusenwosret, Abydos (1800 BC)'''Second Intermediate Period''' (1650–1550 BC)* Coffin of King Nubkheperre Intef, Thebes (1570 BC)* The famous Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, an early example of Ancient Egyptian mathematics, Thebes (1550 BC)'''New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)'''* Schist head of Pharaoh Hatshepsut or her successor Tuthmosis III (1480 BC)* Statue of Senenmut with Princess Neferure on his lap, Karnak (1470 BC)* Block statue of Sennefer, Western Thebes (1430 BC)* Twenty Sekhmet statues from the Temple of Mut, Thebes (1400 BC)* Fragment of the beard of the Great Sphinx of Giza (14th century BC)* Pair of granite monumental lion statues from Soleb in Sudan, (1370 BC)* Hoard of silver bullion from El-Amarna (1352–1336 BC)* Colossal head from a statue of Amenhotep III (1350 BC)* Colossal limestone bust of Amenhotep III (1350 BC)* Amarna Tablets, 99 out of 382 tablets found, second largest collection in the world after the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin (203 tablets) (1350 BC)* Stela of Horemheb from his tomb at Saqqara (1330 BC)* London Medical Papyrus with 61 medical and magical treatments (1300 BC)* Papyrus of Ani, one of the finest extant Book of the Dead from antiquity, Thebes (1275 BC)* List of the kings of Egypt from the Temple of Ramesses II (1250 BC)* Statue of Khaemwaset, son of Ramses II, Abydos (1250 BC)* The Great Harris Papyrus, the longest surviving papyrus from antiquity, Thebes (1200 BC)* D'Orbiney Papyrus with the Tale of Two Brothers (1200–1194 BC)* Seated statue of Seti II, Temple of Mut, Karnak (1200–1194 BC)* Face from the sarcophagus of Ramses VI, Valley of the Kings (1140 BC)* Book of the Dead of Nedjmet with painted offering-vignettes and columns of Hieroglyphic text, Deir el-Bahari (1070 BC)'''Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 BC)'''* Greenfield papyrus, funerary papyrus of Princess Nesitanebetashru, daughter of Pinudjem II and Neskhons, and priestess of Amen-Ra at Thebes (950–930 BC)* Pair of gold bracelets that belonged to General Nemareth, son of Shoshenq I, Sais (940 BC)* Colossal column capital of Hathor from Bubastis, 22nd Dynasty (922–887 BC)* Statue of the Nile god Hapy, Karnak ()* Mummy case and coffin of Nesperennub, Thebes ()* Shabaka Stone from Memphis, Egypt, 25th Dynasty ()* Coffin of king Menkaure, Giza (700–600 BC)* One of the three statues of Amun in the form of a ram protecting King Taharqo, Kawa (683 BC)* Inner and outer coffins of the priest Hor, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes, 25th Dynasty ()* Granite statue of the Sphinx of Taharqo (680 BC)'''Late Period (664–332 BC)'''* Saite Sarcophagus of Sasobek, the vizier (prime minister) of the northern part of Egypt in the reign of Psammetichus I (664–610 BC)* Sarcophagus lid of Sasobek (630 BC)* Bronze figure of Isis and Horus, North Saqqara, Egypt (600 BC)* Sarcophagus of Hapmen, Cairo, 26th Dynasty or later (600–300 BC)* Kneeling statue of Wahibre, from near Lake Mariout (530 BC)* Sarcophagus of Ankhnesneferibre (525 BC)* Torso of Nectanebo I (380–362 BC)* Obelisks and sarcophagus of Pharaoh Nectanebo II (360–343 BC)* Sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, Alexandria (360–343 BC)'''Ptolemaic dynasty (305–30 BC)'''* The famous Rosetta Stone, trilingual stela that unlocked the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics (196 BC)* Naos or temple shrine of Ptolemy VIII from Philae (150 BC)* Giant sculpture of a scarab beetle (32–30 BC)* Fragment of a basalt Egyptian-style statue of Ptolemy I Soter (305–283 BC)* Mummy of Hornedjitef (inner coffin), Thebes (3rd century BC)* Wall from a chapel of Queen Shanakdakhete, Meroë (c. 150 BC)* Shrine of Ptolemy VII, Philae (c. 150 BC)'''Roman Period (30 BC – 641 AD)'''* Schist head of a young man, Alexandria (after 30 BC)* The Meriotic Hamadab Stela from the Kingdom of Kush found near the ancient site of Meroë in Sudan, 24 BC* Lid of the coffin of Soter and Cleopatra from Qurna, Thebes (early 2nd century AD)* Mummy of a youth with a portrait of the deceased, Hawara (100–200 AD)* Over 30 Fayum mummy portraits from Hawara and other sites in Fayum (40–250 AD)* Bronze lamp and patera from the X-group tombs, Qasr Ibrim (1st–6th centuries AD)* Coptic wall painting of the martyrdom of saints, Wadi Sarga (6th century AD)File:Bm-ginger.jpg|Room 64 – Egyptian grave containing a Gebelein predynastic mummy, late predynastic, 3400 BCFile:London - British Museum - 2273.jpg|Room 4 – Three black granite statues of the pharaoh Senusret III, c. 1850 BCFile:ThreeStatuesOfGoddessSakhmet-ProfileView-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg|Room 4 – Three black granite statues of the goddess Sakhmet, c. 1400 BCFile:British Museum Egypt 086.JPG|Room 4 – Colossal statue of Amenhotep III, c. 1370 BCFile:Colossal quartzite head of Amenhotep III, British Museum EA7.jpg|Great Court – Colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III, c. 1350 BCFile:Egyptian Couple BM (1).JPG|Room 4 - Limestone statue of a husband and wife, 1300–1250 BCFile:P1050700 (5022075232).jpg|Room 63 - Gilded outer coffins from the tomb of Henutmehyt, Thebes, Egypt, 19th Dynasty, 1250 BCFile:Book of the Dead of Hunefer sheet 5.jpg|Book of the Dead of Hunefer, sheet 5, 19th Dynasty, 1250 BCFile:British Museum Egypt 101.jpg|Room 4 – Ancient Egyptian bronze statue of a cat from the Late Period, –332 BCFile:British Museum Egypt 107.jpg|Room 4 – Green siltstone head of a Pharaoh, 26th–30th Dynasty, 600–340 BCFile:The black siltstone obelisk of Pharaoh Nectanebo II, c.350 BCE.",
"From Cairo, Egypt.",
"British Museum.jpg|Great Court – Black siltstone obelisk of King Nectanebo II of Egypt, Thirtieth dynasty, File:Fayum-66.jpg|Room 62 – Detail from the mummy case of Artemidorus the Younger, a Greek who had settled in Thebes, Egypt, during Roman times, 100–200 AD===Department of Greece and Rome===Room 17 – Reconstruction of the Nereid Monument, c. 390 BCRoom 18 – Parthenon marbles from the Acropolis of Athens, 447 BCRoom 21 – Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, mid-4th century BCThe British Museum has one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of antiquities from the Classical world, with over 100,000 objects.",
"These mostly range in date from the beginning of the Greek Bronze Age (about 3200 BC) to the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, with the Edict of Milan under the reign of the Roman emperor Constantine I in 313 AD.",
"Archaeology was in its infancy during the nineteenth century and many pioneering individuals began excavating sites across the Classical world, chief among them for the museum were Charles Newton, John Turtle Wood, Robert Murdoch Smith and Charles Fellows.The Greek objects originate from across the Ancient Greek world, from the mainland of Greece and the Aegean Islands, to neighbouring lands in Asia Minor and Egypt in the eastern Mediterranean and as far as the western lands of Magna Graecia that include Sicily and southern Italy.",
"The Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean cultures are represented, and the Greek collection includes important sculpture from the Parthenon in Athens, as well as elements of two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos.Beginning from the early Bronze Age, the department also houses one of the widest-ranging collections of Italic and Etruscan antiquities outside Italy, as well as extensive groups of material from Cyprus and non-Greek colonies in Lycia and Caria on Asia Minor.",
"There is some material from the Roman Republic, but the collection's strength is in its comprehensive array of objects from across the Roman Empire, with the exception of Britain (which is the mainstay of the Department of Prehistory and Europe).The collections of ancient jewellery and bronzes, Greek vases (many from graves in southern Italy that were once part of Sir William Hamilton's and Chevalier Durand's collections), Roman glass including the famous Cameo glass Portland Vase, Roman gold glass (the second largest collection after the Vatican Museums), Roman mosaics from Carthage and Utica in North Africa that were excavated by Nathan Davis, and silver hoards from Roman Gaul (some of which were bequeathed by the philanthropist and museum trustee Richard Payne Knight), are particularly important.",
"Cypriot antiquities are strong too and have benefited from the purchase of Sir Robert Hamilton Lang's collection as well as the bequest of Emma Turner in 1892, which funded many excavations on the island.",
"Roman sculptures (many of which are copies of Greek originals) are particularly well represented by the Townley collection as well as residual sculptures from the famous Farnese collection.Objects from the Department of Greece and Rome are located throughout the museum, although many of the architectural monuments are to be found on the ground floor, with connecting galleries from Gallery 5 to Gallery 23.On the upper floor, there are galleries devoted to smaller material from ancient Italy, Greece, Cyprus and the Roman Empire.The current collection includes:Temple of Hephaestus* Marble coffer frame and coffer from the colonnade, (449–415 BC)Parthenon* The Parthenon Marbles (Elgin Marbles), (447–438 BC)Propylaea * Capital and column drum, (437–432 BC)Erechtheion* A surviving column and architectural fittings, (420–415 BC)* One of six remaining Caryatids, (415 BC)Temple of Athena Nike* Surviving frieze slabs and capital, (427–424 BC)Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos* Statue of Dionysos, (270 BC)Tower of the Winds* Marble Corinthian capital, (50 BC)Temple of Poseidon, Sounion*Fluted column base, (444–440 BC)Temple of Nemesis, Rhamnus* Head from the statue of Nemesis, (430–420 BC)Temple of Bassae* Twenty-three surviving blocks of the frieze from the interior of the temple, (420–400 BC)Sanctuary of Apollo at Daphni* Fluted columns, column bases and ionic capitals, (399–301 BC)Temple of Athena Polias, Priene* Sculptural coffers from the temple ceiling, (350–325 BC)* Ionic capitals, architraves and antae, (350–325 BC)* Marble torso of a charioteer, (320–300 BC)Mausoleum at Halicarnassus* Two colossal free-standing figures identified as Maussollos and his wife Artemisia, ()* Part of horse from the chariot group adorning the summit of the Mausoleum, ()* The Amazonomachy frieze – A long section of relief frieze showing the battle between Greeks and Amazons, ()Temple of Artemis in Ephesus* One of the sculptured column bases, (340–320 BC)* Part of the Ionic frieze situated above the colonnade, (330–300 BC)Knidos in Asia Minor* Demeter of Knidos, (350 BC)* Lion of Knidos, (350–200 BC)Xanthos in Asia Minor* Lion Tomb, (550–500 BC)* Harpy Tomb, (480–470 BC)* Nereid Monument, partial reconstruction of a large and elaborate Lykian tomb, (390–380 BC)* Tomb of Merehi, (390–350 BC)* Tomb of Payava, (375–350 BC)* Bilingual Decree of Pixodaros, (340 BC)Temple of Zeus, Salamis in Cyprus * Marble capital with caryatid figure standing between winged bulls, (300–250 BC)'''Wider collection''''''Prehistoric Greece and Italy (3300 BC – 8th century BC)'''* Over thirty Cycladic figures from islands in the Aegean Sea, many collected by James Theodore Bent, Greece, (3300–2000 BC)* A large Gaudo culture askos from Paestum, southern Italy, (2800–2400 BC)* Kythnos Hoard of wood working metal tools from the island of Naxos, Greece, (2700–2200 BC)* Two pottery kernos from Phylakopi in Melos, Greece (2300–2000 BC)* Material from the Palace of Knossos including a huge pottery storage jar, some donated by Sir Arthur Evans, Crete, Greece, (1900–1100 BC)* The Minoan gold treasure from Aegina, northern Aegean, Greece, (1850–1550 BC)* Artefacts from the Psychro Cave in Crete, including two serpentine libation tables, (1700–1450 BC)* Bronze Minoan Bull-leaper from Rethymnon, Crete, (1600–1450 BC)* Segments of the columns and architraves from the Treasury of Atreus, Peloponnese, Greece, (1350–1250 BC)* Ivory game board found at Enkomi, Cyprus, (12th century BC)* Nuragic hoard of bronze artefacts found at Santa Maria in Paulis, Cagliari, Sardinia, (1100–900 BC)* Elgin Amphora, highly decorated pottery vase attributed to the Dipylon Master, Athens, Greece, (8th century BC)* Votive offerings from the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta, (8th century BC)'''Etruscan (8th century BC – 1st century BC)'''* Gold jewellery and other rich artefacts from the Castellani and Galeassi Tombs in Palestrina, central Italy, (8th–6th centuries BC)* Ornate gold fibula with granulated parade of animals from the Bernardini Tomb, Cerveteri, (675–650 BC)* Various objects including two small terracotta statues from the \"Tomb of the five chairs\" in Cerveteri (625–600 BC)* Gold libation bowl from Sant'Angelo Muxaro, Sicily, (600 BC)* Contents of the Isis tomb and François Tomb, Vulci, (570–560 BC)* Painted terracotta plaques (the so-called ''Boccanera Plaques'') from a tomb in Cerveteri, (560–550 BC)* Decorated silver panels from Castel San Marino, near Perugia (540–520 BC)* Statuette of a bronze votive figure from Pizzidimonte, near Prato, Italy (500–480 BC)* Bronze helmet with inscription commemorating the Battle of Cumae, Olympia, Greece, (480 BC)* Bronze votive statuettes from the Lake of the Idols, Monte Falterona, (420–400 BC)* Part of a symposium set of bronze vessels from the tomb of Larth Metie, Bolsena, Italy, (400–300 BC)* Exquisite gold ear-ring with female head pendant, one of a pair from Perugia, (300–200 BC)* Oscan Tablet, one of the most important inscriptions in the Oscan language, (300–100 BC)* Hoard of gold jewellery from Sant'Eufemia Lamezia, southern Italy, (340–330 BC)* Latian bronze figure from the Sanctuary of Diana, Lake Nemi, Latium, (200–100 BC)* Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa from Chiusi, (150–140 BC)'''Ancient Greece (8th century BC – 4th century AD)'''* Orientalising gold jewellery from the Camirus cemetery in Rhodes, (700–600 BC)* Foot from the colossal Kouros of Apollo, Delos, (600–500 BC)* Group of life-size archaic statues from the Sacred Way at Didyma, western Turkey, (600–580 BC)* Bronze statuette of a rider and horse from Armento, southern Italy (550 BC)* Bronze head of an axe from San Sosti, southern Italy, (520 BC)* Statue of a nude standing youth from Marion, Cyprus, (520–510 BC)* Large terracotta sarcophagus and lid with painted scenes from Klazomenai, western Turkey, (510–480 BC)* Two bronze tablets in the Locrian Greek dialect from Galaxidi, central Greece, (500–475 BC)* Fragments from a large bronze equestrian statue of the Taranto Rider, southern Italy, (480–460 BC)* Chatsworth Apollo Head, Tamassos, Cyprus (460 BC)* Statue of recumbent bull from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens (4th century BC)* Hoard of gold jewellery from Avola, Sicily, (370–300 BC)* Dedicatory inscription by Alexander the Great from Priene in Turkey (330 BC)* Head from the colossal statue of the Asclepius of Milos, Greece, (325–300 BC)* Braganza Brooch, Ornamental gold fibula reflecting Celtic and Greek influences (3rd century BC)* Hoard of silver patera from Èze, southeastern France, (3rd century BC)* Gold tablet from an Orphic sanctuary in southern Italy (3rd–2nd centuries BC)* Marble relief of the Apotheosis of Homer from Bovillae, central Italy, (221–205 BC)* Bronze sculpture of a Greek poet known as the Arundel Head, western Turkey, (2nd–1st centuries BC)* Remains of the Scylla monument at Bargylia, south west Anatolia, Turkey, (200–150 BC)* Bronze head and hand of the statue of Aphrodite of Satala (1st century BC)* Bronze statuettes from Paramythia (2nd century AD)* Large statue of Europa sitting on the back of a bull from the amphitheatre at Gortyna, Crete, (100 BC)'''Ancient Rome (1st century BC – 4th century AD)'''* Pair of engraved oval agate plaques depicting Livia as Diana and Octavian as Mercury, (Rome, 30–25 BC)* Guildford Puteal from Corinth, Greece (30–10 BC)* Bronze head of Augustus from Meroë in Sudan (27–25 BC)* Cameo glass Portland Vase, the most famous glass vessel from ancient Rome, (1–25 AD)* Silver Warren Cup with homoerotic scenes, found near Jerusalem, (5–15 AD)* Gladius of Mainz (or \"Sword of Tiberius\") and Blacas Cameo, depicting Roman emperors in triumph (15 AD)* Horse trappings in decorated silver-plated bronze from Xanten, Germany (1st century AD)* Pair of carved fluorite cups known as the Barber Cup and Crawford Cup (100 AD)* Athlete statue, \"Vaison Diadumenos\", from an ancient Roman city in southern France (118–138 AD)* A hoard of silver votive plaques dedicated to the Roman God Jupiter Dolichenus, discovered in Heddernheim, near Frankfurt, Germany, (1st–2nd centuries AD)* Discus-thrower (Discobolos) and Bronze Head of Hypnos from Civitella d'Arna, Italy, (1st–2nd centuries AD)* Part of a large wooden wheel for draining a copper mine in Huelva, southern Spain, (1st–2nd centuries AD)* Capitals from some of the pilasters of the Pantheon, Rome, (126 AD)* Colossal marble head of Faustina the Elder, wife of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius from Sardis, western Turkey, (140 AD)* Marble throne from the prohedria of the Panathenaic Stadium, Athens, (140–143 AD)* Hoard of jewellery from a tomb in the vicinity of Miletopolis, Turkey, (175–180 AD)* Inscribed marble base of the Roman Consul Tiberius Claudius Candidus, unearthed in Tarragona, Spain (195–199 AD)* Jennings Dog, a statue of a Molossian guard dog, central Italy, (2nd century AD)* Segment of a decorated marble balustrade from the Colosseum, Rome, Italy, (2nd century AD)* Politarch inscription from the Vardar Gate, Thessaloniki, Greece, (2nd century AD)* Two Roman cavalry bronze parade masks from Nola, Italy and Gaziantep, Turkey, (2nd century AD)* Various silver treasures found at Arcisate, Beaurains, Boscoreale, Bursa, Chaourse, Caubiac, Chatuzange, Conimbriga, Mâcon and Revel-Tourdan (1st–3rd century AD)* Votive statue of Apollo of Cyrene, Libya (2nd century AD)* Uerdingen Hoard found near Düsseldorf in Germany (2nd–3rd centuries AD)The collection encompasses architectural, sculptural and epigraphic items from many other sites across the classical world including Amathus, Atripalda, Aphrodisias, Delos, Iasos, Idalion, Lindus, Kalymnos, Kerch, Rhamnous, Salamis, Sestos, Sounion, Tomis and Thessaloniki.File:Aegina treasure 01.jpg|Room 12 – A gold earring from the Aegina Treasure, Greece, 1700-1500 BCFile:BM; RM18 - GR, The Parthenon Galleries 1 Temple of Athena Parthenos (447-438 B.C) + North Slip Room, -Full Elevation & Viewing North-.JPG|Room 18 – Parthenon statuary from the east pediment and Metopes from the south wall, Athens, Greece, 447-438 BCFile:BM, GNR; The Acropolis & The late 5th C BC ~ Erechtheum Caryatid + Ionic Column (Room 19).jpg|Room 19 – Caryatid and Ionian column from the Erechtheion, Acropolis of Athens, Greece, 420-415 BCFile:Tomb of Payava 2.jpg|Room 20 – Tomb of Payava, Lycia, Turkey, 360 BCFile:Fragmentary horse from the colossal four-horses chariot group which topped the podium of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, British Museum (8245662728).jpg|Room 21 – Fragmentary horse from the colossal chariot group which topped the podium of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Turkey, File:Gold wreath BM 1908.4-14.1.jpg|Room 22 - Gold oak wreath with a bee and two cicadas, western Turkey, File:Column drum Ephesus.JPG|Room 22 – Column from the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Turkey, early 4th century BCFile:Asklepios Melos BM Sc550.jpg|Room 22 - Colossal head of Asclepius wearing a metal crown (now lost), from a cult statue on Melos, Greece, 325-300 BCFile:Head and left hand from a bronze cult statue of Anahita, a local goddess shown here in the guide of Aphrodite, 200-100 BC, British Museum (8167358544).jpg|Room 22 – Bronze head and hand of an ancient Hellenistic statue discovered in Satala, Turkey, 200-100 BCFile:SFEC BritMus Roman 011.JPG|Room 1 - Farnese Hermes in the Enlightenment Gallery, Italy, 1st century ADFile:GladiatorHelmetBM.jpg|Room 69 - Roman gladiator helmet from Pompeii, Italy, 1st century ADFile:Lely Venus BM 1963.jpg|Room 23 - The famous version of the 'Crouching Venus', Roman, File:Spinario-British Museum.jpg|Room 22 – Roman marble copy of the famous 'Spinario (Boy with Thorn)', Italy, File:Apollo Kitharoidos BM 1380.jpg|Room 22 – Apollo of Cyrene (holding a lyre), Libya, ===Department of the Middle East===Room 9 – Assyrian palace reliefs, Nineveh, 701–681 BCWith a collection numbering some 330,000 works, the British Museum possesses the world's largest and most important collection of Mesopotamian antiquities outside Iraq.",
"A collection of immense importance, the holdings of Assyrian sculpture, Babylonian and Sumerian antiquities are among the most comprehensive in the world with entire suites of rooms panelled in alabaster Assyrian palace reliefs from Nimrud, Nineveh and Khorsabad.The collections represent the civilisations of the ancient Near East and its adjacent areas.",
"These cover Mesopotamia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, parts of Central Asia, Syria, the Holy Land and Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean from the prehistoric period and include objects from the 7th century.The first significant addition of Mesopotamian objects was from the collection of Claudius James Rich in 1825.The collection was later dramatically enlarged by the excavations of A. H. Layard at the Assyrian sites of Nimrud and Nineveh between 1845 and 1851.At Nimrud, Layard discovered the North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, as well as three other palaces and various temples.",
"He later uncovered the Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh with 'no less than seventy-one halls'.",
"As a result, a large numbers of Lamassus, palace reliefs, stelae, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, were brought to the British Museum.Human Headed Winged Lions and reliefs from Nimrud with the Balawat Gates, Layard's work was continued by his assistant, Hormuzd Rassam and in 1852–1854 he went on to discover the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh with many magnificent reliefs, including the famous Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal and Lachish reliefs.",
"He also discovered the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, a large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance that today number around 130,000 pieces.",
"W. K. Loftus excavated in Nimrud between 1850 and 1855 and found a remarkable hoard of ivories in the Burnt Palace.",
"Between 1878 and 1882 Rassam greatly improved the museum's holdings with exquisite objects including the Cyrus Cylinder from Babylon, the bronze gates from Balawat, important objects from Sippar, and a fine collection of Urartian bronzes from Toprakkale including a copper figurine of a winged, human-headed bull.In the early 20th century excavations were carried out at Carchemish, Turkey by D. G. Hogarth and Leonard Woolley, the latter assisted by T. E. Lawrence.",
"The Mesopotamian collections were greatly augmented by excavations in southern Iraq after the First World War.",
"From Tell al-Ubaid came the bronze furnishings of a Sumerian temple, including life-sized lions and a panel featuring the lion-headed eagle Indugud found by H. R. Hall in 1919–24.Woolley went on to excavate Ur between 1922 and 1934, discovering the Royal Cemeteries of the 3rd millennium BC.",
"Some of the masterpieces include the Standard of Ur, the Ram in a Thicket, the Royal Game of Ur, and two bull-headed lyres.",
"The department also has three diorite statues of the ruler Gudea from the ancient state of Lagash and a series of limestone kudurru or boundary stones from different locations across ancient Mesopotamia.Room 52 – Ancient Iran with the Cyrus Cylinder, 559–530 BCAlthough the collections centre on Mesopotamia, most of the surrounding areas are well represented.",
"The Achaemenid collection was enhanced with the addition of the Oxus Treasure in 1897 and objects excavated by the German scholar Ernst Herzfeld and the Hungarian-British explorer Sir Aurel Stein.",
"Reliefs and sculptures from the site of Persepolis were donated by Sir Gore Ouseley in 1825 and the 5th Earl of Aberdeen in 1861 and the museum received part of a pot-hoard of jewellery from Pasargadae as the division of finds in 1963 and part of the Ziwiye hoard in 1971.A large column base from the One Hundred Column Hall at Persepolis was acquired in exchange from the Oriental Institute, Chicago.",
"Moreover, the museum has been able to acquire one of the greatest assemblages of Achaemenid silverware in the world.",
"The later Sasanian Empire is also well represented by ornate silver plates and cups, many representing ruling monarchs hunting lions and deer.",
"Phoenician antiquities come from across the region, but the Tharros collection from Sardinia, the hoard of about 150 metal bowls and hundreds of ivories from Nimrud and the many Punic stelae from Carthage and Maghrawa in Tunisia are outstanding.",
"The number of Phoenician inscriptions from sites across Cyprus is also considerable, and include artefacts found at the Kition necropolis (with the two Kition Tariffs having the longest Phoenician inscription discovered on the island), the Idalion temple site and two bilingual pedestals found at Tamassos.",
"Another often overlooked highlight is Yemeni antiquities, the finest collection outside that country.",
"Furthermore, the museum has a representative collection of Dilmun and Parthian material excavated from various burial mounds at the ancient sites of A'ali and Shakhura (that included a Roman ribbed glass bowl) in Bahrain.From the modern state of Syria come almost forty funerary busts from Palmyra and a group of stone reliefs from the excavations of Max von Oppenheim at Tell Halaf that was purchased in 1920.More material followed from the excavations of Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak in 1935–1938 and from Woolley at Alalakh in the years just before and after the Second World War.",
"Mallowan returned with his wife Agatha Christie to carry out further digs at Nimrud in the postwar period which secured many important artefacts for the museum.",
"The collection of Palestinian material was strengthened by the work of Kathleen Kenyon at Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the 1950s and the acquisition in 1980 of around 17,000 objects found at Lachish by the Wellcome-Marston expedition of 1932–1938.Archaeological digs are still taking place where permitted in the Middle East, and, depending on the country, the museum continues to receive a share of the finds from sites such as Tell es Sa'idiyeh in Jordan.The museum's collection of Islamic art, including archaeological material, numbers about 40,000 objects, one of the largest of its kind in the world.",
"As such, it contains a broad range of pottery, paintings, tiles, metalwork, glass, seals, and inscriptions from across the Islamic world, from Spain in the west to India in the east.",
"It is particularly famous for its collection of Iznik ceramics (the largest in the world), its large number of mosque lamps including one from the Dome of the Rock, mediaeval metalwork such as the Vaso Vescovali with its depictions of the Zodiac, a fine selection of astrolabes, and Mughal paintings and precious artwork including a large jade terrapin made for the emperor Jahangir.",
"Thousands of objects were excavated after the war by professional archaeologists at Iranian sites such as Siraf by David Whitehouse and Alamut Castle by Peter Willey.",
"The collection was augmented in 1983 by the Godman bequest of Iznik, Hispano-Moresque and early Iranian pottery.",
"Artefacts from the Islamic world are on display in Gallery 34 of the museum.A representative selection from the Department of Middle East, including the most important pieces, are on display in 13 galleries throughout the museum and total some 4,500 objects.",
"A whole suite of rooms on the ground floor display the sculptured reliefs from the Assyrian palaces at Nineveh, Nimrud and Khorsabad, while 8 galleries on the upper floor hold smaller material from ancient sites across the Middle East.",
"The remainder form the study collection which ranges in size from beads to large sculptures.",
"They include approximately 130,000 cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia.Highlights of the collections include:'''Nimrud:''''''Assyrian palace reliefs from:'''* The North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, (883–859 BC)* Palace of Adad-nirari III, (811–783 BC)* The Sharrat-Niphi Temple, ()* Temple of Ninurta, ()* South-East Palace ('Burnt Palace'), (8th–7th century BC)* Central- Palace of Tiglath-Pileser III, (745–727 BC)* South-West Palace of Esarhaddon, (681–669 BC)* The Nabu Temple (Ezida), ()'''Sculptures and inscriptions:'''* Pair of Human Headed Lamassu Lions, (883–859 BC)* Human Headed Lamassu Bull, sister piece in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (883–859 BC)* Human Headed Lamassu Lion, sister piece in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, (883–859 BC)* Colossal Statue of a Lion, (883–859 BC)* Foundation tablet of Ashurnasirpal II from the Temple of Ishtar, (875–865 BC)* Rassam Obelisk of Ashurnasirpal II, (873–859 BC)* Stela and Statue of King Ashurnasirpal II, (883–859 BC)* The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, (858–824 BC)* Stela of Shamshi-Adad V, (824–811 BC)* Rare Head of Human Headed 'Lamassu', recovered from the North-West Palace, (811–783 BC)* Pair of statues of attendant god dedicated to Nabu by Adad-Nirari III and Sammuramat, (810–800 BC)* Bilingual Assyrian lion weights with both cuneiform and Phoenician inscriptions, (800–700 BC)* Large sculpture of a male bearded head from a Lamassu with inscription dedicated to Esarhaddon, (670 BC);'''Nineveh:''''''Assyrian palace reliefs and sculptures from:'''* South-West Palace of Sennacherib, (705–681 BC)* North-Palace of Ashurbanipal, (), including the ''Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal'' and Lachish relief* The famous ''Garden Party'' Relief, (645 BC)* Statue of a nude woman, (11th century BC)* Broken Obelisk of Ashur-bel-kala, the earliest known Assyrian obelisk, (11th century BC)* White Obelisk of Ashurnasirpal I, (1050–1031 BC)'''Royal Library of Ashurbanipal:'''* A large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance, approximately 22,000 inscribed clay tablets, (7th century BC)* The Flood Tablet, relating part of the famous ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', (7th century BC)* Taylor Prism, hexagonal clay foundation record, (691 BC)* Rassam cylinder with ten faces, that describes the military campaigns of king Ashurbanipal, (643 BC) ;Other Mesopotamian sites:'''Khorsabad and Balawat:'''* Alabaster bas-reliefs from the Palace of Sargon II, (710–705 BC)* Pair of Human Headed Winged Lamassu Bulls, (710–705 BC)* The Balawat Gates of Shalmaneser III, (860 BC);'''Ur:'''* The Standard of Ur with depictions of war and peace, (2600 BC)* Queen's Lyre and gold drinking cup from Queen Puabi's tomb, (2600 BC)* The Ram in a Thicket, one of pair, the other is in Philadelphia, (2600–2400 BC)* The Royal Game of Ur, an ancient game board, (2600–2400 BC);'''Wider collection:'''* Plastered human skull from Jericho, a very early form of portraiture, Palestine, (7000–6000 BC)* Tell Brak Head, one of the oldest portrait busts from the Middle East, north east Syria, (3500–3300 BC)* Uruk Trough, one of the earliest surviving works of narrative relief sculpture from the Middle East, southern Iraq, (3300–3000 BC)* Pair of inscribed stone objects known as the Blau Monuments from Uruk, Iraq, (3100–2700 BC)* Hoard of Bronze Age gold jewellery found at the Canaanite site of Tell el-Ajjul in Gaza, (1750–1550 BC)* Statue of Idrimi from the ancient city of Alalakh, southern Turkey, (1600 BC)* Bronze bowl and ivory cosmetic box in the shape of a fish from Tell es-Sa'idiyeh, Jordan, (1250–1150 BC)* Group of 16 stone reliefs from the palace of King Kapara at Tell Halaf, northern Syria, (10th century BC)* Tablet of Shamash, depicting the sun-god Shamash, from Sippar, Iraq, (early 9th century BC)* Hittite lion head from the monument to King Katuwa at Carchemish, southern Turkey, (9th century BC)* Two large Assyrian stelae from Kurkh, southern Turkey, (850 BC)* Seated statue of Kidudu or guardian spirit from the Assyrian city of Assur under Shalmaneser III, Iraq, (835 BC)* Basalt bowl with engraved inscription in Hieroglyphic Luwian found at Babylon, southern Iraq, (8th century BC)* Babylonian Chronicles, series of tablets recording major events in Babylonian history, Babylon, Iraq, (8th–3rd centuries BC) * Shebna Inscription from Siloam near Jerusalem, (7th century BC)* Group of 4 bronze shields with inscription of king Rusa III from the temple of Khaldi at the Urartian fortress of Toprakkale, eastern Turkey, (650 BC)* East India House Inscription from Babylon, Iraq, (604–562 BC)* Lachish Letters, group of ostraka written in alphabetic Hebrew from Lachish, Israel, (586 BC)* Cylinder of Nabonidus, foundation cylinder of King Nabonidus, Sippar, Iraq, (555–540 BC)* The famous Oxus Treasure, the largest ancient Persian hoard of gold artefacts, (550–330 BC)* Jar of Xerxes I, alabaster alabastron with quadrilingual signature of Achaemenid ruler Xerxes I, found in the ruins of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Turkey, (486–465 BC)* Idalion Bilingual, bilingual Cypriot-Phoenician inscription, key to the decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, Idalion, Cyprus, (388 BC)* Punic-Libyan Inscription from the Mausoleum of Ateban, key to the decipherment of the Numidian language, Dougga, Tunisia, (146 BC)* Amran Tablets found near Sana'a, Yemen, (1st century BC)* One of the pottery storage jars containing the Dead Sea Scrolls found in a cave near Qumran, Jordan, (4 BC – 68 AD)* Two limestone ossuaries from caves in Jerusalem, (1st century AD)* Fragment of a carved basalt architrave depicting a lion's head from the Temple of Garni, Armenia, (1st century AD)* Group of boulders with Safaitic inscriptions from Jordan/Syria, one of which was donated by Gertrude Bell, (1st–2nd centuries AD)* Parthian dynasty gold belt-buckle with central repoussé figure of eagle with outstretched wings from Nihavand, Iran, (1st–3rd centuries AD)* Silver bowl from Khwarezm depicting a four-armed goddess seated on a lion, Kazakhstan, (658 AD)* One of the rare Hedwig glasses, originating from the Middle East or Norman Sicily, (10th–12th centuries AD)* Hoard of Seljuq artefacts from Hamadan including gold cup, silver gilt belt fittings and dress accessories, Iran, (11th–12th centuries)* Islamic brass ewers with engraved decoration and inlaid with silver and copper from Herat, Afghanistan and Mosul, Iraq (12th–13th centuries AD)File:Raminathicket2.jpg|Room 56 – The 'Ram in a Thicket' figure, one of a pair, from Ur, Southern Iraq, c. 2600 BCFile:Standard of Ur - War.jpg|Room 56 – The famous 'Standard of Ur', a hollow wooden box with scenes of war and peace, from Ur, c. 2600 BCFile:British Museum Middle east 14022019 Panel Imdugud 2500 BC 3640.jpg|Room 56 - Sculpture of the god Imdugud, lion-headed eagle surmounting a lintel made from sheets of copper, Temple of Ninhursag at Tell al-'Ubaid, Iraq, c. 2500 BCFile:Statue Kurlil BM WA114207.jpg|Room 56 - Statue of Kurlil, from the Temple of Ninhursag in Tell al-'Ubaid, southern Iraq, c. 2500 BCFile:Ishtar goddess.jpg|Room 56 – The famous Babylonian 'Queen of the Night relief' of the goddess Ishtar, Iraq, c. 1790 BCFile:Carved ivory depicting a woman at a window.jpg|Room 57 - Carved ivory object from the Nimrud Ivories, Phoenician, Nimrud, Iraq, 9th–8th century BCFile:Jehu-on-Obelisk-of-Shalmaneser.jpg|Room 6 – Depiction of the hypocrite, Jehu, King of Israel on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, Nimrud, c. 827 BCFile:Winged Human-headed Bulls.JPG|Room 10 – Human Headed Winged Bulls from Khorsabad, companion pieces in the Musée du Louvre, Iraq, 710–705 BCFile:BM; ANE - RM 55, Cuneiform Tablets Display.1.JPG|Room 55 – Cuneiform Collection, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, Iraq, -631 BCFile:Dying Lion.R.jpg|Room 55 – ''Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal'' (detail), Nineveh, Neo-Assyrian, Iraq, File:BabylonLion-BM.JPG|Room 55 - Panel with striding lion made from glazed bricks, Neo-Babylonian, Nebuchadnezzar II, Southern Iraq, 604–562 BCFile:Britishmuseumoxustreasuregoldchariotmodel.jpg|Room 52 – A chariot from the Oxus Treasure, the most important surviving collection of Achaemenid Persian metalwork, c. 5th to 4th centuries BCFile:Decorated column base from Persepolis.jpg|Great Court - Decorated column base from Hundred Column Hall, Persepolis, 470-450 BCFile:Bmane2002-1-114,1.jpg|Room 53 - Stela said to come from Tamma' cemetery, Yemen, 1st century ADFile:British Museum Yemen 07d.jpg|Room 53 - Alabaster statue of a standing female figure, Yemen, 1st-2nd centuries ADFile:Brass box BM 1878 12-30 674.jpg|Room 34 - Cylindrical lidded box with an Arabic inscription recording its manufacture for the ruler of Mosul, Badr al-Din Lu'lu', Iraq, – 1259 AD===Department of Prints and Drawings===The Department of Prints and Drawings holds the national collection of Western prints and drawings.",
"It ranks as one of the largest and best print room collections in existence alongside the Albertina in Vienna, the Paris collections and the Hermitage.",
"The holdings are easily accessible to the general public in the Study Room, unlike many such collections.",
"The department also has its own exhibition gallery in Room 90, where the displays and exhibitions change several times a year.Since its foundation in 1808, the prints and drawings collection has grown to international renown as one of the richest and most representative collections in the world.",
"There are approximately 50,000 drawings and over two million prints.",
"The collection of drawings covers the period from the 14th century to the present, and includes many works of the highest quality by the leading artists of the European schools.",
"The collection of prints covers the tradition of fine printmaking from its beginnings in the 15th century up to the present, with near complete holdings of most of the great names before the 19th century.",
"Key benefactors to the department have been Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode, Richard Payne Knight, John Malcolm, Campbell Dodgson, César Mange de Hauke and Tomás Harris.",
"Writer and author Louis Alexander Fagan, who worked in the department 1869–1894 made significant contributions to the department in form of his ''Handbook to the Department'', as well as various other books about the museum in general.There are groups of drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, (including his only surviving full-scale cartoon), Dürer (a collection of 138 drawings is one of the finest in existence), Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt, Claude and Watteau, and largely complete collections of the works of all the great printmakers including Dürer (99 engravings, 6 etchings and most of his 346 woodcuts), Rembrandt and Goya.",
"More than 30,000 British drawings and watercolours include important examples of work by Hogarth, Sandby, Turner, Girtin, Constable, Cotman, Cox, Gillray, Rowlandson, Towne and Cruikshank, as well as all the great Victorians.",
"The collection contains the unique set of watercolours by the pioneering colonist John White, the first British artist in America and first European to paint Native Americans.",
"There are about a million British prints including more than 20,000 satires and outstanding collections of works by William Blake and Thomas Bewick..",
"The great eleven volume Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum compiled between 1870 and 1954 is the definitive reference work for the study of British Satirical prints.",
"Over 500,000 objects from the department are now on the online collection database, many with high-quality images.",
"A 2011 donation of £1 million enabled the museum to acquire a complete set of Pablo Picasso's ''Vollard Suite''.File:Rogier van der Weyden - Portrait of an unknown young woman - British Museum 180945001.jpg|Rogier van der Weyden - ''Portrait of a Young Woman'', c. 1440File:A fool, seated on a basket, about to be shaved by a nun holding a wafer iron by Hieronymus Bosch.jpg|Hieronymus Bosch - A comical barber scene, c. 1477-1516File:Botticelli, allegoria dell'abbondanza, disegno.jpg|Sandro Botticelli - ''Allegory of Abundance'', 1480-1485File:Leonardo da vinci, Study for the Burlington House Cartoon.jpg|Leonardo da Vinci – The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and the Infant Saint John the Baptist (prep for 'The Burlington House Cartoon'), c. 1499–1500File:Adam study - Michelangelo.jpg|Michelangelo – Studies of a reclining male nude: Adam in the fresco ''The Creation of Man'' on the vault of the Sistine Chapel, c. 1511File:Raffaello, studio di testa di madonna e bambino.jpg|Raphael – ''Study of Heads, Mother and Child'', c. 1509-1511File:Titian - Drowning of the Pharaoh's Host in the Red Sea - WGA22989.jpg|Titian – ''Drowning of the Pharaoh's Host in the Red Sea'', 1515–1517File:Albrecht Dürer - Walrus - WGA07101.jpg|Albrecht Dürer - Drawing of a walrus, 1521File:A Lady, called Anne Boleyn, by Hans Holbein the Younger.jpg|Hans Holbein the Younger - ''Portrait of Anne Boleyn'', 1536File:Joris and Jacob Hoefnagel - Allegory on Life and Death.jpg|Joris Hoefnagel and Jacob Hoefnagel - ''Allegory on Life and Death'', \tcirca 1598File:Peter Paul Rubens - Study for the figure of Christ on the Cross (cropped).jpg|Peter Paul Rubens - ''Study for the figure of Christ on the Cross'', 1610File:Head of a monk, 1625-64, Francisco de Zurbarán.",
"Drawing, 277 x 196 mm.",
"British Museum.jpg|Francisco de Zurbarán - ''Head of a monk'', 1625–1664File:Drawing of mules by Claude Lorrain.jpg|Claude Lorrain - Drawing of mules, including one full-length, 1630-1640File:The Lamentation at the Foot of the Cross by Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|Rembrandt – ''The Lamentation at the Foot of the Cross'', 1634–35File:A woman with a rose drawn by Thomas Gainsborough.jpg|Thomas Gainsborough - Drawing of a woman with a rose, 1763-1765File:Newport Castle by JMW Turner.jpg|J.",
"M. W. Turner - Watercolour of Newport Castle, 1796File:The happy effects of that grand systom of shutting ports against the EnglishIsaac Cruikshank - 'The happy effects of that grand system of shutting ports against the English', 1808File:Hampstead Heath by John Constable watercolour.jpg|John Constable - ''London from Hampstead Heath in a Storm'', (watercolour), 1831File:Notes Nocturne lithograph by James McNeill Whistler 1878.jpg|James McNeill Whistler - ''View of the Battersea side of Chelsea Reach'', London, (lithograph), 1878File:Van Gogh - In the Orchard - 1883.jpg|Vincent van Gogh - Man Digging in the Orchard (print), 1883===Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory===Gallery 50 – View down the Roman Britain galleryGallery 2a – Display case of Renaissance metalware from the Waddesdon BequestThe Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory is responsible for collections that cover a vast expanse of time and geography.",
"It includes some of the earliest objects made by humans in east Africa over 2 million years ago, as well as Prehistoric and neolithic objects from other parts of the world; and the art and archaeology of Europe from the earliest times to the present day.",
"Archeological excavation of prehistoric material took off and expanded considerably in the twentieth century and the department now has literally millions of objects from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods throughout the world, as well as from the Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age in Europe.",
"Stone Age material from Africa has been donated by famous archaeologists such as Louis and Mary Leakey, and Gertrude Caton–Thompson.",
"Paleolithic objects from the Sturge, Christy and Lartet collections include some of the earliest works of art from Europe.",
"Many Bronze Age objects from across Europe were added during the nineteenth century, often from large collections built up by excavators and scholars such as Greenwell in Britain, Tobin and Cooke in Ireland, Lukis and de la Grancière in Brittany, Worsaae in Denmark, Siret at El Argar in Spain, and Klemm and Edelmann in Germany.",
"A representative selection of Iron Age artefacts from Hallstatt were acquired as a result of the Evans/Lubbock excavations and from Giubiasco in Ticino through the Swiss National Museum.In addition, the British Museum's collections covering the period AD 300 to 1100 are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world, extending from Spain to the Black Sea and from North Africa to Scandinavia; a representative selection of these has recently been redisplayed in a newly refurbished gallery.",
"Important collections include Latvian, Norwegian, Gotlandic and Merovingian material from Johann Karl Bähr, Alfred Heneage Cocks, Sir James Curle and Philippe Delamain respectively.",
"However, the undoubted highlight from the early mediaeval period is the magnificent items from the Sutton Hoo royal grave, generously donated to the nation by the landowner Edith Pretty.",
"The late mediaeval collection includes a large number of seal-dies from across Europe, the most famous of which include those from the Town of Boppard in Germany, Isabella of Hainault from her tomb in Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, Inchaffray Abbey in Scotland and Robert Fitzwalter, one of the Barons who led the revolt against King John in England.",
"There is also a large collection of medieval signet rings, prominent among them is the gold signet ring belonging to Jean III de Grailly who fought in the Hundred Years' War, as well as those of Mary, Queen of Scots and Richard I of England.",
"Other groups of artefacts represented in the department include the national collection of (c.100) icon paintings, most of which originate from the Byzantine Empire and Russia, and over 40 mediaeval astrolabes from across Europe and the Middle East.",
"The department also includes the national collection of horology with one of the most wide-ranging assemblage of clocks, watches and other timepieces in Europe, with masterpieces from every period in the development of time-keeping.",
"Choice horological pieces came from the Morgan and Ilbert collections.",
"The department is also responsible for the curation of Romano-British objects – the museum has by far the most extensive such collection in Britain and one of the most representative regional collections in Europe outside Italy.",
"It is particularly famous for the large number of late Roman silver treasures, many of which were found in East Anglia, the most important of which is the Mildenhall Treasure.",
"The museum purchased many Roman-British objects from the antiquarian Charles Roach Smith in 1856.These quickly formed the nucleus of the collection.",
"The department also includes ethnographic material from across Europe including a collection of Bulgarian costumes and shadow puppets from Greece and Turkey.",
"A particular highlight are the three Sámi drums from northern Sweden of which only about 70 are extant.Objects from the Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory are mostly found on the upper floor of the museum, with a suite of galleries numbered from 38 to 51.Most of the collection is stored in its archive facilities, where it is available for research and study.Highlights of the collections include:'''Stone Age (c. 3.4 million years BC – c. 2000 BC)'''* Palaeolithic material from across Africa, particularly Olduvai, Kalambo Falls, Olorgesailie and Cape Flats, (1.8 million BC onwards)* One of the 11 leaf-shaped points found near Volgu, Saône-et-Loire, France and estimated to be 16,000 years old* Ice Age art from France including the Wolverine pendant of Les Eyzies, Montastruc decorated stone and Baton fragment, (c. 12–11,000 BC)* Ice Age art from Britain including the decorated jaw from Kendrick and Robin Hood Cave Horse, (11,500–10,000 BC)* Rare mesolithic artefacts from the site of Star Carr in Yorkshire, northern England, (8770–8460 BC)* Terracotta figurine from Vinča, Serbia, (5200–4900 BC)* Callaïs bead jewellery from Lannec-er-Ro'h, intact schist bracelet from Le Lizo, Carnac and triangular pendant from Mané-er-Hroëk, Morbihan, Brittany, western France, (5000–4300 BC)* Polished jade axe produced in the Italian Alps and found in Canterbury, Kent, southeast England, (4500–4000 BC)* Section of the Sweet Track, an ancient timber causeway from the Somerset Levels, England, (3807/6 BC)* Small collection of Neolithic finds including a necklace of flat bone beads from Skara Brae, Orkneys, northern Scotland, (3180–2500 BC)* Representative sample of artefacts (sherds, vessels, etc.)",
"from the megalithic site of Tarxien, Malta, (3150–2500 BC)* A number of carved stone balls from Scotland, Ireland and northern England, (3200–2500 BC)* The three Folkton Drums, made from chalk and found in Yorkshire, northern England, (2600–2100 BC)'''Bronze Age ()'''* Jet beaded necklace from Melfort in Argyll, Scotland, ()* Gold lunula from Blessington, Ireland, one of twelve from Ireland, Wales and Cornwall, (2400–2000 BC)* Early Bronze Age hoards from Barnack, Driffield, Sewell and Snowshill in England, Arraiolos and Vendas Novas in Iberia and Auvernier, Biecz and Neunheilingen in central Europe (2280–1500 BC)*Mold cape, unique cape made of gold sheet from Mold, Wales (1900–1600 BC)* Contents of the Rillaton Barrow including a gold cup, and the related Ringlemere Cup, England, (1700–1500 BC)* Bronze Age hoards from Forró, Paks-Dunaföldvár, Szőny and Zsujta in Hungary, (1600–1000 BC)* Large ceremonial swords or dirks from Oxborough and Beaune, western Europe, (1450–1300 BC)* Eight bronze shields including those from Moel Hebog and Rhyd-y-gors, Wales and Athenry, County Galway, Ireland, (12th–10th centuries BC)* Gold hoards from Morvah and Towednack in Cornwall, Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire and Mooghaun in Ireland, (1150–750 BC)* Gold bowl with intricate repoussé decoration from Leer, Lower Saxony, northern Germany, (1100–800 BC)* Dunaverney flesh-hook found near Ballymoney, Northern Ireland and part of the Dowris Hoard from County Offaly, Ireland, (1050–900 BC & 900–600 BC)* Late Bronze Age gold hoards from Abia de la Obispalía and Mérida, Spain and an intricate gold collar from Sintra, Portugal, (10th–8th centuries BC)*Shropshire bulla, gold pendant decorated with intricately carved geometric designs, (1000–750 BC) * Part of a copper alloy lur from Årslev on the island of Funen, Denmark, one of only about 40 extant and the Dunmanway Horn from County Cork, Ireland (900–750 BC)* Gold bowl with embossed ornament and fluted wire handle from Angyalföld, Budapest, Hungary, (800–600 BC)'''Iron Age (c. 600 BC – )'''* Basse Yutz Flagons, a pair of bronze drinking vessels from Moselle, eastern France, (5th century BC)* Morel collection of La Tène material from eastern France, including the Somme-Bionne chariot burial and the Prunay Vase, (450-300BC)* Important finds from the River Thames including the Battersea, Chertsey and Wandsworth shields and Waterloo Helmet, as well as the Witham Shield from Lincolnshire, eastern England, (350–50 BC)* Bronze scabbard with La Tène engraved decoration, found at Lisnacrogher bog, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, (300–200 BC)* Pair of gold collars called the Orense Torcs from northwest Spain, (300–150 BC)* Arras culture items from chariot burials in the Lady's Barrow near Market Weighton and Wetwang Slack, Yorkshire, (300 BC – 100 BC)* Other gold neck collars including the Ipswich Hoard and the Sedgeford Torc, England, (200–50 BC)* Winchester Hoard of gold jewellery from southern England and the Great Torc from Snettisham in Norfolk, East Anglia, (100 BC)* Eight out of about thirty extant intact Celtic bronze mirrors with La Tène decoration including those from Aston, Chettle, Desborough, Holcombe and St Keverne in England, (100 BC – 100 AD)* Cordoba and Arcillera Treasures, two silver Celtic hoards from Spain, (100–20 BC)* Grave find of ornately decorated bronze bucket with human shaped handles, a pan, jug, three brooches and at least four pottery vessels from Aylesford, Kent, (75 BC – 25 BC)* Lindow Man found by accident in a peat bog in Cheshire, England, (1st century AD)* Stanwick Hoard of horse and chariot fittings and the Meyrick Helmet, northern England, (1st century AD)* La Tène silver hinged brooch from Székesfehérvár, Hungary, (1–100 AD)* Lochar Moss Torc and two pairs of massive bronze armlets from Muthill and Strathdon, Scotland, (50–200 AD)'''Romano-British (43 AD – 410 AD)'''* Tombstone of Roman procurator Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus from London, (1st century)* Ribbed glass bowl found in a grave at Radnage, Buckinghamshire, (1st century)* Large milestone marker with inscription from the reign of the emperor Hadrian from Llanfairfechan, Gwynedd in North Wales, (120–121 AD) * Ribchester, Guisborough and Witcham helmets once worn by Roman cavalry in Britain, (1st–2nd centuries)* Elaborate gold bracelets and ring found near Rhayader, central Wales, (1st–2nd centuries)* Hoard of gold jewellery found at Dolaucothi mine in Carmarthenshire, Wales, (1st–2nd centuries)* Bronze heads of the Roman emperors Hadrian and Claudius, found in London and Suffolk, (1st–2nd centuries)* Vindolanda Tablets, important historical documents found near Hadrian's Wall in Northumberland, (1st–2nd centuries)* Head of Mercury from Roman-Celtic Temple at Uley, Gloucestershire and limestone head from Towcester, Northamptonshire (2nd–4th centuries)* Wall-paintings and sculptures from the Roman Villa at Lullingstone, Kent, south east England, 1st–4th centuries)* Capheaton and Backworth treasures, remnants of two important hoards from northern England, (2nd–3rd centuries)* Stony Stratford Hoard of copper headdresses, fibulae and silver votive plaques, central England, (3rd century)* Square silver dish from Mileham in Norfolk, (4th century)* Gold jewellery deposited at the site of Newgrange, Ireland, (4th century)* Thetford Hoard, late Roman jewellery from eastern England, (4th century)'''Early Mediaeval ()'''* One of five Largitio silver dishes of the emperor Licinius found at Niš, Serbia and a hexagonal gold coin-set pendant of Constantine the Great, (Early 4th century AD)*Two wooden ship figureheads dredged from the River Scheldt at Moerzeke and Appels, Belgium, (4th–6th centuries)* Part of the Asyut, Domagnano, Artres, Sutri, Bergamo and Belluno Treasures, (4th–7th centuries)* Lycurgus Cup, a unique figurative glass cage cup, and the Byzantine Archangel ivory panel, (4th–6th centuries)* Three large Ogham stones from the Roofs More Rath, County Cork, Ireland, (5th–7th centuries)* The Sutton Hoo treasure, Taplow burial and Crundale grave objects with some of the greatest finds from the early Middle Ages in Europe, England, (6th–7th centuries)* One of the Burghead Bulls, Pictish stone relief from northeast Scotland, (7th–8th centuries)* Three Viking hoards from Norway known as the Lilleberge Viking Burial, Tromsø Burial and Villa Farm barrow burial in Vestnes and the Ardvouray, Ballaquayle, Cuerdale, Goldsborough and Vale of York hoards from Britain, (7th–10th centuries)* Irish reliquaries such as the Kells Crozier, Bell Shrine of St. Cuileáin and St Conall Cael's Shrine from Inishkeel, (7th–11th centuries)* Early Anglo Saxon Franks Casket, a unique ivory container from northern England, (8th century)* T-shaped Carolingian antler container with carved geometric interlace and zigzag decoration, found near Grüneck Castle, Ilanz, Switzerland, (8th–9th centuries)* A number of luxurious penannular brooches such as the Londesborough Brooch, Breadalbane Brooch and those from the Penrith Hoard, British Isles, (8th–9th centuries)* Three of the twenty extant Carolingian crystal intaglios including the Lothair Crystal, the Metz engraved gem with crucifixion and Saint-Denis Crystal, central Europe, (9th century)* Anglo-Saxon Fuller and Strickland Brooches with their complex, niello-inlaid design, England, (9th century)* Seax of Beagnoth, iron sword with long Anglo-Saxon Runic inscription, London, England, (10th century)'''Mediaeval (c. 1000 AD – c. 1500 AD)'''* A number of mediaeval ivory panels including the Borradaile, Wernher and John Grandisson Triptychs, (10th–14th centuries)* Several elephant ivory horns including the Borradaile Horn, Clephane Horn and Savernake Horn, (11th–12th centuries)* The famous Lewis chessmen found in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, (12th century)* Reliquary of St. Eustace from the treasury of Basel Munster, Switzerland and fragments of a rare Romanesque crucifix from South Cerney, England, (12th century)* Armenian stone-cross or Khachkar from the Noratus cemetery in Armenia, (1225 AD)* Items from the tomb of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor at Palermo Cathedral, Sicily, including his mitre, silk pall and shoe, (late 12th century)* The unique Warwick Castle Citole, an early form of guitar, central England, (1280–1330)* Set of 10 wooden door panels engraved with Christian scenes from the Hanging Church in Old Cairo, Egypt, (1300)* Asante Jug, mysteriously found at the Asante Court in the late 19th century, England, (1390–1400)* Holy Thorn Reliquary bequeathed by Ferdinand de Rothschild as part of the Waddesdon Bequest, Paris, France, (14th century)* Dunstable Swan Jewel, a gold and enamel brooch in the form of a swan, England, (14th century)* A silver astrolabe quadrant from Canterbury, southeastern England, (14th century)* Chalcis treasure of jewellery, dress accessories and silver plate from the island of Euboea, Greece, (14th–15th centuries)* Magnificent cups made from precious metal such as the Royal Gold Cup and the Lacock Cup, western Europe, (14th–15th centuries)* Complete church altar set from Medina de Pomar near Burgos, Spain (1455 AD)'''Renaissance to Modern (c. 1500 AD – present)'''* Two luxurious silver brooches set with precious stones from Glen Lyon and Lochbuie, Scotland (early 16th century)* Intricately decorated parade shield made by Giorgio Ghisi from Mantua, Italy, (1554 AD)* The Armada Service, 26 silver dishes found in Devon, south west England, (late 16th to early 17th centuries)* Early Renaissance ''Lyte Jewel'', presented to Thomas Lyte of Lytes Cary, Somerset by King James I of England, (1610)* Huguenot silver from the Peter Wilding bequest, England, (18th century)* Pair of so-called ''Cleopatra Vases'' from the Chelsea porcelain factory, London, England, (1763)* Jaspar ware vase known as the ''Pegasus Vase'' made by Josiah Wedgwood, England, (1786)* Two of Charles Darwin's chronometers used on the voyage of HMS Beagle, (1795–1805)* The Hull Grundy Gift of jewellery, Europe and North America, (19th century)* Oak clock with mother-of-pearl engraving designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, (1919)* Silver tea-infuser designed by Marianne Brandt from the Bauhaus art school, Germany, (1924)* The ''Rosetta Vase'', earthenware pottery vase designed by the contemporary British artist Grayson Perry, (2011)The many hoards of treasure include those of Esquiline, Carthage, First Cyprus, Hockwold, Hoxne, Lampsacus, Mildenhall, Vale of York and Water Newton, (4th–10th centuries AD)File:British Museum Olduvai handaxe.jpg|Room 2 – Handaxe, Lower Palaeolithic, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, c. 1.2 million years BCFile:Sleeping Reindeer 4512630872 d31dcb1207 o.jpg|Room 3 – Swimming Reindeer carving, France, c. 13,000 years BCFile:Ain Sakhri Lovers - British Museum - Joy of Museums.jpg|Room 2 – Ain Sakhri lovers, from the cave of Ain Sakhri, near Bethlehem, File:British Museum gold thing 501594 fh000035.jpg|Room 51 – Mold gold cape, North Wales, Bronze Age, c. 1900–1600 BCFile:Wandsworth Shield.png|Room 50 – Wandsworth Shield, Iron Age shield boss in La Tène style, England, 2nd century BCFile:IronAgeTorcBritishMuseum.JPG|Room 50 – Gold torc found in Needwood Forest, central England, 75 BCFile:Roman emperor head.jpg|Room 49 - Bronze head of a Roman emperor Claudius, from Rendham in Suffolk, eastern England, 1st century ADFile:Romano-British crown and diadem.jpg|Room 49 – Romano-British crown and diadem found in Hockwold cum Wilton, England 1st century ADFile:Mosaic2 - plw.jpg|Room 49 – Hinton St Mary Mosaic with face of Christ in the centre, from Dorset, southern England, 4th century ADFile:Corbridge lanx.jpg|Room 49 – Corbridge Lanx, silver tray depicting a shrine to Apollo, northern England, 4th century ADFile:British Museum Coleraine Hoard.jpg|Room 41 – Silver objects from the Roman Coleraine Hoard, Northern Ireland, 4th-5th centuries ADFile:Sutton Hoo helmet 2016.png|Room 41 – Sutton Hoo helmet, Anglo-Saxon, England, early 7th century ADFile:Virgin and Child BM PE1978-05.02-3.jpg|Room 40 – Ivory statue of Virgin and Child, who is crushing a dragon under her left foot from Paris, France, 1310-1330 ADFile:Chaucer Astrolabe BM 1909.6-17.1.jpg|Room 40 – Chaucer Astrolabe, the oldest dated in Europe, 1326 ADFile:British Museum Royal Gold Cup.jpg|Room 40 – Royal Gold Cup or Saint Agnes Cup, made in Paris, France, 1370–80 ADFile:Holy Thorn Reliquary front 2018 (cropped).JPG|Room 2a – Holy Thorn Reliquary, made in Paris, c. 1390s ADFile:Ship Clock at British Museum.jpg|Room 38 – Mechanical Galleon clock, Augsburg, Germany, around 1585 ADFile:Carillon Clock with Automata, by Isaac Habrecht - British Museum.jpg|Room 38 – Carillon clock with automata by Isaac Habrecht, Switzerland, 1589 ADFile:Inside the British Museum, London - DSC04228.JPG|Room 39 – Ornate clock made by Thomas Tompion, England, 1690 AD===Department of Asia===Room 33a – Amaravati Sculptures, southern India, 1st century BC and 3rd century ADPercival David collection of Chinese ceramicsThe scope of the Department of Asia is extremely broad; its collections of over 75,000 objects cover the material culture of the whole Asian continent and from the Neolithic up to the present day.",
"Until recently, this department concentrated on collecting Oriental antiquities from urban or semi-urban societies across the Asian continent.",
"Many of those objects were collected by colonial officers and explorers in former parts of the British Empire, especially the Indian subcontinent.",
"Examples include the collections made by individuals such as James Wilkinson Breeks, Sir Alexander Cunningham, Sir Harold Deane, Sir Walter Elliot, James Prinsep, Charles Masson, Sir John Marshall and Charles Stuart.",
"A large number of Chinese antiquities were purchased from the Anglo-Greek banker George Eumorfopoulos in the 1930s.",
"The large collection of some 1800 Japanese prints and paintings owned by Arthur Morrison was acquired in the early twentieth century.",
"In the second half of the twentieth century, the museum greatly benefited from the bequest of the philanthropist PT Brooke Sewell, which allowed the department to purchase many objects and fill in gaps in the collection.In 2004, the ethnographic collections from Asia were transferred to the department.",
"These reflect the diverse environment of the largest continent in the world and range from India to China, the Middle East to Japan.",
"Much of the ethnographic material comes from objects originally owned by tribal cultures and hunter-gatherers, many of whose way of life has disappeared in the last century.",
"Particularly valuable collections are from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (much assembled by the British naval officer Maurice Portman), Sri Lanka (especially through the colonial administrator Hugh Nevill), Northern Thailand, south-west China, the Ainu of Hokaidu in Japan (chief among them the collection of the Scottish zoologist John Anderson), Siberia (with artefacts collected by the explorer Kate Marsden and Bassett Digby and is notable for its Sakha pieces, especially the ivory model of a summer festival at Yakutsk) and the islands of South-East Asia, especially Borneo.",
"The latter benefited from the purchase in 1905 of the Sarawak collection put together by Dr Charles Hose, as well as from other colonial officers such as Edward A Jeffreys.",
"In addition, a unique and valuable group of objects from Java, including shadow puppets and a gamelan musical set, was assembled by Sir Stamford Raffles.The principal gallery devoted to Asian art in the museum is Gallery 33 with its comprehensive display of Chinese, Indian subcontinent and South-east Asian objects.",
"An adjacent gallery showcases the Amaravati sculptures and monuments.",
"Other galleries on the upper floors are devoted to its Japanese, Korean, painting and calligraphy, and Chinese ceramics collections.Highlights of the collections include:* The most comprehensive collection of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent in the world, including the celebrated Buddhist limestone reliefs from Amaravati excavated by Sir Walter Elliot* An outstanding collection of Chinese antiquities, paintings, and porcelain, lacquer, bronze, jade, and other applied arts* The Frau Olga-Julia Wegener Collection of 147 Chinese paintings from the Tang to the Qing dynasties.",
"* The most comprehensive collection of Japanese pre-20th century art in the Western world, many of which originally belonged to the surgeon William Anderson and diplomat Ernest Mason Satow'''East Asia'''* A large collection of Chinese ritual bronzes, including a wine vessel in the shape of two rams supporting a jar, (1500–200 BC)* Jade bi or disc with inscription from the Qianlong Emperor, (1500–1050 BC)* Group of oracle bones that were used for divination from the Shang dynasty, China, (1200–1050 BC)* Intricately designed gold dagger handle from Eastern Zhou period, China, (6th–5th centuries BC)* Huixian Bronze Hu, an identical pair of bronze vessels from the Eastern Zhou period, China, (5th century BC)* Japanese antiquities from the Kofun period excavated by the pioneering archaeologist William Gowland, (3rd–6th centuries AD)* Three ornate bronze Dōtaku or bells from the Yayoi period, Japan, (200 BC – 200 AD)* Gilded and inscribed Han dynasty wine-cup made from lacquer and found in Pyongyang, Korea (4 AD)* Gandharan architectural wood carvings, furniture and dress accessories from Loulan, Xinjiang, (4th century AD)* The famous Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi, (344–406 AD)* The colossal Amitābha Buddha from Hancui, China, (585 AD)* A set of ceramic Tang dynasty tomb figures of Liu Tingxun, ()* Silk Princess painting from Dandan-oilik Buddhist sanctuary in Khotan, Xinjiang, China, (7th–8th century AD)* Seated Luohan from Yixian, one from a set of eight surviving statues, China, (907–1125 AD)* Hoard of Tang dynasty silverware from Beihuangshan, Shaanxi, China, (9th–10th centuries AD)* Seventeen examples of extremely rare Ru ware, the largest collection in the West, (1100 AD)* A fine assemblage of Buddhist scroll paintings from Dunhuang, western China, collected by the British-Hungarian explorer Aurel Stein, (5th–11th centuries AD)* Pericival David collection of Chinese ceramics, (10th–18th centuries AD)* Ivory stand in the form of a seated lion, Chos-'khor-yan-rtse monastery in Tibet, (13th century AD)* Copy of a hanging scroll painting of Minamoto no Yoritomo, first Shogun of Japan, (14th century AD)* Handscroll silk painting called 'Fascination of Nature' by Xie Chufang depicting insects and plants, China, (1321 AD)* Ornate Sino-Tibetan figure of Buddha Sakyamuni made of gilded bronze, China, (1403–1424 AD)* Large Cloisonné jar with dragon made for the Ming dynasty Imperial Court, paired with another in the Rietberg Museum, Zürich, Beijing, China, (1426–35 AD)* Pair of ceramic Kakiemon elephants from Japan, (17th century AD)* Moon jar from the Joseon Dynasty collected by the potter Bernard Leach, Korea, (18th century AD)* Japanese prints including The Great Wave off Kanagawa, (1829–32 AD)* Illustrations for the Great Picture Book of Everything, rare album of drawings by the celebrated Japanese artist Hokusai, (1820–1840 AD)'''South Asia'''* Excavated objects from the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo-daro, and Harappa, Ancient India (now in Pakistan), (2500–2000 BC)* Hoard of Copper Hoard Culture celts, plaques and disc from Gungeria, Madhya Pradesh, India, (2000–1000 BC)* Assembly of prehistoric artefacts from the Nilgiri Hills in southern India, (10th century BC – 2nd century AD)* Hoard of Iron Age metal weapons excavated at the Wurreegaon barrow near Kamptee in Maharastra, India, (7th – 1st centuries BC)* Sandstone fragment of a Pillar of Ashoka with Brahmi inscription from Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India, (238 BC)* The Kulu Vase found near a monastery in Himachal Pradesh, one of the earliest examples of figurative art from the sub-continent, northern India, (1st century BC)* Copper plate from Taxila, with important Kharoshthi inscription, Ancient India (now in Pakistan), (1st century BC – 1st century AD)* Indo-Scythian sandstone Mathura Lion Capital and Bracket figure from one of the gateways to the Great Stupa at Sanchi, central India, (1st century AD)* Bimaran Casket and Wardak Vase, reliquaries from ancient stupas in Afghanistan, (1st–2nd centuries AD)* Hoard of gold jewellery with precious stones found under the Enlightenment Throne at the Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, eastern India, (2nd century AD)* Relic deposits from stupas at Ahin Posh, Ali Masjid, Gudivada, Manikyala, Sonala Pind, Sanchi and Taxila, (1st–3rd centuries AD)* Seated Hārītī and Buddha statues and other Gandhara sculptures from Kafir Kot, Jamal Garhi, Takht-i-Bahi and Yusufzai, Pakistan, (1st–3rd centuries AD)* Hephthalite silver bowl with hunting scenes from the Swat District, Pakistan, (460–479 AD)* Three sandstone carved sculptures of the Buddha in Gupta style from Sarnath, eastern India, (5th–6th centuries AD)* Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena with important record of the genealogy of the Later Gupta dynasty up to king Ādityasena, Ghosrawan, Bihar, India, (675 AD)* The Buddhapad Hoard of bronze images from southern India, (6th–8th centuries AD)* Small bronze figure of Buddha Shakyamuni, Bihar, eastern India, (7th century AD)* Stone statue of Buddha from the Sultanganj hoard, Bihar, eastern India, (7th–8th centuries AD)* Earliest known figure of the dancing four-armed god Shiva Nataraja, Pallava dynasty, southern India (800 AD)* Statue of Tara from Sri Lanka and the Thanjavur Shiva from Tamil Nadu, southern India, (8th century & 10th century AD)* Standing Pala statue of Buddha from Kurkihar, Bihar, India, (9th century AD)* Several wooden architectural panels from the Kashmir Smast caves, northern Pakistan, (9th–10th centuries AD)* Hoard of Buddhist terracotta sealings from the Pala period found at the Nālandā Monastery, Bihar, eastern India, (10th century AD)* Statue of the goddess Ambika found at Dhar in central India, (1034 AD)* Foundation inscription of the Ananta Vasudeva Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India, (1278 AD)* Jade dragon cup that once belonged to Sultan Ulugh Beg from Samarkand, Uzbekistan, (1420–1449 AD)* Foundation inscription with Arabic inscription in Naskh script in the name of Sultan Yusufshah from Gauda, Bengal, eastern India, (1477 AD)* Large standing gilded copper figure of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Nepal, (15th–16th centuries AD)'''Southeast Asia'''* Earthenware tazza from the Phùng Nguyên culture, northern Vietnam, (2000–1500 BC)* Pottery vessels and sherds from the ancient site of Ban Chiang, Thailand, (10th–1st centuries BC)* Bronze bell from Klang and iron socketed axe (tulang mawas) from Perak, western Malaysia, (200 BC–200 AD)* Group of six Buddhist clay votive plaques found in a cave in Patania, Penang, Malaysia, (6th–11th centuries AD)* The famous Sambas Treasure of buddhist gold and silver figures from west Borneo, Indonesia, (8th–9th centuries AD)* Three stone Buddha heads from the temple at Borobodur in Java, Indonesia, (9th century AD)* Granite Kinnari figure in the shape of a bird from Candi Prambanan in Java, Indonesia, (9th century AD)* Sandstone Champa figure of a rampant lion, Vietnam, (11th century AD)* Gilded bronze figure of Śiva holding a rosary, Cambodia, (11th century AD)* Stone figure representing the upper part of an eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara, Cambodia, (12th century AD)* Bronze figure of a seated Buddha from Bagan, Burma, (12th–13th centuries AD)* Hoard of Southern Song dynasty ceramic vessels excavated at Pinagbayanan, Taysan Municipality, Philippines, (12th–13th centuries AD)* Statue of the Goddess Mamaki from Candi Jago, eastern Java, Indonesia, (13th–14th centuries AD)* Glazed terracotta tiles from the Shwegugyi Temple erected by king Dhammazedi in Bago, Myanmar, (1476 AD)* Inscribed bronze figure of a Buddha from Fang District, part of a large SE Asian collection amassed by the Norwegian explorer Carl Bock, Thailand, (1540 AD)* Large impression of the Buddha's foot made of gilded stone (known as Shwesettaw Footprints) donated by Captain Frederick Marryat, from Ponoodang near Yangon, Myanmar, (18th–19th centuries AD)File:Poids cubiques harappéens - BM.jpg|Room 33 - Cubic weights made of chert from Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, 2600-1900 BCFile:Periodo degli zhou dell'est, coppia di vasi rituali hu.",
"V sec.",
"ac.",
"01.JPG|Room 33 - One of the hu from Huixian, China, 5th century BCFile:CrystalGoose.JPG|Room 33 - A hamsa sacred goose vessel made of crystal from Stupa 32, Taxila, Pakistan, 1st century ADFile:Death of the Buddha BM.jpg|Room 33 - Stone sculpture of the death of Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st-3rd centuries ADFile:Ku K'ai-chih 001.jpg|Room 91a - Section of the Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi, China, c. 380 ADFile:Denesar Khera Buddha.JPG|Room 33 - Gilded bronze statue of the Buddha, Dhaneswar Khera, India, 5th century ADFile:Amitabha Buddha Statue, British Museum - panoramio.jpg|The Amitābha Buddha from Hancui on display in the museum's stairwell, China, 6th century ADFile:Luóhàn at British Museum.jpg|Room 33 - The luohan from Yixian made of glazed stoneware, China, 907-1125 ADFile:Goddess Ambika from Dhar.JPG|Sculpture of Goddess Ambika found at Dhar, India, 1034 ADFile:Tirthankaras.jpg|Sculpture of the two Jain tirthankaras Rishabhanatha and Mahavira, Orissa, India, 11th-12th century ADFile:British Museum Kang Hou Gui Top.jpg|Room 33 - Western Zhou bronze ritual vessel known as the \"Kang Hou Gui\", China, 11th century BCFile:Seated Avalokiteshvara BM OA 1985.5-11.1.jpg|Room 33 - A crowned figure of the Bodhisattva Khasarpana Avalokiteśvara, India, 12th century ADFile:British Museum Asia 2 (cropped).jpg|Room 33 - Covered hanging jar with underglaze decoration, Si Satchanalai (Sawankalok), north-central Thailand, 14th-16th centuries ADFile:Hu-shaped altar vessel BM 1989.0309.1.jpg|Room 33 - Hu-shaped altar flower vessel, Ming dynasty, China, 15th -16th centuries ADFile:Judge assistant hell BM OA1917.11-16.1 n02.jpg|Room 33 - An assistant to the Judge of Hell, figure from a judgement group, Ming dynasty, China, 16th century ADFile:British Museum Asia 41-2.jpg|Room 33 - Statue of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, gilded bronze.",
"Nepal, 16th century ADFile:Indischer Maler um 1615 (I) 001.jpg|Portrait of Ibrâhîm 'Âdil Shâh II (1580–1626), Mughal Empire of India, 1615 ADFile:Utagawa Toyoharu (attributed to), Courtesans of the Tamaya House.jpg|Room 90 - Courtesans of the Tamaya House, attributed to Utagawa Toyoharu, screen painting; Japan, Edo period, late 1770s or early 1780s ADFile:SFEC BritMus Asia 027.JPG|Room 33 - Large statue of Buddha made of lacquer from Burma, 18th-19th century ADFile:Seated.Lama-01-British.Museum.jpg|Room 33 - Figure of seated Lama; of painted and varnished papier-mâché, Ladakh, India, 19th century AD===Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas===Room 24 – The Wellcome Trust Gallery of Living and Dying, with Hoa Hakananai'a, a ''moai'', in the centreThe British Museum houses one of the world's most comprehensive collections of ethnographic material from Africa, Oceania and the Americas, representing the cultures of indigenous peoples throughout the world.",
"Over 350,000 objects spanning thousands of years tells the history of mankind from three major continents and many rich and diverse cultures; the collecting of modern artefacts is ongoing.",
"Many individuals have added to the department's collection over the years but those assembled by Henry Christy, Harry Beasley and William Oldman are outstanding.Objects from this department are mostly on display in several galleries on the ground and lower floors.",
"Gallery 24 displays ethnographic from every continent while adjacent galleries focus on North America and Mexico.",
"A long suite of rooms (Gallery 25) on the lower floor display African art.",
"There are plans in place to develop permanent galleries for showcasing art from Oceania and South America.",
"'''Africa'''throwing knivesThe Sainsbury African Galleries display 600 objects from the greatest permanent collection of African arts and culture in the world.",
"The three permanent galleries provide a substantial exhibition space for the museum's African collection comprising over 200,000 objects.",
"A curatorial scope that encompasses both archaeological and contemporary material, including both unique masterpieces of artistry and objects of everyday life.",
"A great addition was material amassed by Sir Henry Wellcome, which was donated by the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum in 1954.Highlights of the African collection include objects found at megalithic circles in The Gambia, a dozen exquisite Afro-Portuguese ivories, a series of soapstone figures from the Kissi people in Sierra Leone and Liberia, hoard of bronze Kru currency rings from the Sinoe River in Liberia, Asante goldwork and regalia from Ghana including the Bowdich collection, the rare Akan Drum from the same region in west Africa, pair of door panels and lintel from the palace at Ikere-Ekiti in Yorubaland, the Benin and Igbo-Ukwu bronze sculptures, the beautiful Bronze Head of Queen Idia, a magnificent brass head of a Yoruba ruler and quartz throne from Ife, a similar terracotta head from Iwinrin Grove near Ife, the Apapa Hoard from Lagos and other mediaeval bronze hoards from Allabia and the Forçados River in southern Nigeria.Included is an Ikom monolith from Cross River State, several ancestral screens from the Kalabari tribe in the Niger Delta, the Torday collection of central African sculpture, textiles and weaponry from the Kuba Kingdom including three royal figures, the unique Luzira Head from Uganda, processional crosses and other ecclesiastical and royal material from Gondar and Magdala, Ethiopia following the British Expedition to Abyssinia, excavated objects from Great Zimbabwe (that includes a unique soapstone, anthropomorphic figure) and satellite towns such as Mutare including a large hoard of Iron Age soapstone figures, a rare divining bowl from the Venda peoples and cave paintings and petroglyphs from South Africa.",
"'''Oceania'''The British Museum's Oceanic collections originate from the vast area of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from Papua New Guinea to Easter Island, from New Zealand to Hawaii.",
"The three main anthropological groups represented in the collection are Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia – Aboriginal art from Australia is considered separately in its own right.",
"Metal working was not indigenous to Oceania before Europeans arrived, so many of the artefacts from the collection are made from stone, shell, bone and bamboo.",
"Prehistoric objects from the region include a bird-shaped pestle and a group of stone mortars from Papua New Guinea.The British Museum is fortunate in having some of the earliest Oceanic and Pacific collections, many of which were put together by members of Cook's and Vancouver's expeditions or by colonial administrators and explorers such as Sir George Grey, Sir Frederick Broome, Joseph Bradshaw, Robert Christison, Gregory Mathews, Frederick Meinertzhagen, Thomas Mitchell and Arthur Gordon, before Western culture significantly impacted on indigenous cultures.",
"The department has also benefited greatly from the legacy of pioneering anthropologists such as AC Haddon, Bronisław Malinowski and Katherine Routledge.",
"An artefact is a wooden Aboriginal shield, probably dating from the late eighteenth century.",
"There is some debate as to whether this shield was found at Botany Bay or, given the nature of the wood being red mangrove which grows abundantly only 500 km north of Botany Bay, possibly obtained through trade networks or at an entirely different location.The Wilson cabinet of curiosities from Palau is an example of pre-contact ware.",
"Another outstanding exemplar is the mourner's dress from Tahiti given to Cook on his second voyage, one of only ten in existence.",
"In the collection is a large war canoe from the island of Vella Lavella in the Solomon Islands, one of the last ever to be built in the archipelago.The Māori collection is the finest outside New Zealand with many intricately carved wooden and jade objects and the Aboriginal art collection is distinguished by its wide range of bark paintings, including two very early bark etchings collected by John Hunter Kerr.",
"A particularly important group of objects was purchased from the London Missionary Society in 1911, that includes the unique statue of A'a from Rurutu Island, the rare idol from the isle of Mangareva and the Cook Islands deity figure.",
"Other highlights include the huge Hawaiian statue of Kū-ka-ili-moku or god of war (one of three extant in the world) and the famous Easter Island statues Hoa Hakananai'a and Moai Hava.",
"'''Americas'''The Americas collection mainly consists of 19th and 20th century items although the Paracas, Moche, Inca, Maya, Aztec, Taino and other early cultures are well represented.",
"The Kayung totem pole, which was made in the late nineteenth century on Haida Gwaii, dominates the Great Court and provides a fitting introduction to this very wide-ranging collection that stretches from the very north of the North American continent where the Inuit population has lived for centuries, to the tip of South America where indigenous tribes have long thrived in Patagonia.Highlights of the collection include Aboriginal Canadian and Native American objects from North America collected by the 5th Earl of Lonsdale, the Marquis of Lorne, the explorer David Haig-Thomas and Bryan Mullanphy, Mayor of St. Louis, the Squier and Davis collection of prehistoric mound relics from North America, two carved stone bowls in the form of a seated human figure made by ancient North West Coast peoples from British Columbia, the headdress of Chief Yellow Calf from the Arapaho tribe in Wyoming, a lidded rivercane basket from South Carolina and the earliest historic example of Cherokee basketry, a selection of pottery vessels found in prehistoric dwellings at Mesa Verde and Casas Grandes, one of the enigmatic crystal skulls of unknown origin, a collection of nine turquoise Aztec mosaics from Mexico (the largest in Europe), important artefacts from Teotihuacan and Isla de Sacrificios.There are several rare pre-Columbian manuscripts including the Codex Zouche-Nuttall and Codex Waecker-Gotter and post-colonial ones such as the Codex Aubin and Codex Kingsborough, a spectacular series of Mayan lintels from Yaxchilan excavated by the British Mayanist Alfred Maudslay, a very high quality Mayan collection that includes sculptures from Copan, Tikal, Tulum, Pusilha, Naranjo and Nebaj (including the celebrated Fenton Vase), an ornate calcite vase with jaguar handles from the Ulua Valley in Honduras, the Lord Moyne collection from the Bay Islands, Honduras and Boyle collection from Nicarugua, over 20 stone metates with zoomorphic and anthropomorphic ornamentation from Costa Rica, a group of Zemi Figures from Vere, Jamaica, and wooden duhos from the Dominican Republic and The Bahamas.There are a collection of Pre-Columbian human mummies from sites across South America including Ancon, Acari, Arica and Leyva, a number of prestigious pre-Columbian gold and votive objects from Colombia, three axe-shaped gold diadems found near Camaná from the Siguas culture in Peru, unique collection of Moche wooden figures and staffs from the Macabi islands off Peru, ethnographic objects from across the Amazon region including the Schomburgk and Maybury Lewis collections and part of the von Martius and von Spix collection, two rare Tiwanaku pottery vessels from Lake Titicaca and important items from Tierra del Fuego donated by Commander Phillip Parker King.File:British Museum otter pipe.jpg|Room 26 - Stone pipe representing an otter from Mound City, Ohio, USA, 200 BC - 400 ADFile:British Museum tomb guardian.jpg|Room 2 - Stone tomb guardian, part human part jaguar, from San Agustín, Colombia, c. 300-600 ADFile:Maya maize god statue.jpg|Room 1 - Maya maize god statue from Copán, Honduras, 600-800 ADFile:Gold Lime Flasks (poporos) Quimbaya Culture, Colombia AD 600-1100 - British Museum.jpg|Room 24 - Gold Lime Flasks (poporos), Quimbaya Culture, Colombia, 600-1100 ADFile:Maya, lintel 25, da yaxchilan, 725.JPG|Room 27 - Lintel 25 from Yaxchilan, Late Classic, Mexico, 600-900 ADFile:Bird pectoral, Popayan, gold alloy, AD900–1600..jpg|Room 24 - Bird pectoral made from gold alloy, Popayán, Colombia, 900-1600 ADFile:Hoa Hakananai'a, British Museum.jpg|Room 24 – Rapa Nui statue Hoa Hakananai'a, 1000 AD, Wellcome Trust GalleryFile:Aztec double-headed serpent - Denis Bourez - British Museum, London.jpg|Room 27 - Double-headed serpent turquoise mosaic, Aztec, Mexico, 1400-1500 ADFile:Denis Bourez - British Museum, London (8747055335).jpg|Room 27 - Turquoise Mosaic Mask, Mixtec-Aztec, Mexico, 1400-1500 ADFile:AHOTWgold lama.JPG|Room 2 - Miniature gold llama figurine, Inca, Peru, about 1500 ADFile:Benin Bronzes at the British Museum 1.jpg|Room 25 - Part of the famous collection of Benin brass plaques, Nigeria, 1500-1600 ADFile:Benin brass plaque 01.jpg|Room 25 - Detail of one of the Benin brass plaques in the museum, Nigeria, 1500-1600 ADFile:Idia mask BM Af1910 5-13 1.jpg|Room 25 - Benin ivory mask of Queen Idia, Nigeria, 16th century ADFile:Hawaiian feather helmet, British Museum 3.jpg|Room 24 - Hawaiian feather helmet or mahiole, late 1700s ADFile:Hawaiian bowl.jpg|Bowl decorated with pearl shell and boars' tusks, used to serve the intoxicating drink kava, Hawaii, late 1700s ADFile:British museum, totem.JPG|Great Court - Two house frontal totem poles, Haida, British Columbia, Canada, about 1850 ADFile:Punu mask BM Af1904 11-22 1.jpg|Room 25 - Mask (wood and pigment); Punu people, Gabon, 19th century ADFile:Otobo masquerade.jpg|Room 25 - Otobo masquerade in the Africa Gallery, Nigeria, 20th century ADFile:El Anatsui - Man's Cloth.jpg|Room 25 - Modern interpretation of kente cloth from Ghana, late 20th century AD===Department of Coins and Medals=== The British Museum is home to one of the world's finest numismatic collections, comprising about a million objects, including coins, medals, tokens and paper money.",
"The collection spans the entire history of coinage from its origins in the 7th century BC to the present day and is representative of both the East and West.",
"The Department of Coins and Medals was created in 1861 and celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2011.===Department of Conservation and Scientific Research===This department was founded in 1920.Conservation has six specialist areas: ceramics & glass; metals; organic material (including textiles); stone, wall paintings and mosaics; Eastern pictorial art and Western pictorial art.",
"The science department has and continues to develop techniques to date artefacts, analyse and identify the materials used in their manufacture, to identify the place an artefact originated and the techniques used in their creation.",
"The department also publishes its findings and discoveries.===Libraries and archives===This department covers all levels of education, from casual visitors, schools, degree level and beyond.",
"The museum's various libraries hold in excess of 350,000 books, journals and pamphlets covering all areas of the museum's collection.",
"Also the general museum archives which date from its foundation in 1753 are overseen by this department; the individual departments have their own separate archives and libraries covering their various areas of responsibility, which can be consulted by the public on application.",
"The Anthropology Library is especially large, with 120,000 volumes.",
"However, the Paul Hamlyn Library, which had become the central reference library of the British Museum and the only library there freely open to the general public, closed permanently in August 2011.The website and online database of the collection also provide increasing amounts of information."
],
[
"British Museum Press",
"The British Museum Press (BMP) is the publishing business and a division of the British Museum Company Ltd., a company and a charity (established in 1973) wholly owned by the trustees of the British Museum.The BMP publishes both popular and scholarly illustrated books to accompany the exhibition programme and explore aspects of the general collection.",
"Profits from their sales goes to support the British Museum.Scholarly titles are published in the Research Publications series, all of which are peer-reviewed.",
"This series was started in 1978 and was originally called Occasional Papers.",
"The series is designed to disseminate research on items in the collection.",
"Between six and eight titles are published each year in this series."
],
[
"Controversies and criticism",
"A few of the Elgin Marbles (also known as the Parthenon Marbles) from the East Pediment of the Parthenon in Athens.=== Artefacts from other countries ===It is a point of controversy whether museums should possess artefacts looted from other countries, and the British Museum is a notable target for criticism.",
"The Elgin Marbles, Benin Bronzes, Ethiopian Tabots and the Rosetta Stone are among the most disputed objects in its collections, and organisations have been formed demanding the return of these artefacts to their native countries.",
"The Parthenon Marbles (Elgin Marbles) claimed by Greece were also cited by UNESCO, among others, for restitution.",
"From 1801 to 1812, Elgin's agents removed about half of the surviving sculptures from the Parthenon, as well as sculptures from the Propylaea and Erechtheum.",
"The former director of the museum has stated, \"We are indebted to Elgin for having rescued the Parthenon sculptures and others from the Acropolis from the destruction they were suffering, as well as from the damage that the Acropolis monuments, including the sculptures that he did not remove, have suffered since.\"",
"The British Museum itself damaged some of the artefacts during restoration in the 1930s.There is also controversy over artefacts taken during the destruction of the Old Summer Palace in Beijing by an Anglo-French expeditionary force during the Second Opium War in 1860, an event which drew a protest from Victor Hugo.",
"The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum, among others, have been asked since 2009 to open their archives for investigation by a team of Chinese investigators as a part of an international mission to document Chinese national treasures in foreign collections.",
"In 2010 Neil MacGregor, the former Director of the British Museum, said he hoped that both British and Chinese investigators would work together on the controversial collection.",
"In 2020 the museum appointed a curator to research the history of its collections, including disputed items.The British Museum has stated that the \"restitutionist premise, that whatever was made in a country must return to an original geographical site, would empty both the British Museum and the other great museums of the world\".",
"The museum has also argued that the British Museum Act of 1963 prevents any object from leaving its collection once it has entered it.",
"\"The Museum owns its collections, but its Trustees are not empowered to dispose of them\".",
"Nevertheless, it has returned items such as Tasmanian Aboriginal burial remains when this was consistent with legislation regarding the disposal of items in the collections.In late 2022, the British Museum had entered into preliminary negotiations with the Greek government about the future of the Elgin marbles.==== Disputed items in the collection ====* Elgin Marbles – claimed by Greece and backed by UNESCO among others for restitution* Benin Bronzes – claimed by Nigeria; the Nigerian government has passed a resolution demanding the return of all 700 bronze pieces.",
"30 pieces of the bronzes were sold by the British Museum privately from the 1950s until 1972, mostly back to the Nigerians.",
"* Ethiopian Tabots, Pre-Axumite Civilisation Coins – claimed by Ethiopia* Four stolen drawings (Nazi plunder) – Compensation paid to Uri Peled for the amount of £175,000 by the British Museum* Achaemenid empire gold and silver artefacts from the Oxus Treasure – in 2007 the President of Tajikistan ordered experts to look into making a claim.",
"* Rosetta Stone – claimed by Egypt* Dunhuang manuscripts, part of a cache of scrolls, manuscripts, paintings, scriptures, and relics from the Mogao Caves, including the Diamond Sutra – claimed by the People's Republic of China* Aboriginal shield – claimed by Aboriginal people of Australia.",
"* Hoa Hakananai'a – claimed by Chile on behalf of Easter Island* Repatriation and reburial of human remains is a controversial issue, and the British Museum has issued a policy on the subject.",
"* Welsh artefacts – claimed by Welsh people, particularly for the return of the Mold gold cape but also the Rhyd-y-gors Shield, Moel Hebog shield and Llanllyfni lunula.=== Nazi-looted art ===In 2002 the heirs of Dr. Arthur Feldmann, an art collector murdered in the Holocaust, requested that four old master drawings stolen by the Gestapo in 1939 be returned to the family.",
"A UK High Court judge ruled in 2005 that it would be illegal for the British Museum to return artworks looted by the Nazis to a Jewish family, despite its willingness and moral obligation to do so.",
"The law was changed in 2009, and again in 2022 giving museums additional powers to return looted art or provide compensation.",
"The heirs of Dr Feldmann accepted a compensation payment for a looted drawing and stated that they were happy the drawing would remain in the British Museum collection.According to the British Museum Spoliation report published by the Collections Trust in 2017, \"Around 30% of some 21,350 continental and British drawings acquired since 1933 have an uncertain or incomplete provenance for the 1933–1945 period\".",
"The museum lists these works on its website and investigates claims for restitution.===BP sponsorship===Since 2016, there have been a number of protests by activist groups, trade unions and the public against the British Museum's relationship with the oil company BP which the protesters believe implicates the museum in global warming.",
"In July 2019, Ahdaf Soueif resigned from the British Museum's board of trustees in protest against the sponsorship.",
"In February 2020, 1,500 demonstrators, including British Museum staff, took part in a day of protest over the issue.",
"In December 2023, it was announced that the British Museum had agreed to a new £50 million sponsorship deal with BP.=== Chairman's Advisory Group ===The Chairman's Advisory Group is an informal group of business leaders who provide advice to the chairman on various issues including the museum's relationship with the British government and policy on the museum's collections.",
"Its existence was made public after a freedom of information request by a group campaigning against the museum's links with the fossil fuel industry.",
"The museum has declined to name the members of the advisory group as they are acting in their personal capacity.===Thefts===Several incidents of theft from the museum have been recorded.",
"During the 1970s, several historic coins and medals were stolen.",
"In 1990 a 17th-century Japanese Kakiemon figure was stolen.",
"In 1991 two Meiji figurines were taken from a basement and in a separate incident a fragment of a gold ring was taken from a store.",
"In 1993 fifteen Roman coins and jewellery worth £250,000 were stolen.",
"In 1996 a Japanese chest and two Persian books were stolen.In July 2002 a marble head, valued at £50,000, was stolen from the Archaic Greek gallery.",
"In 2004, 15 \"historically important\" Chinese artefacts, including jewels, ornate hairpins and fingernail guards were stolen.",
"In 2017, it was revealed that a Cartier diamond had been missing since 2011.In August 2023, a staff member was fired after it emerged that items including gold, jewellery and gems had been stolen over a \"significant\" period of time.",
"The incident led to an investigation by the Metropolitan Police and an independent review by the museum.",
"Some of the missing artefacts were later found to have been sold on eBay for considerably less than their estimated value.",
"The museum had been warned of the thefts as early as 2021.The museum's director, Hartwig Fischer, announced that he would resign because the museum \"did not respond as comprehensively as it should have\" to the warnings of theft.",
"The number of artefacts stolen was estimated to be at about 2,000; some of which were subsequently recovered.",
"As a consequence of the thefts, the museum announced a five-year plan to digitise the complete collection and make it available to view online.=== Copyright settlement ===In August 2023, the British Museum reached a settlement with translator Yilin Wang over translations she had done of the poet Qiu Jin.",
"The museum had used her work without credit or permission in their exhibit “China’s Hidden Century” which ran between May 2023 and October 2023."
],
[
"Galleries",
";BuildingFile:BM, Main Floor Main Entrance Hall ~ South Stairs.6.JPG|Main Staircase, Discobolus of Myron (the Discus-Thrower)File:British Museum Reading Room Panorama Feb 2006.jpg|British Museum Reading RoomFile:British Museum 2010-06-04 B.jpg|Ceiling of the Great Court and the black siltstone obelisks of Nectanebo II, File:Flickr - Nic's events - British Museum with Cory and Mary, 6 Sep 2007 - 183.jpg|Detail of an Ionic capital on a pilaster in the Great CourtFile:England; London - The British Museum, Facade South Front ~ -Main Entrance + West Wing- Colonnade + The Africa Garden.2.jpg|African Garden – created by BBC TV programme Ground Force;Museum galleries''Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan''File:BM, AES Egyptian Sculpture (Room 4), View South + Towards Assyrian Sculpture Gallery (Room 6).JPG|Room 4 – Egyptian Sculpture, view towards the Assyrian TranseptFile:BM, AES Egyptian Sculpture (Room 4), View North.3.JPG|Room 4File:Egyptian Gallery.JPG|Room 4''Department of the Middle East''File:BM; RM6 - ANE, Assyrian Sculpture 32 -East (N), Centre Island + North Wall- ~ Assyrian Empire + -Lamassu, Stela's, Statue's, Obelisk's, Relief Panel's & Full Projection.1.jpg|The British Museum, Room 6 – Assyrian SculptureFile:BM; RM8 - ANE, Nimrud Palace Reliefs 75 South + East Wall (S) ~ Central Palace of Tiglath-pileser III (744-727 B.C) + Full Elevation & Viewing South.1.JPG|Room 8 – Pair of Lamassu from Nimrud & reliefs from the palace of Tiglath-Pileser IIIFile:BM; RM7 - ANE, Nimrud Palace Reliefs 1 Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C) ~ Full Elevation & Viewing South.JPG|Room 7 – Reliefs from the North-west palace of Ashurnasirpal II, NimrudFile:BM; ANE - RM 89, Assyrian Reliefs ~ Nineveh.JPG|Room 89 – Nimrud & Nineveh Palace ReliefsFile:BM; ANE - Nineveh, The Royal Lion Hunt (Room 10).JPG|Room 10 – Nineveh, The Royal Lion Hunt''Department of Greece and Rome''File:Parthenon Frieze.JPG|Room 18 – Ancient GreeceFile:Tomb of Merehi 1.jpg|Room 20a – Tomb of Merehi & Greek Vases, Lycia, 360 BCFile:British Museum - Room 85, Roman Portrait Sculpture.JPG|Room 85 – Portrait Sculpture, RomanFile:Townley Sculptures.JPG|Room 84 – Towneley Roman SculpturesFile:SFEC BritMus Roman 022.JPG|Main Staircase – Discobolus, RomanFile:The Townley Caryatid (anterior).jpg|Main Staircase – Townley Caryatid, Roman, 140–160 AD===Digital and online===The museum has a collaboration with the Google Cultural Institute to bring the collection online."
],
[
"Exhibitions",
"* '' Chronology of Temporary Exhibitions at the British Museum'', by Joanna Bowring (British Museum Research Paper 189, 2012) lists all temporary exhibitions from 1838 to 2012.",
"''Forgotten Empire Exhibition'' (October 2005 – January 2006)File:Forgotten Empire Exhibition, (Room 5).1.JPG|Room 5 – Exhibitions PanoramaFile:The British Museum, Room 5-Persepolis Bas-relief.jpg|Room 5 – The Persepolis CastsFile:BM; ANE - Forgotten Empire Exhibition, (Room 5).3.JPG|Room 5 – Exhibitions RelicsFile:BM; ANE - Forgotten Empire Exhibition, The Cyrus Cylinder (Room 5).JPG|Room 5 – The Cyrus CylinderFrom January to April 2012 the museum presented ''Hajj: Journey to the Heart of Islam'', the first major exhibition on the topic of the Hajj, the pilgrimage that is one of the five pillars of Islam."
],
[
"See also",
"*2016–17 all-female UK terror plot – involved a plan to attack the British Museum"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Anderson, Robert (2005).",
"''The Great Court and the British Museum''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard.",
"''Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African and Pacific Art and the London Avant Garde''.",
"Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 103–164..",
"* Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard.",
"\"The Transcultural Roots of Modernism: Imagist Poetry, Japanese Visual Culture, and the Western Museum System\" , ''Modernism/modernity'' Volume 18, Number 1, January 2011, pp. 27–42..",
"* Bowring, Joanna (2012). ''",
"Chronology of Temporary Exhibitions at the British Museum '' London: British Museum Research Paper 189.",
"* Caygill, Marjorie (2006).",
"''The British Museum: 250 Years''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* Caygill, Marjorie (2002).",
"''The Story of the British Museum''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* --do.-- (2009) ''Treasures of the British Museum'' London: The British Museum Press (1st ed.",
"1985; 2nd ed.",
"1992)* Cook, B. F. (2005).",
"''The Elgin Marbles''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* Esdaile, Arundell (1946) ''The British Museum Library: a Short History and Survey''.",
"London: Allen & Unwin* Jacobs, Norman (2010) ''Behind the Colonnade''.",
"Stroud: The History Press* Jenkins, Ian (2006).",
"''Greek Architecture and its Sculpture in The British Museum''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* Francis, Frank, ed.",
"(1971) ''Treasures of the British Museum''.",
"London: Thames & Hudson (rev.",
"ed., 1975)* Moser, Stephanie (2006).",
"''Wondrous Curiosities: Ancient Egypt at The British Museum''.",
"Chicago: The University of Chicago Press* Reade, Julian (2004).",
"''Assyrian Sculpture''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* Reeve, John (2003).",
"''The British Museum: Visitor's Guide''.",
"London: The British Museum Press* Wilson, David M. (2002).",
"''The British Museum: a history''.",
"London: The British Museum Press"
],
[
"External links",
"* * The British Museum from ''The Survey of London''* British Museum elevation* * * * Virtual tour of the British Museum provided by Google Arts & Culture"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Binomial theorem"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In elementary algebra, the '''binomial theorem''' (or '''binomial expansion''') describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial.",
"According to the theorem, it is possible to expand the polynomial into a sum involving terms of the form , where the exponents and are nonnegative integers with , and the coefficient of each term is a specific positive integer depending on and .",
"For example, for ,The coefficient in the term of is known as the binomial coefficient or (the two have the same value).",
"These coefficients for varying and can be arranged to form Pascal's triangle.",
"These numbers also occur in combinatorics, where gives the number of different combinations (i.e.",
"subsets) of elements that can be chosen from an -element set.",
"Therefore is usually pronounced as \" choose \"."
],
[
"History",
"Special cases of the binomial theorem were known since at least the 4th century BC when Greek mathematician Euclid mentioned the special case of the binomial theorem for exponent .",
"Greek mathematician Diophantus cubed various binomials, including .",
"Indian mathematician Aryabhata's method for finding cube roots, from around 510 CE, suggests that he knew the binomial formula for exponent .Binomial coefficients, as combinatorial quantities expressing the number of ways of selecting objects out of without replacement, were of interest to ancient Indian mathematicians.",
"The earliest known reference to this combinatorial problem is the ''Chandaḥśāstra'' by the Indian lyricist Pingala (c. 200 BC), which contains a method for its solution.",
"The commentator Halayudha from the 10th century AD explains this method.",
"By the 6th century AD, the Indian mathematicians probably knew how to express this as a quotient , and a clear statement of this rule can be found in the 12th century text ''Lilavati'' by Bhaskara.The first known formulation of the binomial theorem and the table of binomial coefficients appears in a work by Al-Karaji, quoted by Al-Samaw'al in his \"al-Bahir\".",
"Al-Karaji described the triangular pattern of the binomial coefficients and also provided a mathematical proof of both the binomial theorem and Pascal's triangle, using an early form of mathematical induction.",
"The Persian poet and mathematician Omar Khayyam was probably familiar with the formula to higher orders, although many of his mathematical works are lost.",
"The binomial expansions of small degrees were known in the 13th century mathematical works of Yang Hui and also Chu Shih-Chieh.",
"Yang Hui attributes the method to a much earlier 11th century text of Jia Xian, although those writings are now also lost.In 1544, Michael Stifel introduced the term \"binomial coefficient\" and showed how to use them to express in terms of , via \"Pascal's triangle\".",
"Blaise Pascal studied the eponymous triangle comprehensively in his ''Traité du triangle arithmétique''.",
"However, the pattern of numbers was already known to the European mathematicians of the late Renaissance, including Stifel, Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, and Simon Stevin.Isaac Newton is generally credited with discovering the generalized binomial theorem, valid for any real exponent, in 1665.It was discovered independently in 1670 by James Gregory."
],
[
"Statement",
"According to the theorem, the expansion of any nonnegative integer power of the binomial is a sum of the formwhere each is a positive integer known as a binomial coefficient, defined asThis formula is also referred to as the '''binomial formula''' or the '''binomial identity'''.",
"Using summation notation, it can be written more concisely asThe final expression follows from the previous one by the symmetry of and in the first expression, and by comparison it follows that the sequence of binomial coefficients in the formula is symmetrical, A simple variant of the binomial formula is obtained by substituting for , so that it involves only a single variable.",
"In this form, the formula reads"
],
[
"Examples",
"Here are the first few cases of the binomial theorem:In general, for the expansion of on the right side in the th row (numbered so that the top row is the 0th row):* the exponents of in the terms are (the last term implicitly contains );* the exponents of in the terms are (the first term implicitly contains );* the coefficients form the th row of Pascal's triangle;* before combining like terms, there are terms in the expansion (not shown); * after combining like terms, there are terms, and their coefficients sum to .An example illustrating the last two points: with .A simple example with a specific positive value of :A simple example with a specific negative value of :=== Geometric explanation ===Visualisation of binomial expansion up to the 4th powerFor positive values of and , the binomial theorem with is the geometrically evident fact that a square of side can be cut into a square of side , a square of side , and two rectangles with sides and .",
"With , the theorem states that a cube of side can be cut into a cube of side , a cube of side , three rectangular boxes, and three rectangular boxes.In calculus, this picture also gives a geometric proof of the derivative if one sets and interpreting as an infinitesimal change in , then this picture shows the infinitesimal change in the volume of an -dimensional hypercube, where the coefficient of the linear term (in ) is the area of the faces, each of dimension :Substituting this into the definition of the derivative via a difference quotient and taking limits means that the higher order terms, and higher, become negligible, and yields the formula interpreted as:\"the infinitesimal rate of change in volume of an -cube as side length varies is the area of of its -dimensional faces\".If one integrates this picture, which corresponds to applying the fundamental theorem of calculus, one obtains Cavalieri's quadrature formula, the integral – see proof of Cavalieri's quadrature formula for details."
],
[
"Binomial coefficients",
"The coefficients that appear in the binomial expansion are called '''binomial coefficients'''.",
"These are usually written and pronounced \" choose \".=== Formulas ===The coefficient of is given by the formulawhich is defined in terms of the factorial function .",
"Equivalently, this formula can be writtenwith factors in both the numerator and denominator of the fraction.",
"Although this formula involves a fraction, the binomial coefficient is actually an integer.=== Combinatorial interpretation ===The binomial coefficient can be interpreted as the number of ways to choose elements from an -element set.",
"This is related to binomials for the following reason: if we write as a productthen, according to the distributive law, there will be one term in the expansion for each choice of either or from each of the binomials of the product.",
"For example, there will only be one term , corresponding to choosing from each binomial.",
"However, there will be several terms of the form , one for each way of choosing exactly two binomials to contribute a .",
"Therefore, after combining like terms, the coefficient of will be equal to the number of ways to choose exactly elements from an -element set."
],
[
"Proofs",
"=== Combinatorial proof ======= Example ====The coefficient of inequals because there are three strings of length 3 with exactly two s, namely,corresponding to the three 2-element subsets of , namely,where each subset specifies the positions of the in a corresponding string.==== General case ====Expanding yields the sum of the products of the form where each is or .",
"Rearranging factors shows that each product equals for some between and .",
"For a given , the following are proved equal in succession:* the number of terms equal to in the expansion* the number of -character strings having in exactly positions* the number of -element subsets of * either by definition, or by a short combinatorial argument if one is defining as This proves the binomial theorem.=== Inductive proof ===Induction yields another proof of the binomial theorem.",
"When , both sides equal , since and Now suppose that the equality holds for a given ; we will prove it for .",
"For , let denote the coefficient of in the polynomial .",
"By the inductive hypothesis, is a polynomial in and such that is if , and otherwise.",
"The identityshows that is also a polynomial in and , andsince if , then and .",
"Now, the right hand side isby Pascal's identity.",
"On the other hand, if , then and , so we get .",
"Thuswhich is the inductive hypothesis with substituted for and so completes the inductive step."
],
[
"Generalizations",
"=== Newton's generalized binomial theorem ===Around 1665, Isaac Newton generalized the binomial theorem to allow real exponents other than nonnegative integers.",
"(The same generalization also applies to complex exponents.)",
"In this generalization, the finite sum is replaced by an infinite series.",
"In order to do this, one needs to give meaning to binomial coefficients with an arbitrary upper index, which cannot be done using the usual formula with factorials.",
"However, for an arbitrary number , one can definewhere is the Pochhammer symbol, here standing for a falling factorial.",
"This agrees with the usual definitions when is a nonnegative integer.",
"Then, if and are real numbers with , and is any complex number, one hasWhen is a nonnegative integer, the binomial coefficients for are zero, so this equation reduces to the usual binomial theorem, and there are at most nonzero terms.",
"For other values of , the series typically has infinitely many nonzero terms.For example, gives the following series for the square root:Taking , the generalized binomial series gives the geometric series formula, valid for :More generally, with , we have for :So, for instance, when ,Replacing with yields:So, for instance, when , we have for :=== Further generalizations ===The generalized binomial theorem can be extended to the case where and are complex numbers.",
"For this version, one should again assume and define the powers of and using a holomorphic branch of log defined on an open disk of radius centered at .",
"The generalized binomial theorem is valid also for elements and of a Banach algebra as long as , and is invertible, and .A version of the binomial theorem is valid for the following Pochhammer symbol-like family of polynomials: for a given real constant , define andfor ThenThe case recovers the usual binomial theorem.More generally, a sequence of polynomials is said to be '''of binomial type''' if* for all ,* , and* for all , , and .An operator on the space of polynomials is said to be the ''basis operator'' of the sequence if and for all .",
"A sequence is binomial if and only if its basis operator is a Delta operator.",
"Writing for the shift by operator, the Delta operators corresponding to the above \"Pochhammer\" families of polynomials are the backward difference for , the ordinary derivative for , and the forward difference for .=== Multinomial theorem ===The binomial theorem can be generalized to include powers of sums with more than two terms.",
"The general version iswhere the summation is taken over all sequences of nonnegative integer indices through such that the sum of all is .",
"(For each term in the expansion, the exponents must add up to ).",
"The coefficients are known as multinomial coefficients, and can be computed by the formulaCombinatorially, the multinomial coefficient counts the number of different ways to partition an -element set into disjoint subsets of sizes .=== Multi-binomial theorem ===When working in more dimensions, it is often useful to deal with products of binomial expressions.",
"By the binomial theorem this is equal toThis may be written more concisely, by multi-index notation, as=== General Leibniz rule ===The general Leibniz rule gives the th derivative of a product of two functions in a form similar to that of the binomial theorem: Here, the superscript indicates the th derivative of a function, .",
"If one sets and , cancelling the common factor of from each term gives the ordinary binomial theorem."
],
[
"Applications",
"=== Multiple-angle identities ===For the complex numbers the binomial theorem can be combined with de Moivre's formula to yield multiple-angle formulas for the sine and cosine.",
"According to De Moivre's formula,Using the binomial theorem, the expression on the right can be expanded, and then the real and imaginary parts can be taken to yield formulas for and .",
"For example, sinceBut De Moivre's formula identifies the left side with , sowhich are the usual double-angle identities.",
"Similarly, sinceDe Moivre's formula yieldsIn general,andThere are also similar formulas using Chebyshev polynomials.=== Series for ''e'' ===The number is often defined by the formulaApplying the binomial theorem to this expression yields the usual infinite series for .",
"In particular:The th term of this sum isAs , the rational expression on the right approaches , and thereforeThis indicates that can be written as a series:Indeed, since each term of the binomial expansion is an increasing function of , it follows from the monotone convergence theorem for series that the sum of this infinite series is equal to .=== Probability ===The binomial theorem is closely related to the probability mass function of the negative binomial distribution.",
"The probability of a (countable) collection of independent Bernoulli trials with probability of success all not happening is:An upper bound for this quantity is"
],
[
"In abstract algebra",
"The binomial theorem is valid more generally for two elements and in a ring, or even a semiring, provided that .",
"For example, it holds for two matrices, provided that those matrices commute; this is useful in computing powers of a matrix.The binomial theorem can be stated by saying that the polynomial sequence is of binomial type."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* The binomial theorem is mentioned in the Major-General's Song in the comic opera ''The Pirates of Penzance''.",
"* Professor Moriarty is described by Sherlock Holmes as having written a treatise on the binomial theorem.",
"* The Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa, using the heteronym Álvaro de Campos, wrote that \"Newton's Binomial is as beautiful as the ''Venus de Milo''.",
"The truth is that few people notice it.",
"\"* In the 2014 film ''The Imitation Game'', Alan Turing makes reference to Isaac Newton's work on the binomial theorem during his first meeting with Commander Denniston at Bletchley Park."
],
[
"See also",
"* Binomial approximation* Binomial distribution* Binomial inverse theorem* Stirling's approximation* Tannery's theorem* Polynomials calculating sums of powers of arithmetic progressions* q-binomial theorem"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Binomial Theorem by Stephen Wolfram, and \"Binomial Theorem (Step-by-Step)\" by Bruce Colletti and Jeff Bryant, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Balboa"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Balboa''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Boats",
"* Balboa 16, an American sailboat design* Balboa 20, an American sailboat design* Balboa 21, an American sailboat design* Balboa 22, an American sailboat design* Balboa 23, an American sailboat design* Balboa 24, an American sailboat design"
],
[
"Places",
"* Balboa, Cauca, a town and municipality in Colombia* Balboa, León, a Spanish village and municipality* Balboa, Panama, a port city in Panama** Balboa District of Panamá Province in Panama* Balboa, Risaralda, a town and municipality in Colombia* Balboa (Los Angeles Metro station), on the Los Angeles Metro Orange Line* Balboa (lunar crater), located near the western limb of the Moon* Balboa High School (California), an American public high school of San Francisco, California* Balboa Island, Newport Beach, California, a harborside community in Newport Beach* Balboa Park (disambiguation), any of several* Balboa Peninsula, Newport Beach, California, a neighborhood of the city of Newport Beach* Naval Medical Center San Diego, a US Navy medical treatment facility informally known as \"Balboa Hospital\""
],
[
"People",
"* Vasco Núñez de Balboa ( 1475 – 1519), a Spanish explorer, governor, and conquistador* Javier Balboa (born 1985), football midfielder* Marcelo Balboa (born 1967), American former soccer defender* Álex Balboa (born 2001), football midfielder"
],
[
"Entertainment",
"* Balboa (dance), a close embrace style of swing dancing* Balboa (band), a hardcore band from Philadelphia* Balboa County, a fictional county setting for the ''Veronica Mars'' television series* Rocky Balboa, protagonist of the ''Rocky'' film series* Balboa, the merged tribe name in ''Survivor: Pearl Islands''* Balboa, a probe featured in ''Alien Planet''"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* ''Balboa'' (bug), a genus of dirt-colored seed bugs* Balboa Line, a former train route in California, U.S.* Panamanian balboa, the official currency of Panama"
],
[
"See also",
"* Rocky Balboa (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boxing Day"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Boxing Day''' is a holiday celebrated after Christmas Day, occurring on the second day of Christmastide (26 December).",
"Boxing Day was once a day to donate gifts to those in need, but it has evolved to become a part of Christmas festivities, with many people choosing to shop for deals on Boxing Day.",
"It originated in the United Kingdom and is celebrated in several Commonwealth nations.",
"The attached bank holiday or public holiday may take place on 28 December if necessary to ensure it falls on a weekday.",
"Boxing Day is also concurrent with the Christian festival Saint Stephen's Day.In parts of Europe, such as several regions of Spain, the Czech Republic, Germany, Austria, Hungary, the Netherlands, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Norway, and the Republic of Ireland, 26 December is Saint Stephen's Day, which is considered the second day of Christmas."
],
[
"Etymology",
"There are competing theories for the origins of the term, none of which are definitive.The European tradition of giving money and other gifts to those in need, or in service positions, has been dated to the Middle Ages, but the exact origin is unknown; it may reference the alms box placed in the narthex of Christian churches to collect donations for the poor.",
"The tradition may come from a custom in the late Roman and early Christian era, wherein alms boxes placed in churches were used to collect special offerings tied to the Feast of Saint Stephen, which, in the Western Christian Churches, falls on the same day as Boxing Day, the second day of Christmastide.",
"On this day, it is customary in some localities for the alms boxes to be opened and distributed to the poor.The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' gives the earliest attestation from Britain in 1743, defining it as \"the day after Christmas day\", and saying \"traditionally on this day tradespeople, employees, etc., would receive presents or gratuities (a \"Christmas box\") from their customers or employers.",
"\"The term \"Christmas box\" dates back to the 17th century, and among other things meant:A present or gratuity given at Christmas: In Great Britain, usually confined to gratuities given to those who are supposed to have a vague claim upon the donor for services rendered to him as one of the general public by whom they are employed and paid, or as a customer of their legal employer; the undefined theory being that as they have done offices for this person, for which he has not directly paid them, some direct acknowledgement is becoming at Christmas.In Britain, it was a custom for tradesmen to collect \"Christmas boxes\" of money or presents on the first weekday after Christmas as thanks for good service throughout the year.",
"This is mentioned in Samuel Pepys' diary entry for 19 December 1663.This custom is linked to an older British tradition in which the servants of the wealthy were allowed the next day to visit their families since they would have had to serve their masters on Christmas Day.",
"The employers would give each servant a box to take home containing gifts, bonuses, and sometimes leftover food.",
"Until the late 20th century, there continued to be a tradition among many in the UK to give a Christmas gift, usually cash, to vendors, although not on Boxing Day, as many would not work on that day."
],
[
"Date",
"Saint Stephen's Day, a religious holiday, also falls on 26 December.In the United Kingdom, Boxing Day could not fall on a Sunday 26 December.",
"Instead, Boxing Day would be celebrated on Monday 27 December, with the preceding Sunday called Christmas Sunday.",
"This rule was independent of the rule of bank holidays being taken in lieu.",
"The rule of no Boxing Day on a Sunday appeared to quietly change around the time that the Sunday Trading Act 1994 was enacted, with the last Boxing Day to land on 27 December being in 1993.Unlike the contemporary understanding of Boxing Day itself, the associated bank holiday or public holiday always falls on a weekday.",
"When 25 December falls on a Saturday and 26 December falls on a Sunday, the Christmas Day substitute holiday is observed on Monday 27 December, with the Boxing Day substitute holiday observed on Tuesday 28 December.",
"When Christmas Day is a Sunday, the Boxing Day holiday is still observed on Monday 26 December, with the substitute holiday for Christmas Day observed on Tuesday 27 December.The Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971, which regulates UK bank holidays, does not officially name the 26 December bank holiday as Boxing Day, but states that it falls on \"26th December, if it be not a Sunday.\""
],
[
"Status by country",
"* In Australia, Boxing Day is a public holiday in all jurisdictions except the state of South Australia, where a public holiday known as Proclamation Day is celebrated on the first weekday after Christmas Day or the Christmas Day holiday.",
"Both the Boxing Day Test cricket match held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and The Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race begin on Boxing Day.",
"* In Canada, Boxing Day () is a federal statutory holiday.",
"Government offices, banks, and postal services are closed.",
"In Ontario and other Canadian provinces, it is a provincial statutory holiday.",
"* In Hong Kong, despite the transfer of sovereignty from the UK to China in 1997, Boxing Day is a general holiday as the first weekday after Christmas.",
"* In Ireland, when the entire island was part of the United Kingdom, the Bank Holidays Act 1871 established the feast day of Saint Stephen as a non-moveable public holiday on 26 December.",
"Following partition in 1920, Northern Ireland reverted to the British name, Boxing Day.",
"In County Donegal, particularly in East Donegal and Inishowen, the day is also popularly known as Boxing Day.",
"* In New Zealand, Boxing Day is a statutory holiday.",
"On these holidays, people who must work receive times their salaries, and a day in lieu is provided to employees who work.",
"* In Nigeria, Boxing Day is a public holiday for working people and students.",
"When it falls on a Saturday or Sunday, there is always a holiday on the following Monday.",
"* In Scotland, Boxing Day has been specified as an additional bank holiday since 1974, by royal proclamation under the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971.",
"* In Singapore, Boxing Day was a public holiday for working people and students; when it fell on a Saturday or Sunday, there was a holiday on the following Monday.",
"However, Boxing Day is no longer a public holiday.",
"* In South Africa, 26 December is the Day of Goodwill, a public holiday.",
"* In Trinidad and Tobago, Boxing Day is a public holiday.",
"* In the UK outside Scotland, 26 December (unless it is a Sunday) has been a bank holiday since 1871.When 26 December falls on a Saturday, the associated public holiday is on the following Monday, 28 December.",
"When 26 December falls on a Sunday, the public holiday is the following Tuesday 28 December, with the \"substitute day\" for Christmas Day being observed on the Monday.",
"The same practice is observed in Canada.",
"* In the British overseas territory of Bermuda, the costumed Gombey dancers perform throughout the mid-Atlantic island on Boxing Day, a tradition believed to date back to the 18th century, when slaves were permitted to gather at Christmas.",
"* In Massachusetts, US, Governor William F. Weld declared in 1996 that every 26 December is Boxing Day, in response to the efforts of a coalition of British citizens to \"transport the English tradition to the United States\", but not an employee holiday.",
"The holiday is otherwise not widely celebrated in the United States."
],
[
"Shopping",
"Boxing Day crowds shopping at the Toronto Eaton Centre in Canada, 2007In the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Trinidad and Tobago, Boxing Day is primarily known as a shopping holiday.",
"Boxing Day sales are common, and shops often allow dramatic price reductions.",
"For many merchants, Boxing Day has become the day of the year with the greatest revenue.",
"In the UK, it was estimated in 2009 that up to 12 million shoppers appeared at the sales (a rise of almost 20% compared to 2008, although this was also affected by the fact that the VAT was about to revert to 17.5% from 1 January, following the temporary reduction to 15%).Many retailers open very early (typically 5 am or even earlier) and offer doorbuster deals and loss leaders to draw people to their stores.",
"It is not uncommon for long queues to form early in the morning of 26 December, hours before the opening of shops holding the big sales, especially at big-box consumer electronics retailers.",
"Many stores have a limited quantity of big draw or deeply discounted items.",
"Because of the shoulder-to-shoulder crowds, many choose to stay at home and avoid the hectic shopping experience.",
"Local media often covers the event, mentioning how early the shoppers began queuing up and showing videos of shoppers queuing and later leaving with their purchased items.",
"Many retailers have implemented practices aimed at managing large numbers of shoppers.",
"They may limit entrances, restrict the number of patrons in a store at a time, provide tickets to people at the head of the queue to guarantee them a hot ticket item, or canvass queued-up shoppers to inform them of inventory limitations.In some areas of Canada, particularly in Atlantic Canada and parts of Northern Ontario, most retailers are prohibited from opening on Boxing Day, either by provincial law or by municipal bylaw, or by informal agreement among major retailers, to provide a day of relaxation following Christmas Day.",
"In these areas, sales otherwise scheduled for 26 December are moved to the 27th.",
"The city council of Greater Sudbury, Ontario, which was the largest city in Canada to maintain this restriction as of the early 2010s, formally repealed its store hours bylaw on 9 December 2014.While Boxing Day is 26 December, many retailers run the sales for several days before or after 26 December, often up to New Year's Eve, branding it as \"Boxing Week\".",
"Notably, in the recession of late 2008, a record number of retailers held early promotions because of the weak economy.",
"In 2009, many retailers with both online and High Street stores launched their online sales on Christmas Eve and their High Street sales on Boxing Day.=== Comparisons to Black Friday ===In terms of seasonal or holiday shopping traditions, Boxing Day sales have been compared to the U.S. phenomenon of Black Friday sales Black Friday being the Friday following the American Thanksgiving holiday in late November.",
"In the late 2000s, when the Canadian and United States dollars were near parity, Canadian retailers began to hold Black Friday promotions to attract consumers who would otherwise travel across the border to visit United States stores.",
"This may have been a contributory factor, since 2013, in a relative decline of traditional Canadian Boxing Day sales, when compared to sales on Black Friday.The traditional Boxing Day sales in the United Kingdom were never as large an event as the Black Friday sales are in the United States.",
"However, many British retailers began to see an opportunity to import the Black Friday tradition into the UK, not to replace Boxing Day sales, but as an addition to their overall seasonal promotions.",
"However, Black Friday and Boxing Day are close enough together that spending on one sale was likely to affect spending on the other.",
"Ultimately, the result was a marked decline in traditional Boxing Day sales in the UK.",
"The change was initially facilitated, although not necessarily by design, by the fact that many retailers had American ownership, such as Amazon.",
"This phenomenon was furthered by a general decline in traditional high-street shopping and a growing online marketplace, which is more international by nature.",
"This led, in 2015, to greater November retail sales in the UK than in December for the first time.",
"In 2019, a retail analysis firm estimated that there was a 9.8% drop in British store traffic on Boxing Day in comparison to 2018 (the largest year-over-year drop since 2010), citing several factors, such as the weather, the increased prominence of online shopping, uncertainties in the wake of the general election, and the growing prominence of Black Friday sales.Boxing Day sales are not a prominent tradition in the United States, although many retailers often begin after-Christmas sales that day.",
"It is typically the earliest starting day after Christmas for people to return unwanted gifts for exchanges or refunds and to redeem gift cards."
],
[
"Sport",
"Boxing Day Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, 2006Boxing Day Meet of the Blencathra Foxhounds in Keswick, 1962In the United Kingdom, it is traditional for all top-tier football leagues in England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland—the Premier League, the Scottish Premiership, and the NIFL Premiership—and the lower ones, as well as the rugby leagues, to hold a full programme of football matches on Boxing Day.",
"Originally, matches on Boxing Day were played against local rivals so that teams and their fans would not have to travel long distances to away games on the day after Christmas.",
"Before the formation of leagues, several traditional rugby union fixtures took place on Boxing Day each year, notably Llanelli v London Welsh and Leicester v The Barbarians.",
"The 2022 Premier League Boxing Day fixtures saw the return of domestic top flight football for the 2022–23 Premier League season, following the six-week break for to the 2022 FIFA World Cup.In Italy, Boxing Day football was played for the first time in the 2018–19 Serie A season.",
"The experiment was successful, with Italian stadiums 69% full on average – more than any other match day in December 2018.In rugby league, festive fixtures were a staple of the traditional winter season.",
"Since the transition to a summer season in the 1990s, no formal fixtures are now arranged on Boxing Day but some clubs, such as Wakefield Trinity, arrange a traditional local derby friendly fixture instead.Since 1980, the Australian cricket team has traditionally opened an annual test match on Boxing Day at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.",
"While several test matches had occasionally been held at the MCG around Boxing Day, it was not until 1980 that the concept was formalized by the Australian Cricket Board.",
"The Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race is also traditionally held on Boxing Day.In horse racing, there is the King George VI Chase at Kempton Park Racecourse in Surrey, England.",
"It is the second most prestigious chase in Britain, after the Cheltenham Gold Cup.",
"In addition to the prestigious race at Kempton, in Britain, it is usually the day with the most racing meetings of the year, with eight in 2016, in addition to three more in Ireland.",
"In Barbados, the final day of horse racing is held on Boxing Day at The Historic Garrison Savannah, a UNESCO world heritage site.",
"This tradition has been going on for decades in this former British colony.Boxing Day is one of the main days in the hunting calendar for hunts in the UK and US, with most hunts (both mounted foxhound or harrier packs and foot packs of beagles or bassets) holding meets, often in town or village centres.Several ice hockey contests are associated with the day.",
"The IIHF World Junior Championship typically begins on 26 December, while the Spengler Cup also begins on 23 December in Davos, Switzerland; the Spengler Cup competition includes HC Davos, Team Canada, and other top European hockey teams.",
"The National Hockey League traditionally had close to a full slate of games (10 were played in 2011), following the league-wide days off given for Christmas Eve and Christmas Day.",
"However, the 2013 collective bargaining agreement (which followed a lock-out) extended the league mandate of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day off to include Boxing Day, except when it falls on a Saturday, in which case the league can choose to make 23 December a league-wide off day instead for that year.",
"In Sweden, the related sport of bandy is also associated with the day, with Saint Stephen's Day bandy games having become an established tradition.In some African Commonwealth nations, particularly Ghana, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania, professional boxing contests are held on Boxing Day.",
"This practice has also been followed for decades in Guyana and Italy."
],
[
"Boxing Day Tsunami",
"The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami occurred on 26 December and thus has been referred to as \"the Boxing Day Tsunami\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Origins of Boxing Day at Snopes"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Balochistan, Pakistan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Balochistan''' (; ; , ) is a province of Pakistan.",
"Located in the southwestern region of the country, Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan by land area but is the least populated one.",
"It is bordered by the Pakistani provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the north-east, Punjab to the east and Sindh to the south-east; shares international borders with Iran to the west and Afghanistan to the north; and is bound by the Arabian Sea to the south.",
"Balochistan is an extensive plateau of rough terrain divided into basins by ranges of sufficient heights and ruggedness.",
"It has the world's largest deep sea port, the Port of Gwadar lying in the Arabian Sea.Although it makes up about 44% of the land area of Pakistan, only 5% of it is arable and it is noted for an extremely dry desert climate.",
"Despite this, agriculture and livestock make up about 47% of Balochistan's economy.The name \"Balochistan\" means \"the land of the Baloch\".",
"Largely underdeveloped, its economy is also dominated by natural resources, especially its natural gas fields.",
"Aside from Quetta, the second-largest city of the province is Turbat in the south, while another area of major economic importance is the port city of Gwadar on the Arabian Sea, an emerging future business hub."
],
[
"History",
"===Early history===Map showing the sites and extent of the Indus Valley civilisation.",
"Mohenjo-Daro and Mehrgarh were among the centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the modern-day province.",
"Balochistan marked the westernmost territory of the civilisation, which was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age in the world.Balochistan occupies the very southeasternmost portion of the Iranian Plateau, the setting for the earliest known farming settlements in the pre-Indus Valley civilisation era, the earliest of which was Mehrgarh, dated at 7000 BCE, within the province.",
"Balochistan marked the westernmost extent of civilisation.",
"Centuries before the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, parts of Balochistan were ruled by the Paratarajas, an Indo-Scythian dynasty.",
"At certain times, the Kushans also held political sway in parts of Balochistan.The Hindu Sewa Dynasty ruled parts of Balochistan, chiefly Kalat.",
"The Sibi Division, which was carved out of Quetta Division and Kalat Division in 1974, derives its name from Rani Sewi, the queen of the Sewa dynasty.The remnants of the earliest people in Balochistan were the Brahui people, a Dravidian speaking people.",
"The Brahuis retained the Dravidian language throughout the millennias.Although during the Stone and Bronze Age and Alexander the Great's empire an indigenous population existed, the Baloch people themselves did not enter the region until the 14th century CE.",
"A theory of the origin of the Baloch people, the largest ethnic group in the region, is that they are of Median descent.===Arrival of Islam===In 654, Abdulrehman ibn Samrah, governor of Sistan and the newly emerged Rashidun caliphate at the expense of Sassanid Persia and the Byzantine Empire, sent an Islamic army to crush a revolt in Zaranj, which is now in southern Afghanistan.",
"After conquering Zaranj, a column of the army pushed north, conquering Kabul and Ghazni, in the Hindu Kush mountain range, while another column moved through Quetta District in north-western Balochistan and conquered the area up to the ancient cities of ''Dawar'' and ''Qandabil'' (Bolan).",
"It is documented that the major settlements, falling within today's province, became in 654 controlled by the Rashidun caliphate, except for the well-defended mountain town of ''QaiQan'' which is now Kalat.During the caliphate of Ali, a revolt broke out in southern Balochistan's Makran region.",
"In 663, during the reign of Umayyad Caliph Muawiyah I, his Muslim rule lost control of north-eastern Balochistan and Kalat when Haris ibn Marah and a large part of his army died in battle against a revolt in Kalat.===Pre-modern era===In the 15th century, Mir Chakar Khan Rind became the first Sirdar of Afghan, Iranian and Pakistani Balochistan.",
"He was a close aide of the Timurid ruler Humayun, and was succeeded by the Khanate of Kalat, which owed allegiance to the Mughal Empire.",
"Later, Nader Shah won the allegiance of the rulers of eastern Balochistan.",
"He ceded Kalhora, one of the Sindh territories of Sibi-Kachi, to the Khanate of Kalat.",
"Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Afghan Empire, also won the allegiance of that area's rulers, and many Baloch fought under him during the Third Battle of Panipat.",
"Most of the area would eventually revert to local Baloch control after Afghan rule.===Colonial era===A historical sketch of Bolan Pass, Balochistan, PakistanIn 1876, northern Baluchistan became one of the Presidencies and provinces of British India in colonial India.",
"During this time from the fall of the Durrani Empire in 1823, four princely states were recognised and reinforced in Balochistan: Makran, Kharan, Las Bela and Kalat.",
"In 1876, Robert Sandeman negotiated the Treaty of Kalat, which brought the Khan's territories, including Kharan, Makran, and Las Bela, under British protection, even though they remained independent princely states.",
"After the Second Afghan War was ended by the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, the Afghan Emir ceded the districts of Quetta, Pishin, Harnai, Sibi and Thal Chotiali to British control.",
"On 1 April 1883, the British took control of the Bolan Pass, south-east of Quetta, from the Khan of Kalat.",
"In 1887, small additional areas of Balochistan were declared British territory.",
"In 1893, Sir Mortimer Durand negotiated an agreement with the Amir of Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman Khan, to fix the Durand Line running from Chitral to Balochistan as the boundary between the Emirate of Afghanistan and British-controlled areas.",
"Two devastating earthquakes occurred in Balochistan during British colonial rule: the 1935 Quetta earthquake, which devastated Quetta, and the 1945 Balochistan earthquake with its epicentre in the Makran region.",
"During the time of the Indian independence movement, \"three pro-Congress parties were still active in Balochistan's politics apart from Balochistan's Muslim League\", such as the Anjuman-i-Watan Baluchistan, which favoured a united India and opposed its partition.===After independence===Quetta Railway StationIn British-ruled Colonial India, Baluchistan contained a Chief Commissioner's province and princely states (including Kalat, Makran, Las Bela and Kharan) that became a part of Pakistan.",
"The province's Shahi Jirga (the grand council of tribal elders) and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality, according to the Pakistani narrative, agreed to join Pakistan unanimously on 29 June 1947; however, the Shahi Jirga was stripped of its members from the Kalat State prior to the vote.",
"The then-president of the Baluchistan Muslim League, Qazi Muhammad Isa, informed Muhammad Ali Jinnah that \"Shahi Jirga in no way represents the popular wishes of the masses\" and that members of the Kalat State were \"excluded from voting; only representatives from the British part of the province voted and the British part included the leased areas of Quetta, Nasirabad Tehsil, Nushki and Bolan Agency.\"",
"Following the referendum, on 22 June 1947 the Khan of Kalat received a letter from members of the Shahi Jirga, as well as sardars from the leased areas of Baluchistan, stating that they, \"as a part of the Baloch nation, were a part of the Kalat state too\" and that if the question of Baluchistan's accession to Pakistan arise, \"they should be deemed part of the Kalat state rather than (British) Balochistan\".",
"This has brought into question whether an actual vote took place.",
"Political scientist Salman Rafi Sheikh, in locating the origins of the insurgency in Balochistan, says \"that Balochistan's accession to Pakistan was, as against the officially projected narrative, not based upon consensus, nor was support for Pakistan overwhelming.",
"What this manipulation indicates is that even before formally becoming a part of Pakistan, Balochistan had fallen a prey to political victimization.",
"\"Initially aspiring for independence, the Khan of Kalat finally acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 after period of negotiations with Pakistan.",
"The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision due to their family rift.",
"in July 1948.Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950.The Prince indulged in Terror activities without any assistance from others.",
"Jinnah and his successors allowed Yar Khan to retain his title until the province's dissolution in 1955.Insurgencies by Baloch nationalists took place in 1948, 1958–59, 1962–63 and 1973–77, with a new ongoing insurgency by autonomy-seeking Baloch groups since 2003.While many Baloch support the demand for autonomy, the majority are not interested in seceding from Pakistan.At a press conference on 8 June 2015 in Quetta, Balochistan's Home Minister Sarfraz Bugti accused India's prime minister Narendra Modi of openly supporting terrorism.",
"Bugti implicated India's Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) of being responsible for recent attacks at military bases in Smangli and Khalid, and for subverting the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) agreement.Gwadar, a region of Balochistan was a Colony of Oman for more than a century and in the 1960s, Pakistan took over the land.",
"Many people in this region are therefore Omani."
],
[
"Geography",
"Astola Island.Balochistan is situated in the southwest of Pakistan and covers an area of .",
"It is Pakistan's largest province by area, constituting 44% of Pakistan's total landmass.",
"The province is bordered by Afghanistan to the north and north-west, Iran to the south-west, Punjab and Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas to the north-east.",
"To the south lies the Arabian Sea.",
"Balochistan is located on the south-eastern part of the Iranian plateau.",
"It borders the geopolitical regions of the Middle East and Southwest Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.",
"Balochistan lies at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz and provides the shortest route from seaports to Central Asia.",
"Its geographical location has placed the otherwise desolate region in the scope of competing for global interests for all of recorded history.The capital city Quetta is located in a densely populated portion of the Sulaiman Mountains in the northeast of the province.",
"It is situated in a river valley near the Bolan Pass, which has been used as the route of choice from the coast to Central Asia, entering through Afghanistan's Kandahar region.",
"The British and other historic empires have crossed the region to invade Afghanistan by this route.Balochistan is rich in exhaustible and renewable resources; it is the second major supplier of natural gas in Pakistan.",
"The province's renewable and human resource potential has not been systematically measured or exploited.",
"Local inhabitants have chosen to live in towns and have relied on sustainable water sources for thousands of years.===Climate===The climate of the upper highlands is characterised by very cold winters and hot summers.",
"In the lower highlands, winters vary from extremely cold in northern districts Ziarat, Quetta, Kalat, Muslim Baagh and Khanozai, where temperatures can drop to , to milder conditions closer to the Makran coast.",
"Winters are mild on the plains, with temperatures never falling below freezing point.",
"Summers are hot and dry, especially in the arid zones of Chagai and Kharan districts.",
"The plains are also very hot in summer, with temperatures reaching .",
"The record highest temperature, , was recorded in Sibi on 26 May 2010, exceeding the previous record, .",
"Other hot areas include Turbat and Dalbandin.",
"The desert climate is characterised by hot and very arid conditions.",
"Occasionally, strong windstorms make these areas very inhospitable."
],
[
"Government and politics",
"In common with the other provinces of Pakistan, Balochistan has a parliamentary form of government.",
"The ceremonial head of the province is the Governor, who is appointed by the President of Pakistan on the advice of the provincial Chief Minister.",
"The Chief Minister, the province's chief executive, is normally the leader of the largest political party or alliance of parties in the provincial assembly.Balochistan Governor House QuettaThe unicameral Provincial Assembly of Balochistan comprises 65 seats of which 11 are reserved for women and 3 reserved for non-Muslims.",
"The judicial branch of government is carried out by the Balochistan High Court, which is based in Quetta and headed by a Chief Justice.Besides dominant Pakistan-wide political parties (such as the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, Pakistan Muslim League (N) and the Pakistan Peoples Party), Balochistan nationalist parties (such as the National Party and the Balochistan National Party (Mengal)) have been prominent in the province.=== Administrative divisions ==='''Divisions of Balochistan''''''Note:''' In this map, Lehri is shown within Sibi District on #27.Sohbatpur and Usta Muhammad is shown within Jafarabad District on #8.Hub is shown within Lasbela District on #17.For administrative purposes, the province is divided into seven divisions: Kalat, Makran, Nasirabad, Quetta, Sibi, Zhob and Rakhshan.",
"This divisional level was abolished in 2000, but restored after the 2008 election.",
"Each division is under an appointed commissioner.",
"The seven divisions are further subdivided into 36 districts:As of June 2021, there are eight divisions.",
"The eighth division, Loralai Division was created by bifurcating Zhob Division.",
"Sr. no.",
"District Headquarters Area(km2) Population(2017) Density(people/km2) Division1AwaranAwaran29,510121,8214Kalat2BarkhanBarkhan3,514171,02549Loralai3Kachhi (Bolan)Dhadar4,374236,47354Nasirabad4ChagaiChagai44,748226,5175Rakhshan5Dera BugtiDera Bugti10,160313,11031Sibi6GwadarGwadar12,637262,25315Makran7HarnaiHarnai2,49297,05239Sibi8HubHubN/AN/AN/AKalat9JafarabadDera Allahyar1,643513,972313Nasirabad10Jhal MagsiJhal Magsi3,615148,90041Nasirabad11KalatKalat7,654211,20128Kalat12Kech (Turbat)Turbat22,539907,18240Makran13KharanKharan14,958162,76611Rakhshan14KohluKohlu7,610213,93328Sibi15KhuzdarKhuzdar35,380798,89623Kalat16Killa AbdullahKilla Abdullah3,553323,82391Quetta17Killa SaifullahKilla Saifullah6,831342,93250Zhob18LasbelaUthal15,153576,27138Kalat19LoralaiLoralai3,785244,44665Loralai20MastungMastung3,308265,67680Kalat21MusakhelMusa Khel Bazar5,728167,24329Loralai22NasirabadDera Murad Jamali3,387487,847144Nasirabad23NushkiNushki5,797178,94731Rakhshan24PanjgurPanjgur16,891315,35319Makran25PishinPishin6,218736,903119Quetta26QuettaQuetta3,4472,269,473658Quetta27SheraniSherani4,310152,95235Zhob28SibiSibi8,429253,21030Sibi29WashukWashuk29,510176,2064.0Rakhshan30ZhobZhob15,987310,35419Zhob31ZiaratZiarat3,301160,09549Sibi32SohbatpurSohbatpur800200,426250Nasirabad33Shaheed SikandarabadSurab762200,857263Kalat34DukiDuki4,233152,97736Loralai35ChamanChaman1,341434,561324Quetta36Usta MuhammadUsta MuhammadN/AN/AN/ANasirabad"
],
[
"Demographics",
"Historical populationsCensusPopulationUrban----1901810,746N/A1911834,703N/A1921799,625N/A1931868,617N/A1941857,83513.30%19511,167,16712.38%19611,353,48416.87%19722,428,67816.45%19814,332,37615.62%19986,565,88523.89%201712,344,40827.55% ===Languages and ethnicities ===According to the preliminary results of the 2017 census, the languages with the most native speakers in the province are Balochi, spoken by 35.49% of the population, and Pashto, whose share at 35.34% is a marked increase on the 1998 census, when it stood at 29.6%.",
"The Pasthuns mainly inhabit the north of Balochistan and form the majority in Quetta.",
"Baloch on the other hand are found throughout Balochistan, but most highly concentrated in the west and south of the province.",
"Brahui is spoken by 17.12% mainly in the central part of Balochistan.",
"Other languages include Sindhi (%), Saraiki (%), Punjabi (%), and Urdu (%).Balochi forms the majority in 21 districts and Pashto forms majority in 9 districts of Balochistan.",
"Brahui has majority in 4 districts.",
"In the Lasbela, Hub districts and in Kachhi plain region a large minority of the population speaks Lasi and Siraiki, which are dialects of Sindhi.According to the Ethnologue, households speaking Balochi, whose primary dialect is Makrani constitutes 13%, Rukhshani 10%, Sulemani 7%, and Khetrani 3% of the population.",
"Other languages spoken are Lasi, Urdu, Punjabi, Hazargi, Sindhi, Saraiki, Dehvari, Dari, Tajik, Hindko, Uzbek, and Hindki.The 2005 census concerning Afghans in Pakistan showed that a total of 769,268 Afghan refugees were temporarily staying in Balochistan.",
"However, there are probably fewer Afghans living in Balochistan today as many refugees repatriated in 2013.As of 2015, there are only 327,778 registered Afghan refugees according to the UNHCR.===Religion===According to the 2017 Census, nearly all of the population of Balochistan were Muslims.",
"There were also Hindu and Christian minorities in the province.",
"The Hindu population in the province was approximately 49,133 (including the Scheduled Castes).",
"The Shri Hinglaj Mata mandir which is the largest Hindu pilgrimage centre in Pakistan is situated in Balochistan.",
"There was also a Christian minority of 26,462 individuals in the province.+ Religion in Balochistan (1901–2017)Religiousgroup19011911192119311941195119982017 Islam 15px 765,368 782,648 733,477 798,093 785,181 1,137,063 6,484,006 12,255,528 Hinduism 15px 38,158 38,326 51,348 53,681 54,394 13,087 39,146 49,378 Sikhism 15px 2,972 8,390 7,741 8,425 12,044 Christianity 15px 4,026 5,085 6,693 8,059 6,056 3,937 26,462 33,330 Zoroastrianism 15px 166 170 165 167 75 79 Judaism 15px 48 57 19 17 19 Jainism 15px 8 10 17 17 11 Buddhism 15px 0 16 160 68 43 1 Ahmadiyya 15px 9,800 2,469 Others 0 1 5 75 12 0 6,471 3,703 Total Population 810,746 834,703 799,625 868,617 857,835 1,154,167 6,565,885 12,344,408"
],
[
"Education",
"The literacy rate of the province in 2017 was 43.6%, an increase from 24.8% in 1998.===Medical colleges===* Bolan University of Medical & Health Sciences* Makran Medical College, Turbat===Engineering universities===* Balochistan University of Engineering and Technology, Khuzdar* Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences, Quetta===General universities===* University of Balochistan, Quetta* Al-Hamd Islamic University, Quetta* Sardar Bahadur Khan Women's University, Quetta* Lasbela University of Agriculture, Water and Marine Sciences, Lasbela* University of Turbat, Turbat* University of Loralai, Loralai* University of Gwadar, Gwadar"
],
[
"Economy",
"The economy of Balochistan is largely based upon agriculture, livestock, fisheries, production of natural gas, coal and other minerals.Though agriculture and livestock play a dominant role in the provincial economy by contributing 47% of its GDP, it faced intense damages due to the 2022 Pakistan floods.",
"The floods killed around 500,000 of Balochistan's livestock and damaged cultivation and agricultural output in 32 out of 35 districts of the province.",
"The Lasbela district was the worst hit as the floods washed away fourt-fifth's of the homes, crops and livestock.",
"Due to the floods and severe drought conditions, the province faces food insecurity and is 85% dependent on the Sindh and Punjab provinces for the supply of wheat.Furthermore, with the exception of Quetta, Balochistan has been called a \"neglected province where a majority of population lacks amenities\".",
"Although the province is rich in natural resources capable of uplifting its economy, most of them have not been fully utilised for the welfare of the population and are yet to be explored or developed.Since the mid-1970s the province's contribution to Pakistan's GDP has dropped from 4.9 to 3.7%, and as of 2007 it had the highest poverty rate and infant and maternal mortality rate, and the lowest literacy rate in comparison to other provinces, factors some allege have contributed to the insurgency.",
"However, in seventh NFC awards, Punjab province and Federal contributed to increase Baluchistan share more than its entitled population based share.",
"In Balochistan poverty is increasing.",
"In 2001–2002 poverty incidences were at 48% and by 2005–2006 these were at 50.9%.",
"According to a report on Dawn, the rate of multidimensional poverty in Balochistan had risen to 71% by 2016.Several major development projects, including the construction of a new deep sea port at the strategically important town of Gwadar, are in progress in Balochistan.",
"The port is projected to be the hub of an energy and trade corridor to and from China, Middle East and the Central Asian republics.",
"The Mirani Dam on the Dasht River, west of Turbat in the Makran Division, is being built to provide water to expand agricultural land use by where it would otherwise be unsustainable.",
"In the district Lasbela, there is an oil refinery owned by Byco International Incorporated (BII), which is capable of processing 120,000 barrels of oil per day.",
"A power station is located adjacent to the refinery.",
"Several cement plants and a marble factory are also located there.",
"One of the world's largest ship breaking yards is located on the coast.===Natural resource extraction===Balochistan's share of Pakistan's national income has historically ranged between 3.7% to 4.9%.",
"Since 1972, Balochistan's gross income has grown in size by 2.7 times.",
"Outside Quetta, the resource extraction infrastructure of the province is gradually developing but still lags far behind other parts of Pakistan.The agreements for royalty rights and ownership of mineral rights were reached during a period of unprecedented natural disasters, economic, social, political, and cultural unrest in Pakistan.",
"The negotiations were widely considered to be insufficiently transparent."
],
[
"Culture"
],
[
"Tourism",
"===Places of interest===Following is a list of a few tourist attractions and places of interest in Balochistan:* Astola Island* Bolan Pass* Dureji* Gadani Beach* Gadani Ship Breaking Yard* Gwadar* Hanna Lake* Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park, near Quetta.",
"* Hinglaj Mata Temples* Hingol National Park* Hub Dam* Jiwani Coastal Wetland* Khuzdar* Kund Malir* Makran Coastal Highway* Mehrgarh* Moola Chotok* Pir Ghaib Waterfall, Balochistan* Quaid-e-Azam Residency* Quetta* The princess of hope, Balochistan* Urak Valley* Zhob* Ziarat Juniper Forest* Ziarat"
],
[
"Villages",
" *Kappar*Lahor"
],
[
"See also",
"* Balochistan (geographic region)* Balochistan, Afghanistan* Balochistan, Iran* Goth Gorshani* List of cities in Balochistan, Pakistan by population* List of cultural heritage sites in Balochistan, Pakistan* Insurgency in Balochistan* Randghar China"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *Philippe Fabry, ''Balouchistan, le désert insoumis'', Paris, Nathan Image, 1991, 136 p.,"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Sibi District; * Guide to Balochistan* Balochistan Archives—Preserving our Past*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"William M. Tweed"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''William Magear Tweed''' (April 3, 1823 – April 12, 1878), widely known as \"'''Boss'''\" '''Tweed''', was an American politician most notable for being the political boss of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party's political machine that played a major role in the politics of 19th-century New York City and state.At the height of his influence, Tweed was the third-largest landowner in New York City, a director of the Erie Railroad, a director of the Tenth National Bank, a director of the New-York Printing Company, the proprietor of the Metropolitan Hotel, a significant stockholder in iron mines and gas companies, a board member of the Harlem Gas Light Company, a board member of the Third Avenue Railway Company, a board member of the Brooklyn Bridge Company, and the president of the Guardian Savings Bank.Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852 and the New York County Board of Supervisors in 1858, the year that he became the head of the Tammany Hall political machine.",
"He was also elected to the New York State Senate in 1867.However, Tweed's greatest influence came from being an appointed member of a number of boards and commissions, his control over political patronage in New York City through Tammany, and his ability to ensure the loyalty of voters through jobs he could create and dispense on city-related projects.Tweed was convicted for stealing an amount estimated by an aldermen's committee in 1877 at between $25 million and $45 million from New York City taxpayers from political corruption, but later estimates ranged as high as $200 million (equivalent to $ billion in ).",
"Unable to make bail, he escaped from jail once but was returned to custody.",
"He died in the Ludlow Street Jail."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Tweed was born April 3, 1823, at 1 Cherry Street, on the Lower East Side of Manhattan.",
"The son of a third-generation Scottish chair-maker, Tweed grew up on Cherry Street.",
"His grandfather arrived in the United States from a town near the River Tweed close to Edinburgh.",
"Tweed's religious affiliation was not widely known in his lifetime, but at the time of his funeral ''The New York Times'', quoting a family friend, reported that his parents had been Quakers and \"members of the old Rose Street Meeting house\".",
"At the age of 11, he left school to learn his father's trade, and then became an apprentice to a saddler.",
"He also studied to be a bookkeeper and worked as a brushmaker for a company he had invested in, before eventually joining in the family business in 1852.On September 29, 1844, he married Mary Jane C. Skaden and lived with her family on Madison Street for two years."
],
[
"Early career",
"Ticket to an 1859 \"soiree\" to benefit Tweed's Americus Engine Co.Tweed became a member of the Odd Fellows and the Masons, and joined a volunteer fire company, Engine No.",
"12.In 1848, at the invitation of state assemblyman John J. Reilly, he and some friends organized the Americus Fire Company No.",
"6, also known as the \"Big Six\", as a volunteer fire company, which took as its symbol a snarling red Bengal tiger from a French lithograph, a symbol which remained associated with Tweed and Tammany Hall for many years.",
"At the time, volunteer fire companies competed vigorously with each other; some were connected with street gangs and had strong ethnic ties to various immigrant communities.",
"The competition could become so fierce, that burning buildings would sometimes be ignored as the fire companies fought each other.",
"Tweed became known for his ax-wielding violence, and was soon elected the Big Six foreman.",
"Pressure from Alfred Carlson, the chief engineer, got him thrown out of the crew.",
"However, fire companies were also recruiting grounds for political parties at the time, thus Tweed's exploits came to the attention of the Democratic politicians who ran the Seventh Ward.",
"The Seventh Ward put him up for Alderman in 1850, when Tweed was 26.He lost that election to the Whig candidate Morgan Morgans, but ran again the next year and won, garnering his first political position.",
"Tweed then became associated with the \"Forty Thieves\", the group of aldermen and assistant aldermen who, up to that point, were known as some of the most corrupt politicians in the city's history.Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, but his two-year term was undistinguished.",
"In an attempt by Republican reformers in Albany, the state capital, to control the Democratic-dominated New York City government, the power of the New York County Board of Supervisors was beefed up.",
"The board had 12 members, six appointed by the mayor and six elected, and in 1858 Tweed was appointed to the board, which became his first vehicle for large-scale graft; Tweed and other supervisors forced vendors to pay a 15% overcharge to their \"ring\" in order to do business with the city.",
"By 1853, Tweed was running the seventh ward for Tammany.",
"The board also had six Democrats and six Republicans, but Tweed often just bought off one Republican to sway the board.",
"One such Republican board member was Peter P. Voorhis, a coal dealer by profession who absented himself from a board meeting in exchange for $2,500 so that the board could appoint city inspectors.",
"Henry Smith was another Republican that was a part of the Tweed ring.",
"''A Group of Vultures Waiting for the Storm to \"Blow Over\"—\"Let Us Prey.\"''",
"by Thomas Nast, ''Harper's Weekly'' newspaper, September 23, 1871.",
"\"Boss\" Tweed and members of his ring, Peter B. Sweeny, Richard B. Connolly, and A. Oakey Hall, weathering a violent storm on a ledge with the picked-over remains of New York City.Although he was not trained as a lawyer, Tweed's friend, Judge George G. Barnard, certified him as an attorney, and Tweed opened a law office on Duane Street.",
"He ran for sheriff in 1861 and was defeated, but became the chairman of the Democratic General Committee shortly after the election, and was then chosen to be the head of Tammany's general committee in January 1863.Several months later, in April, he became \"Grand Sachem\", and began to be referred to as \"Boss\", especially after he tightened his hold on power by creating a small executive committee to run the club.",
"Tweed then took steps to increase his income: he used his law firm to extort money, which was then disguised as legal services; he had himself appointed deputy street commissioner – a position with considerable access to city contractors and funding; he bought the New-York Printing Company, which became the city's official printer, and the city's stationery supplier, the Manufacturing Stationers' Company, and had both companies begin to overcharge the city government for their goods and services.",
"Among other legal services he provided, he accepted almost $100,000 from the Erie Railroad in return for favors.",
"He also became one of the largest owners of real estate in the city.",
"He also started to form what became known as the \"Tweed Ring\", by having his friends elected to office: George G. Barnard was elected Recorder of New York City; Peter B. Sweeny was elected New York County District Attorney; and Richard B. Connolly was elected City Comptroller.",
"Other judicial members of the Tweed ring included Albert Cardozo, John McCunn, and John K. Hackett.When Grand Sachem Isaac Fowler, who had produced the $2,500 to buy off the Republican Voorhis on the Board of Supervisors, was found to have stolen $150,000 in post office receipts, the responsibility for Fowler's arrest was given to Isaiah Rynders, another Tammany operative who was serving as a United States marshal at the time.",
"Rynders made enough ruckus upon entering the hotel where Fowler was staying that Fowler was able to escape to Mexico.Thomas Nast depicts Tweed in ''Harper's Weekly'' (October 21, 1871)With his new position and wealth came a change in style: Tweed began to favor wearing a large diamond in his shirtfront – a habit that Thomas Nast used to great effect in his attacks on Tweed in ''Harper's Weekly'' beginning in 1869 – and he bought a brownstone to live in at 41 West 36th Street, then a very fashionable area.",
"He invested his now considerable illegal income in real estate, so that by the late 1860s he ranked among the biggest landowners in New York City.Tweed became involved in the operation of the New York Mutuals, an early professional baseball club, in the 1860s.",
"He brought in thousands of dollars per home game by dramatically increasing the cost of admission and gambling on the team.",
"He has been credited with originating the practice of spring training in 1869 by sending the club south to New Orleans to prepare for the season.Tweed was a member of the New York State Senate (4th D.) from 1868 to 1873, sitting in the 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th New York State Legislatures, but not taking his seat in the 95th and 96th New York State Legislatures.",
"While serving in the State Senate, he split his time between Albany, New York and New York City.",
"While in Albany, he stayed in a suite of seven rooms in Delevan House.",
"Accompanying him in his rooms were his favorite canaries.",
"Guests are presumed to have included members of the Black Horse Cavalry, thirty state legislators whose votes were up for sale.",
"In the Senate he helped financiers Jay Gould and Big Jim Fisk to take control of the Erie Railroad from Cornelius Vanderbilt by arranging for legislation that legitimized fake Erie stock certificates that Gould and Fisk had issued.",
"In return, Tweed received a large block of stock and was made a director of the company."
],
[
"Corruption",
"Tweed c. 1869After the election of 1869, Tweed took control of the New York City government.",
"His protégé, John T. Hoffman, the former mayor of the city, won election as governor, and Tweed garnered the support of good-government reformers like Peter Cooper and the Union League Club, by proposing a new city charter which returned power to City Hall at the expense of the Republican-inspired state commissions.",
"The new charter passed, thanks in part to $600,000 in bribes Tweed paid to Republicans, and was signed into law by Hoffman in 1870.Mandated new elections allowed Tammany to take over the city's Common Council when they won all fifteen aldermanic contests.The new charter put control of the city's finances in the hands of a Board of Audit, which consisted of Tweed, who was Commissioner of Public Works, Mayor A. Oakey Hall and Comptroller Richard \"Slippery Dick\" Connolly, both Tammany men.",
"Hall also appointed other Tweed associates to high offices – such as Peter B. Sweeny, who took over the Department of Public Parks – providing what became known as the Tweed Ring with even firmer control of the New York City government and enabling them to defraud the taxpayers of many more millions of dollars.",
"In the words of Albert Bigelow Paine, \"their methods were curiously simple and primitive.",
"There were no skilful manipulations of figures, making detection difficult ... Connolly, as Controller, had charge of the books, and declined to show them.",
"With his fellows, he also 'controlled' the courts and most of the bar.\"",
"Crucially, the new city charter allowed the Board of Audit to issue bonds for debt in order to finance opportunistic capital expenditures the city otherwise could not afford.",
"This ability to float debt was enabled by Tweed's guidance and passage of the Adjusted Claims Act in 1868.Contractors working for the city – \"Ring favorites, most of them – were told to multiply the amount of each bill by five, or ten, or a hundred, after which, with Mayor Hall's 'O.",
"K.' and Connolly's endorsement, it was paid ... through a go-between, who cashed the check, settled the original bill and divided the remainder ... between Tweed, Sweeny, Connolly and Hall\".For example, the construction cost of the New York County Courthouse, begun in 1861, grew to nearly $13 million—about $ in dollars, and nearly twice the cost of the Alaska Purchase in 1867.",
"\"A carpenter was paid $360,751 (roughly $ in ) for one month's labor in a building with very little woodwork ... a plasterer got $133,187 ($) for two days' work\".",
"Tweed bought a marble quarry in Sheffield, Massachusetts, to provide much of the marble for the courthouse at great profit to himself.",
"After the Tweed Charter to reorganize the city's government was passed in 1870, four commissioners for the construction of the New York County Courthouse were appointed.",
"The commission never held a meeting, though each commissioner received a 20% kickback from the bills for the supplies.Nast depicts the Tweed Ring: \"Who stole the people's money?\"",
"/ \"'Twas him.\"",
"From left to right: William Tweed, Peter B. Sweeny, Richard B. Connolly, and Oakey Hall.",
"To the left of Tweed in the background are James H. Ingersoll and Andrew Garvey, city contractors involved with much of the city construction.Tweed and his friends also garnered huge profits from the development of the Upper East Side, especially Yorkville and Harlem.",
"They would buy up undeveloped property, then use the resources of the city to improve the area – for instance by installing pipes to bring in water from the Croton Aqueduct – thus increasing the value of the land, after which they sold and took their profits.",
"The focus on the east side also slowed down the development of the west side, the topography of which made it more expensive to improve.",
"The ring also took their usual percentage of padded contracts, as well as raking off money from property taxes.",
"Despite the corruption of Tweed and Tammany Hall, they did accomplish the development of upper Manhattan, though at the cost of tripling the city's bond debt to almost $90 million.During the Tweed era, the proposal to build a suspension bridge between New York and Brooklyn, then an independent city, was floated by Brooklyn-boosters, who saw the ferry connections as a bottleneck to Brooklyn's further development.",
"In order to ensure that the Brooklyn Bridge project would go forward, State Senator Henry Cruse Murphy approached Tweed to find out whether New York's aldermen would approve the proposal.",
"Tweed's response was that $60,000 for the aldermen would close the deal, and contractor William C. Kingsley put up the cash, which was delivered in a carpet bag.",
"Tweed and two others from Tammany also received over half the private stock of the Bridge Company, the charter of which specified that only private stockholders had voting rights, so that even though the cities of Brooklyn and Manhattan put up most of the money, they essentially had no control over the project.Tweed bought a mansion on Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street, and stabled his horses, carriages and sleighs on 40th Street.",
"By 1871, he was a member of the board of directors of not only the Erie Railroad and the Brooklyn Bridge Company, but also the Third Avenue Railway Company and the Harlem Gas Light Company.",
"He was president of the Guardian Savings Banks and he and his confederates set up the Tenth National Bank to better control their fortunes."
],
[
"Scandal",
"Tweed's downfall began in 1871.James Watson, who was a county auditor in Comptroller Dick Connolly's office and who also held and recorded the ring's books, died a week after his head was smashed by a horse in a sleigh accident on January 21, 1871.Although Tweed guarded Watson's estate in the week prior to Watson's death, and although another ring member attempted to destroy Watson's records, a replacement auditor, Matthew O'Rourke, associated with former sheriff James O'Brien, provided city accounts to O'Brien.",
"The Orange riot of 1871 in the summer of that year did not help the ring's popularity.",
"The riot was prompted after Tammany Hall banned a parade of Irish Protestants celebrating a historical victory against Catholicism, namely the Battle of the Boyne.",
"The parade was banned because of a riot the previous year in which eight people died when a crowd of Irish Catholic laborers attacked the paraders.",
"Under strong pressure from the newspapers and the Protestant elite of the city, Tammany reversed course, and the march was allowed to proceed, with protection from city policemen and state militia.",
"The result was an even larger riot in which over 60 people were killed and more than 150 injured.Although Tammany's electoral power base was largely centered in the Irish immigrant population, it also needed both the city's general population and elite to acquiesce in its rule, and this was conditional on the machine's ability to control the actions of its people.",
"The July riot showed that this capability was not nearly as strong as had been supposed.Nast shows Tweed's source of power: control of the ballot box.",
"\"As long as I count the Votes, what are you going to do about it?",
"\"Tweed had for months been under attack from ''The New York Times'' and Thomas Nast, the cartoonist from ''Harper's Weekly'' – regarding Nast's cartoons, Tweed reportedly said, \"Stop them damned pictures.",
"I don't care so much what the papers say about me.",
"My constituents don't know how to read, but they can't help seeing them damned pictures!\"",
"– but their campaign had only limited success in gaining traction.",
"They were able to force an examination of the city's books, but the blue-ribbon commission of six businessmen appointed by Mayor A. Oakey Hall, a Tammany man, which included John Jacob Astor III, banker Moses Taylor and others who benefited from Tammany's actions, found that the books had been \"faithfully kept\", letting the air out of the effort to dethrone Tweed.The response to the Orange riot changed everything, and only days afterwards the ''Times''/Nast campaign began to garner popular support.",
"More important, the ''Times'' started to receive inside information from County Sheriff James O'Brien, whose support for Tweed had fluctuated during Tammany's reign.",
"O'Brien had tried to blackmail Tammany by threatening to expose the ring's embezzlement to the press, and when this failed he provided the evidence he had collected to the ''Times''.",
"Shortly afterward, county auditor Matthew J. O'Rourke supplied additional details to the ''Times'', which was reportedly offered $5 million to not publish the evidence.",
"The ''Times'' also obtained the accounts of the recently deceased James Watson, who was the Tweed Ring's bookkeeper, and these were published daily, culminating in a special four-page supplement on July 29 headlined \"Gigantic Frauds of the Ring Exposed\".",
"In August, Tweed began to transfer ownership in his real-estate empire and other investments to his family members.The exposé provoked an international crisis of confidence in New York City's finances, and, in particular, in its ability to repay its debts.",
"European investors were heavily positioned in the city's bonds and were already nervous about its management – only the reputations of the underwriters were preventing a run on the city's securities.",
"New York's financial and business community knew that if the city's credit were to collapse, it could potentially bring down every bank in the city with it.Thus, the city's elite met at Cooper Union in September to discuss political reform: but for the first time, the conversation included not only the usual reformers, but also Democratic bigwigs such as Samuel J. Tilden, who had been thrust aside by Tammany.",
"The consensus was that the \"wisest and best citizens\" should take over the governance of the city and attempt to restore investor confidence.",
"The result was the formation of the Executive Committee of Citizens and Taxpayers for Financial Reform of the city (also known as \"the Committee of Seventy\"), which attacked Tammany by cutting off the city's funding.",
"Property owners refused to pay their municipal taxes, and a judge—Tweed's old friend George Barnard—enjoined the city Comptroller from issuing bonds or spending money.",
"Unpaid workers turned against Tweed, marching to City Hall demanding to be paid.",
"Tweed doled out some funds from his own purse—$50,000—but it was not sufficient to end the crisis, and Tammany began to lose its essential base.Shortly thereafter, the Comptroller resigned, appointing Andrew Haswell Green, an associate of Tilden, as his replacement.",
"Green loosened the purse strings again, allowing city departments not under Tammany control to borrow money to operate.",
"Green and Tilden had the city's records closely examined, and discovered money that went directly from city contractors into Tweed's pocket.",
"The following day, they had Tweed arrested."
],
[
"Imprisonment, escape, and death",
"\"Stone Walls Do Not a Prison Make\": Editorial cartoon by Thomas Nast predicting Tweed could not be kept behind bars (''Harper's Weekly'', January 6, 1872)Tomb in Green-Wood CemeteryTweed was released on $1 million bail, and Tammany set to work to recover its position through the ballot box.",
"Tweed was re-elected to the state senate in November 1871, due to his personal popularity and largesse in his district, but in general Tammany did not do well, and the members of the Tweed Ring began to flee the jurisdiction, many going overseas.",
"Tweed was re-arrested, forced to resign his city positions, and was replaced as Tammany's leader.",
"Once again, he was released on bail—$8 million this time—but Tweed's supporters, such as Jay Gould, felt the repercussions of his fall from power.Tweed's first trial before Judge Noah Davis, in January 1873, ended when the jury was unable to deliver a verdict.",
"Tweed's defense counsel included David Dudley Field II and Elihu Root.",
"His retrial, again before Judge Noah Davis in November resulted in convictions on 204 of 220 counts, a fine of $12,750 (the equivalent of $ today) and a prison sentence of 12 years; a higher court, however, reduced Tweed's sentence to one year.",
"After his release from The Tombs prison, New York State filed a civil suit against Tweed, attempting to recover $6 million in embezzled funds.",
"Unable to put up the $3 million bail, Tweed was locked up in the Ludlow Street Jail, although he was allowed home visits.",
"During one of these on December 4, 1875, Tweed escaped and fled to Spain, where he worked as a common seaman on a Spanish ship.",
"The U.S. government discovered his whereabouts and arranged for his arrest once he reached the Spanish border, where he was recognized from Nast's political cartoons.",
"He was turned over to an American warship, the , which delivered him to authorities in New York City on November 23, 1876, and he was returned to prison.Desperate and broken, Tweed now agreed to testify about the inner workings of the Tweed Ring to a special committee set up by the Board of Aldermen in return for his release, but after he did so, Tilden, now governor of New York, refused to abide by the agreement, and Tweed remained incarcerated.",
"He died in the Ludlow Street Jail on April 12, 1878, from severe pneumonia, and was buried in Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery.",
"Mayor Smith Ely would not allow the flag at City Hall to be flown at half staff."
],
[
"Evaluations",
"According to Tweed biographer Kenneth D. Ackerman:It's hard not to admire the skill behind Tweed's system ...",
"The Tweed ring at its height was an engineering marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points: the courts, the legislature, the treasury and the ballot box.",
"Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure: money-laundering, profit sharing and organization.A minority view that Tweed was mostly innocent is presented in a scholarly biography by history professor Leo Hershkowitz.",
"He states:Except for Tweed's own very questionable \"confession,\" there really was no evidence of a \"Tweed Ring,\" no direct evidence of Tweed's thievery, no evidence, excepting the testimony of the informer contractors, of \"wholesale\" plunder by Tweed....Instead there was a conspiracy of self-justification of the corruption of the law by the upholders of that law, of a venal irresponsible press and a citizenry delighting in the exorcism of witchery.In depictions of Tweed and the Tammany Hall organization, most historians have emphasized the thievery and conspiratorial nature of Boss Tweed, along with lining his own pockets and those of his friends and allies.",
"The theme is that the sins of corruption so violated American standards of political rectitude that they far overshadow Tweed's positive contributions to New York City.Although he held numerous important public offices and was one of a handful of senior leaders of Tammany Hall, as well as the state legislature and the state Democratic Party, Tweed was never the sole \"boss\" of New York City.",
"He shared control of the city with numerous less famous people, such as the villains depicted in Nast's famous circle of guilt cartoon shown above.",
"Seymour J. Mandelbaum has argued that, apart from the corruption he engaged in, Tweed was a modernizer who prefigured certain elements of the Progressive Era in terms of more efficient city management.",
"Much of the money he siphoned off from the city treasury went to needy constituents who appreciated the free food at Christmas time and remembered it at the next election, and to precinct workers who provided the muscle of his machine.",
"As a legislator he worked to expand and strengthen welfare programs, especially those by private charities, schools, and hospitals.",
"With a base in the Irish Catholic community, he opposed efforts of Protestants to require the reading of the King James Bible in public schools, which was done deliberately to keep out Catholics.",
"He facilitated the founding of the New York Public Library, even though one of its founders, Samuel Tilden, was Tweed's sworn enemy in the Democratic Party.Tweed recognized that the support of his constituency was necessary for him to remain in power, and as a consequence he used the machinery of the city's government to provide numerous social services, including building more orphanages, almshouses and public baths.",
"Tweed also fought for the New York State Legislature to donate to private charities of all religious denominations, and subsidize Catholic schools and hospitals.",
"From 1869 to 1871, under Tweed's influence, the state of New York spent more on charities than for the entire time period from 1852 to 1868 combined.During Tweed's regime, the main business thoroughfare Broadway was widened between 34th Street and 59th Street, land was secured for the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Upper East Side and Upper West Side were developed and provided the necessary infrastructure – all to the benefit of the purses of the Tweed Ring.Hershkowitz blames the implications of Thomas Nast in ''Harper's Weekly'' and the editors of ''The New York Times'', which both had ties to the Republican party.",
"In part, the campaign against Tweed diverted public attention from Republican scandals such as the Whiskey Ring.Tweed himself wanted no particular recognition of his achievements, such as they were.",
"When it was proposed, in March 1871, when he was at the height of his power, that a statue be erected in his honor, he declared: \"Statues are not erected to living men ...",
"I claim to be a live man, and hope (Divine Providence permitting) to survive in all my vigor, politically and physically, some years to come.\"",
"One of Tweed's unwanted legacies is that he has become \"the archetype of the bloated, rapacious, corrupt city boss\".An 1869 cigar box label featuring Tweed"
],
[
"Middle name",
"Tweed never signed his middle name with anything other than a plain \"M.\", and his middle name is often mistakenly listed as \"Marcy\".",
"His actual middle name was Magear, his mother's maiden name.Confusion derived from a Nast cartoon with a picture of Tweed supplemented with a quote from William L. Marcy, the former governor of New York."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* Arthur Train featured Tweed in his 1940 novel of life in Gilded Age New York, ''Tassels On Her Boots''.",
"Tweed is portrayed as having contempt for the people he rules, at one point saying that once he would have been a Baron, with a castle, levying tribute on the people.",
"But now, \"'Boss', they call me – and they are glad to have me.",
"\"* In 1945, Tweed was portrayed by Noah Beery Sr. in the Broadway production of ''Up in Central Park'', a musical comedy with music by Sigmund Romberg.",
"The role was played by Malcolm Lee Beggs for a revival in 1947.In the 1948 film version, Tweed is played by Vincent Price.",
"* On the 1963–1964 CBS TV series ''The Great Adventure'', which presented one-hour dramatizations of the lives of historical figures, Edward Andrews portrayed Tweed in the episode \"The Man Who Stole New York City\", about the campaign by ''The New York Times'' to bring down Tweed.",
"The episode aired on December 13, 1963.",
"* In John Varley's 1977 science-fiction novel, ''The Ophiuchi Hotline'', a crooked politician in a 27th-century human settlement on the Moon assumes the name \"Boss Tweed\" in emulation of the 19th-century politician, and names his lunar headquarters \"Tammany Hall\".",
"* Tweed was played by Philip Bosco in the 1986 TV movie ''Liberty''.",
"According to a review of the film in ''The New York Times'', it was Tweed who made the suggestion to call the Statue of Liberty by that name, instead of its formal name ''Liberty Enlightening the World'', in order to read better in newspaper headlines.",
"* Andrew O'Hehir of ''The New York Times'' notes that ''Forever'', a 2003 novel by Pete Hamill, and ''Gangs of New York'', a 2002 film, both \"offer a significant supporting role to the legendary Manhattan political godfather Boss Tweed\", among other thematic similarities.",
"In a review of the latter work, Chuck Rudolph praised Jim Broadbent's portrayal of Tweed as \"giving the role a masterfully heartless composure\".",
"* Tweed appears as an antagonist in the 2016 novel, ''Assassin's Creed Last Descendants'' where he is the Grand Master of the American Templars during the American Civil War."
],
[
"See also",
"* Elbert A. Woodward* Timothy \"Big Tim\" Sullivan* Tweed law* William J. Sharkey (murderer)"
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* Ackerman, K. D. (2005).",
"''Boss Tweed: The rise and fall of the corrupt pol who conceived the soul of modern New York''.",
"New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers.",
".",
"* * Callow, Alexander B.",
"(1966).",
"''The Tweed Ring''.",
"New York: Oxford University Press* Ellis, Edward R. (2004).",
"''The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History''.",
"Carroll & Graf Publishers.",
",* Hershkowitz, Leo.",
"''Tweed's New York: Another Look''.",
"(New York: Anchor Press, 1977), online* \"William Marcy sic Tweed\" Encyclopedia.com (Cengage), May 23, 2018 * Mandelbaum, Seymour J.",
"(1965).",
"''Boss Tweed's New York''.",
"New York: John Wiley.",
"* Paine, Albert B.",
"(1974).",
"''Th.",
"Nast, His Period and His Pictures''.",
"Princeton: Pyne Press.",
"(The original edition, published in 1904, is now in the public domain.",
")* Sante, Lucy (2003).",
"''Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York''.",
"New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux.",
"* Staff (July 4, 2005).",
"\"Boss Tweed\", ''Gotham Gazette'''''Further reading'''* Lynch, Denis Tilden (2005) 1927.",
"''Boss Tweed: The story of a grim generation''.",
"Ann Arbor, Michigan: Michigan Historical Reprint Series, Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Green-Wood Cemetery page for WM Tweed * Map Showing the Portions of the City of New York and Westchester County under the Jurisdiction of the Department of Public Parks talks about Tweed's takeover of the New York City parks system, from the World Digital Library*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Balsall Heath"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Balsall Heath''' is an inner-city area of Birmingham, West Midlands, England.",
"It has a diverse cultural mix of people and is the location of the Balti Triangle."
],
[
"History",
"Balsall Heath, circa 1890.Balsall Heath Baths and Library.The name is first found as Bordeshale in 1275, which is derived from the Old English words ''Bord's healh'' meaning 'Bord's heath' or 'Bord's nook' implying a corner or small area of land, perhaps a sheltered hollow in the landscape, protected by trees, possibly within a river-bend.",
"The name stems from the Anglian personal name of one ''Bord'', who held property in the area, and in this way shares its origin with that of neighbouring Bordesley, first record as Bordesleie or Bordeslea meaning 'Bord's clearing'.Balsall Heath was largely agricultural and park land between Moseley village and the city of Birmingham until the 1850s when expansion along Moseley Road joined the two.",
"The area was originally part of the Worcestershire parish of King's Norton, and was added to the county borough of Birmingham in Warwickshire on 1 October 1891.During negotiations in the previous year it had been promised a public baths and a free library.",
"In 1895, the library was opened on Moseley Road and, in 1907, Balsall Heath Baths were opened in an adjoining building.In 1900, the city's College of Art was also opened on Moseley Road.",
"By this time the small lake (\"Lady Pool\" on old maps) at the end of Ladypool Road had been filled in to create a park.Balsall Heath initially had a reasonably affluent population, which can still be seen in the dilapidated grandeur of some of the larger houses.",
"A railway station on Brighton Road (on the Birmingham to Bristol line) led to further expansion, and the end of the 19th century saw a proliferation of high-density small terraced houses.A Muslim community was started in June 1940 when two Yemenis purchased an artisan cottage on Mary Street.",
"With the mosque being located in the area, more Muslim immigrants began to move into private lodgings in Balsall Heath.",
"Today, Balsall Heath has one of the largest Muslim communities in Birmingham.",
"It is also home to diverse communities from across the Commonwealth.By the 1980s, many of Balsall Heath's houses were in a dilapidated condition; some still lacked bathrooms or indoor toilets.",
"The local council considered demolishing these properties but chose to refurbish them as part of an urban renewal scheme.",
"Most of these Victorian terraces still exist and, along with more modern social housing, characterise the area today.",
"The area's traditional 'brick' pavements were replaced at this time by the more modern and conventional paving slabs.Balsall Heath's low rents also attracted a bohemian student population.",
"Its proximity to the University of Birmingham, the city centre and the \"trendy\" area of Moseley were all contributing factors.",
"There was little conflict between the students and locals despite their vastly differing lifestyles.",
"However, a knife-incident in 1991 led to an article in ''Redbrick'' warning students not to live in the area.In July 2005, Balsall Heath was hit by a tornado, which devastated many buildings around Church Road and Ladypool Road.",
"Birmingham City Council offered loans to those who would otherwise be unable to repair their properties, and the area has now made a full recovery.===Red light era===Street prostitution first appeared in Balsall Heath during the 1950s.",
"Property values fell, attracting Birmingham's poorer migrants.",
"By the 1970s, the area was notorious for street robberies and drug dealing.",
"Cheddar Road was the centre of a red-light district worked by 450 women.",
"About half of the 50 houses on this road had prostitutes advertising themselves in the windows, similar to Amsterdam.",
"It was labelled Britain's busiest cul-de-sac.",
"This period of the area's history is depicted in the 1980 film ''Prostitute''.In 1986, an organisation called ANAWIM was formed by the Sisters of Charity to provide outreach support to the prostitutes.In September 1992, a report was published encouraging the formation of a zone of tolerance towards prostitution in Balsall Heath.",
"This was opposed by residents and a local police inspector.",
"In the following year Samo Paull, a woman working as a prostitute, was abducted from Balsall Heath and murdered.In 1994, residents began to organise street patrols forcing the prostitutes and street criminals out of the area.",
"These patrols had the qualified support of the police but were regarded as vigilantes by some.",
"There was an immediate two-thirds reduction in street and window prostitution.",
"By November 1995, they had been almost eliminated.The area has enjoyed a slow revival.",
"House prices are now similar to those in other inner-city areas, while the crime rate is among the lowest."
],
[
"Politics and governance",
"Balsall Heath is divided by two wards for elections to Birmingham City Council; Balsall Heath West and Sparkbrook and Balsall Heath East.Balsall Heath is part of the Birmingham Hall Green constituency for general elections to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom."
],
[
"Notable buildings",
"*Moseley Road Baths*Moseley School of Art*St Barnabas' Church*St Paul's Church"
],
[
"Notable residents",
"*Donnaleigh Bailey, ''Michelle Corrigan'' in the Birmingham-based soap ''Doctors''*Alderman John Bowen, JP*Percy Bullock, Worcestershire cricketer*Howard R. Davies, racing motorcyclist*Alan Deakin, former Aston Villa captain*Oscar Deutsch, founder of the Odeon cinema chain*David Edgar, playwright*John Kenneally VC*Don Maclean, comedian*Conroy Maddox, surrealist artist*William Mosedale, George Cross recipient*Sir Robert Howson Pickard FRS stereochemist and vice-chancellor of the University of London 1937–1939*Anthony E. Pratt, inventor of the board game ''Cluedo''*UB40, a reggae band"
],
[
"References",
"* V.M.",
"Hart (1992) ''Balsall Heath: A History.''",
"Brewin Books Limited* J. Moth (1951) ''The City of Birmingham Baths Department 1851 – 1951.''"
],
[
"External links",
"* Balsall Heath Local History Society* About Balsall Heath"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bunge & Born"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bunge & Born''' was a multinational corporation based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, whose diverse interests included food processing and international trade in grains and oilseeds.",
"It is now known as Bunge Limited."
],
[
"History",
"Bunge & Born's Buenos Aires headquartersBunge & Born was founded in 1884 by Ernesto Bunge, a German Argentine whose uncle, Carl Bunge, had been Consul General in Argentina for both the Netherlands and Prussia, and his brother-in-law, Jorge Born, who had recently arrived from Antwerp.",
"The company superseded the Bunge Company founded in Amsterdam by Johann Bunge, in 1818.Following the purchase of of prime pampas wheat fields, Bunge & Born established ''Centenera'', their first food processing plant, in 1899.They had one of the largest wheat mills in the country built on a Puerto Madero lot in 1902, and with it, established ''Molinos Río de la Plata'' (later a leader in the local retail foods market).The company started Argentina's first burlap bag manufacturer, following which they successfully lobbied government policy makers for protective tariffs on the then-critical commercial staple.",
"They established a mortgage bank, the ''Banco Hipotecario Franco Argentino'', and a subsidiary in Brazil in 1905, and by 1910, they reportedly controlled 80% of Argentine cereal exports (Argentina was, by then, the world's third-largest grain exporter).",
"They later established paint manufacturer ''Alba'' (1925), chemical and fertilizer maker ''Compañía Química'', and textile maker ''Grafa'' (1932), among others; by the late 1920s, the company's annual export receipts alone reached US$300 million.",
"The company inaugurated its neo-gothic Buenos Aires headquarters on Leandro Alem Avenue, designed by local architect Pablo Naeff, in 1926.Bunge & Born's near-monopoly on cereal and flour exports ended with populist President Juan Perón's 1946 establishment of the IAPI, a state agricultural purchasing and export agent.",
"The company responded by extending its reach into the country fast-growing retail processed foods market, and though its prominence as the nation's chief exporter was partly restored by Perón's 1955 ousting and the IAPI's liquidation, its focus remained domestic over the next three decades.",
"A privately held company, Bunge & Born did not release periodical financial statements, though it did report US$2bn in gross receipts in 1962; by then it had become a leader in commodity futures trading, operating 110 offices worldwide.The Bunge, Born, Hirsch, Engels and De La Tour families remained the company's chief stockholders, and by extension, leaders in the domestic textile, paint, chemical, fertilizer, and food processing industries.",
"On September 19, 1974, however, the consortium was shaken by the kidnapping of siblings Jorge and Juan Born by the far-left terrorist group, Montoneros.",
"The Born brothers were kept in a known Argentine State Intelligence safehouse for nine months until their June 1975 release, something made possible without public suspicion of outside involvement by the agency's numerous contacts inside the Montoneros (including the leader, Mario Firmenich).",
"Freed for a US$60 million ransom (the largest on record at that time), the ordeal triggered the company headquarters' relocation to São Paulo, Brazil, and contributed to the March 1976 coup.Retaining their Argentine interests (44 companies, by the 1980s), the families continued to suffer from ongoing disputes, and in 1987, CEO Mario Hirsch died suddenly.",
"The election of Carlos Menem to the Argentine Presidency in May 1989, however, resulted in an agreement between the President-elect and Jorge Born that gave the company partial control over national economic policy.",
"Bunge & Born provided the Menem government with its first two economy ministers, and the combination of large rate increases on public services (around 500%), a simplified exchange rate and a massive, mandatory wage hike led to a sharp economic turnaround between July and November 1989.This foray into government policy making, however, ended in a new currency crisis that December and the failure (compounded by the company's lackluster business performance) resulted in Born's 1991 ouster from the board; he was replaced by Chief Operations Officer Octavio Caraballo.Beset by the rift between Jorge Born and his brother, Juan, the prior unity between the shareholders disintegrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company.",
"Family frictions intensified when Jorge Born formed a business partnership with one of his former kidnappers, erstwhile Montonero strategist Rodolfo Galimberti."
],
[
"Bunge International",
"The company was converted into the Bermuda-registered Bunge International in 1994, retaining the Bunge y Born name only in Argentina.",
"Bunge remained a privately held company of 180 shareholders (including the longtime controlling family interests) and divested itself in 1998, of almost all its retail foods interests in favor of a greater role in international agribusiness and commodity markets; by then the company's gross annual turnover had reached US$13 billion.",
"Bunge ultimately went public on the NYSE in 2001, becoming ''Bunge Limited''."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Big Apple"
],
[
"Introduction",
"54th Street and Broadway, in Manhattan's Theater District.",
"\"'''The Big Apple'''\" is a nickname for New York City.",
"It was first popularized in the 1920s by John J. Fitz Gerald, a sportswriter for the ''New York Morning Telegraph''.",
"Its popularity since the 1970s is due in part to a promotional campaign by the New York tourist authorities."
],
[
"Origin",
"Although the history of ''Big Apple '' was once thought a mystery, a clearer picture of the term's history has emerged due to the work of historian Barry Popik, and Gerald Cohen of the Missouri University of Science and Technology.",
"A number of false theories had previously existed, including a claim that the term derived from a woman named Eve who ran a brothel in the city.",
"This was subsequently exposed as a hoax.The earliest known usage of \"big apple\" appears in the book ''The Wayfarer in New York'' (1909), in which Edward Sandford Martin writes: Kansas is apt to see in New York a greedy city ...",
"It inclines to think that the big apple gets a disproportionate share of the national sap.",
"William Safire considered this the coinage, but because the phrase is not quoted in the text, it is likely that it was used as a metaphor, and not as a nickname for the city.=== Horse racing origin ===''The Big Apple'' was popularized as a name for New York City by John J. Fitz Gerald in a number of horse-racing articles for the ''New York Morning Telegraph'' in the 1920s.",
"The earliest of these was a casual reference on 3 May 1921:Fitz Gerald referred to the \"big apple\" frequently thereafter.",
"He explained his use in a column dated February 18, 1924, under the headline \"Around the Big Apple\":Fitz Gerald reportedly first heard \"The Big Apple\" used to describe New York's racetracks by two African American stable hands at the New Orleans Fair Grounds.",
"Using racing records, Popik traced that conversation to January 1920.In recognition of Fitz Gerald's role in promulgating \"The Big Apple\" as a nickname for New York City, in 1997 Mayor Rudy Giuliani signed legislation designating as \"Big Apple Corner\" the southwest corner of West 54th Street and Broadway, the corner on which John J. Fitz Gerald lived from 1934 to 1963.The Hotel Ameritania also once had a plaque which was installed in 1996, according to Popik, but it was removed during renovations to the building and was lost.Evidence can also be found in the ''Chicago Defender'', an African-American newspaper that had a national circulation.",
"Writing for the ''Defender'' on September 16, 1922, \"Ragtime\" Billy Tucker used the name \"big apple\" to refer to New York in a non-horse-racing context:Tucker had also earlier used \"big apple\" as a reference to Los Angeles.",
"It is possible that he simply used \"big apple\" as a nickname for any large city:"
],
[
"Popularity",
"By the late 1920s, New York writers other than Fitz Gerald were starting to use \"Big Apple\", and were using it in contexts other than horse racing.",
"\"The Big Apple\" was a popular song and dance in the 1930s.",
"Jazz musicians in the 1930s also contributed to the use of the phrase to refer to New York City, specifically to the city and Harlem as the jazz capital of the world.",
"Beside the song and the dance, two nightclubs in the city used \"Big Apple\" in their names.Walter Winchell and other writers continued to use the term in the 1940s and early 1950s, but by the late 1950s, if it was known at all, it had come to be considered an outdated nickname for New York.In the early 1970s, however, during the city's fiscal crisis, \"People were looking around desperately and some of them seized that old phrase the Big Apple to remind people of when New York had been a strong and powerful city and might become that again,\" according to the official Manhattan Borough Historian, Dr. Robert Snyder.",
"It was then that the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau – now NYC & Company, New York City's official marketing and tourism organization) – with the help of the Ogilvy & Mather advertising firm, began to promote the city's \"Big Apple\" nickname to tourists, under the leadership of its president, Charles Gillett.",
"The campaign was a success, and the nickname has remained popular since then.The New York Mets Home Run Apple located in Citi Field.Today, the name is used exclusively to refer to New York City, and is used with regularity by journalists and news headline writers across the English-speaking world."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"*The term \"big apple\" was used by Frank Sinatra in conversation with opera singer Dorothy Kirsten on an episode of the NBC radio program ''Light Up Time'' on March 28, 1950.",
"*The Big Apple Circus was founded in Manhattan in 1977.",
"*The New York Mets baseball team have featured a \"Home Run Apple\" that rises whenever a Mets player hits a home run.",
"It has become a symbol of the Mets baseball team, recognized throughout Major League Baseball as an iconic feature of the Mets' stadiums.",
"It first appeared in Shea Stadium, and the original can still be seen on display at Citi Field, outside the Jackie Robinson Rotunda.",
"Citi Field now uses a new apple, one that is much larger than original.",
"*Uses of the term abound elsewhere in the names of cultural products and events in or concerning New York, including the Big Apple Anime Fest, the Big Apple Circus, the Big Apple Theater Festival, Jess Teong's The Kid from the Big Apple and Kajagoogoo's Big Apple, and playful uses of the nickname have been seen, such as Patrick Downey's 2008 historical study of New York City's criminal underworld, entitled ''Bad Seeds in the Big Apple.",
"''*Following his election as President of the United States in 2016, Donald Trump hosted a party named \"The Big Apple Ball\", which featured themed decorations and cut-outs of New York landmarks in honor of his home city.",
"*In his 1982 song \"Human Nature\", Michael Jackson refers to New York City by singing, \"If this town is just an apple, then let me take a bite\".",
"*In ''Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues'', when asked why New York is called 'The Big Apple', Ron Burgundy says, \"Because, there's an apple tree on every corner!",
"\"*In ''Blue's Big City Adventure'', Josh calls New York \"The Big Apple\".",
"*In the 2017 video game ''Super Mario Odyssey'', the location New Donk City, which is based on New York City, is referred to by one if its inhabitants as \"the Big Banana\"."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Big Apple Research on the term's history by Barry Popik* Straight Dope article"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boston Corbett"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Sergeant '''Thomas H.''' \"'''Boston'''\" '''Corbett''' (January 29, 1832 – presumed dead ) was an English-born American soldier and milliner who shot and killed John Wilkes Booth, the man who committed the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.",
"Corbett was initially arrested for disobeying orders but was later released on the orders of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who referred to Corbett as \"the patriot\" upon dismissing him.",
"He was largely considered a hero by the American media and public.Known for his devout religious beliefs and eccentric behavior, Corbett drifted around the United States before disappearing ''circa'' 1888.Circumstantial evidence suggests that he died in the Great Hinckley Fire in Minnesota in September 1894, although no period documentation has yet been found that undoubtedly identifies him as a victim of the fire."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Corbett was born in London, England on January 29, 1832, and immigrated with his family to New York City in 1840.The Corbetts moved frequently before eventually settling in Troy, New York.",
"As a young man, Corbett began apprenticing as a milliner, a profession that he would hold intermittently throughout his life.",
"As a milliner, Corbett was regularly exposed to the fumes of mercury(II) nitrate, then used in the treatment of fur to produce felt used on hats.",
"Excessive exposure to the compound can lead to hallucinations, psychosis and erethism.",
"Historians have theorized that the mental issues Corbett exhibited before and after the Civil War were caused by this exposure.===Family and religion===After working as a milliner in Troy, Corbett returned to New York City.",
"He later married, but his wife and child died in childbirth.",
"Following their deaths, he moved to Boston.",
"Corbett became despondent over the loss of his wife and began drinking heavily.",
"He was unable to hold a job and eventually became homeless.",
"After a night of heavy drinking, he was confronted by a street preacher whose message persuaded him to join the Methodist Episcopal Church.",
"Corbett immediately stopped drinking and became devoutly religious.",
"After being baptized, he subsequently changed his name to Boston, the name of the city where he was converted.",
"He regularly attended meetings at the Fulton and Bromfield Street churches where his enthusiastic behavior earned him the nickname \"The Glory to God man\".",
"In an attempt to imitate Jesus, Corbett began to wear his hair very long (he was forced to cut it upon enlisting in the Union Army).In 1857, Corbett began working at a hat manufacturer's shop on Washington Street in downtown Boston.",
"He was reported to be a proficient milliner, but was known to proselytize frequently and stop work to pray and sing for co-workers who used profanity in his presence.",
"He also began working as a street preacher and would sermonize and distribute religious literature in North Square.",
"Corbett soon earned a reputation around Boston for being a \"local eccentric\" and religious fanatic.",
"On July 16, 1858, Corbett was propositioned by two prostitutes while walking home from a church meeting.",
"He was deeply disturbed by the encounter.",
"Upon returning to his room at a boardinghouse, Corbett began reading chapters 18 and 19 in the Gospel of Matthew (\"And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out and cast it from thee....and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake\").",
"In order to avoid sexual temptation and remain holy, he castrated himself with a pair of scissors.",
"He then ate a meal and went to a prayer meeting before seeking medical treatment."
],
[
"Military career",
"===Enlistment in the Union Army===A photograph of Corbett in his Union Army uniform.In April 1861, early in the American Civil War, Corbett enlisted as a private in Company I of the Union Army's 12th New York State Militia.",
"Corbett's eccentric behavior quickly got him into trouble.",
"He carried a Bible with him at all times and read passages aloud from it regularly, held unauthorized prayer meetings and argued with his superior officers.",
"Corbett also condemned officers and superiors for what he perceived as violations of God's word.",
"In one instance, he verbally reprimanded Colonel Daniel Butterfield for using profanity and taking the Lord's name in vain.",
"He was sent to the guardhouse for several days but refused to apologize for his insubordination.",
"Due to his continued disruptive behavior and refusal to take orders, Corbett was court-martialed and sentenced to be shot.",
"His sentence was eventually reduced and he was discharged in August 1863.Corbett re-enlisted later that month as a private in Company L, 16th New York Cavalry Regiment.",
"On June 24, 1864, he was captured by Confederate States Army troops led by John S. Mosby in Culpeper, Virginia and held as a prisoner of war at Andersonville Prison for five months.",
"While on the way to Andersonville, the following incident happened, told by a fellow prisoner of Corbett's named William Collins: Corbett was released in a prisoner exchange in November 1864 and was admitted to a military hospital in Annapolis, Maryland where he was treated for scurvy, malnutrition and exposure.",
"Upon Corbett's return to his company, he was promoted to the rank of sergeant.",
"Corbett later testified for the prosecution in the trial of the commandant of Andersonville Prison, Captain Henry Wirz.An 1865 wanted poster for John Wilkes Booth, John Surratt, and David Herold.===Pursuit of John Wilkes Booth===On April 24, 1865, Corbett's regiment was sent to apprehend John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln, whom Booth fatally shot on April 14, 1865.On April 26, the regiment surrounded Booth and one of his accomplices, David Herold, in a tobacco barn on the Virginia farm of Richard Garrett.",
"Herold surrendered, but Booth refused and cried out, \"I will not be taken alive!\".",
"The barn was set on fire in an attempt to force him out into the open, but Booth remained inside.",
"Corbett was positioned near a large crack in the barn wall.===Shooting Booth===In an 1878 interview, Corbett claimed that he saw Booth aim his carbine, prompting him to shoot Booth with his Colt revolver despite Secretary of War Edwin Stanton's orders that Booth be captured alive.",
"The bullet struck Booth in the back of the head behind his left ear, passed through his neck, and out into the barn.",
"A low scream of pain like that produced by a sudden throttling came from the assassin, and he pitched headlong to the floor.",
"Corbett and the other soldiers would note a sense of poetic, or cosmic, justice in that Lincoln and Booth were each shot around the same spot of the head.",
"And the damage to Booth was no less severe than that to Lincoln: the bullet had pierced three vertebrae and partially severed his spinal cord, paralyzing him.",
"Their conditions were different as well, as Mary Clemmer Ames summed it up, \"The balls entered the skull of each at nearly the same spot, but the trifling difference made an immeasurable difference in the sufferings of the two.",
"Mr. Lincoln was unconscious of all pain, while his assassin suffered as exquisite agony as if he had been broken on a wheel.",
"\"====Death of Booth====In a weak voice, Booth asked for water and Lt.",
"Colonel Everton Conger and Colonel Lafayette C. Baker gave it to him.",
"A soldier poured water into his mouth, which he immediately spat out, unable to swallow.",
"The bullet wound prevented him from swallowing any of the liquid.",
"Booth asked them to roll him over and turn him facedown.",
"Conger thought it a bad idea.",
"\"Then at least turn me on my side,\" the assassin pleaded.",
"They did, but Conger saw that the move did not relieve Booth's suffering.",
"Baker noticed it, too: \"He seemed to suffer extreme pain whenever he was moved...and would several times repeat, 'Kill me.'\"",
"At sunrise, Booth remained in agonizing pain.",
"His pulse weakened as his breathing became more labored and irregular.",
"In agony, unable to move his limbs, he asked a soldier to lift his hands before his face and whispered as he gazed at them, \"Useless ...",
"Useless.\"",
"These were his last words.",
"A few minutes later, Booth began gasping for air as his throat continued to swell, and there was a shiver and a gurgle and his body shuddered, before he died from asphyxia.",
"He died three hours after Corbett shot him.Boston CorbettConger initially thought Booth had shot himself.",
"After realizing Booth had been shot by someone else, Conger and Lt. Doherty asked which officer had shot Booth.",
"Corbett stepped forward and admitted he was the shooter.",
"When asked why he had violated orders, Corbett replied, \"Providence directed me.",
"\"====Court-martial====He was immediately arrested and was accompanied by Lt. Doherty to the War Department in Washington, D.C. to be court-martialed.",
"When questioned by Secretary Edwin Stanton about Booth's capture and shooting, both Doherty and Corbett himself agreed that Corbett had, in fact, disobeyed orders not to shoot.",
"However, Corbett maintained that he believed Booth had intended to shoot his way out of the barn and that he acted in self-defense.",
"He told Stanton, \"...Booth would have killed me if I had not shot first.",
"I think I did right.\"",
"Corbett maintained that he did not intend to kill Booth, but merely wanted to inflict a disabling wound, but either his aim slipped or Booth moved at the moment Corbett pulled the trigger.",
"Stanton paused and then stated, \"The rebel is dead.",
"The patriot lives; he has spared the country expense, continued excitement and trouble.",
"Discharge the patriot.\"",
"Upon leaving the War Department, Corbett was greeted by a cheering crowd.",
"As he made his way to Mathew Brady's studio to have his official portrait taken, the crowd followed him asking for autographs and requesting that he tell them about shooting Booth.",
"Corbett told the crowd:====Contradictions====Eyewitnesses to Booth's shooting contradicted Corbett's version of events and expressed doubts that Corbett was responsible for shooting Booth.",
"Officers who were near Corbett at the time claimed that they never saw him fire his gun (Corbett's gun was never inspected and was eventually lost).",
"They claimed that Corbett came forward only after Lt.",
"Colonel Conger asked who had shot Booth.",
"Richard Garrett, the owner of the farm on which Booth was found, and his 12-year-old son Robert also contradicted Corbett's testimony that he acted in self-defense.",
"Both maintained that Booth had never reached for his gun.While there was some criticism of Corbett's actions, he was largely considered a hero by the public and press.",
"One newspaper editor declared that Corbett would, \"live as one of the World's great avengers.\"",
"For his part in Booth's capture, Corbett received a portion of the $100,000 reward money, amounting to $1,653.84 ().",
"His annual salary as a U.S. sergeant was $204 ().",
"Corbett received offers to purchase the gun he used to shoot Booth.",
"He refused stating, \"That is not mine—it belongs to the Government, and I would not sell it for any price.\"",
"Corbett also declined an offer for one of Booth's pistols as he did not want a reminder of shooting Booth."
],
[
"Post-war life",
"After his discharge from the army in August 1865, Corbett went back to work as a milliner in Boston and frequently attended the Bromfield Street Church.",
"When the hatting business in Boston slowed, Corbett moved to Danbury, Connecticut, to continue his work and also \"preached in the country round about.\"",
"By 1870, he had relocated once again to Camden, New Jersey, where he was known as a \"Methodist lay preacher\", while also continuing to be a milliner.",
"Corbett's inability to hold a job was attributed to his fanatical behavior; he was routinely fired after continuing his habit of stopping work to pray for his co-workers.",
"In an effort to earn money, Corbett capitalized on his role as \"Lincoln's Avenger\".",
"He gave lectures about the shooting of Booth accompanied by illustrated lantern slides at Sunday schools, women's groups and tent meetings.",
"Corbett was never asked back due to his increasingly erratic behavior and incoherent speeches.R.",
"B. Hoover, a man who later befriended Corbett, recalled that Corbett believed \"men who were high in authority at Washington at the time of the assassination\" were hounding him.",
"Corbett said the men were angry because he had deprived them of prosecuting and executing John Wilkes Booth themselves.",
"He also believed the same men had gotten him fired from various jobs.",
"Corbett's paranoia was furthered by hate mail he received for killing Booth.",
"He became fearful that \"Booth's Avengers\" or organizations like the \"Secret Order\" were planning to seek revenge upon him and took to carrying a pistol with him at all times.",
"As his paranoia increased, Corbett began brandishing his pistol at friends or strangers he deemed suspicious.While attending the Soldiers' Reunion of the Blue and Gray in Caldwell, Ohio, in 1875, Corbett got into an argument with several men over the death of John Wilkes Booth.",
"The men questioned if Booth had really been killed at all which enraged Corbett.",
"He then drew his pistol on the men but was removed from the reunion before he could fire it.",
"In 1878, Corbett moved to Concordia, Kansas, where he acquired a plot of land through homesteading upon which he constructed a dugout home.",
"He continued working as a preacher and attended revival meetings frequently.",
"Throughout the rest of his life, he began to become paranoid that Booth family or friends would come and kill him, causing him to go insane."
],
[
"Presumed fate",
"Due to his fame as \"Lincoln's Avenger\", Corbett was appointed assistant doorkeeper of the Kansas House of Representatives in Topeka in January 1887.On February 15, he became convinced that officers of the House were discriminating against him.",
"He jumped to his feet, brandished a revolver and began chasing the officers out of the building.",
"No one was hurt and Corbett was arrested.",
"The following day, a judge declared Corbett insane and sent him to the Topeka Asylum for the Insane.",
"On May 26, 1888, he escaped from the asylum on horseback.",
"He then rode to Neodesha, Kansas, where he briefly stayed with Richard Thatcher, a man he had met while they were prisoners of war.",
"When Corbett left, he told Thatcher he was going to Mexico.Rather than going to Mexico, Corbett is believed to have settled in a cabin he built in the forests near Hinckley, in Pine County in eastern Minnesota.",
"He is believed to have died in the Great Hinckley Fire on September 1, 1894.Although there is no proof, the name \"Thomas Corbett\" appears on the list of dead and missing."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===Imposters===In the years following Corbett's presumed death, several men came forward claiming to be \"Lincoln's Avenger\".",
"A few years after Corbett was last seen in Neodesha, Kansas, a patent medicine salesman in Enid, Oklahoma, filed an application using Corbett's name to receive pension benefits.",
"After an investigation proved that the man was not Boston Corbett, he was sent to prison.",
"In September 1905, a man arrested in Dallas also claimed to be Corbett.",
"He too was proven to be an imposter and was sent to prison for perjury, and then to the Government Hospital for the Insane.===Memorials===In 1958, Boy Scout Troop 31, of Concordia, Kansas, built a roadside monument to Corbett located on Key Road.",
"A small sign was also placed to mark the dugout where Corbett had lived for a time."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of people who disappeared*Jack Ruby"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Boston Corbett: The Man Who Killed John Wilkes Booth* Photo on Kansas Memory website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Berber languages"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Berber languages''', also known as the '''Amazigh languages''' or '''Tamazight''', are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family.",
"They comprise a group of closely related but mostly mutually unintelligible languages spoken by Berber communities, who are indigenous to North Africa.",
"The languages are primarily spoken and not typically written.",
"Historically, they have been written with the ancient Libyco-Berber script, which now exists in the form of Tifinagh.",
"Today, they may also be written in the Berber Latin alphabet or the Arabic script, with Latin being the most pervasive.The Berber languages have a similar level of variety to the Romance languages, although they are sometimes referred to as a single collective language, often as \"Berber\", \"Tamazight\", or \"Amazigh\".",
"The languages, with a few exceptions, form a dialect continuum.",
"There is a debate as to how to best sub-categorize languages within the Berber branch.",
"Berber languages typically follow verb–subject–object word order.",
"Their phonological inventories are diverse.Millions of people in Morocco and Algeria natively speak a Berber language, as do smaller populations of Libya, Tunisia, northern Mali, western and northern Niger, northern Burkina Faso and Mauritania and the Siwa Oasis of Egypt.",
"There are also likely a few million speakers of Berber languages in Western Europe.",
"Tashlhiyt, Kabyle, Central Atlas Tamazight, Tarifit, and Shawiya are some of the most commonly spoken Berber languages.",
"Exact numbers are impossible to ascertain as there are few modern North African censuses that include questions on language use, and what censuses do exist have known flaws.Following independence in the 20th century, the Berber languages have been suppressed and suffered from low prestige in North Africa.",
"Recognition of the Berber languages has been growing in the 21st century, with Morocco and Algeria adding Tamazight as an official language to their constitutions in 2011 and 2016 respectively.Most Berber languages have a high percentage of borrowing and influence from the Arabic language, as well as from other languages.",
"For example, Arabic loanwords represent 35% to 46% of the total vocabulary of the Kabyle language and represent 51.7% of the total vocabulary of Tarifit.",
"Almost all Berber languages took from Arabic the pharyngeal fricatives /ʕ/ and /ħ/, the (nongeminated) uvular stop /q/, and the voiceless pharyngealized consonant /ṣ/."
],
[
"Terminology",
"\"Tamazight\" and \"Berber languages\" are often used interchangeably.",
"However, \"Tamazight\" is sometimes used to refer to a specific subset of Berber languages, such as Central Tashlhiyt.",
"\"Tamazight\" can also be used to refer to Standard Moroccan Tamazight or Standard Algerian Tamazight, as in the Moroccan and Algerian constitutions respectively.",
"In Morocco, besides referring to all Berber languages or to Standard Moroccan Tamazight, \"Tamazight\" is often used in contrast to Tashelhit and Tarifit to refer to Central Atlas Tamazight.The use of ''Berber'' has been the subject of debate due to its historical background as an exonym and present equivalence with the Arabic word for \"barbarian.\"",
"One group, the Linguasphere Observatory, has attempted to introduce the neologism \"Tamazic languages\" to refer to the Berber languages.",
"Amazigh people typically use \"Tamazight\" when speaking English.",
"Historically, Berbers did not refer to themselves as Berbers/Amazigh but had their own terms to refer to themselves.",
"For example, the Kabyles use the term \"Leqbayel\" to refer to their own people, while the Chaouis identified themselves as \"Ishawiyen\" instead of Berber/Amazigh."
],
[
"Origin",
"Since modern Berber languages are relatively homogeneous, the date of the Proto-Berber language from which the modern group is derived was probably comparatively recent, comparable to the age of the Germanic or Romance subfamilies of the Indo-European family.",
"In contrast, the split of the group from the other Afroasiatic sub-phyla is much earlier, and is therefore sometimes associated with the local Mesolithic Capsian culture.",
"A number of extinct populations are believed to have spoken Afroasiatic languages of the Berber branch.",
"According to Peter Behrens and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst, linguistic evidence suggests that the peoples of the C-Group culture in present-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan spoke Berber languages.",
"The Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key loanwords related to pastoralism that are of Berber origin, including the terms for sheep and water/Nile.",
"This in turn suggests that the C-Group population—which, along with the Kerma culture, inhabited the Nile valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers—spoke Afroasiatic languages."
],
[
"Orthography",
"Libyco-Berber inscriptions in Zagora, Morocco|leftBerber languages are primarily oral languages without a major written component.",
"Historically, they were written with the Libyco-Berber script.",
"Early uses of the script have been found on rock art and in various sepulchres; the oldest known variations of the script dates to inscriptions in Dugga from 600 BC.",
"Usage of this script, in the form of Tifinagh, has continued into the present day among the Tuareg people.",
"Following the spread of Islam, some Berber scholars also utilized the Arabic script.",
"The Berber Latin alphabet was developed following the introduction of the Latin script in the nineteenth century by the West.",
"The nineteenth century also saw the development of Neo-Tifinagh, an adaptation of Tuareg Tifinagh for use with other Berber languages.There are now three writing systems in use for Berber languages: Tifinagh, the Arabic script, and the Berber Latin alphabet, with the Latin alphabet being the most widely used today."
],
[
"Subclassification",
"With the exception of Zenaga, Tetserret, and Tuareg, the Berber languages form a dialect continuum.",
"Different linguists take different approaches towards drawing boundaries between languages in this continuum.",
"Maarten Kossmann notes that it is difficult to apply the classic tree model of historical linguistics towards the Berber languages:The Berber language family's continuous history of convergence and differentiation along new lines makes an definition of branches arbitrary.",
"Moreover, mutual intelligibility and mutual influence render notions such as \"split\" or \"branching\" rather difficult to apply except, maybe, in the case of Zenaga and Tuareg.Kossmann roughly groups the Berber languages into seven blocks:* '''Berber'''** Western (Zenaga, Tetserret)** Tuareg** Western Moroccan*** southwestern and central Moroccan languages (Tashelhiyt, most of Central Atlas Tamazight)*** northwestern Moroccan languages (Ghomara, Senhadja de Sraïr)** Zenatic (a dialect continuum stretching from eastern Morocco to the Siwa Oasis)** Kabyle** Ghadames** AwjilaThe Zenatic block is typically divided into the Zenati and Eastern Berber branches, due to the marked difference in features at each end of the continuum.",
"Otherwise, subclassifications by different linguists typically combine various blocks into different branches.",
"Western Moroccan languages, Zenati languages, Kabyle, and Ghadames may be grouped under Northern Berber; Awjila is often included as an Eastern Berber language alongside Siwa, Sokna, and El Foqaha.",
"These approaches divide the Berber languages into Northern, Southern (Tuareg), Eastern, and Western varieties.== Population ==The vast majority of speakers of Berber languages are concentrated in Morocco and Algeria.",
"The exact population of speakers has been historically difficult to ascertain due to lack of official recognition.=== Morocco ===Percentage of Berber speakers in Morocco at the 2004 censusMap of Berber-speaking areas in MoroccoMorocco is the country with the greatest number of speakers of Berber languages.",
"As of 2022, Ethnologue estimates there to be 13.8 million speakers of Berber languages in Morocco, based on figures from 2016 and 2017.In 1960, the first census after Moroccan independence was held.",
"It claimed that 32 percent of Moroccans spoke a Berber language, including bi-, tri- and quadrilingual people.",
"The 2004 census found that 3,894,805 Moroccans over five years of age spoke Tashelhit, 2,343,937 spoke Central Atlas Tamazight, and 1,270,986 spoke Tarifit, representing 14.6%, 8.8%, and 4.8% respectively of the surveyed population, or roughly 28.2% of the surveyed population combined.",
"The 2014 census found that 14.1% of the population spoke Tashelhit, 7.9% spoke Central Atlas Tamazight, and 4% spoke Tarifit, or about 26% of the population combined.These estimates, as well as the estimates from various academic sources, are summarized as follows:+ Estimated number of speakers of Berber languages in Morocco Source Date Total Tashelhit Central Atlas Tamazight Tarifit Notes''Tamazight of the Ayt Ndhir''19736 million – – –Extrapolating from Basset's 1952 ''La langue berbère'' based on overall population changes.Ethnologue''''20017.5 million3 million3 million1.5 million --Moroccan census20047.5 million 3.9 million 2.3 million 1.3 millionAlso used by Ethnologue in 2015.Only individuals over age 5 were included.",
"''Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Education in Morocco''200515 million6.8 million5.2 million 3 millionAlso used in ''Semitic and Afroasiatic: Challenges and Opportunities'' in 2012.Moroccan census20148.7 million4.7 million2.7 million1.3 millionCalculated via reported percentages.",
"As in the 2004 census, only individuals over age 5 were surveyed for language.Ethnologue202213.8 million5 million4.6 million4.2 millionAdditional Berber languages include Senhaja Berber (86,000 speakers) and Ghomara (10,000 speakers).=== Algeria ===Kabyle and Shawiya languages in the central-eastern part of Algeria|leftAlgeria is the country with the second greatest number of speakers of Berber languages.",
"In 1906, the total population speaking Berber languages in Algeria, excluding the thinly populated Sahara region, was estimated at 1,305,730 out of 4,447,149, or 29%.",
"Secondary sources disagree on the percentage of self-declared native Berber speakers in the 1966 census, the last Algerian census containing a question about the mother tongue.",
"Some give 17.9% while other report 19%.",
"leftKabyle speakers account for the vast majority of speakers of Berber languages in Algeria.",
"Shawiya is the second most commonly spoken Berber language in Algeria.",
"Other Berber languages spoken in Algeria include: Shenwa, with 76,300 speakers; Tashelhit, with 6,000 speakers; Ouargli, with 20,000 speakers; Tamahaq, with 71,400 speakers; Tugurt, with 8,100 speakers; Tidikelt, with 1,000 speakers; Gurara, with 11,000 speakers; and Mozabite, with 150,000 speakers.Population estimates are summarized as follows:+ Estimated number of speakers of Berber languages in Algeria Source Date Total Kabyle Shawiya Other''Annales de Géographie''19061.3 million – – –Textes en linguistique berbère19803.6 million -- -- --International Encyclopedia of Linguistics2003 -- 2.5 million -- --Language Diversity Endangered2015 4.5 million 2.5 million - 3 million 1.4 million 0.13 million - 0.190 millionEthnologue20208.8 million6.2 million2.3 million0.3 millionJournal of African Languages and Literatures2021 --3 million -- --=== Other countries ===As of 1998, there were an estimated 450,000 Tawellemmet speakers, 250,000 Air Tamajeq speakers, and 20,000 Tamahaq speakers in Niger.As of 2018 and 2014 respectively, there were an estimated 420,000 speakers of Tawellemmet and 378,000 of Tamasheq in Mali.As of 2022, based on figures from 2020, Ethnologue estimates there to be 285,890 speakers of Berber languages in Libya: 247,000 speakers of Nafusi, 22,800 speakers of Tamahaq, 13,400 speakers of Ghadamés, and 2,690 speakers of Awjila.",
"The number of Siwi speakers in Libya is listed as negligible, and the last Sokna speaker is thought to have died in the 1950s.There are an estimated 50,000 Djerbi speakers in Tunisia, based on figures from 2004.Sened is likely extinct, with the last speaker having died in the 1970s.",
"Ghadamés, though not indigenous to Tunisia, is estimated to have 3,100 speakers throughout the country.",
"Chenini is one of the rare remaining Berber-speaking villages in Tunisia.There are an estimated 20,000 Siwi speakers in Egypt, based on figures from 2013.As of 2018 and 2017 respectively, there were an estimated 200 speakers of Zenaga and 117,000 of Tamasheq in Mauritania.As of 2009, there were an estimated 122,000 Tamasheq speakers in Burkina Faso.There are an estimated 1.5 million speakers of various Berber languages in France.",
"A small number of Tawellemmet speakers live in Nigeria.In total, there are an estimated 3.6 million speakers of Berber languages in countries outside of Morocco and Algeria, summarized as follows:+ Estimated number of speakers of Berber languages in various countries Total Niger Mali Libya Tunisia Egypt Mauritania Burkina Faso France3,577,300720,000798,000247,00053,10020,000117,200122,0001,500,000"
],
[
"Status",
"After independence, all the Maghreb countries to varying degrees pursued a policy of Arabisation, aimed partly at displacing French from its colonial position as the dominant language of education and literacy.",
"Under this policy the use of the Berber languages was suppressed or even banned.",
"This state of affairs has been contested by Berbers in Morocco and Algeria—especially Kabylie—and was addressed in both countries by affording the language official status and introducing it in some schools.=== Morocco ===After gaining independence from France in 1956, Morocco began a period of Arabisation through 1981, with primary and secondary school education gradually being changed to Arabic instruction, and with the aim of having administration done in Arabic, rather than French.",
"During this time, there were riots amongst the Amazigh population, which called for the inclusion of Tamazight as an official language.The 2000 Charter for Education Reform marked a change in policy, with its statement of \"openness to Tamazight.",
"\"Planning for a public Tamazight-language TV network began in 2006; in 2010, the Moroccan government launched Tamazight TV.On July 29, 2011, Tamazight was added as an official language to the Moroccan constitution.=== Algeria ===After gaining independence from France in 1962, Algeria committed to a policy of Arabisation, which, after 1979, encompassed public education, broadcasting, and the judiciary system.",
"While directed towards the removal of French as an official language, these policies led to dissatisfaction and unrest amongst speakers of Berber languages, who made up about one quarter of the population.In 2002, following riots in Kabylia the previous year, it was announced that Tamazight would be added as a national language, though not as an official one.",
"This was done on April 8, 2003.Tamazight has been taught for three hours a week through the first three years of Algerian middle schools since 2005.On January 5, 2016, it was announced that Tamazight had been added as an official language in a draft amendment to the Algerian constitution; it was added to the constitution as an official language on February 7, 2016.=== Libya ===Although regional councils in Libya's Nafusa Mountains affiliated with the National Transitional Council reportedly use the Berber language of Nafusi and have called for it to be granted co-official status with Arabic in a prospective new constitution, it does not have official status in Libya as in Morocco and Algeria.",
"As areas of Libya south and west of Tripoli such as the Nafusa Mountains were taken from the control of Gaddafi government forces in early summer 2011, Berber workshops and exhibitions sprang up to share and spread the Berber culture and language.=== Other Countries ===In Mali and Niger, some Tuareg languages have been recognized as national languages and have been part of school curriculums since the 1960s."
],
[
"Phonology",
"=== Notation ===In linguistics, the phonology of Berber languages is written with the International Phonetic Alphabet, with the following exceptions:+ Notation Meaning/š/unvoiced anterior post-alveolar, as in Slavic languages and Lithuanian/ž/voiced anterior post-alveolar, also in Slavic languages and Lithuanian/ɣ/voiced uvular fricative (in IPA, this represents the voiced velar fricative)/◌͑/voiced pharyngeal fricative/h/laryngeal voiced consonant/◌͗/glottal stop/ř/strident flap or /r̝/, as in Czechindicates the following segment is emphatic=== Consonants ===The influence of Arabic, the process of spirantization, and the absence of labialization have caused the consonant systems of Berber languages to differ significantly by region.",
"Berber languages found north of, and in the northern half of, the Sahara have greater influence from Arabic, including that of loaned phonemes, than those in more southern regions, like Tuareg.",
"Most Berber languages in northern regions have additionally undergone spirantization, in which historical short stops have changed into fricatives.",
"Northern Berber languages (which is a subset of but not identical to Berber languages in geographically northern regions) commonly have labialized velars and uvulars, unlike other Berber languages.Tashlhiyt language, one of the Berber languages, spoken by a man from Ait Melloul.Two languages that illustrate the resulting range in consonant inventory across Berber languages are Ahaggar Tuareg and Kabyle; Kabyle has two more places of articulation and three more manners of articulation than Ahaggar Tuareg.There is still, however, common consonant features observed across Berber languages.",
"Almost all Berber languages have bilabial, dental, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and laryngeal consonants, and almost all consonants have a long counterpart.",
"All Berber languages, as is common in Afroasiatic languages, have pharyngealized consonants and phonemic gemination.",
"The consonants which may undergo gemination, and the positions in a word where gemination may occur, differ by language.",
"They have also been observed to have tense and lax consonants, although the status of tense consonants has been the subject of \"considerable discussion\" by linguists.=== Vowels ===The vowel systems of Berber languages also vary widely, with inventories ranging from three phonemic vowels in most Northern Berber languages, to seven in some Eastern Berber and Tuareg languages.",
"For example, Taselhiyt has the vowels /i/, /a/, and /u/, while Ayer Tuareg has the vowels /i/, /ə/, /u/, /e/, /ɐ/, /o/, and /a/.",
"Contrastive vowel length is rare in Berber languages.",
"Tuareg languages had previously been reported to have contrastive vowel length, but this is no longer the leading analysis.",
"A complex feature of Berber vowel systems is the role of central vowels, which vary in occurrence and function across languages; there is a debate as to whether schwa is a proper phoneme of Northern Berber languages.=== Suprasegmentals ===Most Berber languages:* allow for any combination of CC consonant clusters.",
"* have no lexical tones.",
"* either have no lexical stress (Northern Berber languages) or have grammatically significant lexical stress.=== Phonetic correspondences ===An interview in Central Atlas Tamazight language as spoken by a professor from France.Phonetic correspondences between Berber languages are fairly regular.",
"Some examples, of varying importance and regularity, include ''g/ž/y''; ''k/š''; ''l/ř/r''; ''l/ž, ll/ddž''; trill/ vocalized r; ''šš/ttš''; ''ss/ttš''; ''w/g/b''; ''q''/''ɣ''; ''h''/Ø; and ''s-š-ž/h''.",
"Words in various Berber languages are shown to demonstrate these phonetic correspondences as follows:+ Major Berber phonetic correspondences Tahaggart Tashlhiyt Kabyle Figuig Central Atlas Tamazight Tarifit Gloss''!oska''''!uskay''''!uššay''(Arabic loan)''!usça''''!uššay''\"greyhound\"''t-a-!gzəl-t''''t-i-!gzzl-t''''t-i-!gzzəl-t''''t-i-!yžəl-t''''t-i-!ḡzəl-t''''θ-i-!yzzətš''\"kidney\"''a-gelhim''''a-glzim''''a-gəlzim''''a-yəlzim''''a-ḡzzim''''a-řizim''\"axe\"''éhéder''''i-gidr''''i-gider''(Arabic loan)''yidər''''žiða:''\"eagle\"''t-adhan-t''''t-adgal-t''''t-addžal-t''''t-ahžžal-t''''t-adžal-t''''θ-ažžat''\"window\"''élem''''ilm''''a-gwlim''''ilem''''iləm''''iřem''\"skin\"''a-!hiyod''''a-!žddid''''a-!žəddžid'' –''a-!ḡddžid''''a-!žžið''\"scabies\"''a-gûhil''''i-gigil''''a-gužil''''a-yužil''''a-wižil''''a-yužiř''\"orphan\"''t-immé''''i-gzni''''t-a-gwənza''''t-a-nyər-t''''t-i-nir-t''''θ-a-nya:-θ''\"forehead\"''t-ahor-t''''t-aggur-t''''t-abbur-t''(Arabic loan)''t-aggur-t''''θ-!awwa:-θ''\"door\"''t-a-flu-t''''t-i-flu-t''''t-i-flu-t'' –''t-iflu-t''''--''''a-fus''''a-fus''''a-fus''''a-fus''''(a-)fus''''fus''\"hand\""
],
[
"Grammar",
"Berber languages characteristically make frequent use of apophony in the form of ablaut.",
"Berber apophony has been historically analyzed as functioning similarly to the Semitic root, but this analysis has fallen out of favor due to the lexical significance of vowels in Berber languages, as opposed to their primarily grammatical significance in Semitic languages.The lexical categories of all Berber languages are nouns, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions.",
"With the exception of a handful of Arabic loanwords in most languages, Berber languages do not have proper adjectives.",
"In Northern and Eastern Berber languages, adjectives are a subcatergory of nouns; in Tuareg, relative clauses and stative verb forms are used to modify nouns instead.The gender, number, and case of nouns, as well as the gender, number, and person of verbs, are typically distinguished through affixes.",
"Arguments are described with word order and clitics.",
"When sentences have a verb, they essentially follow verb–subject–object word order, although some linguists believe alternate descriptors would better categorize certain languages, such as Taqbaylit.=== Pronouns ===Berber languages have both independent and dependent pronouns, both of which distinguish between person and number.",
"Gender is also typically distinguished in the second and third person, and sometimes in first person plural.Linguist Maarten Kossmann divides pronouns in Berber languages into three morphological groups:# Independent pronouns# Direct object clitics# Indirect object clitics; prepositional suffixes; adnominal suffixesWhen clitics precede or follow a verb, they are almost always ordered with the indirect object first, direct object second, and andative-venitive deictic clitic last.",
"An example in Tarifit is shown as follows:The allowed positioning of different kinds of clitics varies by language.=== Nouns ===Nouns are distinguished by gender, number, and case in most Berber languages, with gender being feminine or masculine, number being singular or plural, and case being in the construct or free state.Gender can be feminine or masculine, and can be lexically determined, or can be used to distinguish qualities of the noun.",
"For humans and \"higher\" animals (such as mammals and large birds), gender distinguishes sex, whereas for objects and \"lesser\" animals (such as insects and lizards), it distinguishes size.",
"For some nouns, often fruits and vegetables, gender can also distinguish the specificity of the noun.",
"The ways in which gender is used to distinguish nouns is shown in as follows, with examples from Figuig:+ Noun type Feminine Masculine Feature Figuig example Example gloss Feature Figuig example Example glosshumans; higher animalsfemale''ta-sli-t'' \"bride\"male''a-sli''\"groom\"objects; lesser animalssmall''ta-ɣənžay-t'' \"spoon\"large''a-ɣənža''\"large spoon\"varies, but typically fruits and vegetablesunit noun''ta-mlul-t''\"(one) melon\"collective noun''a-mlul''\"melons (in general)\"''ti-mlal'' (plural)\"(specific) melons\"An example of nouns with lexically determined gender are the feminine ''t-lussi'' (\"butter\") and masculine ''a-ɣi'' (\"buttermilk\") in Figuig.",
"Mass nouns have lexically determined gender across Berber languages.Most Berber languages have two cases, which distinguish the construct state from the free state.",
"The construct state is also called the \"construct case, \"relative case,\" \"annexed state\" (''état d'annexion'')'','' or the \"nominative case\"; the free state (''état libre'') is also called the \"direct case\" or \"accusative case.\"",
"When present, case is always expressed through nominal prefixes and initial-vowel reduction.",
"The use of the marked nominative system and constructions similar to Split-S alignment varies by language.",
"Eastern Berber languages do not have case.Number can be singular or plural, which is marked with prefixation, suffixation, and sometimes apophony.",
"Nouns usually are made plural by one of either suffixation or apophony, with prefixation applied independently.",
"Specifics vary by language, but prefixation typically changes singular ''a-'' and ''ta-'' to plural ''i-'' and ''ti-'' respectively.",
"The number of mass nouns are lexically determined.",
"For example, in multiple Berber languages, such as Figuig, ''a-ɣi'' (\"buttermilk\") is singular while ''am-an'' (\"water\") is plural.Nouns or pronouns — optionally extended with genitival pronominal affixes, demonstrative clitics, or pre-nominal elements, and then further modified by numerals, adjectives, possessive phrases, or relative clauses — can be built into noun phrases.",
"Possessive phrases in noun phrases must have a genitive proposition.There are a limited number of pre-nominal elements, which function similarly to pronoun syntactic heads of the noun phrase, and which can be categorized into three types as follows:* The pluralizer ''id-''* The four pre-nominal elements roughly meaning \"son(s) of\" and \"daughter(s) of\", which commonly denote group identity and origin* Pre-nominal elements which expand on the meaning of the noun=== Verbs ===Verb bases are formed by stems that are optionally extended by prefixes, with mood, aspect, and negation applied with a vocalic scheme.",
"This form can then be conjugated with affixes to agree with person, number, and gender, which produces a word.Different linguists analyze and label aspects in the Berber languages very differently.",
"Kossman roughly summarizes the basic stems which denote aspect as follows:* Aorist, also called aoriste, without a preceding particle:** imperative** unmarked (taking aspect from preceding verb)* Aorist, with the preceding article ''ad:''** irrealis (adhortative, future)* Preterite, or accompli:** past tense, in dynamic use** states (such as \"to want, to know\"), in stative use* Intensive Aorist, also called habitative or inaccompli:** dynamic present** habitative and iterative** habitative imperative** negation of any imperativeDifferent languages may have more stems and aspects, or may distinguish within the above categories.",
"Stem formation can be very complex, with Tuareg by some measures having over two hundred identified conjugation subtypes.The aspectual stems of some classes of verbs in various Berber languages are shown as follows:+ Figuig Ghadames Ayer Tuareg Mali TuaregAorist''əlmədatəf''''ălmədatəf''''əlmədatəf''''əlmədaləm''Imperfective''ləmmədttatəf''''lămmădttatăf''''--''''lămmădtiləm''Secondary Imperfective''--''''--''''lámmădtátăf''''lámmădtiləm''Negative Imperfective''ləmmədttitəf''''ləmmədttitəf''''ləmmədtitəf''''ləmmədtiləm''Perfective''əlmədutəf''''əlmădutăf''''əlmădotăf''''əlmădolăm''Secondary Perfective''--''''--''''əlmádotáf''''əlmádolám''Negative Perfective''əlmidutif''''əlmedutef''''əlmedotef''''əlmedolem''Future''--''''əlmădutăf''''--''''--''Verb phrases are built with verb morphology, pronominal and deictic clitics, pre-verbal particles, and auxiliary elements.",
"The pre-verbal particles are ''ad'', ''wər,'' and their variants, which correspond to the meanings of \"non-realized\" and \"negative\" respectively.=== Numerals ===Many Berber languages have lost use of their original numerals from three onwards due to the influence of Arabic; Tarifit has lost all except one.",
"Languages that may retain all their original numerals include Tashelhiyt, Tuareg, Ghadames, Ouargla, and Zenaga.Original Berber numerals agree in gender with the noun they describe, whereas the borrowed Arabic forms do not.The numerals 1–10 in Tashelhiyt and Mali Tuareg are as follows: Tashelhiyt Mali Tuareg 1 ''yan'' ''yat'' ''iyăn'' ''iyăt'' 2 ''sin'' ''snat'' ''əssin'' ''sănatăt'' 3 ''kraḍ'' ''kraṭṭ'' ''kăraḍ'' ''kăraḍăt'' 4 ''kkuẓ'' ''kkuẓt'' ''akkoẓ'' ''ăkkoẓăt'' 5 ''smmus'' ''smmust'' ''sămmos'' ''sămmosăt'' 6 ''sḍis'' ''sḍist'' ''səḍis'' ''səḍisăt'' 7 ''sa'' ''sat'' ''ăssa'' ''ăssayăt'' 8 ''tam'' ''tamt'' ''ăttam'' ''ăttamăt'' 9 ''tẓa'' ''tẓat'' ''tăẓẓa'' ''tăẓẓayăt'' 10 ''mraw'' ''mrawt'' ''măraw'' ''mărawăt''=== Sentence structure ===Sentences in Berber languages can be divided into verbal and non-verbal sentences.",
"The topic, which has a unique intonation in the sentence, precedes all other arguments in both types.Verbal sentences have a finite verb, and are commonly understood to follow verb–subject–object word order (VSO).",
"Some linguists have proposed opposing analyses of the word order patterns in Berber languages, and there has been some support for characterizing Taqbaylit as discourse-configurational.Existential, attributive, and locational sentences in most Berber languages are expressed with a non-verbal sentence, which have no finite verb.",
"In these sentences, the predicate follows the noun, with the predicative particle ''d'' sometimes in between.",
"Two examples, one without and one with a subject, are given from Kabyle as follows: Non-verbal sentences may use the verb meaning \"to be,\" which exists in all Berber languages.",
"An example from Tarifit is given as follows:"
],
[
"Lexicon",
"Above all in the area of basic lexicon, the Berber languages are very similar.",
"However, the household-related vocabulary in sedentary tribes is especially different from the one found in nomadic ones, whereas Tahaggart has only two or three designations for species of palm tree, other languages may have as many as 200 similar words.",
"In contrast, Tahaggart has a rich vocabulary for the description of camels.Some loanwords in the Berber languages can be traced to pre-Roman times.",
"The Berber words ''te-ḇăyne'' \"date\" and ''a-sḇan'' \"loose woody tissue around the palm tree stem\" originate from Ancient Egyptian, likely due to the introduction of date palm cultivation into North Africa from Egypt.",
"Around a dozen Berber words are probable Phoenician-Punic loanwords, although the overall influence of Phoenician-Punic on Berber languages is negligible.",
"A number of loanwords could be attributed to Phoenician-Punic, Hebrew, or Aramaic.",
"The similar vocabulary between these Semitic languages, as well as Arabic, is a complicating factor in tracing the etymology of certain words.Words of Latin origin have been introduced into Berber languages over time.",
"Maarten Kossman separates Latin loanwords in Berber languages into those from during the Roman empire (\"Latin loans\"), from after the fall of the Roman empire (\"African Romance loans\"), precolonial non-African Romance loans, and colonial and post-colonial Romance loans.",
"It can be difficult to distinguish Latin from African Romance loans.",
"There are about 40 likely Latin or African Romance loanwords in Berber languages, which tend to be agricultural terms, religious terms, terms related to learning, or words for plants or useful objects.",
"Use of these terms varies by language.",
"For example, Tuareg does not retain the Latin agricultural terms, which relate to a form of agriculture not practiced by the Tuareg people.",
"There are some Latin loans that are only known to be used in Shawiya.The Berber calendar uses month names derived from the Julian calendar.",
"Not every language uses every month.",
"For example, Figuig appears to use only eight of the months.",
"These names may be precolonial non-African Romance loans, adopted into Berber languages through Arabic, rather than from Latin directly.The most influential external language on the lexicon of Berber languages is Arabic.",
"Maarten Kossmann calculates that 0-5% of Ghadames and Awdjila's core vocabularies, and over 15% of Ghomara, Siwa, and Senhadja de Sraïr's core vocabularies, are loans from Arabic.",
"Most other Berber languages loan from 6–15% of their core vocabulary from Arabic.",
"Salem Chaker estimates that Arabic loanwords represent 38% of Kabyle vocabulary, 25% of Tashelhiyt vocabulary, and 5% of Tuareg vocabulary, including non-core words.On the one hand, the words and expressions connected to Islam were borrowed, e.g.",
"Tashlhiyt ''bismillah'' \"in the name of Allah\" < Classical Arabic ''bi-smi-llāhi'', Tuareg ''ta-mejjīda'' \"mosque\" (Arabic ''masjid''); on the other, Berber adopted cultural concepts such as Kabyle ''ssuq'' \"market\" from Arabic ''as-sūq'', ''tamdint'' \"town\" < Arabic ''madīna''.",
"Even expressions such as the Arabic greeting ''as-salāmu ʿalaikum'' \"Peace be upon you!\"",
"were adopted (Tuareg ''salāmu ɣlīkum'').",
"The Berber languages often have original Berber designations besides the Arabic loans; for instance, both the inherited word ''ataram'' and the loan ''lɣərb'' (Arabic ''al-ġarb'') coexist in Kabyle."
],
[
"Influence on other languages",
"The Berber languages have influenced local Arabic dialects in the Maghreb.",
"Although Maghrebi Arabic has a predominantly Semitic and Arabic vocabulary, it contains a few Berber loanwords which represent 2–3% of the vocabulary of Libyan Arabic, 8–9% of Algerian Arabic and Tunisian Arabic, and 10–15% of Moroccan Arabic.",
"Their influence is also seen in some languages in West Africa.",
"F. W. H. Migeod pointed to strong resemblances between Berber and Hausa in such words and phrases as these: Berber: '''obanis'''; Hausa ''obansa'' (his father); Berber: '''a bat'''; Hausa ''ya bata'' (he was lost); Berber: '''eghare'''; Hausa ''ya kirra'' (he called).",
"In addition he notes that the genitive in both languages is formed with '''n''' = \"of\"."
],
[
"Extinct languages",
"A number of extinct populations are believed to have spoken Afro-Asiatic languages of the Berber branch.",
"According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence suggests that the peoples of the C-Group culture in present-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan spoke Berber languages.",
"The Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of Berber origin, including the terms for sheep and water/Nile.",
"This in turn suggests that the C-Group population—which, along with the Kerma culture, inhabited the Nile valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers—spoke Afro-Asiatic languages.Additionally, historical linguistics indicate that the Guanche language, which was spoken on the Canary Islands by the ancient Guanches, likely belonged to the Berber branch of the Afro-Asiatic family."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Berber-language television channels* Amazigh Cultural Association in America* Shilha literature"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Tamazight-English Dictionary* \"What does Berber sound like?\"",
"(Thamazight poems as text & MP3)* Map of Berber language from the LL-Map Project (archived 24 June 2011)* The Berber Language Profile (archived 2 October 2010)* Etymology of \"Berber\"* Etymology of \"Amazigh\"* Early Christian history of Berbers* Tifinagh* Ancient Scripts (archived 26 August 2017)* Imyura Kabyle site about literature (archived 12 August 2013)* Amawal: The online open source Berber dictionary"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bankruptcy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bankruptcy''' is a legal process through which people or other entities who cannot repay debts to creditors may seek relief from some or all of their debts.",
"In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor.Bankrupt is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term ''bankruptcy'' is therefore not a synonym for insolvency."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''bankruptcy'' is derived from Italian ''banca rotta'', literally meaning \"broken bench\" but more practically \"broken bank\".",
"The term is often described as having originated in Renaissance Italy, where there allegedly existed the tradition of smashing a banker's bench if he defaulted on payment.",
"However, the existence of such a ritual is doubted."
],
[
"History",
" John Law's Mississippi Company led to French national bankruptcy in 1720.In Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist.",
"If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into \"debt slavery\" until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour.",
"Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not have.",
"However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions.",
"An exception to this rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt; as a consequence, most Athenian slaves were foreigners (Greek or otherwise).The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency.",
"Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia.",
"According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times.A failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions.",
"In a similar way, Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596.According to Kenneth S. Rogoff, \"Although the development of international capital markets was quite limited prior to 1800, we nevertheless catalog the various defaults of France, Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and the early Italian city-states.",
"At the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well.\""
],
[
"Modern law and debt restructuring",
"The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the elimination of insolvent entities, but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of the business.For private households, it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to recur.",
"It has been stressed that debt advice, a supervised rehabilitation period, financial education and social help to find sources of income and to improve the management of household expenditures must be equally provided during this period of rehabilitation (Refiner ''et al.",
"'', 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010).",
"In most EU member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation and by a number of requirements concerning the debtor's behavior.",
"In the United States (US), discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent.",
"The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system (Reifner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010).",
"The Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge.",
"Spain, for example, passed a bankruptcy law (''ley concurs'') in 2003 which provides for debt settlement plans that can result in a reduction of the debt (maximally half of the amount) or an extension of the payment period of maximally five years (Gerhardt, 2009), but it does not foresee debt discharge.In the US, it is very difficult to discharge federal or federally guaranteed student loan debt by filing bankruptcy.",
"Unlike most other debts, those student loans may be discharged only if the person seeking discharge establishes specific grounds for discharge under the ''Brunner'' test, under which the court evaluates three factors:* If required to repay the loan, the borrower cannot maintain a minimal standard of living;* The borrower's financial situation is likely to continue for most or all of the repayment period; and* The borrower has made a good faith effort to repay the student loans.Even if a debtor proves all three elements, a court may permit only a partial discharge of the student loan.",
"Student loan borrowers may benefit from restructuring their payments through a Chapter 13 bankruptcy repayment plan, but few qualify for discharge of part or all of their student loan debt."
],
[
"Fraud",
"Bankruptcy fraud is a white-collar crime most typically involving concealment of assets by a debtor to avoid liquidation in bankruptcy proceedings.",
"It may include filing of false information, multiple filings in different jurisdictions, bribery, and other acts.While difficult to generalize across jurisdictions, common criminal acts under bankruptcy statutes typically involve concealment of assets, concealment or destruction of documents, conflicts of interest, fraudulent claims, false statements or declarations, and fee fixing or redistribution arrangements.",
"Falsifications on bankruptcy forms often constitute perjury.",
"Multiple filings are not in and of themselves criminal, but they may violate provisions of bankruptcy law.",
"In the U.S., bankruptcy fraud statutes are particularly focused on the mental state of particular actions.",
"Bankruptcy fraud is a federal crime in the United States.Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from ''strategic bankruptcy'', which is not a criminal act since it creates a real (not a fake) bankruptcy state.",
"However, it may still work against the filer.All assets must be disclosed in bankruptcy schedules whether or not the debtor believes the asset has a net value.",
"This is because once a bankruptcy petition is filed, it is for the creditors, not the debtor, to decide whether a particular asset has value.",
"The future ramifications of omitting assets from schedules can be quite serious for the offending debtor.",
"In the United States, a closed bankruptcy may be reopened by motion of a creditor or the U.S. trustee if a debtor attempts to later assert ownership of such an \"unscheduled asset\" after being discharged of all debt in the bankruptcy.",
"The trustee may then seize the asset and liquidate it for the benefit of the (formerly discharged) creditors.",
"Whether or not a concealment of such an asset should also be considered for prosecution as fraud or perjury would then be at the discretion of the judge or U.S.",
"Trustee."
],
[
"By country",
"In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals; other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies.",
"In the United States, ''bankruptcy'' is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings.",
"In some countries, such as in Finland, bankruptcy is limited only to companies and individuals who are insolvent are condemned to de facto indentured servitude or minimum social benefits until their debts are paid in full, with accrued interest except when the court decides to show rare clemency by accepting a debtors application for debt restructuring, in which case an individual may have the amount of remaining debt reduced or be released from the debt.",
"In France, the cognate French word ''banqueroute'' is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, whereas the term ''faillite'' (cognate of \"failure\") is used for bankruptcy in accordance with the law.===Argentina===In Argentina the national Act \"24.522 de Concursos y Quiebras\" regulates the Bankruptcy and the Reorganization of the individuals and companies, public entities are not included.===Armenia===A person may be declared bankrupt with an application submitted to the court by the creditor or with an application to recognize his own bankruptcy.",
"Legal and natural persons, including individual entrepreneurs, who have an indisputable payment obligation exceeding 60 days and amounting to more than one million AMD can be declared bankrupt.",
"All creditors, including the state and municipalities, to whom the person has an obligation that meets the above-mentioned minimum criteria can submit an application to declare a person bankrupt by compulsory procedure.",
"Basically, these obligations are derived from the legal acts of the court, transactions, the obligation of the debtor to pay taxes, duties, and other fees defined by law.At the same time, when being declared bankrupt with a voluntary bankruptcy application, the applicant bears the obligation to prove the fact that the value of his assets is less than his assets by one million AMD or more.===Australia===In Australia, bankruptcy is a status which applies to individuals and is governed by the federal ''Bankruptcy Act 1966''.",
"Companies do not go bankrupt but rather go into liquidation or administration, which is governed by the federal ''Corporations Act 2001''.If a person commits an act of bankruptcy, then a creditor can apply to the Federal Circuit Court or the Federal Court for a sequestration order.",
"Acts of bankruptcy are defined in the legislation, and include the failure to comply with a bankruptcy notice.",
"A bankruptcy notice can be issued where, among other cases, a person fails to pay a judgment debt of at least $5,000.A person can also seek to have themselves declared bankrupt for any amount of debt by lodging a debtor's petition with the \"Official Receiver\", which is the Australian Financial Security Authority (AFSA).All bankrupts must lodge a Statement of Affairs document, also known as a Bankruptcy Form, with AFSA, which includes important information about their assets and liabilities.",
"A bankruptcy cannot be discharged until this document has been lodged.Ordinarily, a bankruptcy lasts three years from the filing of the Statement of Affairs with AFSA.A Bankruptcy Trustee (in most cases, the Official Trustee at AFSA) is appointed to deal with all matters regarding the administration of the bankrupt estate.",
"The Trustee's job includes notifying creditors of the estate and dealing with creditor inquiries; ensuring that the bankrupt complies with their obligations under the Bankruptcy Act; investigating the bankrupt's financial affairs; realising funds to which the estate is entitled under the Bankruptcy Act and distributing dividends to creditors if sufficient funds become available.For the duration of their bankruptcy, all bankrupts have certain restrictions placed upon them.",
"For example, a bankrupt must obtain the permission of their trustee to travel overseas.",
"Failure to do so may result in the bankrupt being stopped at the airport by the Australian Federal Police.",
"Additionally, a bankrupt is required to provide their trustee with details of income and assets.",
"If the bankrupt does not comply with the Trustee's request to provide details of income, the trustee may have grounds to lodge an Objection to Discharge, which has the effect of extending the bankruptcy for a further three or five years depending on the type of Objection.The realisation of funds usually comes from two main sources: the bankrupt's assets and the bankrupt's wages.",
"There are certain assets that are protected, referred to as ''protected assets''.",
"These include household furniture and appliances, tools of the trade and vehicles up to a certain value.",
"All other assets of value can be sold.",
"If a house, including the main residence, or car is above a certain value, a third party can buy the interest from the estate in order for the bankrupt to utilise the asset.",
"If this is not done, the interest vests in the estate and the trustee is able to take possession of the asset and sell it.The bankrupt must pay income contributions if their income is above a certain threshold.",
"If the bankrupt fails to pay, the trustee can ask the Official Receiver to issue a notice to garnishee the bankrupt's wages.",
"If that is not possible, the Trustee may seek to extend the bankruptcy for a further three or five years.Bankruptcies can be annulled, and the bankrupt released from bankruptcy, prior to the expiration of the normal three-year period if all debts are paid out in full.",
"Sometimes a bankrupt may be able to raise enough funds to make an Offer of Composition to creditors, which would have the effect of paying the creditors some of the money they are owed.",
"If the creditors accept the offer, the bankruptcy can be annulled after the funds are received.After the bankruptcy is annulled or the bankrupt has been automatically discharged, the bankrupt's credit report status is shown as \"discharged bankrupt\" for some years.",
"The maximum number of years this information can be held is subject to the retention limits under the Privacy Act.",
"How long such information is on a credit report may be shorter, depending on the issuing company, but the report must cease to record that information based on the criteria in the Privacy Act.===Brazil===In Brazil, the Bankruptcy Law (11.101/05) governs court-ordered or out-of-court receivership and bankruptcy and only applies to public companies (publicly traded companies) with the exception of financial institutions, credit cooperatives, consortia, supplementary scheme entities, companies administering health care plans, equity companies and a few other legal entities.",
"It does not apply to state-run companies.Current law covers three legal proceedings.",
"The first one is bankruptcy itself (\"Falência\").",
"Bankruptcy is a court-ordered liquidation procedure for an insolvent business.",
"The final goal of bankruptcy is to liquidate company assets and pay its creditors.The second one is Court-ordered Restructuring (''Recuperação Judicial'').",
"The goal is to overcome the business crisis situation of the debtor in order to allow the continuation of the producer, the employment of workers and the interests of creditors, leading, thus, to preserving company, its corporate function and develop economic activity.",
"It is a court procedure required by the debtor which has been in business for more than two years and requires approval by a judge.The Extrajudicial Restructuring (''Recuperação Extrajudicial'') is a private negotiation that involves creditors and debtors and, as with court-ordered restructuring, also must be approved by courts.===Canada===Bankruptcy, also referred to as insolvency in Canada, is governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and is applicable to businesses and individuals.",
"For example, Target Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of the Target Corporation, the second-largest discount retailer in the United States filed for bankruptcy on January 15, 2015, and closed all of its stores by April 12.The office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency, is responsible for overseeing that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner by all licensed Trustees in Canada.Trustees in bankruptcy, 1041 individuals licensed to administer insolvencies, bankruptcy and proposal estates are governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act of Canada.Bankruptcy is filed when a person or a company becomes insolvent and cannot pay their debts as they become due and if they have at least $1,000 in debt.In 2011, the Superintendent of bankruptcy reported that trustees in Canada filed 127,774 insolvent estates.",
"Consumer estates were the vast majority, with 122 999 estates.",
"The consumer portion of the 2011 volume is divided into 77,993 bankruptcies and 45,006 consumer proposals.",
"This represented a reduction of 8.9% from 2010.Commercial estates filed by Canadian trustees in 2011 4,775 estates, 3,643 bankruptcies and 1,132 Division 1 proposals.",
"This represents a reduction of 8.6% over 2010.;Duties of trustees:Some of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to:* Review the file for any fraudulent preferences or reviewable transactions* Chair meetings of creditors* Sell any non-exempt assets* Object to the bankrupt's discharge* Distribute funds to creditors;Creditors' meetings:Creditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings.",
"The trustee calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:* To consider the affairs of the bankrupt* To affirm the appointment of the trustee or substitute another in place thereof* To appoint inspectors* To give such directions to the trustee as the creditors may see fit with reference to the administration of the estate.",
";Consumer proposals:In Canada, a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy.",
"A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors.A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthly payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors.",
"Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases, the creditors accept the deal—because if they do not, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, in which the creditors get even less money.",
"The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal.",
"Once the proposal is accepted by both the creditors and the Court, the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month (or as otherwise stipulated in their proposal), and the general creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action.",
"If the proposal is rejected, the debtor is returned to his prior insolvent state and may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts to a maximum of $250,000 (not including the mortgage on their principal residence).",
"If debts are greater than $250,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act.",
"An Administrator is required in the Consumer Proposal, and a Trustee in the Division I Proposal (these are virtually the same although the terms are not interchangeable).",
"A Proposal Administrator is almost always a licensed trustee in bankruptcy, although the Superintendent of Bankruptcy may appoint other people to serve as administrators.In 2006, there were 98,450 personal insolvency filings in Canada: 79,218 bankruptcies and 19,232 consumer proposals.",
";Commercial restructuring:In Canada, bankruptcy always means liquidation.",
"There is no way for a company to emerge from bankruptcy after restructuring, as is the case in the United States with a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing.",
"Canada does, however, have laws that allow for businesses to restructure and emerge later with a smaller debtload and a more positive financial future.",
"While not technically a form of bankruptcy, businesses with $5M or more in debt may make use of the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act to halt all debt recovery efforts against the company while they formulate a plan to restructure.===China===The People's Republic of China legalized bankruptcy in 1986, and a revised law that was more expansive and complete was enacted in 2007.===Ireland===Bankruptcy in Ireland applies only to natural persons.",
"Other insolvency processes including liquidation and examinership are used to deal with corporate insolvency.Irish bankruptcy law has been the subject of significant comment, from both government sources and the media, as being in need of reform.",
"Part 7 of the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2011 has started this process and the government has committed to further reform.===Israel===Bankruptcy in Israel is governed by the Insolvency and Rehabilitation Law, 2018.Insolvency proceedings below NIS 150,000 will be administered entirely by the Enforcement and Collection Authority.",
"Insolvency proceedings above NIS 150,000 individual debtors file the documents will be conducted before the official receiver (the Insolvency Commissioner) and, if a creditor want to file against a debtor, he needs to open process, before the magistrate's court that hears in the district.",
"Company bankruptcy will be conducted before District Court.",
"Simultaneously, with the issue of the order for the commencement of insolvency proceedings, the Insolvency Commissioner shall appoint a trustee for the debtor and an audit will be carried out, in which the debtor's economic capability and his conduct will be examined (lasting approximately 12 months).",
"At the end of this audit a payment plan is established, at the end of which the debtor will receive a discharge.",
"The default scenario is a payment period of three years; however, the court reserves the right to increase or decrease the period depending upon the circumstances of the case.",
"If the debtor has no proven financial ability to pay the creditors, he may be granted an immediate discharge.",
"Since 1996, Israeli personal bankruptcy law has shifted to a relatively debtor-friendly regime, not unlike the American model.===India===The Parliament of India in the first week of May 2016 passed Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016 (New Code).",
"Earlier a clear law on corporate bankruptcy did not exist, even though individual bankruptcy laws have been in existence since 1874.The earlier law in force was enacted in 1920 called the Provincial Insolvency Act.The legal definitions of the terms bankruptcy, insolvency, liquidation and dissolution are contested in the Indian legal system.",
"There is no regulation or statute legislated upon bankruptcy which denotes a condition of inability to meet a demand of a creditor as is common in many other jurisdictions.Winding up of companies was in the jurisdiction of the courts which can take a decade even after the company has actually been declared insolvent.",
"On the other hand, supervisory restructuring at the behest of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction is generally undertaken using receivership by a public entity.===The Netherlands===Dutch bankruptcy law is governed by the Dutch Bankruptcy Code (''Faillissementswet'').",
"The code covers three separate legal proceedings.",
"* The first is the bankruptcy (''faillissement'').",
"The goal of the bankruptcy is the liquidation of the assets of the company.",
"The bankruptcy applies only to companies.",
"* The second legal proceeding in the ''Faillissementswet'' is the ''surseance van betaling''.",
"The ''surseance van betaling'' only applies to companies.",
"Its goal is to reach an agreement with the creditors of the company.",
"It is comparable to filing for protection against creditors.",
"* The third proceeding is the ''schuldsanering''.",
"This proceeding is designed for individuals only and is the result of a court ruling.",
"The judge appoints a monitor.",
"The monitor is an independent third party who monitors the individual's ongoing business and decides about financial matters during the period of the ''schuldsanering''.",
"The individual can travel out of the country freely after the judge's decision on the case.=== Russia ===Federal Law No.",
"127-FZ \"On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)\" dated 26 October 2002 (as amended) (the \"Bankruptcy Act\"), replacing the previous law in 1998, to better address the above problems and a broader failure of the action.Russian insolvency law is intended for a wide range of borrowers: individuals and companies of all sizes, with the exception of state-owned enterprises, government agencies, political parties and religious organizations.",
"There are also special rules for insurance companies, professional participants of the securities market, agricultural organizations and other special laws for financial institutions and companies in the natural monopolies in the energy industry.Federal Law No.",
"40-FZ \"On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)\" dated 25 February 1999 (as amended) (the \"Insolvency Law of Credit Institutions\") contains special provisions in relation to the opening of insolvency proceedings in relation to the credit company.",
"Insolvency Provisions Act, credit organizations used in conjunction with the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act.Bankruptcy law provides for the following stages of insolvency proceedings:*Monitoring procedure or Supervision (nablyudeniye);*The economic recovery (finansovoe ozdorovleniye);*External control (vneshneye upravleniye);*Liquidation (konkursnoye proizvodstvo) and*Amicable Agreement (mirovoye soglasheniye).The main face of the bankruptcy process is the insolvency officer (trustee in bankruptcy, bankruptcy manager).",
"At various stages of bankruptcy, he must be determined: the temporary officer in monitoring procedure, external manager in external control, the receiver or administrative officer in the economic recovery, the liquidator.",
"During the bankruptcy trustee in bankruptcy (insolvency officer) has a decisive influence on the movement of assets (property) of the debtor - the debtor and has a key influence on the economic and legal aspects of its operations.===South Africa======Switzerland===Under Swiss law, bankruptcy can be a consequence of insolvency.",
"It is a court-ordered form of debt enforcement proceedings that applies, in general, to registered commercial entities only.",
"In a bankruptcy, all assets of the debtor are liquidated under the administration of the creditors, although the law provides for debt restructuring options similar to those under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy code.===Sweden===In Sweden, bankruptcy (Swedish: konkurs) is a formal process that may involve a company or individual.",
"It is not the same as insolvency, which is inability to pay debts that should have been paid.",
"A creditor or the company itself can apply for bankruptcy.",
"An external bankruptcy manager takes over the company or the assets of the person, and tries to sell as much as possible.",
"A person or a company in bankruptcy cannot access its assets (with some exceptions).The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals.",
"Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority.",
"Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals.",
"People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering).",
"On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled.",
"Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong.",
"Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled.",
"Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled.",
"The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.For companies, formal bankruptcy is a normal effect of insolvency, even if there is a reconstruction mechanism where the company can be given time to solve its situation, e.g.",
"by finding an investor.",
"The formal bankruptcy involves contracting a bankruptcy manager, who makes certain that assets are sold and money divided by the priority the law claims, and no other way.",
"Banks have such a priority.",
"After a finished bankruptcy for a company, it is terminated.",
"The activities might continue in a new company which has bought important assets from the bankrupted company.===United Arab Emirates===The United Arab Emirates Bankruptcy Law came into force on 29 December 2016, and created a single law governing bankruptcy procedures, which had previously been spread across multiple sources.",
"There are two court procedures: first, a procedure for a company that is not yet insolvent, known as a protective composition, and second, a formal bankruptcy that is split into a rescue process (similar to protective composition) or liquidation.Directors of a company can be held personally liable for its debts.The Bankruptcy Law does not apply to government bodies, or to companies trading in free zones such as the Dubai International Financial Centre or the Abu Dhabi Global Market, which have their own insolvency laws.===United Kingdom===Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals (including sole proprietors) and partnerships.",
"Companies and other corporations enter into differently named legal insolvency procedures: liquidation and administration (administration order and administrative receivership).",
"However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation.",
"Bankruptcy in Scotland is referred to as sequestration.",
"To apply for bankruptcy in Scotland, an individual must have more than £1,500 of debt.A trustee in bankruptcy must be either an Official Receiver (a civil servant) or a licensed insolvency practitioner.",
"Current law in England and Wales derives in large part from the Insolvency Act 1986.Following the introduction of the Enterprise Act 2002, a UK bankruptcy now normally lasts no longer than 12 months, and may be less if the Official Receiver files in court a certificate that investigations are complete.",
"It was expected that the UK Government's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime would increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initially, cases increased, as the Insolvency Service statistics appear to bear out.",
"Since 2009, the introduction of the Debt Relief Order has resulted in a dramatic fall in bankruptcies, the latest estimates for year 2014/15 being significantly less than 30,000 cases.",
"+ UK Bankruptcy statisticsYear Bankruptcies IVAs Total2004 35,989 10,752 46,7412005 47,291 20,293 67,5842006 62,956 44,332 107,2882007 64,480 42,165 106,6452008 67,428 39,116 106,544;Pensions:The UK bankruptcy law was changed in May 2000, effective May 29, 2000.Debtors may now retain occupational pensions while in bankruptcy, except in rare cases.",
";Proposed reform:The Government have updated legislation (2016) to streamline the application process for UK bankruptcy.",
"UK residents now need to apply online for bankruptcy - there is an upfront fee of £680.The process for residents of Northern Ireland differs - applicants must follow the older process of applying through the courts.===United States===largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under federal jurisdiction by the United States Constitution (in Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4), which empowers Congress to enact \"uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States\".",
"Congress has enacted statutes governing bankruptcy, primarily in the form of the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code.A debtor declares bankruptcy to obtain relief from debt, and this is normally accomplished either through a discharge of the debt or through a restructuring of the debt.",
"When a debtor files a voluntary petition, their bankruptcy case commences.====Debts and exemptions====While bankruptcy cases are always filed in United States Bankruptcy Court (an adjunct to the U.S. District Courts), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often dependent upon State law.",
"A Bankruptcy Exemption defines the property a debtor may retain and preserve through bankruptcy.",
"Certain real and personal property can be exempted on \"Schedule C\" of a debtor's bankruptcy forms, and effectively be taken outside the debtor's bankruptcy estate.",
"Bankruptcy exemptions are available only to individuals filing bankruptcy.There are two alternative systems that can be used to \"exempt\" property from a bankruptcy estate, federal exemptions (available in some states but not all), and state exemptions (which vary widely between states).",
"For example, Maryland and Virginia, which are adjoining states, have different personal exemption amounts that cannot be seized for payment of debts.",
"This amount is the first $6,000 in property or cash in Maryland, but normally only the first $5,000 in Virginia.",
"State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, such that there may be significant differences in the outcome of a bankruptcy case depending upon the state in which it is filed.After a bankruptcy petition is filed, the court schedules a hearing called a ''341 meeting'' or ''meeting of creditors'', at which the bankruptcy trustee and creditors review the petitioner's petition and supporting schedules, question the petitioner, and can challenge exemptions they believe are improper.====Chapters====There are six types of bankruptcy under the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code:* Chapter 7: basic liquidation for individuals and businesses; also known as straight bankruptcy; it is the simplest and quickest form of bankruptcy available* Chapter 9: municipal bankruptcy; a federal mechanism for the resolution of municipal debts* Chapter 11: rehabilitation or reorganization, used primarily by business debtors but sometimes by individuals with substantial debts and assets; known as corporate bankruptcy, it is a form of corporate financial reorganization that typically allows companies to continue to function while they follow debt repayment plans* Chapter 12: rehabilitation for family farmers and fishermen;* Chapter 13: rehabilitation with a payment plan for individuals with a regular source of income; enables individuals with regular income to develop a plan to repay all or part of their debts; also known as Wage Earner Bankruptcy* Chapter 15: ancillary and other international cases; provides a mechanism for dealing with bankruptcy debtors and helps foreign debtors clear debtsAn important feature applicable to all types of bankruptcy filings is the automatic stay.",
"The automatic stay means that the mere request for bankruptcy protection automatically halts most lawsuits, repossessions, foreclosures, evictions, garnishments, attachments, utility shut-offs, and debt collection activity.The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13.Chapter 7, known as a \"straight bankruptcy\", involves the discharge of certain debts without repayment.",
"Chapter 13 involves a plan of repayment of debts over a period of years.",
"Whether a person qualifies for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is in part determined by income.",
"As many as 65% of all US consumer bankruptcy filings are Chapter 7 cases.Before a consumer may obtain bankruptcy relief under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13, the debtor is to undertake credit counseling with approved counseling agencies prior to filing a bankruptcy petition and to undertake education in personal financial management from approved agencies prior to being granted a discharge of debts under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13.Some studies of the operation of the credit counseling requirement suggest that it provides little benefit to debtors who receive the counseling because the only realistic option for many is to seek relief under the Bankruptcy Code.Corporations and other business forms normally file under Chapters 7 or 11.=====Chapter 7=====Often called \"straight bankruptcy\" or \"simple bankruptcy\", a Chapter 7 bankruptcy potentially allows debtors to eliminate most or all of their debts over a period of as little as three or four months.",
"In a typical consumer bankruptcy, the only debts that survive a Chapter 7 are student loans, child support obligations, some tax bills, and criminal fines.",
"Credit cards, pay day loans, personal loans, medical bills, and just about all other bills are discharged.In Chapter 7, a debtor surrenders non-exempt property to a bankruptcy trustee, who then liquidates the property and distributes the proceeds to the debtor's unsecured creditors.",
"In exchange, the debtor is entitled to a discharge of some debt.",
"However, the debtor is not granted a discharge if guilty of certain types of inappropriate behavior (e.g., concealing records relating to financial condition) and certain debts (e.g., spousal and child support and most student loans).",
"Some taxes are not discharged even though the debtor is generally discharged from debt.",
"Many individuals in financial distress own only exempt property (e.g., clothes, household goods, an older car, or the tools of their trade or profession) and do not have to surrender any property to the trustee.",
"The amount of property that a debtor may exempt varies from state to state (as noted above, Virginia and Maryland have a $1,000 difference.)",
"Chapter 7 relief is available only once in any eight-year period.",
"Generally, the rights of secured creditors to their collateral continues, even though their debt is discharged.",
"For example, absent some arrangement by a debtor to surrender a car or \"reaffirm\" a debt, the creditor with a security interest in the debtor's car may repossess the car even if the debt to the creditor is discharged.Ninety-one percent of US individuals who petition for relief under Chapter 7 hire an attorney to file their petitions.",
"The typical cost of an attorney is $1,170.00.Alternatives to filing with an attorney are: filing pro se, hiring a non-lawyer petition preparer, or using online software to generate the petition.To be eligible to file a consumer bankruptcy under Chapter 7, a debtor must qualify under a statutory \"means test\".",
"The means test was intended to make it more difficult for a significant number of financially distressed individual debtors whose debts are primarily consumer debts to qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code.",
"The \"means test\" is employed in cases where an individual with primarily consumer debts has more than the average annual income for a household of equivalent size, computed over a 180-day period prior to filing.",
"If the individual must \"take\" the \"means test\", their average monthly income over this 180-day period is reduced by a series of allowances for living expenses and secured debt payments in a very complex calculation that may or may not accurately reflect that individual's actual monthly budget.",
"If the results of the means test show no disposable income (or in some cases a very small amount) then the individual qualifies for Chapter 7 relief.",
"An individual who fails the means test will have their Chapter 7 case dismissed, or may have to convert the case to a Chapter 13 bankruptcy.If a debtor does not qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code, either because of the Means Test or because Chapter 7 does not provide a permanent solution to delinquent payments for secured debts, such as mortgages or vehicle loans, the debtor may still seek relief under Chapter 13 of the Code.Generally, a trustee sells most of the debtor's assets to pay off creditors.",
"However, certain debtor assets will be protected to some extent by bankruptcy exemptions.",
"These include Social Security payments, unemployment compensation, limited equity in a home, car, or truck, household goods and appliances, trade tools, and books.",
"However, these exemptions vary from state to state.=====Chapter 11=====In Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets and is re-termed a debtor in possession (DIP).",
"The debtor in possession runs the day-to-day operations of the business while creditors and the debtor work with the Bankruptcy Court in order to negotiate and complete a plan.",
"Upon meeting certain requirements (e.g., fairness among creditors, priority of certain creditors) creditors are permitted to vote on the proposed plan.",
"If a plan is confirmed, the debtor continues to operate and pay debts under the terms of the confirmed plan.",
"If a specified majority of creditors do not vote to confirm a plan, additional requirements may be imposed by the court in order to confirm the plan.",
"Debtors filing for Chapter 11 protection a second time are known informally as \"Chapter 22\" filers.In a corporate or business bankruptcy, an indebted company is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, with potential for dispute over the valuation of the reorganized business.=====Chapter 13=====In Chapter 13, debtors retain ownership and possession of all their assets but must devote some portion of future income to repaying creditors, generally over three to five years.",
"The amount of payment and period of the repayment plan depend upon a variety of factors, including the value of the debtor's property and the amount of a debtor's income and expenses.",
"Under this chapter, the debtor can propose a repayment plan in which to pay creditors over three to five years.",
"If the monthly income is less than the state's median income, the plan is for three years, unless the court finds \"just cause\" to extend the plan for a longer period.",
"If the debtor's monthly income is greater than the median income for individuals in the debtor's state, the plan must generally be for five years.",
"A plan cannot exceed the five-year limit.Relief under Chapter 13 is available only to individuals with regular income whose debts do not exceed prescribed limits.",
"If the debtor is an individual or a sole proprietor, the debtor is allowed to file for a Chapter 13 bankruptcy to repay all or part of the debts.",
"Secured creditors may be entitled to greater payment than unsecured creditors.In contrast to Chapter 7, the debtor in Chapter 13 may keep all property, whether or not exempt.",
"If the plan appears feasible and if the debtor complies with all the other requirements, the bankruptcy court typically confirms the plan and the debtor and creditors are bound by its terms.",
"Creditors have no say in the formulation of the plan, other than to object to it, if appropriate, on the grounds that it does not comply with one of the Code's statutory requirements.",
"Generally, the debtor makes payments to a trustee who disburses the funds in accordance with the terms of the confirmed plan.When the debtor completes payments pursuant to the terms of the plan, the court formally grant the debtor a discharge of the debts provided for in the plan.",
"However, if the debtor fails to make the agreed upon payments or fails to seek or gain court approval of a modified plan, a bankruptcy court will normally dismiss the case on the motion of the trustee.",
"After a dismissal, creditors may resume pursuit of state law remedies to recover the unpaid debt.===European Union===In 2004, the number of insolvencies reached record highs in many European countries.",
"In France, company insolvencies rose by more than 4%, in Austria by more than 10%, and in Greece by more than 20%.",
"The increase in the number of insolvencies, however, does not indicate the total financial impact of insolvencies in each country because there is no indication of the size of each case.",
"An increase in the number of bankruptcy cases does not necessarily entail an increase in bad debt write-off rates for the economy as a whole.Bankruptcy statistics are also a trailing indicator.",
"There is a time delay between financial difficulties and bankruptcy.",
"In most cases, several months or even years pass between the financial problems and the start of bankruptcy proceedings.",
"Legal, tax, and cultural issues may further distort bankruptcy figures, especially when comparing on an international basis.",
"Two examples:* In Austria, more than half of all potential bankruptcy proceedings in 2004 were not opened, due to insufficient funding.",
"* In Spain, it is not economically profitable to open insolvency/bankruptcy proceedings against certain types of businesses, and therefore the number of insolvencies is quite low.",
"For comparison: In France, more than 40,000 insolvency proceedings were opened in 2004, but under 600 were opened in Spain.",
"At the same time the average bad debt write-off rate in France was 1.3% compared to Spain with 2.6%.The insolvency numbers for private individuals also do not show the whole picture.",
"Only a fraction of heavily indebted households file for insolvency.",
"Two of the main reasons for this are the stigma of declaring themselves insolvent and the potential business disadvantage.Following the soar in insolvencies in the last decade, a number of European countries, such as France, Germany, Spain and Italy, began to revamp their bankruptcy laws in 2013.They modelled these new laws after the image of Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code.",
"Currently, the majority of insolvency cases have ended in liquidation in Europe rather than the businesses surviving the crisis.",
"These new law models are meant to change this; lawmakers are hoping to turn bankruptcy into a chance for restructuring rather than a death sentence for the companies."
],
[
"Effective sovereign bankruptcy",
"Technically, states do not collapse directly due to a sovereign default event itself.",
"However, the tumultuous events that follow may bring down the state, so in common language, states would be described as being bankrupted.An example of this is when a Korean state bankrupted Imperial China causing its destruction, or more specifically, when Chang'an's (Sui Dynasty) war with Pyongyang (Goguryeo) in 614 A.D. ended in the former's disintegration within 4 years, although the latter also seemingly entered into decline and fell some 56 years later."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bankruptcy Act* Bankruptcy alternatives* Creditor's rights* Debt consolidation* Debt relief* Debt restructuring* Debtor in possession* Default* DIP Financing* Distressed securities* Financial distress* Individual voluntary arrangement* Insolvency* Judicial estoppel* Liquidation* Protected trust deed* Sole Trader Insolvency (UK)* Stalking Horse Agreement* Tools of trade* Turnaround ADR"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"** U.S. Federal Bankruptcy Courts* Official U.S. Bankruptcy Statistics* US Courts Bankruptcy Law* Executive Office for United States Bankruptcy Trustees* Cornell Bankruptcy Laws* National Association of Consumer Bankruptcy Attorneys* Bankruptcy Research Database (WebBRD)* Website of the Insolvency Service in the UK* Bankruptcy Statistics in Hong Kong * Official Means Testing Information"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blissymbols"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Blissymbols''' or '''Blissymbolics''' is a constructed language conceived as an ideographic writing system called '''Semantography''' consisting of several hundred basic symbols, each representing a concept, which can be composed together to generate new symbols that represent new concepts.",
"Blissymbols differ from most of the world's major writing systems in that the characters do not correspond at all to the sounds of any spoken language.",
"''Semantography'' was published by Charles K. Bliss in 1949 and found use in the education of people with communication difficulties."
],
[
"History",
"Semantography was invented by Charles K. Bliss (1897–1985), born Karl Kasiel Blitz to a Jewish family in Chernivtsi (then Czernowitz, Austria-Hungary), which had a mixture of different nationalities that \"hated each other, mainly because they spoke and thought in different languages.",
"\"Bliss graduated as a chemical engineer at the Vienna University of Technology, and joined an electronics company.",
"After the Nazi annexation of Austria in 1938, Bliss was sent to concentration camps but his German wife Claire managed to get him released, and they finally became exiles in Shanghai, where Bliss had a cousin.Bliss devised the symbols while a refugee at the Shanghai Ghetto and Sydney, from 1942 to 1949.He wanted to create an easy-to-learn international auxiliary language to allow communication between different linguistic communities.",
"He was inspired by Chinese characters, with which he became familiar at Shanghai.Bliss published his system in ''Semantography'' (1949, exp.",
"2nd ed.",
"1965, 3rd ed.",
"1978.",
")It had several names:As the \"tourist explosion\" took place in the 1960s, a number of researchers were looking for new standard symbols to be used at roads, stations, airports, etc.",
"Bliss then adopted the name ''Blissymbolics'' in order that no researcher could plagiarize his system of symbols.Since the 1960s/1970s, Blissymbols have become popular as a method to teach disabled people to communicate.In 1971, Shirley McNaughton started a pioneer program at the Ontario Crippled Children's Centre (OCCC), aimed at children with cerebral palsy, from the approach of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC).",
"According to Arika Okrent, Bliss used to complain about the way the teachers at the OCCC were using the symbols, in relation with the proportions of the symbols and other questions: for example, they used \"fancy\" terms like \"nouns\" and \"verbs\", to describe what Bliss called \"things\" and \"actions\".",
"(2009, p. 173-4).The ultimate objective of the OCCC program was to use Blissymbols as a practical way to teach the children to express themselves in their mother tongue, since the Blissymbols provided visual keys to understand the meaning of the English words, especially the abstract words.In ''Semantography,'' Bliss had not provided a systematic set of definitions for his symbols (there was a provisional vocabulary index instead (1965, pp.",
"827–67)), so McNaughton's team might often interpret a certain symbol in a way that Bliss would later criticize as a \"misinterpretation\".",
"For example, they might interpret a tomato as a vegetable —according to the English definition of tomato— even though the ideal Blissymbol of vegetable was restricted by Bliss to just vegetables growing underground.",
"Eventually the OCCC staff modified and adapted Bliss's system in order to make it serve as a bridge to English.",
"(2009, p. 189) Bliss' complaints about his symbols \"being abused\" by the OCCC became so intense that the director of the OCCC told Bliss, on his 1974 visit, never to come back.",
"In spite of this, in 1975, Bliss granted an exclusive world license, for use with disabled children, to the new Blissymbolics Communication Foundation directed by Shirley McNaughton (later called Blissymbolics Communication International, BCI).",
"Nevertheless, in 1977, Bliss claimed that this agreement was violated so that he was deprived of effective control of his symbol system.According to Okrent (2009, p. 190), there was a final period of conflict, as Bliss would make continuous criticisms to McNaughton often followed by apologies.",
"Bliss finally brought his lawyers back to the OCCC, reaching a settlement:Blissymbolic Communication International now claims an exclusive license from Bliss, for the use and publication of Blissymbols for persons with communication, language, and learning difficulties.The Blissymbol method has been used in Canada, Sweden, and a few other countries.",
"Practitioners of Blissymbolics (that is, speech and language therapists and users) maintain that some users who have learned to communicate with Blissymbolics find it easier to learn to read and write traditional orthography in the local spoken language than do users who did not know Blissymbolics."
],
[
"The speech question",
"Unlike similar constructed languages like aUI, Blissymbolics was conceived as a written language with no phonology, on the premise that \"interlinguistic communication is mainly carried on by reading and writing\".",
"Nevertheless, Bliss suggested that a set of international words could be adopted, so that \"a kind of spoken language could be established – as a travelling aid only\".",
"(1965, p. 89–90).Whether Blissymbolics constitutes an unspoken language is a controversial question, whatever its practical utility may be.",
"Some linguists, such as John DeFrancis and J. Marshall Unger have argued that genuine ideographic writing systems with the same capacities as natural languages do not exist."
],
[
"Semantics",
"Bliss' concern about semantics finds an early referent in John Locke, whose ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' prevented people from those \"vague and insignificant forms of speech\" that may give the impression of being deep learning.Another vital referent is Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's project of an ideographic language \"characteristica universalis\", based on the principles of Chinese characters.",
"It would contain small figures representing \"visible things by their lines, and the invisible, by the visible which accompany them\", adding \"certain additional marks, suitable to make understood the flexions and the particles.\"",
"Bliss stated that his own work was an attempt to take up the thread of Leibniz's project.Finally there is a strong influence by ''The Meaning of Meaning'' (1923) by C. K. Ogden and I.",
"A. Richards, which was considered a standard work on semantics.",
"Bliss found especially useful their \"triangle of reference\": the physical thing or \"referent\" that we perceive would be represented at the right vertex; the meaning that we know by experience (our implicit definition of the thing), at the top vertex; and the physical word that we speak or symbol we write, at the left vertex.",
"The reversed process would happen when we read or listen to words: from the words, we recall meanings, related to referents which may be real things or unreal \"fictions\".",
"Bliss was particularly concerned with political propaganda, whose discourses would tend to contain words that correspond to unreal or ambiguous referents."
],
[
"Grammar",
"The grammar of Blissymbols is based on a certain interpretation of nature, dividing it into matter (material things), energy (actions), and human values (mental evaluations).",
"In a natural language, these would give place respectively to nouns, verbs, and adjectives.",
"In Blissymbols, they are marked respectively by a small square symbol, a small cone symbol, and a small V or inverted cone.",
"These symbols may be placed above any other symbol, turning it respectively into a \"thing\", an \"action\", and an \"evaluation\":When a symbol is not marked by any of the three grammar symbols (square, cone, inverted cone), it may refer to a non-material thing, a grammatical particle, etc."
],
[
"Examples",
"left The preceding symbol represents the expression \"world language\", which was a first tentative name for Blissymbols.",
"It combines the symbol for \"writing tool\" or \"pen\" (a line inclined, as a pen being used) with the symbol for \"world\", which in its turn combines \"ground\" or \"earth\" (a horizontal line below) and its counterpart derivate \"sky\" (a horizontal line above).",
"Thus the world would be seen as \"what is among the ground and the sky\", and \"Blissymbols\" would be seen as \"the writing tool to express the world\".",
"This is clearly distinct from the symbol of \"language\", which is a combination of \"mouth\" and \"ear\".",
"Thus natural languages are mainly oral, while Blissymbols is just a writing system dealing with semantics, not phonetics.rightThe 900 individual symbols of the system are called \"Bliss-characters\"; these may be \"ideographic\" – representing abstract concepts, \"pictographic\" – a direct representation of objects, or \"composite\" – in which two or more existing Bliss-characters are superimposed to represent a new meaning.",
"Size, orientation and relation to the \"skyline\" and \"earthline\" affects the meaning of each symbol.",
"A single concept is called a \"Bliss-word\", which can consist of one or more Bliss-characters.",
"In multiple-character Bliss-words, the main character is called the \"classifier\" which \"indicates the semantic or grammatical category to which the Bliss-word belongs\".",
"To this can be added Bliss-characters as prefixes or suffixes called \"modifiers\" which amend the meaning of the first symbol.",
"A further symbol called an \"indicator\" can be added above one of the characters in the Bliss-word (typically the classifier); these are used as \"grammatical and/or semantic markers.",
"\"\"I want to go to the theatre.\"",
"in BlissymbolsSentence on the right means \"I want to go to the cinema.",
"\", showing several features of Blissymbolics:* The pronoun \"I\" is formed of the Bliss-character for \"person\" and the number 1 (the first person).",
"Using the number 2 would give the symbol for singular \"You\"; adding the plural indicator (a small cross at the top) would produce the pronouns \"We\" and plural \"You\".",
"* The Bliss-word for \"to want\" contains the heart which symbolizes \"feeling\" (the classifier), plus the serpentine line which symbolizes \"fire\" (the modifier), and the verb (called \"action\") indicator at the top.",
"* The Bliss-word for \"to go\" is composed of the Bliss-character for \"leg\" and the verb indicator.",
"* The Bliss-word for \"cinema\" is composed of the Bliss-character for \"house\" (the classifier), and \"film\" (the modifier); \"film\" is a composite character composed of \"camera\" and the arrow indicating movement."
],
[
"Towards the international standardization of the script",
"Blissymbolics was used in 1971 to help children at the Ontario Crippled Children's Centre (OCCC, now the Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.",
"Since it was important that the children see consistent pictures, OCCC had a draftsman named Jim Grice draw the symbols.",
"Both Charles K. Bliss and Margrit Beesley at the OCCC worked with Grice to ensure consistency.",
"In 1975, a new organization named Blissymbolics Communication Foundation directed by Shirley McNaughton led this effort.",
"Over the years, this organization changed its name to Blissymbolics Communication Institute, Easter Seal Communication Institute, and ultimately to Blissymbolics Communication International (BCI).BCI is an international group of people who act as an authority regarding the standardization of the Blissymbolics language.",
"It has taken responsibility for any extensions of the Blissymbolics language as well as any maintenance needed for the language.",
"BCI has coordinated usage of the language since 1971 for augmentative and alternative communication.",
"BCI received a licence and copyright through legal agreements with Charles K. Bliss in 1975 and 1982.Limiting the count of Bliss-characters (there are currently about 900) is very useful in order to help the user community.",
"It also helps when implementing Blissymbolics using technology such as computers.In 1991, BCI published a reference guide containing 2300 vocabulary items and detailed rules for the graphic design of additional characters, so they settled a first set of approved ''Bliss-words'' for general use.The Standards Council of Canada then sponsored, on January 21, 1993, the registration of an encoded character set for use in ISO/IEC 2022, in the ISO-IR international registry of coded character sets.After many years of requests, the Blissymbolic language was finally approved as an encoded language, with code , into the ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 standards.A proposal was posted by Michael Everson for the Blissymbolics script to be included in the Universal Character Set (UCS) and encoded for use with the ISO/IEC 10646 and Unicode standards.",
"BCI would cooperate with the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) and the ISO Working Group.The proposed encoding does not use the lexical encoding model used in the existing ISO-IR/169 registered character set, but instead applies the Unicode and ISO character-glyph model to the ''Bliss-character'' model already adopted by BCI, since this would significantly reduce the number of needed characters.",
"Bliss-characters can now be used in a creative way to create many new arbitrary concepts, by surrounding the invented words with special Bliss indicators (similar to punctuation), something which was not possible in the ISO-IR/169 encoding.However, by the end of 2009, the Blissymbolic script was not encoded in the UCS.",
"Some questions are still unanswered, such as the inclusion in the BCI repertoire of some characters (currently about 24) that are already encoded in the UCS (like digits, punctuation signs, spaces and some markers), but whose unification may cause problems due to the very strict graphical layouts required by the published Bliss reference guides.",
"In addition, the character metrics use a specific layout where the usual baseline is not used, and the ideographic em-square is not relevant for Bliss character designs that use additional \"earth line\" and \"sky line\" to define the composition square.",
"Some fonts supporting the BCI repertoire are available and usable with texts encoded with private-use assignments (PUA) within the UCS.",
"But only the private BCI encoding based on ISO-IR/169 registration is available for text interchange."
],
[
"See also",
"* Egyptian hieroglyphs* Esperanto* iConji* Isotype* Kanji* * LoCoS (language)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* ** Blissymbol Communication UK* An Introduction to Blissymbols ''(PDF file)''* Standard two-byte encoded character set for Blissymbols , from the ISO-IR international registry of character sets, registration number 169 (1993-01-21).",
"* Michael Everson's First proposed encoding into Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 of Blissymbolics characters, based on the decomposition of the ISO-IR/169 repertoire.",
"* Preliminary proposal for encoding Blissymbols (WG2 N5228)* Radiolab program about Charles Bliss – Broadcast December 2012 – the item about Charles Bliss starts after 5 minutes and is approx 30 mins long."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bessel function"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Bessel functions describe the radial part of vibrations of a circular membrane.",
"'''Bessel functions''', first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and then generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions of Bessel's differential equationfor an arbitrary complex number , which represents the ''order'' of the Bessel function.",
"Although and produce the same differential equation, it is conventional to define different Bessel functions for these two values in such a way that the Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of .The most important cases are when is an integer or half-integer.",
"Bessel functions for integer are also known as '''cylinder functions''' or the '''cylindrical harmonics''' because they appear in the solution to Laplace's equation in cylindrical coordinates.",
"'''Spherical Bessel functions''' with half-integer are obtained when solving the Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates."
],
[
"Applications of Bessel functions",
"Bessel's equation arises when finding separable solutions to Laplace's equation and the Helmholtz equation in cylindrical or spherical coordinates.",
"Bessel functions are therefore especially important for many problems of wave propagation and static potentials.",
"In solving problems in cylindrical coordinate systems, one obtains Bessel functions of integer order (); in spherical problems, one obtains half-integer orders ().",
"For example:* Electromagnetic waves in a cylindrical waveguide* Pressure amplitudes of inviscid rotational flows* Heat conduction in a cylindrical object* Modes of vibration of a thin circular or annular acoustic membrane (such as a drumhead or other membranophone) or thicker plates such as sheet metal (see Kirchhoff–Love plate theory, Mindlin–Reissner plate theory)* Diffusion problems on a lattice* Solutions to the radial Schrödinger equation (in spherical and cylindrical coordinates) for a free particle* Position space representation of the Feynman propagator in quantum field theory* Solving for patterns of acoustical radiation* Frequency-dependent friction in circular pipelines* Dynamics of floating bodies* Angular resolution* Diffraction from helical objects, including DNA* Probability density function of product of two normally distributed random variables* Analyzing of the surface waves generated by microtremors, in geophysics and seismology.",
"Bessel functions also appear in other problems, such as signal processing (e.g., see FM audio synthesis, Kaiser window, or Bessel filter)."
],
[
"Definitions",
"Because this is a second-order linear differential equation, there must be two linearly independent solutions.",
"Depending upon the circumstances, however, various formulations of these solutions are convenient.",
"Different variations are summarized in the table below and described in the following sections.",
"Type First kind Second kind Bessel functions Modified Bessel functions Hankel functions Spherical Bessel functions Spherical Hankel functions Bessel functions of the second kind and the spherical Bessel functions of the second kind are sometimes denoted by and , respectively, rather than and .===Bessel functions of the first kind: ===Plot of the Bessel function of the first kind with in the complex plane from to Plot of Bessel function of the first kind, , for integer orders Bessel functions of the first kind, denoted as , are solutions of Bessel's differential equation.",
"For integer or positive , Bessel functions of the first kind are finite at the origin (); while for negative non-integer , Bessel functions of the first kind diverge as approaches zero.",
"It is possible to define the function by times a Maclaurin series (note that need not be an integer, and non-integer powers are not permitted in a Taylor series), which can be found by applying the Frobenius method to Bessel's equation:where is the gamma function, a shifted generalization of the factorial function to non-integer values.",
"The Bessel function of the first kind is an entire function if is an integer, otherwise it is a multivalued function with singularity at zero.",
"The graphs of Bessel functions look roughly like oscillating sine or cosine functions that decay proportionally to (see also their asymptotic forms below), although their roots are not generally periodic, except asymptotically for large .",
"(The series indicates that is the derivative of , much like is the derivative of ; more generally, the derivative of can be expressed in terms of by the identities below.",
")For non-integer , the functions and are linearly independent, and are therefore the two solutions of the differential equation.",
"On the other hand, for integer order , the following relationship is valid (the gamma function has simple poles at each of the non-positive integers):This means that the two solutions are no longer linearly independent.",
"In this case, the second linearly independent solution is then found to be the Bessel function of the second kind, as discussed below.====Bessel's integrals====Another definition of the Bessel function, for integer values of , is possible using an integral representation:which is also called Hansen-Bessel formula.This was the approach that Bessel used, and from this definition he derived several properties of the function.",
"The definition may be extended to non-integer orders by one of Schläfli's integrals, for :====Relation to hypergeometric series====The Bessel functions can be expressed in terms of the generalized hypergeometric series asThis expression is related to the development of Bessel functions in terms of the Bessel–Clifford function.====Relation to Laguerre polynomials====In terms of the Laguerre polynomials and arbitrarily chosen parameter , the Bessel function can be expressed as===Bessel functions of the second kind: ===Plot of the Bessel function of the second kind with in the complex plane from to The Bessel functions of the second kind, denoted by , occasionally denoted instead by , are solutions of the Bessel differential equation that have a singularity at the origin () and are multivalued.",
"These are sometimes called '''Weber functions''', as they were introduced by , and also '''Neumann functions''' after Carl Neumann.For non-integer , is related to byIn the case of integer order , the function is defined by taking the limit as a non-integer tends to :If is a nonnegative integer, we have the seriesPlot of Bessel function of the second kind, , for integer orders where is the digamma function, the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function.There is also a corresponding integral formula (for ):In the case where , is necessary as the second linearly independent solution of the Bessel's equation when is an integer.",
"But has more meaning than that.",
"It can be considered as a \"natural\" partner of .",
"See also the subsection on Hankel functions below.When is an integer, moreover, as was similarly the case for the functions of the first kind, the following relationship is valid:Both and are holomorphic functions of on the complex plane cut along the negative real axis.",
"When is an integer, the Bessel functions are entire functions of .",
"If is held fixed at a non-zero value, then the Bessel functions are entire functions of .The Bessel functions of the second kind when is an integer is an example of the second kind of solution in Fuchs's theorem.===Hankel functions: , ===Plot of the Hankel function of the first kind with in the complex plane from to Plot of the Hankel function of the second kind with in the complex plane from to Another important formulation of the two linearly independent solutions to Bessel's equation are the '''Hankel functions of the first and second kind''', and , defined aswhere is the imaginary unit.",
"These linear combinations are also known as '''Bessel functions of the third kind'''; they are two linearly independent solutions of Bessel's differential equation.",
"They are named after Hermann Hankel.These forms of linear combination satisfy numerous simple-looking properties, like asymptotic formulae or integral representations.",
"Here, \"simple\" means an appearance of a factor of the form .",
"For real where , are real-valued, the Bessel functions of the first and second kind are the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the first Hankel function and the real and negative imaginary parts of the second Hankel function.",
"Thus, the above formulae are analogs of Euler's formula, substituting , for and , for , , as explicitly shown in the asymptotic expansion.The Hankel functions are used to express outward- and inward-propagating cylindrical-wave solutions of the cylindrical wave equation, respectively (or vice versa, depending on the sign convention for the frequency).Using the previous relationships, they can be expressed asIf is an integer, the limit has to be calculated.",
"The following relationships are valid, whether is an integer or not:In particular, if with a nonnegative integer, the above relations imply directly thatThese are useful in developing the spherical Bessel functions (see below).The Hankel functions admit the following integral representations for :where the integration limits indicate integration along a contour that can be chosen as follows: from to 0 along the negative real axis, from 0 to along the imaginary axis, and from to along a contour parallel to the real axis.===Modified Bessel functions: , ===The Bessel functions are valid even for complex arguments , and an important special case is that of a purely imaginary argument.",
"In this case, the solutions to the Bessel equation are called the '''modified Bessel functions''' (or occasionally the '''hyperbolic Bessel functions''') '''of the first and second kind''' and are defined aswhen is not an integer; when is an integer, then the limit is used.",
"These are chosen to be real-valued for real and positive arguments .",
"The series expansion for is thus similar to that for , but without the alternating factor.",
"can be expressed in terms of Hankel functions:Using these two formulae the result to +, commonly known as Nicholson's integral or Nicholson's formula, can be obtained to give the followinggiven that the condition is met.",
"It can also be shown thatonly when < and but not when .We can express the first and second Bessel functions in terms of the modified Bessel functions (these are valid if ): and are the two linearly independent solutions to the '''modified Bessel's equation''':Unlike the ordinary Bessel functions, which are oscillating as functions of a real argument, and are exponentially growing and decaying functions respectively.",
"Like the ordinary Bessel function , the function goes to zero at for and is finite at for .",
"Analogously, diverges at with the singularity being of logarithmic type for , and otherwise.",
"Modified Bessel functions of the first kind, , for Modified Bessel functions of the second kind, , for Two integral formulas for the modified Bessel functions are (for ):Bessel functions can be described as Fourier transforms of powers of quadratic functions.",
"For example (for ):It can be proven by showing equality to the above integral definition for .",
"This is done by integrating a closed curve in the first quadrant of the complex plane.Modified Bessel functions and can be represented in terms of rapidly convergent integralsThe modified Bessel function is useful to represent the Laplace distribution as an Exponential-scale mixture of normal distributions.The '''modified Bessel function of the second kind''' has also been called by the following names (now rare):* '''Basset function''' after Alfred Barnard Basset* '''Modified Bessel function of the third kind'''* '''Modified Hankel function'''* '''Macdonald function''' after Hector Munro Macdonald===Spherical Bessel functions: , ===Plot of the spherical Bessel function of the first kind with in the complex plane from to with colors created with Mathematica 13.1 function ComplexPlot3DPlot of the spherical Bessel function of the second kind with in the complex plane from to with colors created with Mathematica 13.1 function ComplexPlot3DSpherical Bessel functions of the first kind, , for Spherical Bessel functions of the second kind, , for When solving the Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates by separation of variables, the radial equation has the formThe two linearly independent solutions to this equation are called the '''spherical Bessel functions''' and , and are related to the ordinary Bessel functions and by is also denoted or ; some authors call these functions the '''spherical Neumann functions'''.From the relations to the ordinary Bessel functions it is directly seen that:The spherical Bessel functions can also be written as ('''''')The zeroth spherical Bessel function is also known as the (unnormalized) sinc function.",
"The first few spherical Bessel functions are:and====Generating function====The spherical Bessel functions have the generating functions====Differential relations====In the following, is any of , , , for ===Spherical Hankel functions: , ===Plot of the spherical Hankel function of the first kind with in the complex plane from to Plot of the spherical Hankel function of the second kind with in the complex plane from to There are also spherical analogues of the Hankel functions:In fact, there are simple closed-form expressions for the Bessel functions of half-integer order in terms of the standard trigonometric functions, and therefore for the spherical Bessel functions.",
"In particular, for non-negative integers :and is the complex-conjugate of this (for real ).",
"It follows, for example, that and , and so on.The spherical Hankel functions appear in problems involving spherical wave propagation, for example in the multipole expansion of the electromagnetic field.===Riccati–Bessel functions: , , , ===Riccati–Bessel functions only slightly differ from spherical Bessel functions:Riccati–Bessel functions Sn complex plot from −2 − 2''i'' to 2 + 2''i''They satisfy the differential equationFor example, this kind of differential equation appears in quantum mechanics while solving the radial component of the Schrödinger's equation with hypothetical cylindrical infinite potential barrier.",
"This differential equation, and the Riccati–Bessel solutions, also arises in the problem of scattering of electromagnetic waves by a sphere, known as Mie scattering after the first published solution by Mie (1908).",
"See e.g., Du (2004) for recent developments and references.Following Debye (1909), the notation , is sometimes used instead of , ."
],
[
"Asymptotic forms",
"The Bessel functions have the following asymptotic forms.",
"For small arguments , one obtains, when is not a negative integer:When is a negative integer, we haveFor the Bessel function of the second kind we have three cases:where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant (0.5772...).For large real arguments , one cannot write a true asymptotic form for Bessel functions of the first and second kind (unless is half-integer) because they have zeros all the way out to infinity, which would have to be matched exactly by any asymptotic expansion.",
"However, for a given value of one can write an equation containing a term of order :(For the last terms in these formulas drop out completely; see the spherical Bessel functions above.)",
"The asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions are:These can be extended to other values of using equations relating and to and .It is interesting that although the Bessel function of the first kind is the average of the two Hankel functions, is not asymptotic to the average of these two asymptotic forms when is negative (because one or the other will not be correct there, depending on the used).",
"But the asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions permit us to write asymptotic forms for the Bessel functions of first and second kinds for ''complex'' (non-real) so long as goes to infinity at a constant phase angle (using the square root having positive real part):For the modified Bessel functions, Hankel developed asymptotic (large argument) expansions as well:There is also the asymptotic form (for large real )When , all the terms except the first vanish, and we haveFor small arguments , we have"
],
[
"Properties",
"For integer order , is often defined via a Laurent series for a generating function:an approach used by P. A. Hansen in 1843.",
"(This can be generalized to non-integer order by contour integration or other methods.",
")Infinite series of Bessel functions in the form where arise in many physical systems and defined in closed form by the Sung series.",
"For example, when N = 3: .",
"More generally, the Sung series and the alternating Sung series are written as:A series expansion using Bessel functions (Kapteyn series) is: Another important relation for integer orders is the ''Jacobi–Anger expansion'':andwhich is used to expand a plane wave as a sum of cylindrical waves, or to find the Fourier series of a tone-modulated FM signal.More generally, a seriesis called Neumann expansion of .",
"The coefficients for have the explicit formwhere is Neumann's polynomial.Selected functions admit the special representationwithdue to the orthogonality relationMore generally, if has a branch-point near the origin of such a nature thatthenorwhere is the Laplace transform of .Another way to define the Bessel functions is the Poisson representation formula and the Mehler-Sonine formula:where and .This formula is useful especially when working with Fourier transforms.Because Bessel's equation becomes Hermitian (self-adjoint) if it is divided by , the solutions must satisfy an orthogonality relationship for appropriate boundary conditions.",
"In particular, it follows that:where , is the Kronecker delta, and is the th zero of .",
"This orthogonality relation can then be used to extract the coefficients in the Fourier–Bessel series, where a function is expanded in the basis of the functions for fixed and varying .An analogous relationship for the spherical Bessel functions follows immediately:If one defines a boxcar function of that depends on a small parameter as:(where is the rectangle function) then the Hankel transform of it (of any given order ), , approaches as approaches zero, for any given .",
"Conversely, the Hankel transform (of the same order) of is :which is zero everywhere except near 1.As approaches zero, the right-hand side approaches , where is the Dirac delta function.",
"This admits the limit (in the distributional sense):A change of variables then yields the ''closure equation'':for .",
"The Hankel transform can express a fairly arbitrary function as an integral of Bessel functions of different scales.",
"For the spherical Bessel functions the orthogonality relation is:for .Another important property of Bessel's equations, which follows from Abel's identity, involves the Wronskian of the solutions:where and are any two solutions of Bessel's equation, and is a constant independent of (which depends on α and on the particular Bessel functions considered).",
"In particular,andfor .For , the even entire function of genus 1, , has only real zeros.",
"Letbe all its positive zeros, then(There are a large number of other known integrals and identities that are not reproduced here, but which can be found in the references.",
")===Recurrence relations===The functions , , , and all satisfy the recurrence relationsandwhere denotes , , , or .",
"These two identities are often combined, e.g.",
"added or subtracted, to yield various other relations.",
"In this way, for example, one can compute Bessel functions of higher orders (or higher derivatives) given the values at lower orders (or lower derivatives).",
"In particular, it follows that''Modified'' Bessel functions follow similar relations:andandThe recurrence relation readswhere denotes or .",
"These recurrence relations are useful for discrete diffusion problems.===Transcendence===In 1929, Carl Ludwig Siegel proved that , , and the logarithmic derivative are transcendental numbers when ''ν'' is rational and ''x'' is algebraic and nonzero.",
"The same proof also implies that is transcendental under the same assumptions."
],
[
"Multiplication theorem",
"The Bessel functions obey a multiplication theoremwhere and may be taken as arbitrary complex numbers.",
"For , the above expression also holds if is replaced by .",
"The analogous identities for modified Bessel functions and areand"
],
[
"Zeros of the Bessel function",
"===Bourget's hypothesis===Bessel himself originally proved that for nonnegative integers , the equation has an infinite number of solutions in .",
"When the functions are plotted on the same graph, though, none of the zeros seem to coincide for different values of except for the zero at .",
"This phenomenon is known as '''Bourget's hypothesis''' after the 19th-century French mathematician who studied Bessel functions.",
"Specifically it states that for any integers and , the functions and have no common zeros other than the one at .",
"The hypothesis was proved by Carl Ludwig Siegel in 1929.===Transcendence===Siegel proved in 1929 that when ''ν'' is rational, all nonzero roots of and are transcendental, as are all the roots of .",
"It is also known that all roots of the higher derivatives for are transcendental, except for the special values and .===Numerical approaches===For numerical studies about the zeros of the Bessel function, see , and .===Numerical values===The first zero in J0 (i.e, j0,1, j0,2 and j0,3) occurs at arguments of approximately 2.40483, 5.52008 and 8.65373, respectively."
],
[
"See also",
"* Anger function* Bessel polynomials* Bessel–Clifford function* Bessel–Maitland function* Fourier–Bessel series* Hahn–Exton -Bessel function* Hankel transform* Incomplete Bessel functions* Jackson -Bessel function* Kelvin functions* Kontorovich–Lebedev transform* Lentz's algorithm* Lerche–Newberger sum rule* Lommel function* Lommel polynomial* Neumann polynomial* Schlömilch's series* Sonine formula* Struve function* Vibrations of a circular membrane* Weber function (defined at Anger function)"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * Arfken, George B. and Hans J. Weber, ''Mathematical Methods for Physicists'', 6th edition (Harcourt: San Diego, 2005).",
".",
"* Bowman, Frank ''Introduction to Bessel Functions'' (Dover: New York, 1958).",
".",
"* * .",
"* .",
"* B Spain, M. G. Smith, '' Functions of mathematical physics'', Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, London, 1970.Chapter 9 deals with Bessel functions.",
"* N. M. Temme, ''Special Functions.",
"An Introduction to the Classical Functions of Mathematical Physics'', John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1996.. Chapter 9 deals with Bessel functions.",
"* Watson, G. N., ''A Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions, Second Edition'', (1995) Cambridge University Press.",
".",
"* .",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* Wolfram function pages on Bessel J and Y functions, and modified Bessel I and K functions.",
"Pages include formulas, function evaluators, and plotting calculators.",
"* * Bessel functions Jν, Yν, Iν and Kν in Librow Function handbook.*F.",
"W. J. Olver, L. C. Maximon, Bessel Functions (chapter 10 of the Digital Library of Mathematical Functions).",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Backpacking"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Backpacking''' may refer to:* Backpacking (travel), low-cost, independent, international travel* Backpacking (hiking), trekking and camping overnight in the wilderness* Ultralight backpacking, a style of wilderness backpacking with an emphasis on carrying as little as possible"
],
[
"See also",
"*Hiking*Backpacking with animals, using pack animals to carry gear while hiking or camping*Backpacker (disambiguation)*Backpack (disambiguation)*Tramping (disambiguation), also called backpacking*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Brahui language"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Brahui''' ( ; ; also known as Brahvi or Brohi) is a Dravidian language spoken by some Brahui people.",
"The language is spoken primarily in the central part of the Balochistan Province of Pakistan, with smaller communities of speakers scattered in parts of Iranian Baluchestan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan (around Merv) and by expatriate Brahui communities in Iraq, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.",
"It is isolated from the nearest Dravidian-speaking neighbouring population of South India by a distance of more than .",
"The Kalat, Khuzdar, Mastung, Quetta, Bolan, Nasirabad, Nushki, and Kharan districts of Balochistan Province are predominantly Brahui-speaking.Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Brahui like other languages of Pakistan are continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loan words."
],
[
"Distribution",
"The proportion of people with Brahui as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan CensusBrahui is spoken in the central part of Pakistani Balochistan, mainly in Kalat, Khuzdar and Mastung districts, but also in smaller numbers in neighboring districts, as well as in Afghanistan which borders Pakistani Balochistan; however, many members of the ethnic group no longer speak Brahui.",
"There are also a very small unknown number of expatriate Brahuis in the Arab States of the Persian Gulf, and Turkmenistan."
],
[
"History",
"There is no consensus as to whether Brahui is a relatively recent language introduced into Balochistan or the remnant of a formerly more widespread Dravidian language family.",
"According to Josef Elfenbein (1989), the most common theory is that the Brahui were part of a Dravidian migration into north-western India in the 3rd millennium BC, but unlike other Dravidians who migrated to the south, they remained in Sarawan and Jahlawan since before 2000 BC.",
"However, some other scholars see it as a recent migrant language to its present region.",
"They postulate that Brahui could only have migrated to Balochistan from central India after 1000 AD.",
"This is contradicted by genetic evidence that shows the Brahui population to be indistinguishable from neighbouring Balochi speakers, and genetically distant from central Dravidian speakers.",
"The main Iranian contributor to Brahui vocabulary, Balochi, is a Northwestern Iranian language, and moved to the area from the west only around 1000 AD.",
"One scholar places the migration as late as the 13th or 14th century.",
"The Brahui lexicon is believed to be of: 35% Perso-Arabic origin, 20% Balochi origin, 20% Indo-Aryan origin, 15% Dravidian origin, and 10% unknown origin.Franklin Southworth (2012) proposes that Brahui is not a Dravidian language, but can be linked with the remaining Dravidian languages and Elamite to form the \"Zagrosian family,\" which originated in Southwest Asia (southern Iran) and was widely distributed in South Asia and parts of eastern West Asia before the Indo-Aryan migration."
],
[
"Dialects",
"There are no important dialectal differences.",
"Jhalawani (southern, centered on Khuzdar) and Sarawani (northern, centered on Kalat) dialects are distinguished by the pronunciation of *h, which is retained only in the north (Elfenbein 1997).Brahui has been influenced by the Iranian languages spoken in the area, including Persian, Balochi and Pashto."
],
[
"Phonology",
"Brahui vowels show a partial length distinction between long and diphthongs and short .",
"Brahui does not have short /e, o/ due to influence from neighbouring Indo-Aryan and Iranic languages, the PD short *e was replaced by a, ē and i, and ∗o by ō, u and a in root syllables.+VowelsFrontCentralBackClose MidOpen Brahui consonants show patterns of retroflexion but lack the aspiration distinctions found in surrounding languages and include several fricatives such as the voiceless lateral fricative , a sound not otherwise found in the region.Consonants are also very similar to those of Balochi, but Brahui has more fricatives and nasals (Elfenbein 1993).+ConsonantsLabialDentalalveolarRetroflexPalato-alveolarVelarGlottalNasal ()StopFricativeLateralRhotic Glide * of north corresponds to a glottal stop of south initially and intervocalically.",
"Before a C in word-final position it is lost.",
"Non-phonemic glottal stop before word-initial vowels, e.g.",
"hust (N), ʔust (S) 'heart'.",
"* and vary freely in many cases; contrast is limited to two or three items.",
"Conditions for the emergence of are not clear.",
"* does not occur word-initially.",
"→ before in northern Brahui (Elfenbein 1998: 394), e.g.",
"xūrt → xūṛt 'tiny'.",
"* The consonants freely alternate with aspirated counterparts in the northeast.",
"Aspirated stops word-initially occur in loanwords in the south, where they freely vary with unaspirated stops.",
"* occurs before velar stops .",
"* Brahui preserves the PD laryngeal * as in some words e.g.",
"PD.",
"*caH- ~ *ceH- > Br.",
"kah-.===Stress===Stress in Brahui follows a quantity-based pattern, occurring either on the first long vowel or diphthong, or on the first syllable if all vowels are short."
],
[
"Orthography",
"===Perso-Arabic script===Brahui has one unique letter, \"\", and is written in the Nastaliq script.Brahui is the only Dravidian language which is not known to have been written in a Brahmi-based script; instead, it has been written in the Arabic script since the second half of the 20th century.In Pakistan, an Urdu based Nastaʿlīq script is used in writing: Letter Latin equivalent IPA á, a, i, u , , , b p t ŧ (s) j c (h) x d đ (z) r ŕ z ź s ş (s) (z) (t) (z) ', (a), (i), (u) , , , ģ f (k) k g l ļ m n ń v, o, ú , , h (h) y, í , e ===Latin script===More recently, a Roman-based orthography named Brolikva (an abbreviation of ''Brahui Roman Likvar'') was developed by the Brahui Language Board of the University of Balochistan in Quetta and adopted by the newspaper Talár.Below is the new promoted Bráhuí Báşágal Brolikva orthography:bápísyşvxezźģfúmnlgctŧrŕdođhjkaiuńļThe letters with diacritics are the long vowels, post-alveolar and retroflex consonants, the voiced velar fricative and the voiceless lateral fricative."
],
[
"Sample text",
"===English===All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.",
"They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.===Arabic script======Latin script===Muccá insáńk ájo o izzat ná rid aŧ barebar vadí massuno.",
"Ofte puhí o dalíl raseńgáne.",
"andáde ofte asi elo ton ílumí e vaddifoí e."
],
[
"Endangerment",
"According to a 2009 UNESCO report, Brahui is one of the 27 languages of Pakistan that are facing the danger of extinction.",
"It was classified as \"unsafe\", the least endangered level out of the five levels of concern (Unsafe, Definitely Endangered, Severely Endangered, Critically Endangered and Extinct).",
"This status has since been renamed to \"vulnerable\".===Publications===Talár is the first daily newspaper in the Brahui language.",
"It uses the new Roman orthography and is \"an attempt to standardize and develop the Brahui language to meet the requirements of modern political, social and scientific discourse.\""
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"***Bray, Denys.",
"''The Brahui Language, an Old Dravidian Language Spoken in Parts of Baluchistan and Sind: Grammar.''",
"Gian Publishing House, 1986.",
"*******"
],
[
"External links",
"* Online Brahui Dictionary* ''Handbook of the Birouhi language'' By Allâh Baksh (1877)* Brahui Language Board * Bráhuí Báşágal (Brahui Alphabet) * Profile of the Brahui language* Partial bibliography of scholarly works on Brahui* Britannica Brahui language* Brahui basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Berkeley DB"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Berkeley DB''' ('''BDB''') is an embedded database software library for key/value data, historically significant in open source software.",
"Berkeley DB is written in C with API bindings for many other programming languages.",
"BDB stores arbitrary key/data pairs as byte arrays, and supports multiple data items for a single key.",
"Berkeley DB is not a relational database, although it has database features including database transactions, multiversion concurrency control and write-ahead logging.",
"BDB runs on a wide variety of operating systems including most Unix-like and Windows systems, and real-time operating systems.BDB was commercially supported and developed by Sleepycat Software from 1996 to 2006.Sleepycat Software was acquired by Oracle Corporation in February 2006, who continued to develop and sell the C Berkeley DB library.",
"In 2013 Oracle re-licensed BDB under the AGPL license.",
"and released new versions until May 2020.Bloomberg LP continues to develop a fork of the 2013 version of BDB within their Comdb2 database, under the original Sleepycat permissive license."
],
[
"Origin",
"Berkeley DB originated at the University of California, Berkeley as part of BSD, Berkeley's version of the Unix operating system.",
"After 4.3BSD (1986), the BSD developers attempted to remove or replace all code originating in the original AT&T Unix from which BSD was derived.",
"In doing so, they needed to rewrite the Unix database package.",
"Seltzer and Yigit created a new database, unencumbered by any AT&T patents: an on-disk hash table that outperformed the existing dbm libraries.",
"Berkeley DB itself was first released in 1991 and later included with 4.4BSD.",
"In 1996 Netscape requested that the authors of Berkeley DB improve and extend the library, then at version 1.86, to suit Netscape's requirements for an LDAP server and for use in the Netscape browser.",
"That request led to the creation of Sleepycat Software.",
"This company was acquired by Oracle Corporation in February 2006.Berkeley DB 1.x releases focused on managing key/value data storage and are referred to as \"Data Store\" (DS).",
"The 2.x releases added a locking system enabling concurrent access to data.",
"This is what is known as \"Concurrent Data Store\" (CDS).",
"The 3.x releases added a logging system for transactions and recovery, called \"Transactional Data Store\" (TDS).",
"The 4.x releases added the ability to replicate log records and create a distributed highly available single-master multi-replica database.",
"This is called the \"High Availability\" (HA) feature set.",
"Berkeley DB's evolution has sometimes led to minor API changes or log format changes, but very rarely have database formats changed.",
"Berkeley DB HA supports online upgrades from one version to the next by maintaining the ability to read and apply the prior release's log records.Starting with the 6.0.21 (Oracle 12c) release, all Berkeley DB products are licensed under the GNU AGPL.",
"Previously, Berkeley DB was redistributed under the 4-clause BSD license (before version 2.0), and the Sleepycat Public License, which is an OSI-approved open-source license as well as an FSF-approved free software license.",
"The product ships with complete source code, build script, test suite, and documentation.",
"The comprehensive feature along with the licensing terms have led to its use in a multitude of free and open-source software.",
"Those who do not wish to abide by the terms of the GNU AGPL, or use an older version with the Sleepycat Public License, have the option of purchasing another proprietary license for redistribution from Oracle Corporation.",
"This technique is called dual licensing.Berkeley DB includes compatibility interfaces for some historic Unix database libraries: dbm, ndbm and hsearch (a System V and POSIX library for creating in-memory hash tables)."
],
[
"Architecture",
"Berkeley DB has an architecture notably simpler than relational database management systems.",
"Like SQLite and LMDB, it is not based on a server/client model, and does not provide support for network access programs access the database using in-process API calls.",
"Oracle added support for SQL in 11g R2 release based on the popular SQLite API by including a version of SQLite in Berkeley DB (it uses Berkeley DB for storage).A program accessing the database is free to decide how the data is to be stored in a record.",
"Berkeley DB puts no constraints on the record's data.",
"The record and its key can both be up to four gigabytes long.Berkeley DB supports database features such as ACID transactions, fine-grained locking, hot backups and replication."
],
[
"Oracle Corporation use of name \"Berkeley DB\"",
"The name \"Berkeley DB\" is used by Oracle Corporation for three different products, only one of which is BDB:# Berkeley DB, the C database library that is the subject of this article# Berkeley DB Java Edition, a pure Java library whose design is modelled after the C library but is otherwise unrelated# Berkeley DB XML, a C++ program that supports XQuery, and which includes a legacy version of the C database library"
],
[
"Open source programs still using Berkeley DB",
"BDB was once very widespread, but usage dropped steeply from 2013 (see licensing section).",
"Notable software that still uses Berkeley DB for data storage include:* Bogofilter – A free/open source spam filter that saves its wordlists using Berkeley DB by default* Citadel/UX – A Collaborative software (messaging and groupware) that is directly descended from the Citadel family of programs which became popular in the 1980s and 1990s as a bulletin board system platform.",
"* Sendmail – A free/open source MTA first released in 1983 for Linux/Unix systems and no longer widely used* Spamassassin – A free/open source anti-spam application* The Elixir Cross Referencer – A web UI source code cross-referencer for C/C++ written in PythonOpen source operating systems, and languages such as Perl and Python still support old BerkelyDB interfaces.",
"The FreeBSD and OpenBSD operating systems ship Berkeley DB 1.8x to support the dbopen() operating system call used by password programs such as pwb_mkdb.",
"Linux operating systems including those based on Debian and Fedora ship Berkeley DB 5.3 libraries."
],
[
"Licensing",
"Berkeley DB V2.0 and higher is available under a dual license:# Oracle commercial license # The GNU AGPL v3.Switching the open source license in 2013 from the Sleepycat license to the AGPL had a major effect on open source software.",
"Since BDB is a library, any application linking to it must be under an AGPL-compatible license.",
"Many open source applications and all closed source applications would need to be relicensed to become AGPL-compatible, which was not acceptable to many developers and open source operating systems.",
"By 2013 there were many alternatives to BDB, and Debian Linux was typical in their decision to completely phase out Berkeley DB, with a preference for the Lightning Memory-Mapped Database (LMDB)."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Oracle Berkeley DB* Oracle Berkeley DB Downloads* Oracle Berkeley DB Documentation* Oracle Berkeley DB Licensing Information* Licensing pitfalls for Oracle Technology Products* Oracle Licensing Knowledge Net* ''The Berkeley DB Book'' by Himanshu Yadava"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boolean satisfiability problem"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In logic and computer science, the '''Boolean satisfiability problem''' (sometimes called '''propositional satisfiability problem''' and abbreviated '''SATISFIABILITY''', '''SAT''' or '''B-SAT''') is the problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula.",
"In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula can be consistently replaced by the values TRUE or FALSE in such a way that the formula evaluates to TRUE.",
"If this is the case, the formula is called ''satisfiable''.",
"On the other hand, if no such assignment exists, the function expressed by the formula is FALSE for all possible variable assignments and the formula is ''unsatisfiable''.",
"For example, the formula \"''a'' AND NOT ''b''\" is satisfiable because one can find the values ''a'' = TRUE and ''b'' = FALSE, which make (''a'' AND NOT ''b'') = TRUE.",
"In contrast, \"''a'' AND NOT ''a''\" is unsatisfiable.SAT is the first problem that was proven to be NP-complete; see Cook–Levin theorem.",
"This means that all problems in the complexity class NP, which includes a wide range of natural decision and optimization problems, are at most as difficult to solve as SAT.",
"There is no known algorithm that efficiently solves each SAT problem, and it is generally believed that no such algorithm exists; yet this belief has not been proved mathematically, and resolving the question of whether SAT has a polynomial-time algorithm is equivalent to the P versus NP problem, which is a famous open problem in the theory of computing.Nevertheless, as of 2007, heuristic SAT-algorithms are able to solve problem instances involving tens of thousands of variables and formulas consisting of millions of symbols, which is sufficient for many practical SAT problems from, e.g., artificial intelligence, circuit design, and automatic theorem proving."
],
[
"Definitions",
"A ''propositional logic formula'', also called ''Boolean expression'', is built from variables, operators AND (conjunction, also denoted by ∧), OR (disjunction, ∨), NOT (negation, ¬), and parentheses.A formula is said to be ''satisfiable'' if it can be made TRUE by assigning appropriate logical values (i.e.",
"TRUE, FALSE) to its variables.The ''Boolean satisfiability problem'' (SAT) is, given a formula, to check whether it is satisfiable.This decision problem is of central importance in many areas of computer science, including theoretical computer science, complexity theory, algorithmics, cryptography and artificial intelligence.===Conjunctive normal form===A ''literal'' is either a variable (in which case it is called a ''positive literal'') or the negation of a variable (called a ''negative literal'').A ''clause'' is a disjunction of literals (or a single literal).",
"A clause is called a ''Horn clause'' if it contains at most one positive literal.A formula is in ''conjunctive normal form'' (CNF) if it is a conjunction of clauses (or a single clause).For example, is a positive literal, is a negative literal, is a clause.",
"The formula is in conjunctive normal form; its first and third clauses are Horn clauses, but its second clause is not.",
"The formula is satisfiable, by choosing ''x''1 = FALSE, ''x''2 = FALSE, and ''x''3 arbitrarily, since (FALSE ∨ ¬FALSE) ∧ (¬FALSE ∨ FALSE ∨ ''x''3) ∧ ¬FALSE evaluates to (FALSE ∨ TRUE) ∧ (TRUE ∨ FALSE ∨ ''x''3) ∧ TRUE, and in turn to TRUE ∧ TRUE ∧ TRUE (i.e.",
"to TRUE).",
"In contrast, the CNF formula ''a'' ∧ ¬''a'', consisting of two clauses of one literal, is unsatisfiable, since for ''a''=TRUE or ''a''=FALSE it evaluates to TRUE ∧ ¬TRUE (i.e., FALSE) or FALSE ∧ ¬FALSE (i.e., again FALSE), respectively.For some versions of the SAT problem, it is useful to define the notion of a ''generalized conjunctive normal form'' formula, viz.",
"as a conjunction of arbitrarily many ''generalized clauses'', the latter being of the form for some Boolean function ''R'' and (ordinary) literals .",
"Different sets of allowed Boolean functions lead to different problem versions.",
"As an example, ''R''(¬''x'',''a'',''b'') is a generalized clause, and ''R''(¬''x'',''a'',''b'') ∧ ''R''(''b'',''y'',''c'') ∧ ''R''(''c'',''d'',¬''z'') is a generalized conjunctive normal form.",
"This formula is used below, with ''R'' being the ternary operator that is TRUE just when exactly one of its arguments is.Using the laws of Boolean algebra, every propositional logic formula can be transformed into an equivalent conjunctive normal form, which may, however, be exponentially longer.",
"For example, transforming the formula(''x''1∧''y''1) ∨ (''x''2∧''y''2) ∨ ... ∨ (''x''''n''∧''y''''n'')into conjunctive normal form yields::::::::;while the former is a disjunction of ''n'' conjunctions of 2 variables, the latter consists of 2''n'' clauses of ''n'' variables.However, with use of the Tseytin transformation, we may find an equisatisfiable conjunctive normal form formula with length linear in the size of the original propositional logic formula."
],
[
"Complexity",
"SAT was the first known NP-complete problem, as proved by Stephen Cook at the University of Toronto in 1971 and independently by Leonid Levin at the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1973.Until that time, the concept of an NP-complete problem did not even exist.The proof shows how every decision problem in the complexity class NP can be reduced to the SAT problem for CNF formulas, sometimes called '''CNFSAT'''.A useful property of Cook's reduction is that it preserves the number of accepting answers.",
"For example, deciding whether a given graph has a 3-coloring is another problem in NP; if a graph has 17 valid 3-colorings, the SAT formula produced by the Cook–Levin reduction will have 17 satisfying assignments.NP-completeness only refers to the run-time of the worst case instances.",
"Many of the instances that occur in practical applications can be solved much more quickly.",
"See Algorithms for solving SAT below.===3-satisfiability===The 3-SAT instance reduced to a clique problem.",
"The green vertices form a 3-clique and correspond to the satisfying assignment ''x''=FALSE, ''y''=TRUE.Like the satisfiability problem for arbitrary formulas, determining the satisfiability of a formula in conjunctive normal form where each clause is limited to at most three literals is NP-complete also; this problem is called '''3-SAT''', '''3CNFSAT''', or '''3-satisfiability'''.To reduce the unrestricted SAT problem to 3-SAT, transform each clause to a conjunction of clauses:::::where are fresh variables not occurring elsewhere.Although the two formulas are not logically equivalent, they are equisatisfiable.",
"The formula resulting from transforming all clauses is at most 3 times as long as its original, i.e.",
"the length growth is polynomial.3-SAT is one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems, and it is used as a starting point for proving that other problems are also NP-hard.",
"This is done by polynomial-time reduction from 3-SAT to the other problem.",
"An example of a problem where this method has been used is the clique problem: given a CNF formula consisting of ''c'' clauses, the corresponding graph consists of a vertex for each literal, and an edge between each two non-contradicting literals from different clauses, cf.",
"picture.",
"The graph has a ''c''-clique if and only if the formula is satisfiable.There is a simple randomized algorithm due to Schöning (1999) that runs in time (4/3)''n'' where ''n'' is the number of variables in the 3-SAT proposition, and succeeds with high probability to correctly decide 3-SAT.The exponential time hypothesis asserts that no algorithm can solve 3-SAT (or indeed ''k''-SAT for any ) in time (i.e., fundamentally faster than exponential in ''n'').Selman, Mitchell, and Levesque (1996) give empirical data on the difficulty of randomly generated 3-SAT formulas, depending on their size parameters.Difficulty is measured in number recursive calls made by a DPLL algorithm.",
"They identified a phase transition region from almost certainly satisfiable to almost certainly unsatisfiable formulas at the clauses-to-variables ratio at about 4.26.3-satisfiability can be generalized to '''k-satisfiability''' ('''k-SAT''', also '''k-CNF-SAT'''), when formulas in CNF are considered with each clause containing up to ''k'' literals.However, since for any ''k'' ≥ 3, this problem can neither be easier than 3-SAT nor harder than SAT, and the latter two are NP-complete, so must be k-SAT.Some authors restrict k-SAT to CNF formulas with '''exactly k literals'''.",
"This doesn't lead to a different complexity class either, as each clause with ''j'' ''k''-1 extra clauses have to be appended to ensure that only can lead to a satisfying assignment.",
"Since ''k'' doesn't depend on the formula length, the extra clauses lead to a constant increase in length.",
"For the same reason, it does not matter whether '''duplicate literals''' are allowed in clauses, as in ."
],
[
"Special cases of SAT",
"===Conjunctive normal form===Conjunctive normal form (in particular with 3 literals per clause) is often considered the canonical representation for SAT formulas.",
"As shown above, the general SAT problem reduces to 3-SAT, the problem of determining satisfiability for formulas in this form.===Disjunctive normal form===SAT is trivial if the formulas are restricted to those in '''disjunctive normal form''', that is, they are a disjunction of conjunctions of literals.",
"Such a formula is indeed satisfiable if and only if at least one of its conjunctions is satisfiable, and a conjunction is satisfiable if and only if it does not contain both ''x'' and NOT ''x'' for some variable ''x''.",
"This can be checked in linear time.",
"Furthermore, if they are restricted to being in '''full disjunctive normal form''', in which every variable appears exactly once in every conjunction, they can be checked in constant time (each conjunction represents one satisfying assignment).",
"But it can take exponential time and space to convert a general SAT problem to disjunctive normal form; for an example exchange \"∧\" and \"∨\" in the above exponential blow-up example for conjunctive normal forms.===Exactly-1 3-satisfiability==='''Left:''' Schaefer's reduction of a 3-SAT clause ''x'' ∨ ''y'' ∨ ''z''.",
"The result of ''R'' is if exactly one of its arguments is TRUE, and otherwise.",
"All 8 combinations of values for ''x'',''y'',''z'' are examined, one per line.",
"The fresh variables ''a'',...,''f'' can be chosen to satisfy all clauses (exactly one argument for each ''R'') in all lines except the first, where ''x'' ∨ ''y'' ∨ ''z'' is FALSE.",
"'''Right:''' A simpler reduction with the same properties.A variant of the 3-satisfiability problem is the '''one-in-three 3-SAT''' (also known variously as '''1-in-3-SAT''' and '''exactly-1 3-SAT''').Given a conjunctive normal form with three literals per clause, the problem is to determine whether there exists a truth assignment to the variables so that each clause has ''exactly'' one TRUE literal (and thus exactly two FALSE literals).",
"In contrast, ordinary 3-SAT requires that every clause has ''at least'' one TRUE literal.Formally, a one-in-three 3-SAT problem is given as a generalized conjunctive normal form with all generalized clauses using a ternary operator ''R'' that is TRUE just if exactly one of its arguments is.",
"When all literals of a one-in-three 3-SAT formula are positive, the satisfiability problem is called '''one-in-three positive 3-SAT'''.One-in-three 3-SAT, together with its positive case, is listed as NP-complete problem \"LO4\" in the standard reference, ''Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness''by Michael R. Garey and David S. Johnson.",
"One-in-three 3-SAT was proved to be NP-complete by Thomas Jerome Schaefer as a special case of Schaefer's dichotomy theorem, which asserts that any problem generalizing Boolean satisfiability in a certain way is either in the class P or is NP-complete.Schaefer gives a construction allowing an easy polynomial-time reduction from 3-SAT to one-in-three 3-SAT.",
"Let \"(''x'' or ''y'' or ''z'')\" be a clause in a 3CNF formula.",
"Add six fresh Boolean variables ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'', ''e'', and ''f'', to be used to simulate this clause and no other.Then the formula ''R''(''x'',''a'',''d'') ∧ ''R''(''y'',''b'',''d'') ∧ ''R''(''a'',''b'',''e'') ∧ ''R''(''c'',''d'',''f'') ∧ ''R''(''z'',''c'',FALSE) is satisfiable by some setting of the fresh variables if and only if at least one of ''x'', ''y'', or ''z'' is TRUE, see picture (left).",
"Thus any 3-SAT instance with ''m'' clauses and ''n'' variables may be converted into an equisatisfiable one-in-three 3-SAT instance with 5''m'' clauses and ''n''+6''m'' variables.Another reduction involves only four fresh variables and three clauses: ''R''(¬''x'',''a'',''b'') ∧ ''R''(''b'',''y'',''c'') ∧ R(''c'',''d'',¬''z''), see picture (right).===Not-all-equal 3-satisfiability===Another variant is the '''not-all-equal 3-satisfiability''' problem (also called '''NAE3SAT''').Given a conjunctive normal form with three literals per clause, the problem is to determine if an assignment to the variables exists such that in no clause all three literals have the same truth value.",
"This problem is NP-complete, too, even if no negation symbols are admitted, by Schaefer's dichotomy theorem.=== Linear SAT ===A 3-SAT formula is ''Linear SAT'' (''LSAT'') if each clause (viewed as a set of literals) intersects at most one other clause, and, moreover, if two clauses intersect, then they have exactly one literal in common.",
"An LSAT formula can be depicted as a set of disjoint semi-closed intervals on a line.",
"Deciding whether an LSAT formula is satisfiable is NP-complete.===2-satisfiability===SAT is easier if the number of literals in a clause is limited to at most 2, in which case the problem is called '''2-SAT'''.",
"This problem can be solved in polynomial time, and in fact is complete for the complexity class NL.",
"If additionally all OR operations in literals are changed to XOR operations, the result is called '''exclusive-or 2-satisfiability''', which is a problem complete for the complexity class SL = L.===Horn-satisfiability===The problem of deciding the satisfiability of a given conjunction of Horn clauses is called '''Horn-satisfiability''', or '''HORN-SAT'''.It can be solved in polynomial time by a single step of the Unit propagation algorithm, which produces the single minimal model of the set of Horn clauses (w.r.t.",
"the set of literals assigned to TRUE).Horn-satisfiability is P-complete.",
"It can be seen as P's version of the Boolean satisfiability problem.Also, deciding the truth of quantified Horn formulas can be done in polynomial time.Horn clauses are of interest because they are able to express implication of one variable from a set of other variables.",
"Indeed, one such clause ¬''x''1 ∨ ... ∨ ¬''x''''n'' ∨ ''y'' can be rewritten as ''x''1 ∧ ... ∧ ''x''''n'' → ''y'', that is, if ''x''1,...,''x''''n'' are all TRUE, then ''y'' needs to be TRUE as well.A generalization of the class of Horn formulae is that of renameable-Horn formulae, which is the set of formulae that can be placed in Horn form by replacing some variables with their respective negation.For example, (''x''1 ∨ ¬''x''2) ∧ (¬''x''1 ∨ ''x''2 ∨ ''x''3) ∧ ¬''x''1 is not a Horn formula, but can be renamed to the Horn formula (''x''1 ∨ ¬''x''2) ∧ (¬''x''1 ∨ ''x''2 ∨ ¬''y''3) ∧ ¬''x''1 by introducing ''y''3 as negation of ''x''3.In contrast, no renaming of (''x''1 ∨ ¬''x''2 ∨ ¬''x''3) ∧ (¬''x''1 ∨ ''x''2 ∨ ''x''3) ∧ ¬''x''1 leads to a Horn formula.Checking the existence of such a replacement can be done in linear time; therefore, the satisfiability of such formulae is in P as it can be solved by first performing this replacement and then checking the satisfiability of the resulting Horn formula.",
"A formula with 2 clauses may be unsatisfied (red), 3-satisfied (green), xor-3-satisfied (blue), or/and 1-in-3-satisfied (yellow), depending on the TRUE-literal count in the 1st (hor) and 2nd (vert) clause.===XOR-satisfiability=== Solving an XOR-SAT exampleby Gaussian elimination Given formula (\"⊕\" means XOR, the is optional) (''a''⊕''c''⊕''d'') ∧ (''b''⊕¬''c''⊕''d'') ∧ (''a''⊕''b''⊕¬''d'') ∧ (''a''⊕¬''b''⊕¬''c'') Equation system (\"1\" means TRUE, \"0\" means FALSE) Each clause leads to one equation.",
"''a'' ⊕ ''c'' ⊕ ''d'' = 1 ''b'' ⊕ ¬ ''c'' ⊕ ''d'' = 1 ''a'' ⊕ ''b'' ⊕ ¬ ''d'' = 1 ''a'' ⊕ ¬ ''b'' ⊕ ¬ ''c'' = 1 Normalized equation system using properties of Boolean rings (¬''x''=1⊕''x'', ''x''⊕''x''=0) ''a'' ⊕ ''c'' ⊕ ''d'' = '''1''' ''b'' ⊕ ''c'' ⊕ ''d'' = '''0''' ''a'' ⊕ ''b'' ⊕ ''d'' = '''0''' ''a'' ⊕ ''b'' ⊕ ''c'' = '''1''' (If the is present, contradicts the last black one, so the system is unsolvable.",
"Therefore, Gauss' algorithm is used only for the black equations.)",
"Associated coefficient matrix ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' ''d'' line 1 0 1 1 1 A 0 1 1 1 0 B 1 1 0 1 0 C 1 1 1 0 1 DTransforming to echelon form ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' ''d'' operation 1 0 1 1 1 A 1 1 0 1 0 C 1 1 1 0 1 D 0 1 1 1 0 B (swapped) 1 0 1 1 1 A 0 1 1 0 1 E = C⊕A 0 1 0 1 0 F = D⊕A 0 1 1 1 0 B 1 0 1 1 1 A 0 1 1 0 1 E 0 0 1 1 1 G = F⊕E 0 0 0 1 1 H = B⊕E Transforming to diagonal form ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' ''d'' operation 1 0 1 0 0 I = A⊕H 0 1 1 0 1 E 0 0 1 0 0 J = G⊕H 0 0 0 1 1 H 1 0 0 0 0 K = I⊕J 0 1 0 0 1 L = E⊕J 0 0 1 0 0 J 0 0 0 1 1 H Solution: If the is present: Unsolvable Else: ''a'' = 0 = FALSE ''b'' = 1 = TRUE ''c'' = 0 = FALSE ''d'' = 1 = TRUE '''As a consequence:''' ''R''(''a'',''c'',''d'') ∧ ''R''(''b'',¬''c'',''d'') ∧ ''R''(''a'',''b'',¬''d'') ∧ ''R''(''a'',¬''b'',¬''c'') is not 1-in-3-satisfiable, while (''a'' ∨ ''c'' ∨ ''d'') ∧ (''b'' ∨ ¬''c'' ∨ ''d'') ∧ (''a'' ∨ ''b'' ∨ ¬''d'') ∧ (''a'' ∨ ¬''b'' ∨ ¬''c'') is 3-satisfiable with ''a''=''c''=FALSE and ''b''=''d''=TRUE.Another special case is the class of problems where each clause contains XOR (i.e.",
"exclusive or) rather than (plain) OR operators.This is in P, since an XOR-SAT formula can also be viewed as a system of linear equations mod 2, and can be solved in cubic time by Gaussian elimination; see the box for an example.",
"This recast is based on the kinship between Boolean algebras and Boolean rings, and the fact that arithmetic modulo two forms a finite field.",
"Since ''a'' XOR ''b'' XOR ''c'' evaluates to TRUE if and only if exactly 1 or 3 members of {''a'',''b'',''c''} are TRUE, each solution of the 1-in-3-SAT problem for a given CNF formula is also a solution of the XOR-3-SAT problem, and in turn each solution of XOR-3-SAT is a solution of 3-SAT, cf.",
"picture.",
"As a consequence, for each CNF formula, it is possible to solve the XOR-3-SAT problem defined by the formula, and based on the result infer either that the 3-SAT problem is solvable or that the 1-in-3-SAT problem is unsolvable.Provided that the complexity classes P and NP are not equal, neither 2-, nor Horn-, nor XOR-satisfiability is NP-complete, unlike SAT.===Schaefer's dichotomy theorem===The restrictions above (CNF, 2CNF, 3CNF, Horn, XOR-SAT) bound the considered formulae to be conjunctions of subformulae; each restriction states a specific form for all subformulae: for example, only binary clauses can be subformulae in 2CNF.Schaefer's dichotomy theorem states that, for any restriction to Boolean functions that can be used to form these subformulae, the corresponding satisfiability problem is in P or NP-complete.",
"The membership in P of the satisfiability of 2CNF, Horn, and XOR-SAT formulae are special cases of this theorem.The following table summarizes some common variants of SAT.+CodeNameRestrictionsRequirementsClass3SAT3-satisfiabilityEach clause contains 3 literals.At least one literal must be true.NP-c2SAT2-satisfiabilityEach clause contains 2 literals.At least one literal must be true.NL-c1-in-3-SATExactly-1 3-SATEach clause contains 3 literals.Exactly one literal must be true.NP-c1-in-3-SAT+Exactly-1 Positive 3-SATEach clause contains 3 positive literals.Exactly one literal must be true.NP-cNAE3SATNot-all-equal 3-satisfiabilityEach clause contains 3 literals.Either one or two literals must be true.NP-cNAE3SAT+Not-all-equal positive 3-SATEach clause contains 3 positive literals.Either one or two literals must be true.NP-cPL-SATPlanar SATThe incidence graph (clause-variable graph) is planar.At least one literal must be true.NP-cLSATLinear SATEach clause contains 3 literals, intersects at most one other clause, and the intersection is exactly one literal.At least one literal must be true.NP-cHORN-SATHorn satisfiabilityHorn clauses (at most one positive literal).At least one literal must be true.P-cXOR-SATXor satisfiabilityEach clause contains XOR operations rather than OR.The XOR of all literals must be true.P"
],
[
"Extensions of SAT",
"An extension that has gained significant popularity since 2003 is '''satisfiability modulo theories''' ('''SMT''') that can enrich CNF formulas with linear constraints, arrays, all-different constraints, uninterpreted functions, ''etc.''",
"Such extensions typically remain NP-complete, but very efficient solvers are now available that can handle many such kinds of constraints.The satisfiability problem becomes more difficult if both \"for all\" (∀) and \"there exists\" (∃) quantifiers are allowed to bind the Boolean variables.An example of such an expression would be ; it is valid, since for all values of ''x'' and ''y'', an appropriate value of ''z'' can be found, viz.",
"''z''=TRUE if both ''x'' and ''y'' are FALSE, and ''z''=FALSE else.SAT itself (tacitly) uses only ∃ quantifiers.If only ∀ quantifiers are allowed instead, the so-called '''tautology problem''' is obtained, which is co-NP-complete.If both quantifiers are allowed, the problem is called the '''quantified Boolean formula problem''' ('''QBF'''), which can be shown to be PSPACE-complete.",
"It is widely believed that PSPACE-complete problems are strictly harder than any problem in NP, although this has not yet been proved.",
"Using highly parallel ''P systems'', QBF-SAT problems can be solved in linear time.Ordinary SAT asks if there is at least one variable assignment that makes the formula true.",
"A variety of variants deal with the number of such assignments:* '''MAJ-SAT''' asks if the majority of all assignments make the formula TRUE.",
"It is known to be complete for PP, a probabilistic class.",
"* '''#SAT''', the problem of counting how many variable assignments satisfy a formula, is a counting problem, not a decision problem, and is #P-complete.",
"* '''UNIQUE SAT''' is the problem of determining whether a formula has exactly one assignment.",
"It is complete for US, the complexity class describing problems solvable by a non-deterministic polynomial time Turing machine that accepts when there is exactly one nondeterministic accepting path and rejects otherwise.",
"*'''UNAMBIGUOUS-SAT''' is the name given to the satisfiability problem when the input is restricted to formulas having at most one satisfying assignment.",
"The problem is also called '''USAT'''.",
"A solving algorithm for UNAMBIGUOUS-SAT is allowed to exhibit any behavior, including endless looping, on a formula having several satisfying assignments.",
"Although this problem seems easier, Valiant and Vazirani have shown that if there is a practical (i.e.",
"randomized polynomial-time) algorithm to solve it, then all problems in NP can be solved just as easily.",
"* '''MAX-SAT''', the maximum satisfiability problem, is an FNP generalization of SAT.",
"It asks for the maximum number of clauses which can be satisfied by any assignment.",
"It has efficient approximation algorithms, but is NP-hard to solve exactly.",
"Worse still, it is APX-complete, meaning there is no polynomial-time approximation scheme (PTAS) for this problem unless P=NP.",
"*'''WMSAT''' is the problem of finding an assignment of minimum weight that satisfy a monotone Boolean formula (i.e.",
"a formula without any negation).",
"Weights of propositional variables are given in the input of the problem.",
"The weight of an assignment is the sum of weights of true variables.",
"That problem is NP-complete (see Th.",
"1 of ).Other generalizations include satisfiability for first- and second-order logic, constraint satisfaction problems, 0-1 integer programming."
],
[
"Finding a satisfying assignment",
"While SAT is a decision problem, the search problem of finding a satisfying assignment reduces to SAT.",
"That is, each algorithm which correctly answers if an instance of SAT is solvable can be used to find a satisfying assignment.",
"First, the question is asked on the given formula Φ.",
"If the answer is \"no\", the formula is unsatisfiable.",
"Otherwise, the question is asked on the partly instantiated formula Φ{''x''1=TRUE}, i.e.",
"Φ with the first variable ''x''1 replaced by TRUE, and simplified accordingly.",
"If the answer is \"yes\", then ''x''1=TRUE, otherwise ''x''1=FALSE.",
"Values of other variables can be found subsequently in the same way.",
"In total, ''n''+1 runs of the algorithm are required, where ''n'' is the number of distinct variables in Φ.This property is used in several theorems in complexity theory:: NP ⊆ P/poly ⇒ PH = Σ2 (Karp–Lipton theorem): NP ⊆ BPP ⇒ NP = RP: P = NP ⇒ FP = FNP"
],
[
"Algorithms for solving SAT",
"Since the SAT problem is NP-complete, only algorithms with exponential worst-case complexity are known for it.",
"In spite of this, efficient and scalable algorithms for SAT were developed during the 2000s and have contributed to dramatic advances in our ability to automatically solve problem instances involving tens of thousands of variables and millions of constraints (i.e.",
"clauses).",
"Examples of such problems in electronic design automation (EDA) include formal equivalence checking, model checking, formal verification of pipelined microprocessors, automatic test pattern generation, routing of FPGAs, planning, and scheduling problems, and so on.",
"A SAT-solving engine is also considered to be an essential component in the electronic design automation toolbox.Major techniques used by modern SAT solvers include the Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland algorithm (or DPLL), conflict-driven clause learning (CDCL), and stochastic local search algorithms such as WalkSAT.",
"Almost all SAT solvers include time-outs, so they will terminate in reasonable time even if they cannot find a solution.Different SAT solvers will find different instances easy or hard, and some excel at proving unsatisfiability, and others at finding solutions.",
"Recent attempts have been made to learn an instance's satisfiability using deep learning techniques.SAT solvers are developed and compared in SAT-solving contests.",
"Modern SAT solvers are also having significant impact on the fields of software verification, constraint solving in artificial intelligence, and operations research, among others."
],
[
"See also",
"*Unsatisfiable core*Satisfiability modulo theories*Counting SAT*Planar SAT*Karloff–Zwick algorithm*Circuit satisfiability"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* SAT Game: try solving a Boolean satisfiability problem yourself* The international SAT competition website* International Conference on Theory and Applications of Satisfiability Testing* Journal on Satisfiability, Boolean Modeling and Computation* SAT Live, an aggregate website for research on the satisfiability problem* Yearly evaluation of MaxSAT solvers"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* This article includes material from https://web.archive.org/web/20070708233347/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2006/eNews_061201.html by Prof. Karem A. Sakallah."
],
[
"Further reading",
"(by date of publication)* * * * * * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bob Jones University"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bob Jones University''' ('''BJU''') is a private evangelical university in Greenville, South Carolina.",
"It is known for its conservative cultural and religious positions.",
"The university, with approximately 3,000 students, is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC) and the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools.",
"In 2017, the university estimated the number of its graduates at 40,184."
],
[
"History",
"Bob Jones Sr., the university's founderDuring the Fundamentalist-Modernist controversy of the 1920s, Christian evangelist Bob Jones Sr. grew increasingly concerned about what he perceived to be the secularization of higher education and the influence of religious liberalism in denominational colleges.",
"Jones recalled that in 1924, his friend William Jennings Bryan had leaned over to him at a Bible conference service in Winona Lake, Indiana and said, \"If schools and colleges do not quit teaching evolution as a fact, we are going to become a nation of atheists.\"",
"Though Jones was not a college graduate, he was determined to found a college.",
"On September 12, 1927, Jones opened Bob Jones College in Panama City, Florida, with 88 students.",
"Jones said that although he had been averse to naming the school after himself, his friends overcame his reluctance \"with the argument that the school would be called by that name because of my connection with it, and to attempt to give it any other name would confuse the people\".Bob Jones took no salary from the college.",
"Jones supported the school with personal savings and income from his evangelistic campaigns.",
"Both time and place were inauspicious.",
"The Florida land boom had peaked in 1925, and a hurricane in September 1926 further reduced land values.",
"The Great Depression followed hard on its heels.",
"Bob Jones College barely survived bankruptcy and its move to Cleveland, Tennessee in 1933.In the same year, the college also ended participation in intercollegiate sports.",
"Nevertheless, Jones's move to Cleveland proved extraordinarily advantageous.",
"Bankrupt at the nadir of the Depression, without a home and with barely enough money to move its library and office furniture, the college became the largest liberal arts college in Tennessee thirteen years later.",
"With the enactment of the GI Bill at the end of World War II, the need for campus expansion to accommodate increased enrollment led to a relocation to South Carolina.Though Jones had served as acting president as early as 1934, his son, Bob Jones Jr. officially became the school's second president in 1947 before the college moved to Greenville, South Carolina, and became Bob Jones University.",
"In Greenville, the university more than doubled in size within two years and started a radio station, film department, and art gallery—the latter of which eventually became one of the largest collections of religious art in the Western Hemisphere.During the late 1950s, BJU and alumnus Billy Graham, who had attended Bob Jones College for one semester and received an honorary degree from the university in 1948, engaged in a controversy about the propriety of theological conservatives cooperating with theological liberals to support evangelistic campaigns, a controversy that widened an already growing rift between separatist fundamentalists and other evangelicals.",
"Negative publicity caused by the dispute precipitated a decline in BJU enrollment of about 10% in the years 1956–59, and seven members of the university board (of about a hundred) also resigned in support of Graham, including Graham himself and two of his staff members.",
"When, in 1966, Graham held his only American campaign in Greenville, the university forbade any BJU dormitory student from attending under penalty of expulsion.",
"Enrollment quickly rebounded, and by 1970, there were 3,300 students, approximately 60% more than in 1958.In 1971, Bob Jones III became president at age 32, though his father, with the title of Chancellor, continued to exercise considerable administrative authority into the late 1990s.",
"At the 2005 commencement, Stephen Jones was installed as the fourth president, and Bob Jones III assumed the title of chancellor.",
"Stephen Jones resigned in 2014 for health reasons, and evangelist Steve Pettit was named president, the first unrelated to the Jones family.In 2011, the university became a member of the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS) and reinstated intercollegiate athletics.",
"In March 2017, the university regained its federal tax exemption after a complicated restructuring divided the organization into for-profit and non-profit entities, and in June 2017, it was granted accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.In March 2023, Pettit resigned, effective May 5, citing his inability to work with the chairman of the university's board of trustees.",
"Shortly thereafter, the president of the board also resigned."
],
[
"Academics",
"The university comprises seven colleges and schools offering more than 60 undergraduate majors, including fourteen associate degree programs.",
"Many of the university employees consider their positions as much ministries as jobs.",
"It is common for retiring professors to have served the university for more than forty years, a circumstance that has contributed to the stability and conservatism of an institution of higher learning that has virtually no endowment and at which faculty salaries are \"sacrificial\".===Religious education=======School of Religion====The School of Religion includes majors for both men and women, although only men train as ministerial students.",
"Many of these students go on to a seminary after completing their undergraduate education.",
"Others take ministry positions straight from college, and rising juniors participate in a church internship program to prepare them for pastoral ministry.",
"In 1995, 1,290 BJU graduates were serving as senior or associate pastors in churches across the United States.",
"In 2017 more than 100 pastors in the Upstate alone were BJU graduates.The seminary building at Bob Jones University====Position on the King James Version of the Bible====The university uses the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible in its services and classrooms, but it does not hold the KJV to be the only acceptable English translation or that it has the same authority as the original Hebrew and Greek manuscripts.",
"The King-James-Only Movement—or more correctly, movements, since it has many variations—became a divisive force in fundamentalism as conservative, modern Bible translations, such as the New American Standard Bible (NASB) and the New International Version (NIV), began to appear in the 1970s.",
"BJU has taken the position that orthodox Christians of the late 19th and early 20th centuries (including fundamentalists) agreed that while the KJV was a substantially accurate translation, only the original manuscripts of the Bible written in Hebrew and Greek were infallible and inerrant.",
"Bob Jones Jr. called the KJV-only position a \"heresy\" and \"in a very definite sense, a blasphemy\".===Fine arts===The Division of Fine Arts has the largest faculty of the university's six undergraduate schools.",
"Each year, the university presents an opera in the spring semester and Shakespearean plays in both the fall and spring semesters.",
"The Division of Fine Arts includes an RTV department with a campus radio and television station, WBJU.",
"More than a hundred concerts, recitals, and laboratory theater productions are also presented annually.Each fall, as a recruiting tool, the university sponsors a \"High School Festival\" in which students compete in music, art, and speech (including preaching) contests with their peers from around the country.",
"In the spring, a similar competition sponsored by the American Association of Christian Schools, and hosted by BJU since 1977, brings thousands of national finalists to the university from around the country.",
"In 2005, 120 of the finalists from previous years returned to BJU as freshmen.===Science===Howell Memorial Science BuildingBob Jones University supports young-earth creationism, all their biology faculty are young Earth creationists and the university rejects evolution, calling it \"at best an unsupportable and unworkable hypothesis\".According to the BJU website, \"More than 80% of our premed graduates are accepted to medical or dental school within a year of graduation.\"",
"The Department of Biology hosts two research programs on campus, one in cancer research, the other in animal behavior.",
"Although ten of the sixteen members of the science faculty have bachelor's degrees from BJU, all earned their doctorates from accredited, non-religious institutions of higher learning.",
"The university's nursing major is approved by the South Carolina State Board of Nursing, and a BJU graduate with a BSN is eligible to take the National Council Licensure Examination to become a registered nurse.",
"The BJU engineering program is accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET).===Accreditation and rankings===Bob Jones Sr. was leery of academic accreditation almost from the founding of the college, and by the early 1930s, he had publicly stated his opposition to holding regional accreditation.",
"Jones and the college were criticized for this stance, and academic recognition, as well as student and faculty recruitment, were hindered.In 1944, Jones wrote to John Walvoord of Dallas Theological Seminary that while the university had \"no objection to educational work highly standardized….",
"We, however, cannot conscientiously let some group of educational experts or some committee of experts who may have a behavioristic or atheistic slant on education control or even influence the administrative policies of our college.\"",
"Five years later, Jones reflected that \"it cost us something to stay out of an association, but we stayed out.",
"We have lived up to our convictions.\"",
"In any case, lack of accreditation seems to have made little difference during the post-war period, when the university more than doubled in size.Because graduates did not benefit from accredited degrees, the faculty felt an increased responsibility to prepare their students.",
"Early in the history of the college, there had been some hesitancy on the part of other institutions to accept BJU credits at face value, but by the 1960s, BJU alumni were being accepted by most of the major graduate and professional schools in the United States.",
"Undoubtedly helpful was that some of the university's strongest programs were in the areas of music, speech, and art, disciplines in which ability could be measured by audition or portfolio rather than through paper qualifications.Nevertheless, by the early 2000s, the university quietly reexamined its position on accreditation as degree mills proliferated, and some government agencies, such as local police departments, began excluding BJU graduates because the university did not appear on appropriate federal lists.",
"In 2004, the university began the process of joining the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools.",
"Candidate status—effectively, accreditation—was obtained in April 2005, and full membership in the Association was conferred in November 2006.In December 2011, BJU announced its intention to apply for regional accreditation with the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACSCOC), and it received that accreditation in 2017.In 2017, US News ranked BJU as #61 (tie) in Regional Universities Southand #7 in Best Value Schools.===Political involvement===As a twelve-year-old, Bob Jones Sr. made a twenty-minute speech in defense of the Populist Party.",
"Jones was a friend and admirer of William Jennings Bryan but also campaigned throughout the South for Herbert Hoover (and against Al Smith) during the 1928 presidential election.",
"Even the authorized history of BJU notes that both Bob Jones Sr. and Bob Jones Jr. \"played political hardball\" when dealing with the three municipalities in which the school was successively located.",
"For instance, in 1962, Bob Jones Sr. warned the Greenville City Council that he had \"four hundred votes in his pocket and in any election he would have control over who would be elected.",
"\"Bob Jones Sr.'s April 17, 1960, Easter Sunday sermon, broadcast on the radio, entitled \"Is Segregation Scriptural?\"",
"served as the university position paper on race in the 60s, 70s, and 80s.",
"The transcript was sent in pamphlet form in fund-raising letters and sold in the university bookstore.",
"In the sermon, Jones states, \"If you are against segregation and against racial separation, then you are against God Almighty.\"",
"The school began a long history of supporting politicians who were considered aligned with racial segregation.====Republican Party ties====Ronald Reagan and Strom Thurmond both played influential roles in the political life of BJU.From nearly the inception of Bob Jones College, a majority of students and faculty were from the northern United States, where there was a larger ratio of Republicans to Democrats than in the South (which was solidly Democratic).",
"Therefore, almost from its founding year, BJU had a larger portion of Republicans than the surrounding community.",
"After South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond switched his allegiance to the Republican Party in 1964, BJU faculty members became increasingly influential in the new state Republican party.",
"BJU alumni were elected to local political and party offices.",
"In 1976, candidates supported by BJU faculty and alumni captured the local Republican party with unfortunate short-term political consequences, but by 1980 the religious right and the \"country club\" Republicans had joined forces.",
"From then on, most Republican candidates for local and statewide offices sought the endorsement of Bob Jones III and greeted faculty/staff voters at the University Dining Common.National Republicans soon followed.",
"Ronald Reagan spoke at the school in 1980, although the Joneses supported his opponent, John Connally, in the South Carolina primary.",
"Later, Bob Jones III denounced Reagan as \"a traitor to God's people\" for choosing George H. W. Bush—whom Jones called a \"devil\"—as his vice president.",
"Even later, Jones III shook Bush's hand and thanked him for being a good president.",
"In the 1990s, other Republicans such as Dan Quayle, Pat Buchanan, Phil Gramm, Bob Dole, and Alan Keyes also spoke at BJU.",
"Democrats were rarely invited to speak at the university, in part because they took political and social positions (especially support for abortion rights) opposed by the Religious Right.====2000 election====On February 2, 2000, then Texas Governor George W. Bush, as a candidate for president, spoke during school's chapel hour.",
"Bush gave a standard stump speech, making no specific reference to the university.",
"His political opponents quickly noted his non-mention of the university's ban on interracial dating.",
"During the Michigan primary, Bush was also criticized for not stating his opposition to the university's anti-Catholicism.",
"The McCain campaign targeted Catholics with \"Catholic Voter Alert\" phone calls, reminding voters of Bush's visit to BJU.",
"New York Republican Representative Peter King, who was supporting John McCain in the presidential primary, called Bush a tool of \"anti-Catholic bigoted forces\", after the visit.",
"King described BJU as \"an institution that is notorious in Ireland for awarding an honorary doctorate to Northern Ireland's tempestuous Protestant leader, Ian Paisley.\"",
"Bush denied that he either knew of or approved what he regarded as BJU's intolerant policies.",
"On February 26, Bush issued a formal letter of apology to Cardinal John Joseph O'Connor of New York for failing to denounce Bob Jones University's history of anti-Catholic statements.",
"Bush said at a news conference following the letter's release, \"I make no excuses.",
"I had an opportunity and I missed it.",
"I regret that....I wish I had gotten up then and seized the moment to set a tone, a tone that I had set in Texas, a positive and inclusive tone.\"",
"Also during the 2000 Republican primary campaign in South Carolina, Richard Hand, a BJU professor, spread a false e-mail rumor that John McCain had fathered an illegitimate child.",
"The McCains have an adopted daughter from Bangladesh, and later push polling also implied that the child was biracial.====Withdrawal from politics====Although the March 2007 issue of ''Foreign Policy'' listed BJU as one of \"The World's Most Controversial Religious Sites\" because of its past influence on American politics, BJU has seen little political controversy since Stephen Jones became president.",
"When asked by a ''Newsweek'' reporter if he wished to play a political role, Stephen Jones replied, \"It would not be my choice.\"",
"Further, when asked if he felt ideologically closer to his father's engagement with politics or to other evangelicals who have tried to avoid civic involvement, Jones answered, \"The gospel is for individuals.",
"The main message we have is to individuals.",
"We're not here to save the culture.\"",
"In a 2005 ''Washington Post'' interview, Jones dodged political questions and even admitted that he was embarrassed by \"some of the more vitriolic comments\" made by his predecessors.",
"\"I don't want to get specific,\" Jones said, \"But there were things said back then that I wouldn't say today.\"",
"In October 2007, when Bob Jones III, as \"a private citizen,\" endorsed Mitt Romney for the Republican nomination for president, Stephen Jones made it clear that he wished \"to stay out of politics\" and that neither he nor the university had endorsed anyone.",
"Despite a hotly contested South Carolina primary, none of the candidates appeared on the platform of BJU's Founders' Memorial Amphitorium during the 2008 election cycle.",
"In April 2008, Stephen Jones told a reporter, \"I don't think I have a political bone in my body.",
"\"====Renewed political engagement====In 2015 BJU reemerged as a campaign stop for conservative Republicans.",
"Ben Carson and Ted Cruz held large on-campus rallies on two successive days in November.",
"BJU president Steve Pettit met with Marco Rubio, Rick Perry, Mike Huckabee, and Scott Walker.",
"Jeb Bush, Carson, Cruz, and Rubio also appeared at a 2016 Republican presidential forum at BJU.",
"Chip Felkel, a Greenville Republican consultant, noted that some candidates closely identified \"with the folks at Bob Jones.",
"So it makes sense for them to want to be there.\"",
"Nevertheless, unlike BJU's earlier periods of political involvement, Pettit did not endorse a candidate.According to Furman University political science professor Jim Guth, because Greenville has grown so much recently, it is unlikely BJU will ever again have the same political influence it had between the 1960s and the 1980s.",
"Nevertheless, about a quarter of all BJU graduates continue to live in the Upstate, and as long-time mayor Knox White has said, \"The alumni have had a big impact on every profession and walk of life in Greenville.\""
],
[
"Campus",
"The university occupies 205 acres at the eastern city limit of Greenville.",
"The institution moved into its initial 25 buildings during the 1947–48 school year, and later buildings were also faced with the light yellow brick chosen for the originals.===Museum and gallery===Bob Jones Jr. was a connoisseur of European art from his teen years and began collecting after World War II on about $30,000 a year authorized by the University Board of Directors.",
"Jones first concentrated on the Italian Baroque, a style then out of favor and relatively inexpensive in the years immediately following the war.",
"The museum's collection currently includes more than 400 European paintings from the 14th through the 19th centuries, period furniture, and a notable collection of Russian icons.",
"The museum also includes a variety of Holy Land antiquities.The gallery is strong in Baroque paintings and includes notable works by Rubens, Tintoretto, Veronese, Cranach, Gerard David, Murillo, Mattia Preti, Ribera, van Dyck, and Gustave Doré.",
"Included in the Museum & Gallery collection are seven large canvases, part of a series by Benjamin West painted for George III, called \"The Progress of Revealed Religion\", which are displayed in the War Memorial Chapel.",
"The museum also includes a variety of Holy Land antiquities collected in the early 20th century by missionaries Frank and Barbara Bowen.Every Easter, the university and the Museum & Gallery present the ''Living Gallery'', a series of tableaux vivants recreating noted works of religious art using live models disguised as part of two-dimensional paintings.",
"BJU has been criticized by some fundamentalists for promoting \"false Catholic doctrine\" through its art gallery because much of Baroque art was created for the Counter-Reformation.",
"A painting by Lucas van Leyden that had been displayed in the gallery's collection for more than ten years and had been consigned to Sotheby's for sale was recognized by Interpol as art that had been stolen by the Nazis from the Mittelrhein-Museum in Koblenz.",
"The painting was eventually returned to Germany after months of negotiations between the Mittelrhein-Museum and Julius H. Weitzner (1896–1986), a noted dealer in Old Master paintings.After the death of Bob Jones Jr., Erin Jones, the wife of BJU president Stephen Jones, became director.",
"According to David Steel, curator of European art at the North Carolina Museum of Art, Erin Jones \"brought that museum into the modern era\", employing \"a top-notch curator, John Nolan\", and following \"best practices in conservation and restoration\".",
"The museum cooperates with other institutions, lending works for outside shows such as a Rembrandt exhibit in 2011.In 2008, the BJU Museum & Gallery opened a satellite location, the Museum & Gallery at Heritage Green near downtown Greenville, which featured rotating exhibitions from the main museum and interactive children's activities.",
"In February 2017, the Museum & Gallery closed both locations permanently.",
"In 2018, the museum announced that a new home would be built at a yet undetermined located off the BJU campus.",
"In 2021, Erin Jones said the museum was exploring a permanent home near the proposed downtown conference center.===Library===Jerusalem Chamber, Mack Library, containing a collection of rare BiblesThe Mack Library (named for John Sephus Mack) holds a collection of more than 300,000 books and includes seating for 1,200 as well as a computer lab and a computer classroom.",
"(Its ancillary, a music library, is included in the Gustafson Fine Arts Center.)",
"Mack Library's Special Collections includes an American Hymnody Collection of about 700 titles.",
"The \"Jerusalem Chamber\" is a replica of the room in Westminster Abbey in which work on the King James Version of the Bible was conducted, and it displays a collection of rare Bibles.",
"An adjoining Memorabilia Room commemorates the life of Bob Jones Sr. and the history of the university.The library's Fundamentalism File collects periodical articles and ephemera about social and religious matters of interest to evangelicals and fundamentalists.",
"The University Archives holds copies of all university publications, oral histories of faculty and staff members, surviving remnants of university correspondence, and pictures and artifacts related to the Jones family and the history of the university."
],
[
"Ancillary ministries",
"===''Unusual Films''===Both Bob Jones Sr. and Bob Jones Jr. believed that film could be an excellent medium for mass evangelism, and in 1950, the university established ''Unusual Films'' within the School of Fine Arts.",
"(The studio name derives from a former BJU promotional slogan, \"The World's Most Unusual University\".)",
"Bob Jones Jr. selected a speech teacher, Katherine Stenholm, as the first director.",
"Although she had no experience in cinema, she took summer courses at the University of Southern California and received personal instruction from Hollywood specialists, such as Rudolph Sternad.Unusual Films has produced seven feature-length films, each with an evangelistic emphasis: ''Wine of Morning'', ''Red Runs the River'', ''Flame in the Wind'', ''Sheffey'', ''Beyond the Night'', ''The Printing'', and ''Milltown Pride''.",
"''Wine of Morning'' (1955), based on a novel by Bob Jones Jr., represented the United States at the Cannes Film Festival.",
"The first four films are historical dramas set, respectively, in the time of Christ, the U.S. Civil War, 16th-century Spain, and the late 19th-century South—the latter a fictionalized treatment of the life of Methodist evangelist, Robert Sayers Sheffey.",
"''Beyond the Night'' closely follows an actual 20th-century missionary saga in Central Africa, and ''The Printing'' uses composite characters to portray the persecution of believers in the former Soviet Union.",
"According to The Dove Foundation, ''The Printing'' \"no doubt will urge Christian believers everywhere to appreciate the freedoms they enjoy.",
"It is inspiring!\"",
"In 1999, Unusual Films began producing feature films for children, including ''The Treasure Map'', ''Project Dinosaur'', and ''Appalachian Trial''.",
"They also released a short animated film for children, ''The Golden Rom''.",
"Unusual Films returned to their customary format in 2011 with their release of ''Milltown Pride'', a historical film set in 1920s upstate South Carolina.Unusual Films also maintains a student film production program.",
"The Film and Digital Storytelling program provides professional training in motion picture production.",
"This training combines classroom instruction with hands-on experience in various areas, including directing, editing, and cinematography.",
"Before graduation, seniors produce high-definition short films which they write, direct, and edit.===BJU Press===BJU Press originated from the need for textbooks for the burgeoning Christian school movement.",
"The press publishes a full range of K–12 textbooks.",
"More than a million pre-college students worldwide use BJU textbooks, and the press has about 2,500 titles in print.BJU Press also offers distance learning courses online, via DVD and hard drive.",
"Another ancillary, the Academy of Home Education, is a \"service organization for homeschooling families\" that maintains student records, administers achievement testing, and issues high school diplomas.",
"The press sold its music division, SoundForth, to Lorenz Publishing on October 1, 2012.===Pre-college programs===The university operates Bob Jones Academy, which enrolls students from preschool through 12th grade.",
"With about 1100 students, the school's demographic makeup leans heavily white (90.3%), with non-Black minorities making up the bulk of other ethnicities.",
"Black students make up 0.5% of enrollment."
],
[
"Controversies",
"===Sexual abuse reports===In December 2011, in response to accusations of mishandling of student reports of sexual abuse (most of which had occurred in their home churches when the students were minors) and a concurrent reporting issue at a church pastored by a university board member, the BJU board of trustees hired an independent ombudsman, GRACE (Godly Response to Abuse in the Christian Environment), to investigate.",
"Released in December 2014, the GRACE report suggested that BJU had discouraged students from reporting past sexual abuse, and though the university declined to implement many of the report's recommendations, President Steve Pettit formally apologized \"to those who felt they did not receive from us genuine love, compassion, understanding, and support after suffering sexual abuse or assault\".",
"The university's mishandling of sexual abuse in the past came into light again in August 2020 when a student filed a lawsuit against Bob Jones University and Furman University alleging both administrations ignored the sexual assault report and expelled the student for consuming alcohol, which is against the Student Code of Conduct handbook.===Racial policies and ban on interracial dating===Although BJU had admitted Asian students and other ethnic groups from its inception, it did not enroll African or African-American students until 1971.From 1971 to 1975, BJU admitted only married Black people.",
"However, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) had already determined in 1970 that \"private schools with racially discriminatory admissions policies\" were not entitled to federal tax exemption.",
"In 1975, the University Board of Trustees authorized a policy change to admit Black students, a move that occurred shortly before the announcement of the Supreme Court decision in ''Runyon v. McCrary'' (427 U.S. 160 1976), which prohibited racial exclusion in private schools.",
"In May 1975, BJU expanded rules against interracial dating and marriage.In 1976, the Internal Revenue Service revoked the university's tax exemption retroactively to December 1, 1970, because it practiced racial discrimination.",
"The case eventually was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1982.After BJU lost the decision in ''Bob Jones University v. United States'' (461 U.S. 574)1983, the university chose to maintain its interracial dating policy and pay a million dollars in back taxes.",
"The year following the Court decision, contributions to the university declined by 13 percent.",
"In 2000, following a media uproar prompted by the visit of presidential candidate George W. Bush to the university, Bob Jones III dropped the university's interracial dating rule, announcing the change on CNN's ''Larry King Live''.",
"In the same year, Bob Jones III drew criticism after reposting a letter on the university's web page referring to Mormons and Catholics as being members of \"cults which call themselves Christian\".In 2005, Stephen Jones, great-grandson of the founder, became BJU's president on the same day that he received his PhD from the school.",
"Bob Jones III then took the title Chancellor.",
"In 2008, the university declared itself \"profoundly sorry\" for having allowed \"institutional policies to remain in place that were racially hurtful\".",
"That year, BJU enrolled students from fifty states and nearly fifty countries, representing diverse ethnicities and cultures, and the BJU administration declared itself \"committed to maintaining on the campus the racial and cultural diversity and harmony characteristic of the true Church of Jesus Christ throughout the world\".In his first meeting with the university cabinet in 2014, the fifth president Steve Pettit said it was appropriate for BJU to regain its tax-exempt status because BJU no longer held its earlier positions about race.",
"\"The Bible is clear,\" said Pettit, \"We are made of one blood.\"",
"By February 17, 2017, the IRS website had listed the university as a 501(c)(3) organization, and by May 2017, BJU had forged a working relationship with Greenville's Phillis Wheatley Center.",
"In 2017, 9% of the student body was \"from the American minority population\"."
],
[
"Student life",
"===Religious atmosphere===\"I believe in the inspiration of the Bible (both the Old and the New Testaments); the creation of man by the direct act of God; the incarnation and virgin birth of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ; His identification as the Son of God; His vicarious atonement for the sins of mankind by the shedding of His blood on the cross; the resurrection of His body from the tomb; His power to save men from sin; the new birth through the regeneration by the Holy Spirit; and the gift of eternal life by the grace of God.",
"\"— BJU CreedReligion is a major aspect of life and curriculum at BJU.",
"The BJU Creed, written in 1927 by journalist and prohibitionist Sam Small, is recited by students and faculty four days a week at chapel services.The university also encourages church planting in areas of the United States \"in great need of fundamental churches\", and it has provided financial and logistical assistance to ministerial graduates in starting more than a hundred new churches.",
"Bob Jones III has also encouraged non-ministerial students to put their career plans on hold for two or three years to provide lay leadership for small churches.",
"Students of various majors participate in Missions Advance (formerly Mission Prayer Band), an organization that prays for missionaries and attempts to stimulate campus interest in world evangelism.",
"During summers and Christmas breaks, about 150 students participate in teams that use their musical, language, trade, and aviation skills to promote Christian missions around the world.",
"Although a separate nonprofit corporation, Gospel Fellowship Association, an organization founded by Bob Jones Sr. and associated with BJU, is one of the largest fundamentalist mission boards in the country.",
"Through its \"Timothy Fund\", the university also sponsors international students who are training for the ministry.The university requires the use of the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible in its services and classrooms, but it does not hold that the KJV is the only acceptable English translation or that it has the same authority as the original Hebrew and Greek manuscripts.",
"The university's position has been criticized by some other fundamentalists, including fellow conservative university Pensacola Christian College, which in 1998 produced a widely distributed videotape which argued that this \"defiling leaven in fundamentalism\" was passed from the 19th-century Princeton theologian Benjamin B. Warfield (1851–1921) through Charles Brokenshire (1885–1954) to current BJU faculty members and graduates.===Rules of conduct===Strict rules govern student life at BJU.",
"Some of these are based directly on the university's interpretation of the Bible.",
"For instance, the 2015–16 Student Handbook states, \"Students are to avoid any types of entertainment that could be considered immodest or that contain profanity, scatological realism, sexual perversion, erotic realism, lurid violence, occultism and false philosophical or religious assumptions.\"",
"Grounds for immediate dismissal include stealing, immorality (including sexual relations between unmarried students), possession of hard-core pornography, use of alcohol or drugs, and participating in a public demonstration for a cause the university opposes.",
"Similar \"moral failures\" are grounds for terminating the employment of faculty and staff.",
"In 1998, a homosexual alumnus was threatened with arrest if he visited the campus.For years, male students were required to wear slacks, dress shirts, and ties on campus during the day.",
"This requirement has since been loosened; men are allowed to wear polo shirts or dress shirts on weekdays until 17:00 and are no longer required to wear ties.",
"Effective in 2018, women are no longer required to wear skirts or dresses and can now wear pants.",
"They are also required to attend chapel four days a week, as well as at least two services per week at an approved \"local fundamental church\".Other rules are not based on a specific biblical passage.",
"For instance, the Handbook notes that \"there is no specific Bible command that says, 'Thou shalt not be late to class', but a student who wishes to display orderliness and concern for others will not come in late to the distraction of the teacher and other students.\"",
"In 2008 a campus spokesperson also said that one goal of the dress code was \"to teach our young people to dress professionally\" on campus while giving them \"the ability to...choose within the biblically accepted options of dress\" when they were off campus.Additional rules include requiring resident hall students to abide by a campus curfew of 11:00 pm, with lights out at midnight.",
"Students are forbidden to go to movie theaters while in residence, however, they may watch movies rated G or PG while in the residence halls.",
"Students may not listen to popular contemporary music.",
"Male students with upper-level privileges and graduate students may have facial hair that is fully grown before the start of the semester, neatly trimmed, and well maintained at approximately ½ inch or less.",
"Women are expected to dress modestly and wear dresses or skirts that come to the knee to class and religious services.===Extracurriculars===Davis Field HouseAfter BJU abandoned intercollegiate sports in 1933, its intramural sports program included competition in soccer, basketball, softball, volleyball, tennis, badminton, flag football, table tennis, racquetball, and water polo.",
"The university also competed in intercollegiate debate within the National Educational Debate Association, in intercollegiate mock trial and computer science competitions, and participated at South Carolina Student Legislature.",
"In 2012, BJU joined Division I of National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA) and in 2014 participated in intercollegiate soccer, basketball, cross-country, and golf.",
"The teams are known as the Bruins.The university requires all unmarried incoming first-year students under 23 to join one of 45 \"societies\".",
"Societies meet most Fridays for entertainment and fellowship and hold weekly prayer meetings.",
"Societies compete with one another in intramural sports, debate, and Scholastic Bowl.",
"The university also has a student-staffed newspaper (''The Collegian''), and yearbook (''Vintage'').Early in December, thousands of students, faculty, and visitors gather around the front campus fountain for an annual Christmas carol singing and lighting ceremony, illuminating tens of thousands of Christmas lights.",
"On December 3, 2004, the ceremony broke the Guinness World Record for Christmas caroling with 7,514 carolers.Before 2015, the university required students and faculty to attend a six-day Bible Conference instead of a traditional Spring Break.",
"However, the university announced that beginning in 2016, it would hold the Bible Conference in February and give students a week of Spring Break in March.",
"The Conference typically attracts fundamentalist preachers and laypeople from around the country, and some BJU class reunions are held during the week."
],
[
"Athletics",
"Mascot at a soccer gameThe Bob Jones (BJU) athletic teams are called the Bruins.",
"The university is a member of the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA), primarily competing in the South Region of the Division II level.The Bruins previously competed as a member of the NCAA Division III ranks, primarily competing as an NCAA D-III Independent from 2020–21 to 2022–23.BJU competes in 12 intercollegiate varsity sports.",
"Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross-country, golf, soccer, and track & field, while women's sports include basketball, beach volleyball, cross-country, soccer, track & field, and volleyball.===History===In 2012, the university inaugurated intercollegiate athletics with four teams: men's soccer, men's basketball, women's soccer, and women's basketball.",
"The university added intercollegiate golf and cross-country teams during the 2013–2014 school year.",
"Men's and women's shooting sports were added in 2016.Men's baseball began in the spring of 2021, and women's beach volleyball started in the spring of 2022.On January 31, 2023, director of athletics Neal Ring announced his resignation.",
"Ring had overseen Bruins Athletics since inception.Through its first 11 seasons, the athletic department amassed 22 NCCAA National Championships, nearly 100 All-Americans, and over 200 Scholar-Athletes.",
"Bruins Athletics also received 6 straight Presidential Awards for Excellence, honoring the most successful NCCAA DII athletics program.===Move to NCAA Division III===In 2018, BJU explored National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) membership and applied for it in January 2020.The Bruins were accepted as Division III provisional members in June for three years, making it the only Division III school in the state.",
"The school has been searching for a conference."
],
[
"Notable people",
"===Alumni===A number of BJU graduates have become influential within fundamentalist and evangelical Christianity, including Ken Hay (founder of \"The Wilds\" Christian camps) Ron \"Patch\" Hamilton (composer and president of Majesty Music) Billy Kim (former president of Baptist World Alliance), and Moisés Silva (president of the Evangelical Theological Society).",
"BJU alumni also include the third pastor (1968–1976) of Riverside Church (Ernest T. Campbell), the former president of Northland Baptist Bible College (Les Ollila), late president of Baptist Bible College (Ernest Pickering), and the former president of Clearwater Christian College (Richard Stratton).One BJU alumnus, Asa Hutchinson, served as the governor of Arkansas and also served in the U.S. Congress; his brother Tim Hutchinson served in the U.S. Senate.",
"Others have served in state government: Michigan state senator Alan Cropsey, Pennsylvania state representative Gordon Denlinger, Pennsylvania state representative Mark M. Gillen, former Speaker Pro Tempore of the South Carolina House of Representatives Terry Haskins, member of the South Carolina House of Representatives Wendy Nanney, Pennsylvania state representative Sam Rohrer, member of the Missouri House of Representatives Ryan Silvey, Maryland state senator Bryan Simonaire and his daughter, state delegate Meagan Simonaire, and South Carolina state senator Danny Verdin."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Official athletics website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"British Empire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''British Empire''' comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states.",
"It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.",
"At its height in the 19th and early 20th century, it was the largest empire in history and, for a century, was the foremost global power.",
"By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered , of the Earth's total land area.",
"As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread.",
"At the peak of its power, it was described as \"the empire on which the sun never sets\", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires.",
"Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia.",
"A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America.",
"Britain became a major power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783.While retaining control of British North America (now Canada) and territories in and near the Caribbean in the British West Indies, British colonial expansion turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.",
"After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings.",
"It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia.",
"The \"Great Game\" and \"Scramble for Africa\" also ensued.",
"The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as (Latin for \"British Peace\").",
"Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectively controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.",
"It also came to dominate the Middle East.",
"Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions by the 1920s.",
"By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead.",
"Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire.",
"The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources.",
"Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power.In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan.",
"Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate the decline of the empire.",
"India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire.",
"The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of the empire remain under British sovereignty.",
"After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states.",
"Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain the same person as monarch, currently King Charles III."
],
[
"Origins (1497–1583)",
"Matthew'', John Cabot's ship used for his second voyage to the New World in 1497The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms.",
"In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic.",
"Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland.",
"He believed he had reached Asia, and there was no attempt to found a colony.",
"Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships.No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century.",
"In the meantime, Henry VIII's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared \"that this realm of England is an Empire\".",
"The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies.",
"In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade.",
"This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World.",
"At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term \"British Empire\") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire.",
"By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France.Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Munster Plantations, in 16th century Ireland by settling it with English and Welsh Protestant settlers.",
"England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169.Several people who helped establish the Munster plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men."
],
[
"English overseas possessions (1583–1707)",
"In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration.",
"That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic.",
"In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt.",
"On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind.",
"Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584.Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain.",
"Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.",
"The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade.",
"This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the \"First British Empire\".=== Americas, Africa and the slave trade ===colonial Virginia in British AmericaEngland's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success.",
"An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits.",
"Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded.",
"The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia.",
"Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship, while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful.",
"In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims.",
"Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists.",
"England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York.",
"Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates.The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies.",
"Settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628), but struggled until the \"Sugar Revolution\" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century.",
"Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil.",
"At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves.",
"The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas, and one of the most densely populated places in the world.",
"This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe.To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies.",
"This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch.",
"In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas.In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada.",
"Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France.Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean.",
"The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683.The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported.",
"British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans—until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see ).",
"To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island.",
"In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies).",
"The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities.",
"Ships registered in Bristol, Liverpool and London were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading.",
"For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven.===Rivalry with other European empires===Fort St. George in Madras, India was founded in 1639.At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively.",
"The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India.",
"There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other.",
"Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia.",
"Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England.",
"A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability.Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe.",
"The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe.",
"In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for thirteen years."
],
[
"Scottish attempt to expand overseas",
"In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama.",
"Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and affected by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later.",
"The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise.",
"The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707."
],
[
"\"First\" British Empire (1707–1783)",
"Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the East India Company as both a military and commercial power.The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.",
"Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht.",
"Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe.",
"The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain, Gibraltar and Menorca.",
"Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean.",
"Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative ''asiento'' (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America) to Britain.",
"With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes.",
"In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America.In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles.",
"With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch.",
"During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire.",
"The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as a major military and political power in India.",
"France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India.",
"In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers.",
"The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers.The signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire.",
"In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain.",
"Spain ceded Florida to Britain.",
"Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power.=== Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies ===British colonial claims in North America between 1763 and 1776 During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent.",
"This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan \"No taxation without representation\", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen.",
"The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government.",
"In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775.The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new United States of America.",
"The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms.",
"American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783.The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the \"first\" and \"second\" empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa.",
"Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations'', published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal.",
"The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence.",
"The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784.The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution.Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy.",
"The United States Congress declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory.",
"In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States."
],
[
"Rise of the \"Second\" British Empire (1783–1815)",
"=== Exploration of the Pacific ===James Cook's mission was to find the alleged southern continent ''Terra Australis''.Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year.",
"Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia.",
"The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606, but there was no attempt to colonise it.",
"In 1770 James Cook charted the eastern coast while on a scientific voyage, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales.",
"In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788.Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation.",
"Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties, and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples.",
"Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868.The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of the Victorian gold rush, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world.During his voyage, Cook visited New Zealand, known to Europeans due to the 1642 voyage of the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman.",
"Cook claimed both the North and the South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively.",
"Initially, interaction between the indigenous Maori population and European settlers was limited to the trading of goods.",
"European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North.",
"In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand.",
"On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which is considered to be New Zealand's founding document, despite differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text being the cause of ongoing dispute.The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific.",
"Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789.Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention.",
"The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast.",
"This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island.",
"On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade.",
"Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola.",
"This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years.",
"Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St. John.",
"The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser.",
"These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward.=== Continued conquest in India ===The East India Company fought a series of Anglo-Mysore wars in Southern India with the Sultanate of Mysore under Hyder Ali and then Tipu Sultan.",
"Defeats in the First Anglo-Mysore war and stalemate in the Second were followed by victories in the Third and the Fourth.",
"Following Tipu Sultan's death in the fourth war in the Siege of Seringapatam (1799), the kingdom became a protectorate of the company.The East India Company fought three Anglo-Maratha Wars with the Maratha Confederacy.",
"The First Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war ''status quo''.",
"The Second and Third Anglo-Maratha wars resulted in British victories.",
"After the surrender of Peshwa Bajirao II on 1818, the East India Company acquired control of a large majority of the Indian subcontinent.=== Wars with France ===The Battle of Waterloo in 1815 ended in the defeat of Napoleon and marked the beginning of ''Pax Britannica''.Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.",
"It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe.The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win.",
"French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy-Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810.France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815.Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius, St Lucia, the Seychelles, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands ceded Guiana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony, while the Danish ceded Heligoland.",
"Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands.=== Abolition of slavery ===With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy.",
"Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions.",
"With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire.",
"In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves.",
"Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline.",
"The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844).",
"Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of \"apprenticeship\".",
"Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838.The British government compensated slave-owners."
],
[
"Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)",
"Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's \"imperial century\" by some historians, around of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire.",
"Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia.",
"Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the ''Pax Britannica'', and a foreign policy of \"splendid isolation\".",
"Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an \"Informal Empire\".An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli making Queen Victoria Empress of India.",
"The caption reads \"New crowns for old ones!",
"\"British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire.",
"By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line.=== East India Company rule and the British Raj in India ===The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia.",
"The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826).From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since the 1730s.",
"This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China.",
"In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other treaty ports including Shanghai.During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company.",
"A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired.",
"The company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline.",
"The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides.",
"The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India.",
"India became the empire's most valuable possession, \"the Jewel in the Crown\", and was the most important source of Britain's strength.A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died.",
"The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule.",
"Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.=== Rivalry with Russia ===Balaclava in 1854During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty.",
"This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the \"Great Game\".",
"As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India.",
"In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain.When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities.",
"The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare, was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the ''Pax Britannica'' and was a resounding defeat for Russia.",
"The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan.",
"For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente.",
"The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British.=== Cape to Cairo ===''The Rhodes Colossus''—Cecil Rhodes spanning \"Cape to Cairo\"The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies.",
"Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign.",
"British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s.",
"In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom.",
"Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854–1902).",
"In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902).In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean.",
"Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the \"jugular vein of the Empire\".",
"In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £ in ).",
"Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage.",
"Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.Although Britain controlled the Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire.",
"The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the \"Scramble for Africa\" by defining \"effective occupation\" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims.",
"The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan.",
"A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898.Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality.British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a \"Cape to Cairo\" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent.",
"During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia.=== Changing status of the white colonies ===A British Empire flag combining the arms of the dominions to represent their growing significanceThe path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837.This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada.",
"Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies.",
"With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations.",
"Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901.The term \"dominion status\" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference.",
"As the dominions gained greater autonomy, they would come to be recognized as distinct realms of the empire with unique customs and symbols of their own.",
"Imperial identity, through imagery such as patriotic artworks and banners, began developing into a form that attempted to be more inclusive by showcasing the empire as a family of newly birthed nations with common roots.The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule.",
"Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852.Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament.",
"Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire.",
"A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons.",
"A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising."
],
[
"World wars (1914–1945)",
"A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlistBy the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of \"splendid isolation\".",
"Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war.",
"Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively.=== First World War ===Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War.",
"Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa.",
"In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively.",
"Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement.",
"This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support.",
"Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies.",
"The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right.",
"The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day.",
"Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light.",
"The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of and 13 million new subjects.",
"The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates.",
"Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika.",
"The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa.",
"Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions.=== Inter-war period ===The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy.",
"Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States.",
"This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations.",
"The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy.In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared.",
"The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration.",
"The Irish War of Independence ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown.",
"Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom.George V with British and Dominion prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial ConferenceA similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy the demand for independence.",
"Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts.",
"This led to tension, particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre.",
"In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion.",
"The non-cooperation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years.In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954.British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936, under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone.",
"In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations.",
"Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932.In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews.",
"The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power.",
"This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936.As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency.The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference.",
"Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.",
"After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be \"autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another\" within a \"British Commonwealth of Nations\".",
"This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster.",
"The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent.",
"Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression.",
"In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a republican constitution renaming itself ''Ireland''.=== Second World War ===During the Second World War, the Eighth Army was made up of units from many different countries in the British Empire and Commonwealth; it fought in the North African and Italian campaigns.Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa.",
"All soon declared war on Germany.",
"While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war.After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941.British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war.",
"In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that \"the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live\" should be respected.",
"This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the \"greatest joy\".",
"He felt that Britain was now assured of victory, but failed to recognise that the \"many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations which he knew lay ahead\" in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire.",
"The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power, including, particularly, the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar.",
"The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 ANZUS Pact.",
"The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing geopolitics by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage."
],
[
"Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)",
"Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad.",
"Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power.",
"Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a US$3.75 billion loan from the United States, the last installment of which was repaid in 2006.At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations.",
"The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union.",
"In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism.",
"In practice, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check.",
"At first, British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth, but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible \"wind of change\" blowing.",
"Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies.",
"In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in Malaya, Kenya and Palestine.",
"Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong.=== Initial disengagement ===About 14.5 million people lost their homes as a result of the partition of India in 1947.The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence.",
"India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented.",
"Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions.",
"Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948.When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947.The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan.",
"Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives.",
"Burma, which had been administered as part of British India until 1937, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948.India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India.",
"The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state.",
"Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve.",
"The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state.",
"It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a civil war between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting.",
"The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of Israel declared independence and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states.",
"Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from Haifa on 30 June 1948.Following the surrender of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin.",
"The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malaysian Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted.",
"The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth.",
"In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state.",
"Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union.=== Suez and its aftermath ===Eden's decision to invade Egypt in 1956 revealed Britain's post-war weaknesses.In the 1951 general election, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill.",
"Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India.",
"Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow.",
"Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956.In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal.",
"The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal.",
"Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion.",
"Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side.",
"Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency.",
"Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives, UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned.The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power, demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States.",
"The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one Member of Parliament (MP) to describe it as \"Britain's Waterloo\" and another to suggest that the country had become an \"American satellite\".",
"Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they \"went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing\", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982.While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse.",
"Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval, as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States.",
"Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade.",
"On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British Armed Forces troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned.",
"By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore.",
"The British granted independence to the Maldives in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from Aden in 1967, and granted independence to Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates in 1971.=== Wind of change ===British decolonisation in Africa.",
"By the end of the 1960s, all but Rhodesia (the future Zimbabwe) and the South African mandate of South West Africa (Namibia) had achieved recognised independence.Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of \"the wind of change blowing through this continent\".",
"Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.",
"To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s.",
"Owing to the rapid pace of decolonisation during this period, the cabinet post of Secretary of State for the Colonies was abolished in 1966, along with the Colonial Office, which merged with the Commonwealth Relations Office to form the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (now the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office) in October 1968.Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968.British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process.",
"Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau uprising, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps.",
"Throughout the 1960s, the British government took a \"No independence until majority rule\" policy towards decolonising the empire, leading the white minority government of Southern Rhodesia to enact the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain, resulting in a civil war that lasted until the British-mediated Lancaster House Agreement of 1979.The agreement saw the British Empire temporarily re-establish the Colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1979 to 1980 as a transitionary government to a majority rule Republic of Zimbabwe.",
"This was the last British possession in Africa.In Cyprus, a guerrilla war waged by the Greek Cypriot organisation EOKA against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the London and Zürich Agreements, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960.The UK retained the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as sovereign base areas.",
"The Mediterranean colony of Malta was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain.Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members.",
"Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did Trinidad and Tobago.",
"Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, in the 1970s and 1980s, but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence.",
"The British Virgin Islands, The Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain, while Guyana achieved independence in 1966.Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981.A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved.British Overseas Territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980.Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France.",
"Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu became Commonwealth realms.=== End of empire ===By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete.",
"In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire.",
"Britain's successful military response to retake the Falkland Islands during the ensuing Falklands War contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power.The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain.",
"Although granted legislative independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place.",
"The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that effectively an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the Canadian Constitution.",
"The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request.",
"Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply to Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual Australian states.",
"With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the New Zealand Parliament's consent.",
"In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the Canada Act 1982, which was passed by the British parliament, formally patriating the Canadian Constitution.",
"The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution.",
"Similarly, the Australia Act 1986 (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's Constitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain.On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted independence.",
"Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the Sultan, who had preferred British protection.In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong.",
"Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1860 Convention of Peking, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula had been respectively ceded to Britain ''in perpetuity'', but the majority of the colony consisted of the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997.Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China.",
"A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China.",
"The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many, including King Charles III, then Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, \"the end of Empire\", though many British territories that are remnants of the empire still remain."
],
[
"Legacy",
"The fourteen British Overseas TerritoriesThe Commonwealth of NationsBritain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles.",
"In 1983, the British Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing Crown Colonies as \"British Dependent Territories\", and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories.",
"Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.",
"The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the Commonwealth realms, voluntarily continue to share the same person— King Charles III—as their respective head of state.",
"These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that rose from the British Empire.",
"The empire established the use of the English language in regions around the world.",
"Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1.5 billion as a first, second or foreign language.",
"Individual and team sports developed in Britain, particularly football, cricket, lawn tennis, and golf were exported.",
"British missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread Protestantism (including Anglicanism) to all continents.",
"The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years.Cricket being played in India.",
"Sports developed in Britain or the former empire continue to be viewed and played.Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas.",
"The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples.",
"Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler colonist populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland.",
"Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of South Asian people emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Overseas Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.",
"The demographics of the United Kingdom changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies.In the 19th century, innovation in Britain led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of factory systems, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship.",
"British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire.",
"The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways.",
"The convention of driving on the left-hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire.The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy has served as the template for the governments of many former colonies, and English common law for legal systems.",
"International commercial contracts are often based on English common law.",
"The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies.Historians' approaches to understanding the British Empire are diverse and evolving.",
"Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of post-colonial studies, which seek to critically re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s.",
"In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world.Historians such as Caroline Elkins have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and emergency laws to maintain power.",
"Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of indigenous peoples, and famine-response policies.",
"Some scholars, including Amartya Sen, assert that British policies worsened the famines in India that killed millions during British rule.",
"Conversely, historians such as Niall Ferguson say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies.",
"Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous.",
"Public attitudes towards the empire within Britain remain somewhat positive."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of British Empire-related topics* Historiography of the British Empire* Demographics of the British Empire* Economy of the British Empire* Territorial evolution of the British Empire* History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom* Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories* List of countries that gained independence from the United Kingdom"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* British Empire from the National Archives* Collection: \"British Empire\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art* The New British Galleries from the Metropolitan Museum of Art* \"Empire through the Lens\" from the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Batman (1989 film)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Batman''''' is a 1989 superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name, created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger.",
"Directed by Tim Burton, it is the first installment of Warner Bros.' initial ''Batman'' film series.",
"The film was produced by Jon Peters and Peter Guber and stars Jack Nicholson, Michael Keaton, Kim Basinger, Robert Wuhl, Pat Hingle, Billy Dee Williams, Michael Gough, and Jack Palance.",
"The film takes place early in the title character's war on crime and depicts his conflict with his archenemy The Joker.After Burton was hired as director in 1986, Steve Englehart and Julie Hickson wrote film treatments before Sam Hamm wrote the first screenplay.",
"''Batman'' was not greenlit until after the success of Burton's ''Beetlejuice'' (1988).",
"The tone and themes of the film were partly influenced by Alan Moore and Brian Bolland's ''The Killing Joke'' and Frank Miller's ''The Dark Knight Returns''.",
"The film primarily adapts and then diverges from the \"Red Hood\" origin story for the Joker, having Batman inadvertently cause gangster Jack Napier to fall into Axis Chemical acid, triggering his transformation into the psychotic Joker.",
"Additionally, Batman co-creator Bob Kane worked as a consultant for the film.Numerous leading men were considered for the role of Batman before Keaton was cast.",
"Keaton's casting was controversial since, by 1988, he had become typecast as a comedic actor and many observers doubted he could portray a serious role.",
"Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated top billing, a portion of the film's earnings (including associated merchandise), and his own shooting schedule.Filming took place at Pinewood Studios from October 1988 to January 1989.The budget escalated from $30 million to $48 million, while the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike forced Hamm to drop out.",
"Warren Skaaren did rewrites, with additional uncredited drafts done by Charles McKeown and Jonathan Gems.",
"''Batman'' was both critically and financially successful, earning over $400 million in box office totals.",
"Critics and audiences particularly praised Nicholson and Keaton's performances, Burton's direction, the production design, and Elfman's score.",
"It was the fifth-highest-grossing film in history at the time of its release.",
"The film received several Saturn Award nominations and a Golden Globe nomination for Nicholson's performance, and won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction.",
"It also led to the development of the equally successful ''Batman: The Animated Series'' (1992–1995), which in turn began the DC Animated Universe of spin-off media, and has influenced Hollywood's modern marketing and development techniques of the superhero film genre.",
"The film was followed by three sequels: ''Batman Returns'' (1992), with both Burton and Keaton returning; ''Batman Forever'' (1995), which featured Val Kilmer in the lead role; and ''Batman & Robin'' (1997), which featured George Clooney in the role."
],
[
"Plot",
"Reporter Alexander Knox and photojournalist Vicki Vale investigate sightings of the \"Batman\", a masked vigilante targeting Gotham City's criminals.",
"Both attend a fundraiser hosted by billionaire Bruce Wayne, who is secretly Batman, having chosen this path after witnessing a mugger murder his parents when he was a child.",
"During the event, Wayne becomes infatuated with Vale.Meanwhile, mob boss Carl Grissom sends his sociopathic second-in-command Jack Napier to raid Axis Chemicals and retrieve incriminating evidence.",
"However, this is secretly a ploy to have Napier murdered for sleeping with Grissom's mistress Alicia Hunt.",
"Corrupt lieutenant Max Eckhardt arranges the hit on Napier by conducting an unauthorized police operation.",
"However, Commissioner James Gordon arrives, takes command, and orders the officers to capture Napier alive.",
"Batman also appears, while Napier kills Eckhardt as revenge for the double-crossing.",
"During a scuffle with Batman, Napier topples off a catwalk and falls into a vat of chemicals.",
"Although presumed dead, Napier survives with various disfigurements including chalk white skin and emerald green hair and nails.",
"He undergoes surgery to repair the damage, but ends up with a rictus grin.",
"Driven insane by his new appearance, Napier, now calling himself \"the Joker\", kills Grissom, massacres Grissom's associates, and takes over his operations.He then starts terrorizing Gotham by lacing hygiene products with \"Smylex\" – a deadly chemical that causes victims to die laughing.",
"The Joker soon becomes obsessed with Vicki and lures her to the Flugelheim Museum, which his henchmen start vandalizing.",
"Batman rescues Vicki, takes her to the Batcave, and provides her with all of his research on Smylex, which will allow Gotham's residents to escape the toxin.",
"Conflicted with his love for her, Wayne visits her apartment intending to reveal his secret identity, only for the Joker to interrupt the meeting.",
"Joker asks Wayne, \"Have you ever danced with the devil in the pale moonlight?",
"\", which Wayne recognizes as the catchphrase used by the mugger who killed his parents, realizing the killer to have been Joker (as Napier) all along.",
"He shoots Wayne, who survives thanks to a serving tray hidden underneath his shirt.Vicki is taken to the Batcave by Wayne's butler, Alfred Pennyworth, who had been coaxing the relationship between the pair.",
"After exposing his secret to Vicki, Wayne reveals he cannot focus on their relationship with Joker on the loose.",
"He then departs to destroy the Axis plant used to create Smylex.",
"Meanwhile, Joker lures Gotham's citizens to a parade honoring Gotham's bicentennial with the promise of free money.",
"This turns out to be a trap designed to dose them with Smylex gas held within giant parade balloons.",
"Batman foils his plan by using his Batwing to remove the balloons, but Joker shoots him down.",
"The Batwing crashes in front of a cathedral, which Joker uses to take Vicki hostage.",
"Batman pursues the Joker, and in the ensuing fight, he explains that Napier killed his parents and thus, indirectly created Batman.",
"This leads Joker to realize Batman is Bruce Wayne.",
"Joker eventually pulls Batman and Vicki over the cathedral's roof, leaving them hanging while he calls in a helicopter.",
"The helicopter is piloted by his goons, who throw down a ladder for him to climb.",
"Batman uses a grappling hook to attach Joker's leg to a crumbling gargoyle that eventually falls off the roof.",
"Unable to bear the statue's immense weight, Joker falls to his death while Batman and Vicki make it to safety.Sometime later, Gordon announces that the police have arrested all of Joker's men, effectively dismantled of what remained of Carl Grissom's mafia organizations, and unveils the Bat-Signal.",
"Batman leaves the police a note, promising to defend Gotham should crime strike again, and asking them to use the Bat-Signal to summon him in times of need.",
"Alfred takes Vicki to Wayne Manor, explaining that Wayne will be a little late.",
"She responds that she is not surprised, as Batman looks at the signal's projection from a rooftop, standing watch over the city."
],
[
"Cast",
"* Jack Nicholson as Jack Napier/The Joker** Hugo E. Blick as Young Jack Napier* Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman** Charles Roskilly as Young Bruce Wayne* Kim Basinger as Vicki Vale* Robert Wuhl as Alexander Knox* Pat Hingle as Commissioner Gordon* Billy Dee Williams as Harvey Dent* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth* Jack Palance as Carl Grissom* Jerry Hall as Alicia Hunt* Tracey Walter as Bob the Goon* Lee Wallace as Mayor Borg* William Hootkins as Lt. Max Eckhardt* David Baxt as Thomas Wayne* Sharon Holm as Martha Wayne* Garrick Hagon as Tourist Dad* Liza Ross as Tourist Mom* Adrian Meyers as Tourist Son"
],
[
"Production",
"===Development===In the late 1970s, Batman's popularity was waning.",
"CBS was interested in producing a ''Batman in Outer Space'' film.",
"Producers Benjamin Melniker and Michael E. Uslan purchased the film rights of Batman from DC Comics on October 3, 1979.It was Uslan's wish \"to make the definitive, dark, serious version of Batman, the way Bob Kane and Bill Finger had envisioned him in 1939.A creature of the night; stalking criminals in the shadows.\"",
"Richard Maibaum was approached to write a script with Guy Hamilton to direct, but the two turned down the offer.",
"Uslan was unsuccessful with pitching ''Batman'' to various movie studios because they wanted the film to be similar to the campy 1960s television series.",
"Columbia Pictures and United Artists were among those to turn down the film.A disappointed Uslan then wrote a script titled ''Return of the Batman'' to give the film industry a better idea of his vision for the film.",
"Uslan later compared its dark tone to that of the successful four-part comic book ''The Dark Knight Returns'', which his script predated by six years.",
"In November 1979, producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber joined the project.",
"Melniker and Uslan became executive producers.",
"The four felt it was best to pattern the film's development after that of ''Superman'' (1978).",
"Uslan, Melniker and Guber pitched ''Batman'' to Universal Pictures, but the studio turned it down.",
"Though no movie studios were yet involved, the project was publicly announced with a budget of $15 million in July 1980 at the Comic Art Convention in New York.",
"Warner Bros., the studio behind the successful Superman film franchise, decided to also accept and produce ''Batman''.Tom Mankiewicz completed a script titled ''The Batman'' in June 1983, focusing on Batman and Dick Grayson's origins, with the Joker and Rupert Thorne as villains and Silver St.",
"Cloud as the romantic interest.",
"Mankiewicz took inspiration from the limited series ''Batman: Strange Apparitions'', written by Steve Englehart.",
"Comic book artist Marshall Rogers, who worked with Englehart on ''Strange Apparitions'', was hired for concept art.",
"''The Batman'' was then announced in late 1983 for a mid-1985 release date on a budget of $20 million.",
"Originally, Mankiewicz had wanted an unknown actor for Batman, William Holden for James Gordon, David Niven as Alfred Pennyworth, and Peter O'Toole as the Penguin, whom Mankiewicz wanted to portray as a mobster with low body temperature.",
"Holden died in 1981 and Niven in 1983, so this would never come to pass.",
"A number of filmmakers were attached to Mankiewicz' script, including Ivan Reitman and Joe Dante.",
"Reitman wanted to cast Bill Murray as Batman and Eddie Murphy as Robin.",
"Nine rewrites were performed by nine separate writers.",
"Most of them were based on ''Strange Apparitions''.",
"However, it was Mankiewicz's script that was still being used to guide the project.",
"Due to the work they did together with the film ''Swamp Thing'' (1982), Wes Craven was among the directors that Melniker and Uslan considered while looking for a director.After the financial success of ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'' (1985), Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct ''Batman''.",
"Burton had then-girlfriend Julie Hickson write a new 30-page film treatment, feeling the previous script by Mankiewicz was campy.",
"The success of ''The Dark Knight Returns'' and the graphic novel ''Batman: The Killing Joke'' rekindled Warner Bros.' interest in a film adaptation.",
"Burton was initially not a comic book fan, but he was impressed by the dark and serious tone found in both ''The Dark Knight Returns'' and ''The Killing Joke''.",
"Warner Bros. enlisted the aid of Englehart to write a new treatment in March 1986.Like Mankiewicz's script, it was based on his own ''Strange Apparitions'' and included Silver St.",
"Cloud, Dick Grayson, the Joker, and Rupert Thorne, as well as a cameo appearance by the Penguin.",
"Warner Bros. was impressed, but Englehart felt there were too many characters.",
"He removed the Penguin and Dick Grayson in his second treatment, finishing in May 1986.Burton approached Sam Hamm, a comic book fan, to write the screenplay.",
"Hamm decided not to use an origin story, feeling that flashbacks would be more suitable and that \"unlocking the mystery\" would become part of the storyline.",
"He reasoned, \"You totally destroy your credibility if you show the literal process by which Bruce Wayne becomes Batman.\"",
"Hamm replaced Silver St.",
"Cloud with Vicki Vale and Rupert Thorne with his own creation, Carl Grissom.",
"He completed his script in October 1986, which demoted Dick Grayson to a cameo rather than a supporting character.",
"One scene in Hamm's script had a young James Gordon on duty the night of the murder of Bruce Wayne's parents.",
"When Hamm's script was rewritten, the scene was deleted, reducing it to a photo in the ''Gotham Globe'' newspaper seen in the film.Warner Bros. was less willing to move forward on development, despite their enthusiasm for Hamm's script, which Kane greeted with positive feedback.",
"Hamm's script was then bootlegged at various comic book stores in the United States.",
"''Batman'' was finally given the greenlight to commence pre-production in April 1988, after the success of Burton's ''Beetlejuice'' the same year.",
"When comic book fans found out about Burton directing the film with Michael Keaton starring in the lead role, controversy arose over the tone and direction ''Batman'' was going in.",
"Hamm explained, \"They hear Tim Burton's name and they think of ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure''.",
"They hear Keaton's name and they think of any number of Michael Keaton comedies.",
"You think of the 1960s version of ''Batman'', and it was the complete opposite of our film.",
"We tried to market it with a typical dark and serious tone, but the fans didn't believe us.\"",
"To combat negative reports on the film's production, Kane was hired as creative consultant.",
"Batman's co-creator, Bill Finger, was uncredited at the time of the film's release and his name was not added to any Batman-related media until 2016.===Casting===Michael Keaton as Batman and Jack Nicholson as the Joker in the film's climactic confrontationParallel to the ''Superman'' casting, a variety of Hollywood A-listers were considered for the role of Batman, including Mel Gibson, Kevin Costner, Charlie Sheen, Tom Selleck, Bill Murray, Harrison Ford and Dennis Quaid.",
"Burton was pressured by Warner Bros. to cast an obvious action movie star, and had approached Pierce Brosnan, but he had no interest in playing a comic book character.",
"Burton was originally interested in casting an unknown actor, Willem Dafoe, who was falsely reported to be considered for the Joker but had actually been considered for Batman early in development.",
"Producer Jon Peters suggested Michael Keaton, arguing he had the right \"edgy, tormented quality\" after having seen his dramatic performance in ''Clean and Sober''.",
"Having directed Keaton in ''Beetlejuice'', Burton agreed.The casting of Keaton caused a furor among comic book fans, with 50,000 protest letters sent to Warner Bros. offices.",
"Kane, Hamm, and Uslan also heavily questioned the casting.",
"\"Obviously there was a negative response from the comic book people.",
"I think they thought we were going to make it like the 1960s TV series, and make it campy, because they thought of Michael Keaton from ''Mr.",
"Mom'' and ''Night Shift'' and stuff like that.\"",
"Keaton studied ''The Dark Knight Returns'' for inspiration.Tim Curry, David Bowie, John Lithgow, Brad Dourif, Ray Liotta, and James Woods were all considered for the Joker.",
"Lithgow, during his audition, attempted to talk Burton out of casting him, a decision he would later publicly regret, stating, \"I didn't realize it was such a big deal.\"",
"Burton wanted to cast John Glover, but the studio insisted on using a movie star.",
"Robin Williams lobbied hard for the part.",
"Jack Nicholson had been the studio's top choice since 1980.Peters approached Nicholson as far back as 1986, during filming of ''The Witches of Eastwick''; unlike Keaton, he was a popular choice for his role.",
"Nicholson had what was known as an \"off-the-clock\" agreement.",
"His contract specified the number of hours he was entitled to have off each day, from the time he left the set to the time he reported back for filming, as well as being off for Los Angeles Lakers home games.",
"Nicholson demanded that all of his scenes be shot in a three-week block, but the schedule lapsed into 106 days.",
"He reduced his standard $10 million fee to $6 million in exchange for a cut of the film's earnings (including associated merchandise), which led to remuneration in excess of $50 million—biographer Marc Eliot reports that Nicholson may have received as much as $90 million.",
"He also demanded top billing on promotional materials.Sean Young was originally cast as Vicki Vale, but was injured in a horse-riding accident prior to commencement of filming.",
"Young's departure necessitated an urgent search for an actress who, besides being right for the part, could commit to the film at very short notice.",
"Peters suggested Kim Basinger: she was able to join the production immediately and was cast.",
"As a fan of Michael Gough's work in various Hammer Film Productions, Burton cast Gough as Bruce Wayne's mysterious butler, Alfred.",
"Reporter Alexander Knox was portrayed by Robert Wuhl.",
"In the original script, Knox was killed by the Joker's poison gas during the climax, but the filmmakers \"liked my character so much,\" Wuhl said, \"that they decided to let me live.\"",
"Burton chose Billy Dee Williams as Harvey Dent because he wanted to include the villain Two-Face in a future film using the concept of an African-American Two-Face for the black and white concept, but Tommy Lee Jones was later cast in the role for ''Batman Forever'', which disappointed Williams.",
"Nicholson convinced the filmmakers to cast his close friend Tracey Walter as the Joker's henchman Bob.",
"Irish child actor Ricky Addison Reed was cast as Dick Grayson before the character was removed by Warren Skarren for the revised shooting script.",
"The rest of the cast included Pat Hingle as Commissioner Gordon, Jerry Hall as Alicia, Lee Wallace as Mayor Borg, William Hootkins as Lt. Eckhardt, and Jack Palance as crime boss Carl Grissom.===Design===Burton had been impressed with the design of Neil Jordan's ''The Company of Wolves'' (1984), but was unable to hire its production designer Anton Furst for ''Beetlejuice'' as Furst had instead committed to Jordan's London-filmed ghost comedy ''High Spirits'' (1988), a choice he later regretted.",
"A year later Burton successfully hired Furst for ''Batman'', and they enjoyed working with each other.",
"\"I don't think I've ever felt so naturally in tune with a director,\" Furst said.",
"\"Conceptually, spiritually, visually, or artistically.",
"There was never any problem because we never fought over anything.",
"Texture, attitude and feelings are what Burton is a master at.",
"\"Furst and the art department deliberately mixed clashing architectural styles to \"make Gotham City the ugliest and bleakest metropolis imaginable\".",
"Furst continued, \"We imagined what New York City might have become without a planning commission.",
"A city run by crime, with a riot of architectural styles.",
"An essay in ugliness.",
"As if hell erupted through the pavement and kept on going\".",
"The 1985 film ''Brazil'' by Terry Gilliam was also a notable influence upon the film's production design, as both Burton and Furst studied it as a reference.",
"Black and white charcoal drawings of key locations and sets were created by Furst's longtime draftsman, Nigel Phelps.",
"Derek Meddings served as the visual effects supervisor, overseeing the miniatures and animation.",
"Conceptual illustrator Julian Caldow designed the Batmobile, Batwing and assorted bat-gadgets that were later constructed by prop builder John Evans.",
"Keith Short sculpted the final body of the 1989 Batmobile, adding two Browning machine guns.",
"On designing the Batmobile, Furst explained, \"We looked at jet aircraft components, we looked at war machines, we looked at all sorts of things.",
"In the end, we went into pure expressionism, taking the Salt Flat Racers of the 30s and the Sting Ray macho machines of the 50s\".",
"The car was built upon a Chevrolet Impala when previous development with a Jaguar and Ford Mustang failed.",
"The car itself was later purchased by standup comedian/ventriloquist Jeff Dunham, who had it outfitted with a Corvette engine to make it street legal.Costume designer Bob Ringwood turned down the chance to work on ''Licence to Kill'' in favor of ''Batman''.",
"Ringwood found it difficult designing the Batsuit because \"the image of Batman in the comics is this huge, big six-foot-four hunk with a dimpled chin.",
"Michael Keaton is a guy with average build\", he stated.",
"\"The problem was to make somebody who was average-sized and ordinary-looking into this bigger-than-life creature.\"",
"Burton commented, \"Michael is a bit claustrophobic, which made it worse for him.",
"The costume put him in a dark, Batman-like mood though, so he was able to use it to his advantage\".",
"Burton's idea was to use an all-black suit, and was met with positive feedback by Bob Kane.",
"Vin Burnham was tasked with sculpting the Batsuit, in association with Alli Eynon.",
"Jon Peters wanted to use a Nike product placement with the Batsuit.",
"Ringwood studied over 200 comic book issues for inspiration.",
"28 sculpted latex designs were created; 25 different cape looks and 6 different heads were made, accumulating a total cost of $250,000.Comic book fans initially expressed negative feedback against the Batsuit.",
"Burton opted not to use tights, spandex, or underpants as seen in the comic book, feeling it was not intimidating.",
"Prosthetic makeup designer Nick Dudman used acrylic-based makeup paint called PAX for Nicholson's chalk-white face.",
"Part of Nicholson's contract was approval over the makeup designer.===Filming===The filmmakers considered filming ''Batman'' entirely on the Warner Bros. backlot in Burbank, California, but media interest in the film made them change the location.",
"It was shot at Pinewood Studios in England from October 10, 1988 to February 14, 1989, with 80 days of main shooting and 86 days of second unit shooting.",
"18 sound stages were used, with seven stages occupied, including the 51 acre backlot for the Gotham City set, one of the biggest ever built at the studio.",
"Locations included Knebworth House and Hatfield House doubling for Wayne Manor, plus Acton Lane Power Station and Little Barford Power Station.",
"The original production budget escalated from $30 million to $48 million.",
"Knebworth House served as Wayne Manor in the film.",
"Filming was highly secretive.",
"The unit publicist was offered and refused £10,000 for the first pictures of Jack Nicholson as the Joker.",
"The police were later called in when two reels of footage (about 20 minutes' worth) were stolen.",
"With various problems during filming, Burton called it \"Torture.",
"The worst period of my life!",
"\"Hamm was not allowed to perform rewrites during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike.",
"Warren Skaaren, who had also worked on Burton's ''Beetlejuice'', did rewrites.",
"Jonathan Gems and Charles McKeown rewrote the script during filming.",
"Only Skaaren received screenplay credit with Hamm.",
"Hamm criticized the rewrites, but blamed the changes on Warner Bros. Burton explained, \"I don't understand why that became such a problem.",
"We started out with a script that everyone liked, although we recognized it needed a little work.\"",
"Dick Grayson appeared in the shooting script but was deleted because the filmmakers felt he was irrelevant to the plot; Kane supported this decision.Keaton used his comedic experience for scenes such as Bruce and Vicki's Wayne Manor dinner.",
"He called himself a \"logic freak\" and was concerned that Batman's secret identity would in reality be fairly easy to uncover.",
"Keaton discussed ideas with Burton to better disguise the character, including the use of contact lenses.",
"Ultimately, Keaton decided to perform Batman's voice at a lower register than when he was portraying Bruce Wayne, which became a hallmark of the film version of the character, with Christian Bale later using the same technique.Originally in the climax, the Joker was meant to kill Vicki Vale, sending Batman into a vengeful fury.",
"Jon Peters reworked the climax without telling Burton and commissioned production designer Anton Furst to create a model of the cathedral.",
"This cost $100,000 when the film was already well over budget.",
"Burton disliked the idea, having no clue how the scene would end: \"Here were Jack Nicholson and Kim Basinger walking up this cathedral, and halfway up Jack turns around and says, 'Why am I walking up all these stairs?",
"Where am I going?'",
"'We'll talk about it when you get to the top!'",
"I had to tell him that I didn't know.",
"\"===Music===Burton hired Danny Elfman of Oingo Boingo, his collaborator on ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'' and ''Beetlejuice'', to compose the music score.",
"For inspiration, Elfman was given ''The Dark Knight Returns''.",
"Elfman was worried, as he had never worked on a production this large in budget and scale.",
"In addition, producer Jon Peters was skeptical of hiring Elfman, but was later convinced when he heard the opening number.",
"Peters and Peter Guber wanted Prince to write music for the Joker and Michael Jackson to do the romance songs.",
"Elfman would then combine the style of Prince and Jackson's songs together for the entire film score.",
"At the encouragement of Prince's then-manager Albert Magnoli, it was also agreed that Prince himself would write and sing the film's songs.Burton protested the ideas, citing \"my movies aren't commercial like ''Top Gun''.\"",
"Elfman enlisted the help of composer Shirley Walker and Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek to arrange the compositions for the orchestra.",
"Elfman was later displeased with the audio mixing of his film score.",
"\"''Batman'' was done in England by technicians who didn't care, and the non-caring showed,\" he stated.",
"\"I'm not putting down England because they've done gorgeous dubs there, but this particular crew elected not to.\"",
"''Batman'' was one of the first films to spawn two soundtracks.",
"One of them featured songs written by Prince while the other showcased Elfman's score.",
"Both were successful, and compilations of Elfman's opening credits were used in the title sequence theme for ''Batman: The Animated Series'', also composed by Shirley Walker."
],
[
"Themes",
"When discussing the central theme of ''Batman'', director Tim Burton explained, \"the whole film and mythology of the character is a complete duel of the freaks.",
"It's a fight between two disturbed people\", adding, \"The Joker is such a great character because there's a complete freedom to him.",
"Any character who operates on the outside of society and is deemed a freak and an outcast then has the freedom to do what they want...",
"They are the darker sides of freedom.",
"Insanity is in some scary way the most freedom you can have, because you're not bound by the laws of society\".Burton saw Bruce Wayne as the bearer of a double identity, exposing one while hiding the reality from the world.",
"Burton biographer Ken Hanke wrote that Bruce Wayne, struggling with his alter-ego as Batman, is depicted as an antihero.",
"Hanke felt that Batman has to push the boundaries of civil justice to deal with certain criminals, such as the Joker.",
"Kim Newman theorized that \"Burton and the writers saw Batman and the Joker as a dramatic antithesis, and the film deals with their intertwined origins and fates to an even greater extent\".",
"''Batman'' conveys trademarks found in 1930s pulp magazines, notably the design of Gotham City stylized with Art Deco design.",
"Richard Corliss, writing for ''Time'', observed that Gotham's design was a reference to films such as ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' (1920) and ''Metropolis'' (1927).",
"\"Gotham City, despite being shot on a studio backlot\", he continued, \"is literally another character in the script.",
"It has the demeaning presence of German Expressionism and fascist architecture, staring down at the citizens.\"",
"Hanke further addressed the notions of ''Batman'' being a period piece, in that \"The citizens, cops, people and the black-and-white television looks like it takes place in 1939\"; but later said: \"Had the filmmakers made Vicki Vale a femme fatale rather than a damsel in distress, this could have made ''Batman'' as a homage and tribute to classic film noir.\"",
"Portions of the climax pay homage to ''Vertigo'' (1958)."
],
[
"Marketing",
"The B.D.",
"Fox ad agency created hundreds of unused logos and posters for promotion, many by John Alvin.",
"In the end Burton and producers decided on only using a gold and black logo designed by Anton Furst and airbrushed by Bill Garland, with no other key art variation, to keep an air of mystery about the film.",
"The logo is also an ambiguous image, which can be read either as Batman's symbol or as a gaping mouth.",
"Earlier designs \"had the word 'Batman' spelled in ''RoboCop'' or ''Conan the Barbarian''-type font\".",
"Jon Peters unified all the film's tie-ins, even turning down $6 million from General Motors to build the Batmobile because the car company would not relinquish creative control.During production, Peters read in ''The Wall Street Journal'' that comic book fans were unsatisfied with the casting of Michael Keaton.",
"In response, Peters rushed the first film trailer that played in thousands of theaters during Christmas.",
"It was simply an assemblage of scenes without music, but created enormous anticipation for the film, with audiences clapping and cheering.",
"DC Comics allowed screenwriter Sam Hamm to write his own comic book miniseries.",
"Hamm's stories were collected in the graphic novel ''Batman: Blind Justice'' ().",
"Denys Cowan and Dick Giordano illustrated the artwork.",
"''Blind Justice'' tells the story of Bruce Wayne trying to solve a series of murders connected to Wayne Enterprises.",
"It also marks the first appearance of Henri Ducard, who was later used in the rebooted ''Batman Begins'', albeit as an alias for the more notable Ra's al Ghul.In the months before ''Batman''s release in June 1989, a popular culture phenomenon known as \"Batmania\" began.",
"Over $750 million worth of merchandise was sold.",
"Cult filmmaker and comic book writer Kevin Smith remembered: \"That summer was huge.",
"You couldn't turn around without seeing the Bat-Signal somewhere.",
"People were cutting it into their fucking heads.",
"It was just the summer of Batman and if you were a comic book fan it was pretty hot.\"",
"Hachette Book Group USA published a novelization, ''Batman'', written by Craig Shaw Gardner.",
"It remained on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list throughout June 1989.Burton admitted he was annoyed by the publicity.",
"David Handelman of ''The New York Observer'' categorized ''Batman'' as a high concept film.",
"He believed \"it is less movie than a corporate behemoth\"."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Box office===''Batman'' grossed $2.2 million in late night previews on June 22, 1989, on 1,215 screens and grossed $40.49 million in 2,194 theaters during its opening weekend.",
"This broke the opening weekend records held by ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (which had a 4-day Memorial Day weekend gross of $37.0 million the previous month) and ''Ghostbusters II'' (which had a $29.4 million 3-day weekend the previous weekend).",
"Upon opening, the film would go on to reach the number one spot above ''Honey, I Shrunk the Kids''.",
"Additionally, it had the largest opening weekend for a Jack Nicholson film for 14 years until it was dethroned by ''Anger Management'' in 2003.",
"''Batman'' also set a record for a second weekend gross with $30 million (also the second biggest 3-day weekend of all-time) and became the fastest film to earn $100 million, reaching it in 11 days (10 days plus late night previews).",
"The film closed on December 14, 1989, with a final gross of $251.2 million in North America and $160.15 million internationally, totaling $411.35 million.",
"The film would hold the record for being the highest-grossing Warner Bros. film until 1996 when ''Twister'' surpassed it.",
"It was the highest-grossing film based on a DC comic book until 2008's ''The Dark Knight''.",
"Furthermore, ''Batman'' held the record for being the highest-grossing superhero film of all time until it was taken by ''Spider-Man'' in 2002.The film's gross is the 143rd highest ever in North American ranks.",
"Although ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' made the most money worldwide in 1989, ''Batman'' was able to beat ''The Last Crusade'' in North America, and made a further $150 million in home video sales.",
"Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 60 million tickets in the US.Despite the film's box office – over $400 million against a budget of no more than $48 million – Warner Bros. claimed it ended up losing $35.8 million and \"not likely to ever show a profit,\" which has been attributed to a case of Hollywood accounting.===Critical response===''Batman'' was criticized by some for being too dark, but nonetheless received a generally positive response from critics.",
"On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 76% based on 138 reviews, with an average score of 7/10.The website's critical consensus reads, \"An eerie, haunting spectacle, ''Batman'' succeeds as dark entertainment, even if Jack Nicholson's Joker too often overshadows the title character.\"",
"On Metacritic, the film received a weighted average score of 69 based on 21 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".",
"Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale.Many observed that Burton was more interested in the Joker and the art and set production design than Batman or anything else in terms of characterization and screentime.",
"Comic book fans reacted negatively over the Joker murdering Thomas and Martha Wayne; in the comic book, Joe Chill is responsible.",
"Writer Sam Hamm said it was Burton's idea to have the Joker murder Wayne's parents.",
"\"The Writer's Strike was going on, and Tim had the other writers do that.",
"I also hold innocent to Alfred letting Vicki Vale into the Batcave.",
"Fans were ticked off with that, and I agree.",
"That would have been Alfred's last day of employment at Wayne Manor,\" Hamm said.The songs written by Prince were criticized for being \"too out of place\".",
"While Burton has stated he had no problem with the Prince songs, he was less enthusiastic with their use in the film.",
"On the film, Burton remarked, \"I liked parts of it, but the whole movie is mainly boring to me.",
"It's OK, but it was more of a cultural phenomenon than a great movie.",
"\"Despite initial negative reactions from comics fans prior to the film's release, Keaton's portrayal of Batman was generally praised.",
"James Berardinelli called the film entertaining, with the highlight being the production design.",
"However, he concluded, \"the best thing that can be said about ''Batman'' is that it led to ''Batman Returns'', which was a far superior effort.\"",
"''Variety'' felt \"Jack Nicholson stole every scene\" but still greeted the film with positive feedback.",
"Roger Ebert was highly impressed with the production design, but claimed \"''Batman'' is a triumph of design over story, style over substance, a great-looking movie with a plot you can't care much about.\"",
"He also called the film \"a depressing experience\".",
"On the syndicated television series ''Siskel & Ebert'', his reviewing partner Gene Siskel disagreed, describing the film as having a \"refreshingly adult\" approach with performances, direction and set design that \"draws you into a psychological world.\""
],
[
"Legacy",
"Anton Furst and Peter Young won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction, while Nicholson was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor (Musical or Comedy).",
"The British Academy of Film and Television Arts nominated ''Batman'' in six categories (Production Design, Visual Effects, Costume Design, Makeup, Sound and Actor in a Supporting Role for Nicholson), but it won none of the categories.",
"Nicholson, Basinger, the makeup department, and costume designer Bob Ringwood all received nominations at the Saturn Awards.",
"The film was also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.The success of ''Batman'' prompted Warner Bros.",
"Animation to create the acclaimed ''Batman: The Animated Series'', as a result beginning the long-running DC Animated Universe and helped establish the modern day superhero film genre.",
"Series co-creator Bruce Timm stated the television show's Art Deco design was inspired from the film.",
"Timm commented, \"our show would never have gotten made if it hadn't been for that first ''Batman'' movie.\"",
"Burton joked, \"ever since I did ''Batman'', it was like the first dark comic book movie.",
"Now everyone wants to do a dark and serious superhero movie.",
"I guess I'm the one responsible for that trend.",
"\"''Batman'' initiated the original ''Batman'' film series and spawned three sequels: ''Batman Returns'' (1992), ''Batman Forever'' (1995), and ''Batman & Robin'' (1997), the latter two of which were directed by Joel Schumacher instead of Burton and replaced Keaton as Batman with Val Kilmer and George Clooney, respectively.Executive producers Benjamin Melniker and Michael E. Uslan filed a breach of contract lawsuit in Los Angeles County Superior Court on March 26, 1992.Melniker and Uslan claimed to be \"the victims of a sinister campaign of fraud and coercion that has cheated them out of continuing involvement in the production of ''Batman'' and its sequels.",
"We were denied proper credits, and deprived of any financial rewards for our indispensable creative contribution to the success of ''Batman''.\"",
"A superior court judge rejected the lawsuit.",
"Total revenues of ''Batman'' have topped $2 billion, with Uslan claiming to have \"not seen a penny more than that since our net profit participation has proved worthless.\"",
"Warner Bros. offered the pair an out-of-court settlement, a sum described by Melniker and Uslan's attorney as \"two popcorns and two Cokes\".Reflecting on the twentieth anniversary of its release in a retrospective article on Salon.com, film commentator Scott Mendelson noted the continuing impact that ''Batman'' has had on the motion film industry, including the increasing importance of opening weekend box office receipts; the narrowing window between a film's debut and its video release that caused the demise of second-run movie theaters; the accelerated acquisition of pre-existing, pre-sold properties for film adaptations that can be readily leveraged for merchandizing tie-ins; the primacy of the MPAA PG-13 as the target rating for film producers; and more off-beat, non-traditional casting opportunities for genre films.",
"The film was responsible for the British Board of Film Classification introducing its \"12\" age rating, as its content fell between what was expected for a \"PG\" or \"15\" certificate.The American Film Institute anointed Batman the 46th greatest movie hero and the Joker the 45th greatest movie villain on ''AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains''.",
";American Film Institute lists* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – Nominated* AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated* AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:** The Joker – #45 Villain** Batman – #46 Hero* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:** \"Have you ever danced with the Devil in the pale moonlight?\"",
"– Nominated* AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated* AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Fantasy FilmRobert Wuhl reprises his role as Alexander Knox in The CW's Arrowverse crossover, ''Crisis on Infinite Earths''.",
"The event also retroactively established that the world of the film and its sequel, ''Batman Returns'', takes place on Earth-89; which is one of the worlds destroyed by the Anti-Monitor (LaMonica Garrett) during the Crisis.",
"Michael Keaton reprises his role as Batman in ''The Flash'' set in the DC Extended Universe.===Video games===Several video games based on the film were released: By Ocean Software in 1989, by Sunsoft in 1990 and 1991, and by Atari Games in 1990.Konami was also in talks of releasing an arcade game around the same time as Atari.===Comic book continuation===In March 2016, artist Joe Quinones revealed several art designs he and Kate Leth had created to pitch a comic book continuation set in the Batman '89 universe to DC Comics.",
"The pitch, which was rejected, would have included the story of Billy Dee Williams' Harvey Dent turning into Two-Face as well as the inclusion of characters such as Batgirl in a story that took place following the events of ''Batman Returns''.",
"In 2021, DC announced it would be releasing a comic book continuation of the ''Batman '89'' film.",
"The series would be written by Sam Hamm and illustrated by Joe Quinones.",
"The comic's synopsis revealed that it would include the return of Selina Kyle/Catwoman, an introduction of a new Robin, and the transformation of Williams' Harvey Dent into Two-Face.===Home media===''Batman'' has been released on various formats, including VHS, LaserDisc, DVD and Blu-ray.",
"In an unprecedented move at the time, it was made available to buy on VHS in the United States on November 15, less than six months after its theatrical release, at a suggested retail price of only $24.95 although most sellers sold it for less.",
"It was first released on DVD on March 25, 1997, as a double sided disc containing both Widescreen (1.85:1) and Full Screen (1.33:1) versions of the film.",
"The 2005 ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989–1997'' included 2-disc special edition DVDs of the film and all three of its sequels.",
"The anthology was also released as a 4-disc Blu-ray set in 2009, with each film and its previous extras contained on a single disc.",
"Other Blu-ray reissues include a \"30th Anniversary\" Digibook with 50-page booklet, and a steelcase edition; both also include a Digital Copy.",
"Most recently the \"25th Anniversary\" Diamond Luxe reissue contained the same disc as before and on a second disc, a new 25-minute featurette: \"Batman: The Birth of the Modern Blockbuster\".The film was also included in ''The Tim Burton Collection'' DVD and Blu-ray set in 2012, alongside its first sequel, ''Batman Returns''.",
"''Batman'' was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on June 4, 2019."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * ''Batman'' (1989) Official website at Warner Bros. * ''Batman'' (1989) Official website at DC Comics"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Batman (1966 film)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Batman''''' (also known as '''''Batman: The Movie''''') is a 1966 American superhero film directed by Leslie H. Martinson.",
"Based on the television series, and the first full-length theatrical adaptation of the DC Comics character of the same name, the film stars Adam West as Batman and Burt Ward as Robin.",
"The film hit theaters two months after the last episode of the first season of the television series.",
"The film includes most members of the original TV cast, with the exception of Julie Newmar as Catwoman, who, in the movie, was replaced by Lee Meriwether."
],
[
"Plot",
"When Batman and Robin get a tip that Commodore Schmidlapp, owner of the Big Ben Distillery, is in danger aboard his yacht, they launch a rescue mission using the Batcopter.",
"As Batman descends on the bat-ladder to land on the yacht, it suddenly vanishes beneath him.",
"He rises out of the sea with a shark attacking his leg.",
"After Batman dislodges it with bat-shark repellent, the shark explodes.",
"Batman and Robin head back to Commissioner Gordon's office, where they deduce that the tip was a set-up by the United Underworld, a gathering of four of the most powerful villains in Gotham City: the Joker, the Penguin, the Riddler, and the Catwoman.The four criminals equip themselves with a dehydrator that can turn humans into dust (an invention of Schmidlapp's, who is unaware that he has been kidnapped), escape in a war-surplus, pre-atomic submarine made to resemble a penguin, and recruit three pirate-themed henchmen (Bluebeard, Morgan and Quetch).",
"Batman and Robin learn that the yacht was really a holographic projection and return via Batboat to a buoy concealing a projector, where they are trapped on the buoy by a magnet and targeted by torpedoes.",
"They use a radio-detonator to destroy two of the missiles, and a porpoise sacrifices itself to intercept the last one.",
"Catwoman, disguised as Soviet journalist \"Kitayna Ireyna Tatanya Kerenska Alisoff\" (acronymed as Kitka), helps the group kidnap Bruce Wayne and pretends to be kidnapped with him, as part of a plot to lure Batman and finish him off with another of Penguin's explosive animals (not knowing that Bruce Wayne is Batman's alter-ego).After Bruce Wayne fights his way out of captivity, he again disguises himself as Batman, and the Dynamic Duo returns to the United Underworld's HQ, only to find a smoking bomb.",
"Batman is met with frustration rushing all over the docks in hopes of locating a safe place to dispose of the bomb but does so in the nick of time.",
"The Penguin disguises himself as the Commodore and schemes his way into the Batcave along with five dehydrated henchmen.",
"This plan fails when the henchmen unexpectedly disappear into antimatter once struck: the Penguin mistakenly rehydrated them with toxic heavy water used to recharge the Batcave's atomic pile, leaving them highly unstable.",
"Ultimately, Batman and Robin are unable to prevent the kidnapping of the dehydrated United World Organization's Security Council, consisting of ambassadors from Japan, the U.S, the U.S.S.R., Israel, France, Spain, West Germany, the United Kingdom, and Nigeria.",
"Giving chase in the Batboat to retrieve them (and Miss Kitka, presumed by the duo as still captive), Robin uses a sonic charge weapon to disable The Penguin's submarine and force it to surface, where a fist fight ensues.Although Batman and Robin come out on top, Batman is heartbroken to discover that his \"true love\" Miss Kitka is actually Catwoman when her mask falls off.",
"Commodore Schmidlapp accidentally breaks the powdered Council members' vials and sneezes on them, scattering the dust.",
"Batman sets to work, constructing an elaborate Super Molecular Dust Separator to filter the mingled dust.",
"Robin asks him whether it might be in the world's best interests for them to alter the dust samples so that humans can no longer harm one another.",
"In response, Batman says that they cannot do so, reminding Robin of the fate of the Penguin's henchmen and their tainted rehydration, and can only hope for people, in general, to learn to live together peacefully on their own.With the world watching, the Security Council is re-hydrated.",
"All members are restored alive and well, but continue to squabble amongst themselves, totally oblivious of their surroundings; however, each of them now speaks the language and displays the stereotypical mannerisms of a nation other than their own.",
"Batman quietly expresses his sincere hope to Robin that this \"strange mixing of minds\" does more good than harm.",
"The duo quietly leaves United World Headquarters by climbing out of the window and descending on their bat-ropes."
],
[
"Cast",
"* Adam West as Bruce Wayne / Batman* Burt Ward as Dick Grayson / Robin* Lee Meriwether as The Catwoman, Kitka* Cesar Romero as The Joker* Burgess Meredith as The Penguin* Frank Gorshin as The Riddler* Alan Napier as Alfred* Neil Hamilton as Commissioner Gordon* Stafford Repp as Chief O'Hara* Madge Blake as Aunt Harriet* Reginald Denny as Commodore Schmidlapp* Milton Frome as Vice Admiral Fangschleister* Gil Perkins as Bluebeard* Dick Crockett as Morgan* George Sawaya as Quetch* Teru Shimada as Japanese Delegate* Maurice Dallimore as United Kingdom Delegate* Gregory Gaye as Russian Delegate* Albert Carrier as French Delegate* Van Williams (''uncredited voice'') as President Lyndon B. Johnson"
],
[
"Production",
"===Development===William Dozier wanted to make a big-screen film to generate interest in his proposed ''Batman'' television series by having the feature in theaters while the first season of the series was rolling before the cameras.",
"The studio, 20th Century-Fox, refused because it would have to cover the entire cost of a movie, while it would only have to share the cost of a TV series (a much less risky proposition).The studio acquiesced after a 1965 screening of Columbia Pictures' 1943 ''The Batman'' serial in New York City renewed interest in the character and after the television series became phenomenally successful.",
"The project was announced in a March 26, 1966, issue of ''Variety'' magazine.The film features many characters from the show.",
"It was written by series writer Lorenzo Semple Jr. and directed by Leslie H. Martinson, who had directed a pair of the television series season one episodes: \"The Penguin Goes Straight\" and \"Not Yet, He Ain't\".",
"Semple Jr. completed the screenplay in 10 days.",
"Principal photography began on April 28, 1966, and concluded within 28 days, with a further three days to complete second-unit photography.===Casting===The Penguin (Burgess Meredith), the Riddler (Frank Gorshin) and the Joker (Cesar Romero) in 1966.These actors also played the television roles.Lee Meriwether acted as Catwoman in the film (pictured), replacing Julie Newmar, who played Catwoman in the first two seasons of the television series.The film includes most members of the original TV cast: the actors for Batman, Robin, Alfred, Gordon, O'Hara, Aunt Harriet, the Joker, the Penguin, and the Riddler all reprised their roles.",
"Though Julie Newmar had at this point played Catwoman in two episodes of season one in the TV series, she had other commitments at that time and was replaced by Lee Meriwether in the film.",
"According to the ''Biography'' special ''Catwoman: Her Many Lives'' aired on July 20, 2004, Newmar was unable to reprise her role because of a back injury.",
"Catwoman was nonetheless played by Newmar once again in the following eleven episodes of season two of the series; Eartha Kitt would then play Catwoman in three episodes of season three.Jack LaLanne has a cameo as a man on a rooftop with bikini-clad women.===Tone and themes===Even though it is often described (like many contemporary shows) as a parody of a popular comic-book character, some commentators believe that its comedy is not so tightly confined.",
"They felt the film's depiction of the Caped Crusader \"captured the feel of the contemporary comics perfectly\".",
"The film was made at a time when \"the Batman of the Golden Age comics was already essentially neutered\".Certain elements verge into direct parody of the history of Batman.",
"The movie, like the TV series, is strongly influenced by the comparatively obscure 1940s serials of Batman, such as the escapes done almost out of luck.",
"The penchant for giving devices a \"Bat-\" prefix and the dramatic use of stylized title cards during fight scenes acknowledge some of the conventions that the character had accumulated in various media.",
"However, the majority of ''Batman'' campier moments can be read as a broader parody on contemporary mid-1960s culture in general.Furthermore, the movie represented Batman's first major foray into Cold War issues, paying heavy attention to Polaris Missiles, war surplus submarines and taking a poke at the Pentagon.",
"The inclusion of a glory-hunting presidential character and the unfavorable portrayal of Security Council Members marked Batman's first attempts to poke fun at domestic and international politics.===Vehicles===The Batmobile as seen in the 1960s ''Batman'' TV series (photo 2003)Besides the Batmobile, other vehicles used by The Dynamic Duo include:* Batcycle with side car* Batboat, provided by Glastron* BatcopterOf the three new Batvehicles which first appeared in the ''Batman'' film, only the Batcycle properly crossed over into the TV series as the budgetary limits of the TV series precluded the full use of the others.",
"While the Batcopter and Batboat from the movie appeared briefly in episodes (including a use of the Batboat in the conclusion of the first post-film two-parter: \"Walk the Straight and Narrow\"), they primarily did so in the form of stock-footage scenes from the film intercut into the series."
],
[
"Music",
"Nelson Riddle's original score to ''Batman the Movie'' was released in 2010 by La-La Land Records and Fox Music.",
"The album contains the entire score as heard in the film in chronological order as well as an unreleased cue.",
"This limited edition includes a lavishly illustrated color booklet which features exclusive liner notes by Brian Baterwhite.",
"This Limited Edition was of 2000 units.It was newly re-issued in 2016.While the program and master of this release is identical to the 2010 release, this reissue features all-new exclusive liner notes by John Takis and art design by Jim Titus.",
"This new Limited Edition is of 2500 units."
],
[
"Release",
"===Theatrical===''Batman'' premiered at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, Texas, on July 30, 1966 (between the first and second seasons of the TV series); it was moderately successful at the box office.",
"The Batboat featured in the film was created by Austin-based company Glastron, whose payment was in having the film premiere in their hometown.",
"In conjunction with the premiere, Jean Boone of Austin CBS affiliate station KTBC interviewed the film's cast, including Lee Meriwether, Cesar Romero, and Adam West.===Television===ABC, the network which previously aired the ''Batman'' television series, first broadcast the film on the July 4, 1971, edition of ''The ABC Sunday Night Movie''; the film was quickly rebroadcast on ABC September 4 of that year.===Home media===The film debuted on home video via formats VHS and Betamax release in 1985 by Playhouse Video, then apparently re-released (after a Blockbuster Video executive asked why it ''wouldn't'' be repackaged on the heels of the successful ''Batman'' film of 1989) in 1989 by CBS/Fox Video, and in 1994 by Fox Video.The film was released on DVD in 2001, and re-released July 1, 2008, on DVD and on Blu-ray by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Box office===According to Fox records, the film needed to earn $3.2 million in rentals to break even and made $3.9 million (equivalent to $ million in ).===Critical response===Bill Gibron of Filmcritic.com gave the film 3 out of 5 stars: \"Unlike other attempts at bringing these characters to life...the TV cast really captures the inherent insanity of the roles\".",
"''Variety'' stated in their review that \"the intense innocent enthusiasm of Cesar Romero, Burgess Meredith and Frank Gorshin as the three criminals is balanced against the innocent calm of Adam West and Burt Ward, Batman and Robin respectively\".",
"''Batman'' holds an 81% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on thirty-six reviews.",
"The site's consensus states: \"Batman: The Movie elevates camp to an art form -- and has a blast doing it, every gloriously tongue-in-cheek inch of the way.\""
],
[
"Sequels",
"West and Ward reprised their roles in ''Batman'' animated movies for the show's 50th anniversary along with Julie Newmar returning.",
"''Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders'' was released on Digital HD and digital media on October 11, 2016, and on DVD and Blu-ray November 1.A sequel to ''Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders'' called ''Batman vs. Two-Face'' was released on October 10, 2017.The film starred William Shatner voicing Two-Face as the main antagonist.",
"Adam West died before it was released.",
"West completed his voiceover work; it was one of his final performances before he died from leukemia."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of American films of 1966"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * ''Batman The Movie'' at BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond (archived 2006)* ''BATMAN'' (1966, U.S.) at kiddiematinee.com (archived 2010)* Jean Boone – Interview with the cast of ''Batman: The Movie'' (1966) (archived 2008)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Batman Returns"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Batman Returns''''' is a 1992 American superhero film directed by Tim Burton and written by Daniel Waters.",
"Based on the DC Comics character Batman, it is the sequel to ''Batman'' (1989) and the second installment in the 1989–1997 ''Batman'' series.",
"In the film, the superhero vigilante Batman comes into conflict with wealthy industrialist Max Shreck and deformed crime boss Oswald Cobblepot / The Penguin, who seek power, influence, and respect regardless of the cost to Gotham City.",
"Their plans are complicated by Selina Kyle, Shreck's formerly-meek secretary, who seeks vengeance against Shreck as Catwoman.",
"The cast includes Michael Keaton, Danny DeVito, Michelle Pfeiffer, Christopher Walken, Michael Gough, Pat Hingle, and Michael Murphy.Burton had no interest in making a sequel to the successful ''Batman'', believing that he was creatively restricted by the expectations of Warner Bros.",
"He agreed to return in exchange for significant creative control, including replacing original writer Sam Hamm with Daniel Waters and hiring many of his previous creative collaborators.",
"Waters' script focused more on characterization than on overarching plot, and Wesley Strick was hired to complete an uncredited re-write which (among other elements) provided a master plan for the Penguin.",
"Filming was done from September 1991 to February 1992, on a $50–80million budget, on sets and sound stages at Warner Bros. Studios and the Universal Studios Lot in California.",
"Special effects primarily involved practical applications and makeup, with some animatronics and computer-generated imagery.The film's marketing campaign was substantial, including brand collaborations and a variety of merchandise to replicate ''Batman'' success.",
"Released on June 19, 1992, ''Batman Returns'' broke several box-office records and earned about $266.8million worldwide.",
"It failed to replicate the success or longevity of ''Batman'' ($411.6million), however; this was blamed on its darker tone as well as violent and sexual elements, which alienated family audiences and led to a backlash against marketing partnerssuch as McDonald'sfor promoting the film to young children.",
"Reviews were critical of its tone and narrative but more favorable towards the cast, giving near-unanimous praise to Pfeiffer's performance.After the relative failure of ''Batman Returns'', Burton was replaced as director of the third film, ''Batman Forever'' (1995), with Joel Schumacher, to take the series in a family-friendly direction.",
"Keaton chose not to reprise his role, disagreeing with Schumacher's vision.",
"''Batman Forever'' and its sequel, ''Batman & Robin'' (1997), were financial successes but fared less well critically.",
"''Batman Returns'' has been reassessed as one of the best ''Batman'' films in the decades since its release, and its incarnations of Catwoman and Penguin are considered iconic.",
"A comic book, ''Batman '89'' (2021), continued the narrative of the original two Burton films, and Keaton reprised his version of Batman in the DC Extended Universe film ''The Flash'' (2023)."
],
[
"Plot",
"In Gotham City, two wealthy socialites, dismayed at the birth of their malformed and feral son Oswald, discard the infant in the sewers, where he is adopted by a family of penguins.",
"Thirty-three years later, during the Christmas season, wealthy industrialist Max Shreck is abducted by the Red Triangle gang (a group of former circus workers connected to child disappearances across the country) and brought to their hideout in the Arctic exhibit at the derelict Gotham Zoo.",
"Their leader, Oswald – now named the Penguin – blackmails Shreck with evidence of his corruption and murderous acts to compel his assistance in reintegrating Oswald into Gotham's elite.",
"Shreck orchestrates a staged kidnapping of the mayor's infant child, allowing Oswald to rescue it and become a public hero.",
"In exchange, Oswald requests access to the city's birth records, ostensibly to learn his true identity by identifying Gotham's first-born sons.Shreck attempts to kill his meek secretary, Selina Kyle, by pushing her out of a window after she inadvertently uncovers his plot to build a power plant which would covertly siphon and hoard electricity from Gotham.",
"Selina survives, returns home, angrily crafts a costume and adopts the name Catwoman.",
"She returns to work confident and aggressive, catching the attention of visiting billionaire Bruce Wayne.",
"As his alter ego, the vigilante Batman, Wayne investigates Oswald, suspecting that he is connected to Red Triangle.",
"To eliminate opposition to his plant, Shreck convinces Oswald to run for mayor and discredit the incumbent by having Red Triangle wreak havoc throughout Gotham.",
"Batman's efforts to stop the gang eventually bring him into conflict with Catwoman.",
"Selina and Wayne begin dating, while Catwoman allies with Oswald to disgrace Batman.On the night of the city's Christmas-tree lighting, Oswald and Catwoman kidnap the Ice Princess (Gotham's beauty queen) and lure Batman to the roof above the ceremony.",
"Oswald pushes the Ice Princess to her death with a swarm of bats, framing Batman.",
"When Catwoman objects to the murder and rejects his romantic advances, Oswald attacks her and she falls through a glasshouse.",
"Batman escapes in the Batmobile, unaware that Red Triangle has modified it; this allows Oswald to take it on a remote-controlled rampage.",
"Before regaining control, Batman records Oswald's derogatory tirade against Gotham's citizens.",
"He plays the audio at Oswald's mayoral rally the following day, ruining his image and forcing him to retreat back to Gotham Zoo.",
"Oswald forsakes his humanity and embraces the Penguin name, initiating his plan to abduct and kill Gotham's first-born sons to avenge his own abandonment.Selina tries to kill Shreck at his charity ball, but Wayne intervenes and they inadvertently discover each other's secret identities.",
"Penguin crashes the event to kidnap Shreck's son, Chip, but Shreck offers himself instead.",
"Batman neutralizes Red Triangle and stops the kidnappings, forcing Penguin to deploy his missile-equipped penguin army to destroy Gotham.",
"Batman's butler, Alfred Pennyworth, overrides the penguins' control signal and redirects them back to Gotham Zoo.",
"As the missiles destroy the zoo, Batman unleashes a swarm of bats which makes Penguin fall into the contaminated waters of the Arctic exhibit.",
"Catwoman arrives to kill Shreck, rejecting Batman's plea to abandon her vengeance and leave with him.",
"She is shot four times by Shreck, seemingly without effect, because she claims to have two of her nine lives remaining.",
"Catwoman electrocutes Shreck, causing a power surge which apparently kills them both; however, Batman finds only Shreck's charred remains.",
"Penguin returns, but dies of his injuries before he can attack Batman and is laid to rest in the water by his penguins.",
"Sometime later, while Alfred drives him home, Wayne sees Selina's silhouette but finds only a cat (which he takes with him).",
"The Bat-Signal shines above the city, as Catwoman looks on."
],
[
"Cast",
"* Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman: A billionaire businessman who operates as Gotham's vigilante protector* Danny DeVito as Oswald Cobblepot / Penguin: A malformed crime boss* Michelle Pfeiffer as Selina Kyle / Catwoman: A meek assistant turned vengeful villain* Christopher Walken as Max Shreck: A ruthless industrialist* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth: Wayne's butler and surrogate father* Pat Hingle as James Gordon: The Gotham City police commissioner and Batman's ally* Michael Murphy as the Mayor: The city's incumbent mayorThe cast of ''Batman Returns'' includes Andrew Bryniarski as Max's son Charles \"Chip\" Schreck and Cristi Conaway as the Ice Princess, Gotham's beauty queen-elect.",
"Paul Reubens and Diane Salinger appear as Tucker and Esther Cobblepot, Oswald's wealthy, elite parents.",
"Sean Whalen appears as a paperboy; Jan Hooks and Steve Witting play Jen and Josh, Oswald's mayoral image consultants.",
"The Red Triangle gang includes the monkey-toting Organ Grinder (Vincent Schiavelli), the Poodle Lady (Anna Katarina), the Tattooed Strongman (Rick Zumwalt), the Sword Swallower (John Strong), the Knifethrower Dame (Erika Andersch), the Acrobatic Thug (Gregory Scott Cummins), the Terrifying Clown (Branscombe Richmond), the Fat Clown (Travis Mckenna), and the Thin Clown (Doug Jones)."
],
[
"Production",
"===Development===Tim Burton ''(pictured in 2012)'' agreed to direct ''Batman Returns'' in exchange for greater creative control.After the success of ''Batman'' (1989), the fifth-highest-grossing of its time, a sequel was considered inevitable.",
"Warner Bros. Pictures had confidence in its potential and was discussing sequel ideas by late 1989, intending to begin filming the following May; the studio had purchased the $2million Gotham City sets at Pinewood Studios in England for at least two sequels.",
"It kept the sets under 24-hour guard because it was cheaper to maintain the existing sets than build new ones.",
"Robin Williams and Danny DeVito were considered to play rogues Riddler and Penguin, respectively.",
"Despite pressure from Warner Bros. to finalize a script and begin filming, ''Batman'' director Tim Burton remained uncertain about directing a sequel.",
"He described it as a \"dumbfounded idea\", especially before ''Batman''s performance was analyzed, and was generally opposed to sequels: \"Sequels are only worthwhile if they give you the opportunity to do something new and interesting.",
"It has to go beyond that, really, because you do the first for the thrill of the unknown.",
"A sequel wipes all that out, so you must explore the next level.\"",
"''Batman'' writer Sam Hamm's initial story idea expanded the character of district attorney Harvey Dent, played in ''Batman'' by Billy Dee Williams, and his descent into the supervillain Two-Face.",
"Warner Bros. wanted the main villain to be the Penguin, however, and Hamm believed that the studio saw the character as Batman's most prominent enemy after the Joker.",
"Catwoman was added because Burton and Hamm were interested in the character.",
"Hamm's drafts continued directly from ''Batman'', focusing on the relationship between Wayne and Vicki Vale (Kim Basinger) and their engagement.",
"The Penguin was written as an avian-themed criminal who uses birds as weapons; Catwoman was more overtly sexualised, wore \"bondage\" gear, and nonchalantly murdered groups of men.",
"The main narrative teamed Penguin and Catwoman to frame Batman for the murders of Gotham's wealthiest citizens in their pursuit of a secret treasure.",
"Their quest leads them to Wayne Manor, and reveals the Waynes' secret history.",
"Among other things, Hamm originated the Christmastime setting and introduced Robin, Batman's sidekick, although his idea for assault rifle-wielding Santas was abandoned.",
"Hamm ensured that Batman did not kill anyone, and focused on protecting Gotham's homeless.",
"He produced two drafts which failed to renew Burton's interest, and the director concentrated on directing ''Edward Scissorhands'' (1990) and writing ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' (1993).Burton was confirmed to direct the sequel in January 1991, with filming scheduled to begin later that year for a 1992 release date.",
"He agreed to return if he received creative control of the sequel; Burton considered ''Batman'' the least favorite of his films, describing it as a \"little boring at times.\"",
"According to Denise Di Novi, his long-time producer, \"Only about 50% of ''Batman'' was Burton\"; the studio wanted ''Batman Returns'' to be \"more of a Tim Burton movie... a weirder movie but also more hip and fun.",
"\"Burton replaced key ''Batman'' crew with some of his former collaborators, including cinematographer Stefan Czapsky, production designer Bo Welch, creature-effects supervisor Stan Winston, makeup artist Ve Neill, and art directors Tom Duffield and Rick Henrichs.",
"Daniel Waters was hired to replace Hamm; Burton wanted someone with no emotional attachment to ''Batman'' and liked Waters' script for the dark comedy ''Heathers'' (1988), which matched Burton's intended tone and creative direction.",
"Burton reportedly disliked ''Batman'' producer Jon Peters, demoted him to executive producer of ''Batman Returns'', and effectively barred him from the set.",
"Warner Bros. was the production company and distributor, with production assistance from executive producer Peter Guber's and Peters' Polygram Pictures.===Writing===Daniel Waters ''(seen in 2008)'' was hired by Tim Burton to revise Sam Hamm's initial draft.Waters began writing his first draft in mid-1990.Burton's only instructions were that Catwoman had to be more than a \"sexy vixen\", and the script's only connection to ''Batman'' was a reference to Vale as Wayne's ex-girlfriend.",
"Waters said that he did not like the 1989 film, and had no interest in following its narrative threads or acknowledging the comic-book histories of ''Batman Returns'' characters: \"Burton and I never had a conversation about 'what are fans of the comic books going to think?'...",
"we never thought about them.",
"We were really just about the art.\"",
"He also had no interest in preventing Batman from killing people; the character should reflect contemporary, \"darker\" times, and the idea of a hero leaving captured villains for the authorities was outdated.",
"Waters only had Batman kill when necessary, however, believing that it should be meaningful; he was unhappy with some of the added on-screen deaths, such as Batman blowing up a Red Triangle member with a bomb.Much of Waters' \"bitter and cynical\" dialogue for Batman (such as Gotham City not deserving protection) was removed because Keaton believed that Batman should rarely speak in costume and Burton wanted Batman to be a \"wounded soul\", not nihilistic.",
"As a result, the script focused on villains.",
"Burton said that he initially struggled to understand the appeal of the Penguin's comic-book counterpart; Batman, Catwoman, and the Joker had clear psychological profiles, but the Penguin was \"just this guy with a cigarette and a top hat.\"",
"The initial draft made the character resemble a stereotypical DeVito character (an abrasive gangster), but Waters and Burton agreed to make him more \"animalistic\".",
"They decided to make the Penguin a tragic figure, abandoned as an infant by his parentsa reflection of Batman's childhood trauma of losing his parents.",
"Political and social satire was added, influenced by two episodes of the 1960s television series ''Batman'' (\"Hizzoner the Penguin\" and \"Dizhonner the Penguin\") in which the Penguin runs for mayor.Waters changed Hamm's Catwoman from a \"fetishy sexual fantasy\" ''femme fatale'' to a working-class, disenchanted secretary, writing her as an allegory of contemporary feminism.",
"Although the character is influenced by feline mythology (such as cats having nine lives), Waters and Burton never intended the belief to be taken literally and planned for Catwoman to die with Shreck during the electrical explosion in the film's denouement.",
"Waters created Max Shreck as an original character, named in honor of actor Max Schreck, to replace the Dent-Two-Face character.",
"The character was written satirically as an evil industrialist who orchestrates the Penguin's mayoral run because Waters wanted to say \"that the true villains of our world don't necessarily wear costumes.\"",
"In one version of the script, Shreck was the Penguin's more-favored brother.",
"The number of central characters led to the removal of Robin, a garage mechanic who helps Batman after Penguin crashes the Batmobile.",
"Burton and Waters were not particularly interested in retaining the character, whom Waters called \"the most worthless character in the world\".",
"The Red Triangle gang, initially conceived as a troupe of performance artists, were changed to circus clowns at Burton's request.",
"Waters said that his 160-page first draft was too outlandish and would have cost $400million to produce, and he became more restrained.",
"His fifth (and final draft) focused more on characterization and interaction than on plot.Burton and Waters eventually fell out, disagreeing about the script and with Waters refusing to implement requested changes.",
"Burton hired Wesley Strick to refine Waters' work, streamline dialogue, and lighten the tone.",
"Warner Bros. executives mandated that Strick introduce a master plan for the Penguin, resulting in the addition of the plot to kidnap Gotham's first-born sons and threaten the city with missiles.",
"Waters said that the changes to his work were relatively minor, and he was baffled by the Penguin's plot: \"What the fuck is this shit?\"",
"He made a final revision to the shooting screenplay and, although Strick was on set for four months of filming and agreed-upon rewriting, Waters was the only screenwriter credited.===Casting===Christopher Walken ''(pictured in 2008)'' based his performance on moguls such as Sol Hurok and Samuel Goldwyn.Keaton reprised his role as Bruce Wayne / Batman for $10 million, double his salary for ''Batman''.",
"Burton wanted to cast Marlon Brando as the Penguin, but Warner Bros. preferred Dustin Hoffman.",
"Christopher Lloyd and Robert De Niro were also considered, but Danny DeVito became the frontrunner when Waters re-envisioned the character as a deformed human-bird hybrid.",
"DeVito was initially reluctant to accept the role until he was convinced by his close friend, Jack Nicholson, who played the Joker in ''Batman''.",
"To convey his vision, Burton gave DeVito a picture he had painted of a diminutive character sitting on a red-and-white striped ball with the caption, \"my name is Jimmy, but my friends call me the hideous penguin boy.",
"\"Casting Selina Kyle / Catwoman was difficult.",
"Annette Bening initially secured the role, but had to drop out after becoming pregnant.",
"Actresses lobbying for the part then included Ellen Barkin, Cher, Bridget Fonda, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Madonna, Julie Newmar, Lena Olin, Susan Sarandon, Raquel Welch, and Basinger.",
"The most prominent candidate, however, was Sean Young (who was cast as Vale in ''Batman'' before she was injured).",
"Young went to the Warner Bros. lot in a homemade Catwoman costume for an impromptu audition for Burton, who reportedly hid under his desk (although Keaton and producer Mark Canton briefly met with her).",
"She shared video of her efforts with ''Entertainment Tonight'', and Warner Bros. said that Young did not fit their vision for Catwoman.The role went to Pfeiffer who was described as a proven actress who got along with Burton (although some publications said that it would stretch her acting abilities).",
"Pfeiffer had also been considered for Vale, but Keaton vetoed the casting because they had been romantically involved and he believed that her presence would interfere with attempts to reconcile with his wife.",
"She received a $3million salary ($2million more than Bening), plus a percentage of the gross profits.",
"Pfeiffer trained for months in kickboxing with her stunt double, Kathy Long; she mastered the whip, becoming proficient enough to perform her own stunts with the weapon.Shreck's appearance was modeled on Vincent Price in an (unnamed) older film, and Walken based his performance on moguls such as Sol Hurok and Samuel Goldwyn.",
"He said, \"I tend to play mostly villains and twisted people.",
"Unsavory guys.",
"I think it's my face, the way I look.",
"If you do something effective, producers want you to do it again and again.\"",
"Burgess Meredith (who played the Penguin in the 1960s TV series) was scheduled to make a cameo appearance as Penguin's father, Tucker Cobblepot, but became ill during filming.",
"He was replaced by Paul Reubens; Diane Salinger played his wife, Esther.",
"Both had starred in Burton's feature-film debut, ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'' (1985).Although Robin was removed from the screenplay, the character's development was far enough along that Marlon Wayans was cast in the role (Burton had specifically wanted an African-American Robin) and costumes, sets, and action figures were made.",
"In a 1998 interview, Wayans said that he still received residual checks as part of the two-film contract he signed.",
"Early reports suggested that Nicholson had been asked to return as the Joker, but refused to film in England because of the salary tax on foreign talent.",
"Nicholson denied being asked, however, believing that Warner Bros. would not want to replicate his generous compensation for ''Batman''.===Filming===Gotham City Square set built inside Studio 16 at Warner Bros. StudiosPrincipal photography began on September 3, 1991.Burton wanted to film in the United States with American actors because he believed that ''Batman'' \"suffered from a British subtext.\"",
"The economics of filming ''Batman'' in the United Kingdom had also changed, making it more cost-effective to remain in the U.S.",
"This meant abandoning the English ''Batman'' sets in favor of Burton's new design.",
"''Batman Returns'' was filmed entirely on seven or eight soundstages at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank, California, including Stage 16 (which housed the expansive Gotham Plaza set).",
"An additional soundstage, Stage 12 at the Universal Studios Lot, was used for the Penguin's Arctic-exhibit lair.Some sets were kept very cold for the live Emperor, black-footed, and King penguins.",
"The birds were flown in on a refrigerated airplane for filming, and had a refrigerated waiting area with a swimming pool stocked with half a ton of ice daily and fresh fish.",
"DeVito said that he generally liked being on set but disliked the cold conditions, and was the only person somewhat comfortable because of his costume's heavy padding.",
"To create the penguin army, the live penguins were supplemented with puppets, forty Emperor-penguin suits worn by little people, and Computer-generated imagery (CGI).",
"People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) protested the use of real penguins, objecting to the birds' being moved from their natural environment.",
"Although the organization had reportedly said that the penguins were not mistreated during filming, it later said that the birds did not get fresh drinking waterjust a small, chlorinated pool.",
"PETA also objected to the penguins being fitted with appliances representing weapons and gadgets, which Warner Bros. said were lightweight plastic.",
"Burton said that he did not like using real animals because he had an affinity for them, and ensured that the penguins were treated with care.Walken described the filming as very collaborative, recalling that his suggestion to add a blueprint for Shreck's power plant resulted in a model built within a few hours.",
"The scene of Catwoman putting a live bird in her mouth was real, with no CGI.",
"Pfeiffer said that, in retrospect, she would not have done the stunt; she had not considered the risks of injury or disease involved.",
"For a scene in the sewers, monkey handlers positioned above and below managed the organ grinder monkey as it descended a set of stairs with a note for Penguin.",
"When it saw DeVito in full costume and makeup, it leapt at his testicles.",
"DeVito said, \"The monkey looked at me, froze, and then leapt right at my balls...Thank god it was a padded costume.\"",
"A scene of Shreck's superstore exploding caused minor injuries to four stuntmen.",
"Principal photography ended on February 20, 1992, after 170 days.===Post-production===Chris Lebenzon edited ''Batman Returns'' 126-minute theatrical cut.",
"The final scene of Catwoman looking up at the Bat Signal was filmed during post-production, only two weeks before the film's release.",
"Warner Bros. mandated the scene (depicting that the character survived) after test audiences responded positively to Pfeiffer's performance.",
"Pfeiffer was unavailable to film the scene, and a stand-in was used.",
"A scene of Penguin's gang destroying a store filled with Batman merchandise was removed.",
"Warner Bros. provided a final budget for ''Batman Returns'' of $55million, although it has been reported (or estimated) as $50, $65, $75, or 80million.===Music===Danny Elfman was initially reluctant to score ''Batman Returns'' because he was unhappy that his ''Batman'' score was supplemented with pop music by Prince.",
"Elfman built on many of his ''Batman'' themes, and said that he enjoyed working on the Penguin's themes the most because of the character's sympathetic aspects (such as his abandonment and death): \"I'm a huge sucker for that kind of sentimentality.\"",
"Recorded with a studio orchestra on the Sony Scoring Stage in Los Angeles, Elfman's score includes vocals, harps, bells, xylophones, flutes, pianos, and chimes.",
"The song \"Face to Face\", played during the costume-ball scene, was co-written and performed by the British rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees.",
"Burton and Elfman fell out during production due to the stress of finishing ''Batman Returns'' on time, but reconciled shortly afterward."
],
[
"Design and effects",
"''Batman'' production designer Anton Furst was replaced by Bo Welch, who understood Burton's visual intentions after previous collaborations on ''Beetlejuice'' (1988) and ''Edward Scissorhands'' (1990).",
"Furst, already occupied on another project, committed suicide in November 1991.Warner Bros. maintained a high level of security for ''Batman Returns'', requiring the art department to keep their window blinds closed.",
"Cast and crew had to wear ID badges with the film's working title, ''Dictel'', a word coined by Welch and Burton meaning \"dictatorial\"; they were unhappy with the studio's \"ridiculous gestapo\" measures.",
"Welch designed the Batboat vehicle, a programmable batarang, and the Penguin's weaponized umbrellas.",
"He added features to the Batmobile, such as detaching much of its exterior to fit through tighter spaces; this version was called the \"Batmissile\".===Sets===The sets were redesigned in Welch's style, including the Batcave and Wayne Manor.",
"They were spread across seven soundstages on the Warner Bros. lot (the largest of which had ceilings) and the largest set owned by Universal Pictures.",
"''Batman Returns'' was filmed on sets, although some panoramic shots (such as the camera traveling from the base of Shreck's department store to its cat-head-shaped office) were created with detailed miniatures.Welch found it difficult to create something new without deviating from Furst's award-winning work.",
"The designs were intended to appear as a separate district of Gotham; if ''Batman'' took place on the East Side, ''Batman Returns'' was set on the West Side.",
"Welch was influenced by German Expressionism, neo-fascist architecture (including Nazi Germany-era styles), American precisionism painters, and photos of the homeless living on the streets in affluent areas.",
"He incorporated Burton's rough sketch of Catwoman, which had a \"very S&M kind of look\", by adding chains and steel elements which would appear to hold together a city on the verge of collapse.",
"The key element for Welch came early in design, when he realized that he wanted to manipulate spaces to convey specific emotions (emphasizing vertical buildings to convey a \"huge, overwhelmingly corrupt, decaying city\" filled with small people): \"The film is about this alienating, disparate world we live in.\"",
"The wintertime setting took advantage of the contrast between black and white scene elements, influenced by ''Citizen Kane'' (1941) and ''The Third Man'' (1949).Welch's concept designs began by carving out building shapes from cardboard with images of fascist sculptures and depression era machine-age art.",
"The resulting -tall rough model represented Gotham Plaza, described as a futuristic, oppressive, and \"demented caricature\" of Rockefeller Center.",
"It was designed overbuilt, emphasizing the generic-but-oppressive heart of Gotham's corruption.",
"Despite complaints from the film's financiers about its necessity, Burton insisted on the location with a detailed church overshadowed by plain surroundings.Designs attempted to create the illusion of space; the Wayne Manor set was partially built (consisting primarily of a large staircase and fireplace) with a scale which implied that the rest of the structure was massive.",
"Penguin's base was initially scheduled to be built in a standard tall Warner Bros. soundstage, but Welch thought that it lacked \"majesty\" and did not create enough contrast between itself and the \"evil, filthy, little bug of a man\".",
"A -tall Universal stage was acquired for the production, its raised ceilings making it seem more realistic and less like a set.",
"Minor modifications were made to the set throughout the film to make it appear to be gradually deteriorating.",
"The location featured a water tank filled with of water surrounding a faux-ice island.",
"Selina Kyle's apartment had a large steel beam running through its center to appear as if it had been built around a steel girder, which Welch said made it depressing and ironic.",
"The wood used to build the sets was donated to Habitat for Humanity to help build low-cost homes for the poor.===Costumes and makeup===To transform into the Penguin, Danny DeVito wore a combination of prosthetics and makeup which covered much of his face.Bob Ringwood and Mary E. Vogt were the costume designers.",
"They refined the Batsuit to create the illusion of mechanical parts built into the torso, intending Batman to resemble Darth Vader.",
"Forty-eight foam-rubber Batsuits were made for ''Batman Returns''.",
"They had a mechanical system of bolts and spikes beneath the breast plate to secure the cowl and cape because \"otherwise, if Keaton turned around quickly the cape would stay where it was\", due to its weight.",
"Costumer Paul Barrett-Brown said that the suit had a \"generous codpiece\" for comfort, and initially included a zippered fly to allow Keaton to use the bathroom; the actor declined, however, because it could be seen by the camera from some angles.",
"As with the ''Batman'' costume, Keaton could not turn his head; he compensated by making bolder, more powerful movements with his lower body.The Catwoman outfit was made from latex because it was designed to be \"black and sexy and tight and shiny\".",
"The material was chosen because of its association with \"erotic and sexual\" situations, reflecting the character's transition from a repressed secretary to an extroverted, erotic female.",
"Padding was added because Pfeiffer was less physically endowed than Bening; this worked to Pfeiffer's advantage, however, since Barrett-Brown said that if it was too tight it \"would reveal the genital area so thoroughly that you'd get an X certificate.\"",
"Ringwood and Vogt thought that if the latex material tore it would not be difficult to repair; forty to seventy backup Catwoman suits were made by Western Costume, the Warner Bros. costume department, and Los Angeles-based clothing manufacturer Syren at a cost of $1,000 each.",
"Other versions, made for Pfeiffer from a cast of her body, were so tight that she had to be covered in baby powder to wear them.",
"Barrett-Brown said that because of the material, it was possible to get into the suit when dry; they could not re-use them, however, because of sweat and body oils.",
"Vin Burnham constructed Catwoman's headpiece and mask.Burton was influenced to add stitching by calico cats, but the stitching came apart.",
"Ringwood and Vogt struggled with adding stitching to latex.",
"They tried to sculpt stitching and glue it on, but did not like the look and went over the suit with liquid silicon while it was worn (which added a shine to everything).",
"Pfeiffer said that the suit was like a second skin, but when worn for long periods it was uncomfortable; there was no way to use the restroom and it would stick to her skin, occasionally causing a rash.",
"She found the mask similarly confining, describing it as choking her or \"smashing my face\", and would catch the claws on nearby objects.Stan Winston Studio created an \"over-the-top Burtonesque\" visual for the Penguin, without obscuring DeVito's face.",
"Concept artist Mark McCreery drew a number of sketches for the look, from which Legacy Effects built noses on a lifecast of DeVito's face.",
"Winston was unhappy with the \"pointy nose\" shapes and began sculpting ideas with clay, influenced by his work on ''The Wiz'' (1978) (which involved a forehead and brow prosthetic appliance for large-beaked creatures).",
"The final makeup included a T-shaped appliance which went over DeVito's noise, lip and brow as well as crooked teeth, whitened skin and dark circles under his eyes.",
"Ve Neill applied the makeup, made by John Rosengrant and Shane Mahan.",
"The several pounds of facial prosthetics, body padding, and prosthetic hands took four-and-a-half hours to apply to DeVito, but was reduced to three hours by the end of filming.",
"An air bladder was added to the costume to help reduce its weight.",
"DeVito helped create the Penguin's black saliva with the makeup and effects teams, using a mild mouthwash and food coloring which he squirted into his mouth before filming, and said its taste was acceptable.",
"Burton described DeVito as completely in-character in costume, and he \"scared everybody\".",
"While re-dubbing some of his dialogue, DeVito struggled to get into character without the makeup and had it applied to improve his performance.",
"Because of the secrecy surrounding his character's appearance before marketing, DeVito was not allowed to discuss it with others (including his family).",
"A photo leaked to the press, and Warner Bros. employed a firm of private investigators in a failed attempt to track down the source.===Penguins===Stan Winston Studio provided animatronic penguins and costumes to supplement Penguin's army.",
"Thirty animatronic versions were made: ten each of the black-footed, King, and Emperor penguins.",
"Costumes worn by little people were slightly larger than the animatronics; the actors controlled walking, the mechanized heads were remote-controlled and the wings were puppeteered.",
"Dyed black chicken feathers were used for the penguin bodies.",
"McCreery's designs for the penguin army initially included a flamethrower, which was replaced with a rocket launcher.",
"Mechanical-effects designers Richard Landon and Craig Caton-Largent supervised the manufacture of the animatronics, which required nearly 200 different mechanical parts to control the head, neck, eyes, beak, and wings.",
"Boss Film Studios produced the CGI penguins."
],
[
"Release",
"===Context===By the theatrical summer of 1992 (beginning the last week of May), the film industry was struggling.",
"Ticket sales were their lowest in fifteen years; rising film-production costs and several box-office failures the previous year meant that many independent and some major film studios were struggling financially.",
"Eighty-nine films were scheduled for release during the summer season, including ''A League of Their Own'', ''Alien 3'', ''Encino Man'', ''Far and Away'', ''Patriot Games'', and ''Sister Act''.",
"Studios had to carefully schedule their releases to avoid competition from anticipated blockbusters, which included ''Lethal Weapon 3'', ''Batman Returns'', and the 1992 Summer Olympics.",
"''Batman Returns'' was predicted to be the summer's biggest success, and other studios were reportedly concerned about releasing their films within a few weeks of its premiere.",
"Paramount Pictures increased the budget of ''Patriot Games'' from $29million to $43million to make it more competitive with ''Batman Returns'' and ''Lethal Weapon 3''.===Marketing===Franchising had not been considered an important aspect of ''Batman''s release.",
"However, after merchandise contributed about $500million to its $1.5billion total earnings, it was prioritized for ''Batman Returns''.",
"Warner Bros. delayed major promotion until February 1992, to avoid over-saturation and the risk of driving away audiences.",
"A 12-minute promotional reel which debuted at WorldCon in September 1991 with a black-and-white poster of a silhouetted Batman was called \"mundane\" and uninspiring.",
"A trailer was released in 5,000 theaters in February 1992 with a new poster of a snow-swept Batman logo.",
"The campaign focused on the three central characters (Batman, Penguin, and Catwoman), which Warner Bros. believed would offset the loss of the popular Nicholson.",
"Over two-thirds of the 300 posters Warner Bros. installed in public places were stolen.",
"Warner Bros. eventually offered 200 limited-edition posters for $250; they were signed by Keaton, who donated his earnings to charity.Over $100million was expected to be spent on marketing, including $20million by Warner Bros. for commercials and trailers and $60million by merchandising partners.",
"The partners, which included McDonald's, Ralston Purina, Kmart, Target Corporation, Venture Stores, and Sears, planned to host about 300 Batman shops in its stores.",
"McDonald's converted 9,000 outlets into Gotham City restaurants, offering Batman-themed packaging and a cup lid which doubled as a flying disc.",
"CBS aired a television special, ''The Bat, The Cat, The Penguin... Batman Returns'', and Choice Hotels sponsored the hour-long ''The Making of Batman Returns''.",
"Television advertisements featured Batman and Catwoman fighting over a can of Diet Coke, and the Penguin (and his penguins) promoted Choice Hotels.",
"Advertisements also appeared on billboards and in print (three consecutive pages in some newspapers), targeted at older audiences.===Box office===''Batman Returns'' premiered on June 16, 1992, at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood.",
"Two blocks of Hollywood Boulevard were closed for over 3,000 fans, 33 TV film crews, and 100 photographers.",
"A party was held afterwards on the Soundstage 16 Gotham Plaza set for guests who included Keaton, Pfeiffer, DeVito, Burton, DiNovi, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Faye Dunaway, James Caan, Mickey Rooney, Harvey Keitel, Christian Slater, James Woods, and Reubens.The film had a limited, preview release in the U.S. and Canada on Thursday, June 18, earning $2million.",
"It had a wide release the following day, and was shown on an above-average 3,000 screens in 2,644 theaters.",
"''Batman Returns'' earned $45.7million during its opening weekend (an average of $17,729 per theater), and was the number-one filmahead of ''Sister Act'' fourth weekend ($7.8million) and ''Patriot Games'' third ($7.7million).",
"This figure broke the record for the highest-grossing opening weekend, set by ''Batman'' ($42.7million); ''Batman Returns'' had the highest-grossing opening weekend of the year, surpassing ''Lethal Weapon 3'' ($33.2million).",
"The film held the all-time record for the biggest opening weekend until it was surpassed by ''Jurassic Park'' ($50.1million) the next year.",
"Performance analysis suggested that ''Batman Returns'' could become one of the all-time highest-grossing films; Warner Bros. executive Robert Friedman said, \"We opened it the first real weekend when kids are out of school.",
"The audience is everybody, but the engine that drives the charge are kids under 20.\"",
"According to ''Patriot Games'' producer Mace Neufeld, other films benefited from overflow audiences for ''Batman Returns'' who did not want to wait in long lines or were turned away from sold-out screenings.",
"''Batman Returns'' earned $25.4million in its second weekend (a 44.3-percent drop) and was the number-one film again, ahead of the premiering ''Unlawful Entry'' ($10.1million) and ''Sister Act'' ($7.2million).",
"By the film's third weekend, it was the second=fastest film to gross $100million (11 days), behind ''Batman'' (10 days).",
"It remained the number-one film with a gross of $13.8million (a 45.6-percent drop), ahead of the premiering ''A League of Their Own'' ($13.7million) and ''Boomerang'' ($13.6million).",
"''The Washington Post'' called its week-over-week drops \"troublesome\", and industry analysis suggested that ''Batman Returns'' would not replicate the longevity of ''Batman''s theatrical run.",
"It never regained the number-one position, falling to numberfour over its fourth weekend and leaving the top-ten highest-grossing films by its seventh.",
"The film left theaters in late October after 18 weeks, with a total gross of $162.8million.",
"It was the third-highest-grossing film of 1992, behind ''Home Alone 2: Lost in New York'' ($173.6million) and ''Aladdin'' ($217.3million).",
"''Batman Returns'' earned an estimated $104million outside the U.S. and Canada, including a record-setting £2.8million opening weekend in the United Kingdom.",
"This broke the record set by ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' (1991), making it the first film to gross more than £1million in a single day.",
"Worldwide, ''Batman Returns'' grossed $266.8million.",
"It was the sixth-highest-grossing film of 1992, behind ''Lethal Weapon 3'' ($321.7million), ''Basic Instinct'' ($352.9million), ''Home Alone 2: Lost in New York'' ($359million), ''The Bodyguard'' ($410.9million), and ''Aladdin'' ($504.1million)."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Critical response===Michelle Pfeiffer in 1985.Although critics were polarized by many aspects of ''Batman Returns'', Pfeiffer's performance received near-unanimous praise.",
"''Batman Returns'' had a polarized reception from professional critics.",
"Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of B on an A+-to-F scale.Several reviewers compared ''Batman Returns'' and ''Batman''; some suggested that the sequel had faster pacing and more comedy and depth, avoiding ''Batman'' \"dourness\" and \"tedium\".",
"Critics generally agreed that Burton's creative control made ''Batman Returns'' a more personal work than ''Batman'', something \"fearlessly\" different which could be judged on its own merits.",
"Critics such as Kenneth Turan, however, said that Burton's innovative, impressive visuals made ''Batman Returns'' feel cheerless, claustrophobic and unexciting, and were often emphasized at the expense of the plot.",
"According to Owen Gleiberman, Burton's fantastic elements were undermined because he did not establish a base of normality.The plot had a mixed response.",
"Some reviewers praised the first and second acts and interesting characters who could evoke audience emotion.",
"Others said that it lacked suspense, thrills, or clever writing, overwhelmed by too many characters and near-constant banter.",
"The ending was criticized for lackluster action and failing to bring the separate character threads to a satisfactory conclusion.",
"According to Janet Maslin, Burton cared mainly about visuals and plot was a secondary consideration.",
"Gene Siskel said that the emphasis on characterization was detrimental; the sympathetic villains left him hoping that Batman would not win, and each character would find emotional peace.Reviewers generally agreed that despite Keaton's abilities, his character was ignored by the script in favor of the villains; scenes without him were among the best.",
"Todd McCarthy described Batman as a symbol of good rather than a psychologically-complete character, and Ebert wrote that ''Batman Returns'' depicts being Batman as a curse instead of a heroic power fantasy.",
"Peter Travers, however, said that Keaton's \"manic depressive hero\" was a deep, realized character in spite of the film's faster pace.",
"DeVito was praised for his energy, unique characterization, and ability to convey his character's tragedy despite the costumes and prosthetics.",
"Desson Howe said that Burton's focus on the Penguin indicated his sympathy for the character.",
"Some reviewers considered DeVito an inferior followup to Nicholson's Joker, who evoked sympathy without instilling fear.Pfeiffer received near-unanimous praise for the film's standout performance as a passionate, sexy, ambitious, intelligent, intimidating, and fierce embodiment of feminism who offered the only respite from the otherwise-dark tone.",
"Jonathan Rosenbaum, however, said that she did not live up to Nicholson's villain.",
"Turan called the scenes shared by Batman and Catwoman the film's most interesting, and Travers said that when they take off their masks at the end they look \"lost and touchingly human\".",
"Burr described the ballroom scene (in which they realize each other's secret identities) as more emotional than anything in ''Batman''.",
"Ebert noted that their sexual tension seemed to have been undercut for a younger audience.",
"Walken's performance was described as \"wonderfully debonair\", funny and engaging, a villain who could have carried ''Batman Returns'' alone.Welch's production design was generally praised, offering a sleeker, brighter, more authoritarian visual style than Furst's \"brooding\", oppressive aesthetic.",
"McCarthy described Welch's ability to realize Burton's imaginative universe as an achievement, although Gene Siskel described Welch as a \"toy shop window decorator\" compared to Furst.",
"The costumes and makeup effects were also praised, with Maslin saying that those images would linger in the imagination long after the narrative was forgotten.",
"Czapsky's cinematography was well-received, even giving a \"lively\" aesthetic to the subterranean sets.",
"The film's violent, mature, sexual content, such as kidnappings and implied child murder, was criticized as inappropriate for younger audiences.===Accolades===At the 46th British Academy Film Awards, ''Batman Returns'' was nominated for Best Makeup (Ve Neill and Stan Winston) and Best Special Visual Effects (Michael Fink, Craig Barron, John Bruno, and Dennis Skotak).",
"For the 65th Academy Awards, ''Batman Returns'' received two nomations: Best Makeup (Neill, Ronnie Specter, and Winston) and Best Visual Effects (Fink, Barron, Bruno, and Skotak), but lost both awards to ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' and ''Death Becomes Her'' respectively.",
"Neill and Winston received the Best Make-up award at the 19th Saturn Awards.",
"The film received four other Saturn Award nominations for Best Fantasy Film, Best Supporting Actor (DeVito), Best Director (Burton), and Best Costume Design (Bob Ringwood, Mary Vogt, and Vin Burnham).",
"DeVito was nominated for Worst Supporting Actor at the 13th Golden Raspberry Awards, and Pfeiffer for Most Desirable Female at the 1993 MTV Movie Awards.",
"''Batman Returns'' was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation."
],
[
"{{anchor|Post-release}}After release",
"===Performance analysis and aftermath===The U.S. and Canadian box offices underperformed in 1992, with admissions down by up to five percent and about 290million tickets sold (compared to over 300million in each of the preceding four years).",
"Industry professionals blamed the drop on the lack of quality of the films being released, considering them too derivative or dull to attract audiences.",
"Even films considered successful had significant box-office drops week over week from what apparently-negative word of mouth.",
"Industry executive Frank Price said that the releases were not attracting the younger audiences and children which were vital to a film's success.",
"Rising ticket prices, competition from the Olympics, and an economic recession were also considered contributing factors to the declining figures.",
"''Batman Returns'' and ''Lethal Weapon 3'' contributed to Warner Bros. best first half-year in its history, and were expected to return over $200million to the studio from the box office.",
"''Batman Returns'' was considered a disappointment as a sequel to the fifth-highest-grossing film ever made, however, and fell about $114.8million short of ''Batman''s $411.6million theatrical gross.",
"By July 1992, anonymous Warner Bros. executives reportedly said about the film, \"It's too dark.",
"It's not a lot of fun.",
"\"Despite its PG-13 rating from the Motion Picture Association, warning parents that a film may contain strong content unsuitable for children, some audiences (particularly parents) disliked ''Batman Returns'' violent and sexualized content; the studio received thousands of complaint letters.",
"Waters recalled the aftermath of one screening: \"It's like kids crying, people acting like they've been punched in the stomach and like they've been mugged.\"",
"He had anticipated some backlash and \"relished that reaction\", but part of him was \"like, 'oops'.\"",
"McDonald's was criticized for its child-centered promotion and toys, and discontinued its ''Batman Returns'' campaign in September 1992.According to Burton, \"I like ''Batman Returns'' better than the first one.",
"There was this big backlash that it was too dark, but I found this movie much less dark.\"",
"Although much of Hamm's work was replaced, he defended Burton and Waters and said that except from the merchandise, ''Batman Returns'' was never presented as child-friendly.Warner Bros. decided to continue the series without Burton (described as \"too dark and odd for them\"), replacing him with Joel Schumacher.",
"A rival studio executive said, \"If you bring back Burton and Keaton, you're stuck with their vision.",
"You can't expect ''Honey, I Shrunk the Batman''\" (referring to the 1989 science-fiction comedy, ''Honey, I Shrunk the Kids'').",
"Warner Bros. was sued by executive producers Benjamin Melniker and Michael Uslan, who alleged that they had originally purchased the film-adaptation rights to the Batman character but were denied their share of the profits from ''Batman'' and ''Batman Returns'' by the studio's Hollywood accounting: a method used by studios to artificially inflate a film's production costs, making it appear unprofitable and limiting royalty (or tax) payments.",
"The court decided in the studio's favor, citing a lack of evidence.=== Home media ===''Batman Returns'' was released on VHS and LaserDisc on October 21, 1992.Its VHS version had a lower-than-average price, to encourage sales and rentals.",
"The film was expected to sell millions of copies and be a well-performing rental, but its success would be restricted by mature, violent content which would appeal less to children (the main audience driving purchases).",
"''Batman Returns'' was released on DVD in 1997, with no additional features.",
"An anthology DVD box set was released in October 2005, with all the films in the Burton-Schumacher Batman film series.",
"The ''Batman Returns'' segment had commentary by Burton, ''The Bat, The Cat, and The Penguin'' special about the making of the film, part four of the documentary ''Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight'', notes on the development of costumes, make-up and special effects, and the music video for \"Face to Face\".The same anthology was released on Blu-ray in 2009 with a standalone ''Batman Returns'' Blu-ray release.",
"A 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray version was released in 2019; restored from the original 35mm negative, it included the anthology's special features.",
"A 4K collector's edition was released in 2022 with a SteelBook case (with original cover art), character cards, a double-sided poster, and previously-released special features.",
"Elfman's score was released in 1992 on compact disc (CD), and an expanded soundtrack was released in 2010.===Other media===Batman: The Ride at Six Flags Great America was opened in 1992 with ''Batman Returns''.About 120 products were marketed with ''Batman Returns''; they included action figures and toys by Kenner Products, Catwoman-themed clothing, toothbrushes, roller skates, T-shirts, underwear, sunglasses, towels, beanbags, mugs, weightlifting gloves, throw pillows, cookie cutters, commemorative coins, playing cards, costume jewelry, cereal, a radio-controlled Batmobile, and tortilla chips shaped like the Batman logo.",
"Although there were about the same number of products marketed for ''Batman'', there were fewer licensees and Warner Bros. could have more oversight.",
"The release of ''Batman: The Animated Series'' later in 1992 was anticipated to extend merchandising success long after ''Batman Returns'' had left theaters.",
"Warner Bros. used holographic labels developed by American Bank Note Holographics to detect counterfeit products.The film's novelization, by Craig Shaw Gardner, was published in July 1992.A roller coaster (Batman: The Ride) was built at Six Flags Great America at a cost of $8million, and was later replicated at other Six Flags parks with a Batman stunt show.",
"Several video-game adaptations entitled ''Batman Returns'' were released by a number of developers on a number of platforms, including Game Gear, Master System, Sega Genesis, Sega CD, Amiga, MS-DOS, and Atari Lynx; the Super Nintendo Entertainment System version was the most successful.",
"''Batman '89'', a comic-book series released in 2022, continues the narrative of Burton's original two films and ignores the Schumacher sequels.",
"Set a few years after the events of ''Batman Returns'', ''Batman '89'' depicts the transformation of district attorney Harvey Dent into Two-Face and introduces Robin.",
"The series was written by Hamm, with art by Joe Quinones.",
"To celebrate the 80th anniversary of the Penguin's first comic-book appearance, DeVito wrote \"Bird Cat Love\" a 2021 comic book story about the Penguin and Catwoman falling in love and ending the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"The Red Triangle Gang made their first appearance outside ''Batman Returns'' in the 2022 comic book ''Robin'' #15.A holiday book was released in 2022, ''Batman Returns: One Dark Christmas Eve: The Illustrated Holiday Classic'', by Ivan Cohen."
],
[
"Thematic analysis",
"===Duality===Critic David Crow called duality a major aspect of ''Batman Returns'', and Catwoman, Penguin, and Shreck represent warped, reflected aspects of Batman.",
"Like Wayne (Batman), Selina (Catwoman) is driven by trauma and conflicted about her principles and desires; unlike Batman (who seeks justice), however, she seeks vengeance.",
"Although Catwoman agrees with Batman's appeal that they are \"the same, split right down the center\", they still differ too much to be together.",
"Critics Darren Mooney and Betsy Sharkey suggested that Penguin reflects Batman's origin; each lost their parents at an early age.",
"Shreck says that if not for his abandonment, Cobblepot and Wayne might have traveled in the same social circles.",
"Batman is content in his loneliness, however; the Penguin wants acceptance, love and respect, despite his quest for revenge.",
"To Mooney, ''Batman Returns'' hints that Batman's issues with Penguin are personal rather than moral; Batman is quietly proud of being a \"freak\" (unique), and resents Penguin for displaying his \"freakishness\".",
"Shreck represents Wayne's public persona if it was driven by greed, vanity, and self-interest: a populist industrialist who wins favor with cheap presents tossed into a crowd.===Commercialism and loneliness===Crow saw ''Batman Returns'' as a denouncement of Batman's real-world cultural popularity and merchandising (especially in the wake of the previous film), and noted that a scene of a store filled with Batman merchandise being destroyed was removed from the film.",
"Crow and Mooney wrote that ''Batman Returns'' is \"saturated with Christmas energy\"; it rejects the season's conventional norms and becomes an anti-Christmas film, however, critquing its over-commercialism and lack of true goodwill.",
"Shreck cynically exploits Christmas tropes for his own ends (falsely portraying himself as selfless and benevolent), and the perversions of Penguin's Red Triangle gang are a more overt rejection of the holiday.The film focuses on loneliness and isolation during Christmastime; Wayne is introduced sitting alone in his vast mansion, inert until the Bat-Signal shines in the sky.",
"He makes a connection with Kyle, but what they share cannot overcome their differences and he ends the film as he began italone.",
"Critic Todd McCarthy identified isolation as a theme common to much of Burton's work, which is emphasized in the three main characters.Rebecca Roiphe and Daniel Cooper wrote that ''Batman Returns'' was not antisemitic, but had antisemitic imagery.",
"The Penguin, they believed, embodied Jewish stereotypes such as \"... his hooked nose, pale face and lust for herring\" and was \"unathletic and seemingly unthreatening but who, in fact, wants to murder every firstborn child of the gentile community.\"",
"The character joins forces with Shreck (who has a Jewish-sounding name) to disrupt and taint Christmas and Christian traditions.===Sexuality and misogyny===''Batman Returns'' has overtly sexual elements.",
"Critic Tom Breihan described Catwoman's vinyl catsuit as \"pure BDSM\", including the whip she wields as a weapon.",
"The dialogue is replete with double entendres, particularly by Penguin and Catwoman; in her fights with Batman, she sensuously licks his face.",
"Selina / Catwoman is marginalized by the central male characters, however; Shreck pushes her out of a window, the Penguin tries to kill her when she spurns his advances, and Batman attempts to capture her.",
"She fashions a catsuit to regain order, sanity, and power, but it is gradually damaged over the course of the film and her sanity decays with it.",
"Catwoman's final choice is to reject Batman's offer of a happy ending by abandoning her revenge against Shreck; to surrender herself to Batman's will would allow another man to control her.===Power and politics===Power is a central theme for several characters; Shreck says, \"There's no such thing as too much power; if my life has a meaning that's the meaning.\"",
"He uses his money to gain power, and Batman uses his fortune to fund his war against crime (unlike Penguin, who was abandoned because he did not fit the image expected by his wealthy parents).",
"Kyle gains power by donning the Catwoman costume and embracing her anger and sexuality.Shreck convinces Penguin to run for mayor to further his own goals, and the Penguin seeks out the acceptance and respect it would give him.",
"Critic Caryn James wrote that ''Batman Returns'' has \"sharp political jabs\" which implies that money and image are more important than anything else.",
"In ''Batman'', the Joker buys citizen support by throwing them piles of money; in the sequel, Shreck and Penguin gain the support of the populace with spectacle, pandering, and corporate showmanship.",
"The Penguin describes how he and Shreck are both seen as monsters, but Shreck is a \"well-respected monster and I, to date, am not.\"",
"James said that the Penguin wants to change the superficial perception of himself because he wants to be accepted, but has no interest in being lovable.",
"Only when the fickle voters turn on him, however, does he resort to his plan to kill infants who had the chances he never had.",
"Crow believed that Burton was the most sympathetic to Penguin, and spent the most time on the character."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===Cultural influence===Cosplayers at the 2015 Dragon Con dressed as the ''Batman Returns'' versions of Penguin and CatwomanRetrospectives in the 2010s and 2020s noted that ''Batman Returns'' had developed an enduring legacy since its release, with ''Comic Book Resources'' describing it as the most iconic comic-book film ever made.",
"Although initially criticized for its mix of the superhero and film noir genres, the film established trends toward dark tones and complex characters which have since become an expectation of many blockbusters.",
"Some writers said that its \"disturbing imagery\", exploration of morality, and satire of corporate politics seemed even more relevant in the present day, as did the themes of prejudice and feminism explored in Catwoman.",
"Burton said that he believed ''Batman Returns'' was exploring new territory at the time, but it might be considered \"tame\" by modern standards.",
"According to ''the Ringer'', Burton's \"weird and unsettling\" sequel enabled future auteurs such as Christopher Nolan, Peter Jackson, and Sam Raimi to move into mainstream films.",
"''Collider'' described the film as the first \"anti-blockbuster\", defying expectations and delivering a superhero film with little action set during Christmas (despite its July release).",
"The film's performances, score, and visual aesthetic are considered iconic, influencing Batman-related media and incarnations of the characters for decades (such as the ''Batman Arkham'' video games).",
"''The Batman'' (2022) director Matt Reeves and Batman actor Robert Pattinson called ''Batman Returns'' their favorite ''Batman'' film, with Reeves ranking it alongside ''The Dark Knight'' (2008).Pfeiffer's Catwoman is considered iconic, a feat of characterization and performance which influenced subsequent female-superhero-led films.",
"Her performance is generally regarded as the best cinematic adaptation of the character (influencing future portrayals such as Zoë Kravitz's in ''The Batman''), one of the best comic book film characters, and among the greatest cinematic villains.",
"In 2022, ''Variety'' ranked Pfeiffer's Catwoman as the second-best superhero performance of the preceding fifty years, behind Heath Ledger.",
"DeVito's performance as the Penguin is also considered iconic, and has been listed by some publications as one of the best cinematic Batman villains.===Modern reception===In the years since its release, ''Batman Returns'' has been positively reappraised.",
"It is now regarded as among the best superhero films ever made, the best sequels, and the best ''Batman'' films made.",
"''Screen Rant'' called it the best Batman film of the 20th century and, in 2018, ''GamesRadar+'' named it the best Batman film.",
"''Batman Returns'' was number401 on ''Empire''s 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.",
"Some publications have identified ''Batman Returns'' as part of Burton's unofficial Christmas trilogy, bookended by ''Edward Scissorhands'' and ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'', and it has become an alternative-holiday film along with films such as ''Die Hard'' (1988).",
"Some publications have also listed it as one of the best Christmas films.The film's writer Daniel Waters recalled being told that ''Batman Returns'' was a \"great movie for people who don't like Batman\".",
"Although the film was criticized for depicting Batman killing people, Waters said, \"To me, Batman not killing the Joker (played by Heath Ledger) at the end of ''The Dark Knight'' after proving he can get out of any prison, it's like 'Come on.",
"Kill Heath Ledger.",
"He believed that the reception to ''Batman Returns'' was improving with time, especially after the release of ''The Batman'' in 2022.Critic Brian Tallerico said that the elements which originally upset critics and audiences are what makes it still \"revelatory...",
"It's one of the best and strangest movies of its kind ever made.\"",
"Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes has a approval rating from reviews by critics, with an average score of .",
"According to the website's critical consensus, \"Director Tim Burton's dark, brooding atmosphere, Michael Keaton's work as the tormented hero, and the flawless casting of Danny DeVito as The Penguin and Christopher Walken as, well, Christopher Walken make the sequel better than the first.\"",
"The film has a score of 68 out of 100 on Metacritic (based on 23 critics), indicating \"generally favorable reviews\"."
],
[
"Sequels",
"Following the reception of ''Batman Returns'', Warner Bros. intended to continue the series without Burton.",
"Burton recalled, \"I remember toying with the idea of doing another one.",
"And I remember going into Warner Bros. and having a meeting.",
"And I'm going, 'I could do this or we could do that.'",
"And they go like, 'Tim, don't you want to do a smaller movie now?",
"Just something that's more you?'",
"About half an hour into the meeting, I go, 'You don't want me to make another one, do you?'...",
"so, we just stopped it right there.\"",
"The movie had reportedly been titled ''Batman Continues''.",
"The studio eventually replaced Tim Burton with Joel Schumacher, who could make something more family- and merchandise-friendly.",
"Although Burton and Keaton were supportive of the new director, Keaton also left the series because \"the film just wasn't any good, man.\"",
"Industry press suggested that Keaton had also asked for a $15million salary and a percentage of the profits, although his producing partner Harry Colomby said that money was not an issue.Burton was an executive producer for the third film, ''Batman Forever'' (1995), which had a more mixed reception than ''Batman Returns'' but was a financial success.",
"The fourth and final film, ''Batman & Robin'' (1997), was a financial and critical failure and is regarded as one of the worst blockbuster films ever made.",
"It stalled the Batman film series for eight years until the reboot, ''Batman Begins'' (2005).By the mid-1990s, Burton and Waters were signed to direct a Catwoman-centered film starring Pfeiffer.",
"Waters' plot depicted Catwoman as an amnesiac after her injuries at the end of ''Batman Returns'', who ends up in the Las Vegas-like Oasisburg and confronts publicly-virtuous male superheroes who are secretly corrupt.",
"Burton and Pfeiffer took on other projects in the interim, and lost interest in the film.",
"Warner Bros. eventually developed ''Catwoman'' (2004), starring Halle Berry, which was critically panned and is considered one of the worst comic-book films ever made.Keaton was scheduled to reprise his version of Batman in ''Batgirl'', a film scheduled for release in 2022 before its cancellation by Warner Bros. parent company Warner Bros.",
"Discovery.",
"He appeared as Batman in ''The Flash'' (2023)."
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Works cited===********** *"
],
[
"External links",
"* (Warner Bros.)* (DC Comics)* * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Batman & Robin (film)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Batman & Robin''''' is a 1997 American superhero film based on the DC Comics characters Batman and Robin by Bill Finger and Bob Kane.",
"It is the fourth and final installment of Warner Bros.'s initial ''Batman'' film series, a sequel to ''Batman Forever'' and the only film in the series made without the involvement of Tim Burton in any capacity.",
"Directed by Joel Schumacher and written by Akiva Goldsman, it stars George Clooney as Bruce Wayne / Batman, replacing Val Kilmer, Arnold Schwarzenegger as Victor Fries / Mr.",
"Freeze, and Chris O'Donnell reprising his role as Dick Grayson / Robin, alongside Uma Thurman and Alicia Silverstone.",
"The film follows the eponymous characters as they attempt to prevent Mr.",
"Freeze and Poison Ivy from taking over the world, while at the same time struggling to keep their partnership together.Warner Bros. fast-tracked development for ''Batman & Robin'' following the box office success of ''Batman Forever''.",
"Schumacher and Goldsman conceived the storyline during pre-production on ''A Time to Kill''; Schumacher was given a mandate to make the film more toyetic than its predecessor.",
"After Val Kilmer decided not to reprise the role of Batman, Schumacher was interested in casting William Baldwin before George Clooney won the role.",
"Principal photography began in September 1996 and wrapped in January 1997, two weeks ahead of the shooting schedule.",
"''Batman & Robin'' premiered in Los Angeles on June 12, 1997, and went into general release on June 20.It grossed $238 million worldwide against a production budget of $125–160 million, and was considered a box office disappointment at the time.",
"The film received generally negative reviews from critics and is considered to be one of the worst films ever made.",
"One of the songs recorded for the film, \"The End Is the Beginning Is the End\" by the Smashing Pumpkins, won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards.",
"Due to the film's poor reception, Warner Bros. cancelled future ''Batman'' films, including Schumacher's planned ''Batman Unchained''."
],
[
"Plot",
"Batman and his partner, Robin, encounter a new foe, Mr.",
"Freeze, who has left a string of diamond robberies in his wake.",
"During a confrontation in the natural history museum, Freeze steals a bigger diamond and flees, freezing Robin and leaving Batman unable to pursue him.",
"Later, Batman and Robin learn that Freeze was originally Dr. Victor Fries, a scientist working to develop a cure for MacGregor's syndrome, hoping to heal his terminally ill wife, Nora.",
"After a lab accident, Fries was rendered unable to live at average temperatures and forced to wear a cryogenic suit powered by diamonds for survival.At a Wayne Enterprises lab in Brazil, botanist Dr. Pamela Isley is working under the deranged Dr. Jason Woodrue, who has turned her research on plants into the supersoldier drug Venom.",
"After witnessing Woodrue use the formula to turn serial killer Antonio Diego into the hulking Bane, she threatens to expose Woodrue's experiments.",
"Woodrue attempts to kill her by overturning a shelf of various toxins; instead, Isley is mutated by the toxins into Poison Ivy.",
"Ivy kills Woodrue with a poisonous kiss, destroys the lab, and escapes to Gotham City with Bane, concocting a plan to use Wayne's money to support her research.",
"Meanwhile, Alfred Pennyworth's niece, Barbara Wilson, makes a surprise visit and is invited by Bruce to stay at Wayne Manor until she goes back to school.Wayne Enterprises presents a new telescope for Gotham Observatory at a press conference interrupted by Isley.",
"She proposes a project that could help the environment, but Bruce declines her offer, which would kill millions of people.",
"Batman and Robin decide to lure Freeze out using the Wayne Family diamonds and present them at a Wayne Enterprises charity event.",
"Ivy attends the event and decides to use her abilities to seduce Batman and Robin.",
"Freeze crashes the party but is defeated and detained in Arkham Asylum.",
"Ivy takes an interest in Freeze and frees him from Arkham.",
"Dick discovers that Barbara has been participating in drag races to raise money for Alfred, who is dying of MacGregor's syndrome; a fact he kept from Bruce and Dick, but his niece is secretly aware of his situation and is trying to find treatment for him.",
"Batman, Robin, and the police arrive at Freeze's lair in response to his escape, discovering Nora preserved in a cryogenic chamber and that Freeze has developed a cure for the early stages of MacGregor's syndrome.",
"Freeze, Ivy, and Bane secretly arrive to recover Freeze's diamonds and Nora.",
"Wanting Freeze for herself, Ivy unplugs Nora's chamber, steals the diamonds, and seduces Robin, escalating tensions between him and Batman.",
"At Ivy's hideout, Ivy convinces Freeze that Batman has killed Nora.",
"Freeze swears to freeze all of humanity in revenge, with Ivy planning to repopulate the earth using her mutant plants afterward.",
"Freeze and Bane commandeer Gotham Observatory and convert the new telescope into a giant freeze ray, while Ivy uses the Bat-Signal to contact Robin.",
"Robin attempts to go after Ivy alone, but Batman convinces him not to fall for Ivy's seduction.",
"Barbara discovers the Batcave, where an AI version of Alfred reveals he has made Barbara her own suit.",
"Barbara dons the suit and becomes Batgirl, arriving at Ivy's lair in time to help Batman and Robin subdue her.Freeze begins to encase Gotham in ice, and Batman, Robin, and Batgirl head to Gotham Observatory together to stop him.",
"Batman defeats Freeze in combat, while Batgirl and Robin incapacitate Bane and thaw the city.",
"Freeze accuses Batman of killing Nora, only to be shown a recording of Ivy admitting to the crime.",
"Batman reveals that Nora is still alive and offers Freeze the chance to continue his research on MacGregor's syndrome in exchange for his cure.",
"Freeze accepts and returns to Arkham, where he is imprisoned in the same cell as Ivy, whom he promises to exact revenge on.",
"Alfred receives the cure, and Bruce and Dick agree to let Barbara join them in fighting crime."
],
[
"Cast",
"* Arnold Schwarzenegger as Dr. Victor Fries / Mr.",
"Freeze:A molecular biologist who suffers an accident while trying to cryogenically preserve his terminally ill wife.",
"As a result, he is forced to live in a sub-zero suit powered by diamonds.",
"* George Clooney as Bruce Wayne / Batman:A billionaire businessman who fights crime as Batman, Gotham City's vigilante protector.",
"** Eric Lloyd as Young Bruce Wayne.",
"* Chris O'Donnell as Dick Grayson / Robin:The crime-fighting partner to Batman and legal ward to Bruce Wayne.",
"He has begun to chafe against Batman's authority, which is amplified even further by Poison Ivy's influence.",
"* Uma Thurman as Dr. Pamela Isley / Poison Ivy:A botanist-turned-ecoterrorist as a result of being pushed into vials of chemicals, poisons, and toxins.",
"She uses pheromone dust to make men fall for her and venom-laced lips to kill her victims with a kiss.",
"* Alicia Silverstone as Barbara Wilson / Batgirl:The niece of Alfred Pennyworth who, after losing her parents, joins the superhero duo.",
"* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth:The trusted butler for Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson.",
"** Jon Simmons as Young Alfred Pennyworth.",
"* Pat Hingle as Commissioner James Gordon:The police commissioner of Gotham City.",
"He is close to Batman and informs him of numerous crimes.",
"* Elle Macpherson as Julie Madison:Bruce Wayne's girlfriend.",
"She proposes to Bruce, but he does not respond, fearing for her safety.John Glover portrays Dr. Jason Woodrue, a deranged scientist with a desire for world domination via his Venom-powered \"supersoldiers\", of whom Bane, portrayed by Robert Swenson, becomes Poison Ivy's bodyguard and muscle.",
"Michael Reid MacKay plays Bane before he is injected with Venom.",
"Vivica A.",
"Fox and Vendela Kirsebom play Mr.",
"Freeze's assistant and cryogenically frozen wife, respectively.",
"Elizabeth Sanders appears as Gossip Gerty, Gotham's top gossip columnist.",
"Michael Paul Chan and Kimberly Scott both appear as telescope scientists.",
"Coolio makes a cameo appearance, later stating that he was to reprise his role as Scarecrow in the ultimately cancelled sequel ''Batman Unchained''."
],
[
"Production",
"===Development===With the box office success of ''Batman Forever'' in June 1995, Warner Bros. immediately commissioned a sequel.",
"They hired director Joel Schumacher and writer Akiva Goldsman to reprise their duties the following August and decided it was best to fast-track production for a June 1997 target release date, which is a break from the usual three-year gap between films.",
"Schumacher wanted to pay homage to the work of the classic ''Batman'' comic books of his childhood.",
"The storyline of ''Batman & Robin'' was conceived by Schumacher and Goldsman during pre-production on ''A Time to Kill''.",
"Portions of Mr.",
"Freeze's backstory were based on the ''Batman: The Animated Series'' episode \"Heart of Ice\", written by Paul Dini.",
"Goldsman, however, expressed concerns about the script during pre-production discussions with Schumacher.",
"Schumacher stated that he was given the mandate by the studio to make the film more toyetic, even when compared to ''Batman Forever''.",
"The studio reportedly included toy companies in pre-production meetings; Mr.",
"Freeze's blaster was specifically designed by toy manufacturers.",
"Batman creator Bob Kane acted as an official consultant and was heavily involved in the production; He gave input on the film's script as well as on set.While Chris O'Donnell reprises the role of Robin, Val Kilmer decided not to reprise the role of Batman from ''Batman Forever''.",
"Schumacher admitted that he had difficulty working with Kilmer on ''Forever''.",
"\"He sort of quit,\" Schumacher said, \"and we sort of fired him.\"",
"Schumacher would later go on to say that Kilmer wanted to work on ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' because Marlon Brando was cast in the film.",
"Kilmer said that he was not aware of the fast-track production and was already committed to ''The Saint'' and ''Heat''.",
"David Duchovny stated he was considered for the role of Batman, joking that the reason why he was not chosen was because his nose was too big.",
"George Clooney's casting as Batman was suggested by Warner Bros. executive Bob Daly.",
"Schumacher originally had interest in casting William Baldwin in Kilmer's place, but chose Clooney after seeing his performance in ''From Dusk till Dawn''.",
"Schumacher felt that Clooney \"brought a real humanity and humor to the piece, an accessibility that I don't think anybody else has been able to offer\" and that he strongly resembled the character from the comic books.",
"Schumacher also believed that Clooney could provide a lighter interpretation of the character than Kilmer and Michael Keaton.",
"As a consequence of time constraints, the costume department repurposed the costume worn by Val Kilmer in ''Batman Forever'' for the third act of the film.Ed Harris, Anthony Hopkins, and Patrick Stewart were considered for the role of Mr.",
"Freeze, before the script was rewritten to accommodate Arnold Schwarzenegger's casting.",
"Schumacher later denied that Stewart was ever considered.",
"Schumacher decided that Mr.",
"Freeze had to be \"big and strong like he was chiseled out of a glacier\".",
"Mr.",
"Freeze's armor was made by armorer Terry English, who estimated that the costume cost some $1.5 million to develop and make.",
"To prepare for the role, Schwarzenegger wore a bald cap after declining to shave his head, wore a blue LED in his mouth, and had acrylic paint applied.",
"The blue LEDs had to be wrapped in balloons after battery acid started leaking into Schwarzenegger's mouth.",
"His prosthetic makeup and wardrobe took six hours to apply each day.",
"The extensive time spent on Schwarzenegger's costume significantly restricted his shooting time as his contract was limited to 12 work hours a day.",
"Schwarzenegger was paid a $25 million salary for the role.",
"Beside Uma Thurman, Demi Moore, Sharon Stone, and Julia Roberts were considered for the role of Poison Ivy.",
"Schumacher first became aware of Thurman through an earlier role as Venus in ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen''.",
"Thurman ultimately took the role of Poison Ivy because she liked the femme fatale characterization of the character.",
"Alicia Silverstone was the only choice for the role of Batgirl.",
"Prior to filming, she was reported to have lost at least 10 pounds for the role.",
"Silverstone would later recount the body shaming she encountered during promotion of the film.===Filming===A display of Arnold Schwarzenegger's costume as Mr. Freeze.Principal photography was set to commence in August 1996, but did not begin until September 12, 1996.",
"''Batman & Robin'' finished filming in late January 1997, two weeks ahead of the shooting schedule.",
"The shooting schedule allowed Clooney to simultaneously work on the television series ''ER'' without any scheduling conflicts.",
"O'Donnell said that despite spending a lot of time with Schwarzenegger off of set and during promotion for the film, they did not work a single day together during production; this was achieved by using stand-ins when one of the actors was unavailable.",
"Stunt coordinator Alex Field taught Silverstone to ride a motorcycle so that she could play Batgirl.",
"Filming was temporarily halted in the fall of 1996 when Mr.",
"Freeze's blaster prop disappeared from the film set; a police investigation was subsequently opened, culminating in the raid of a film memorabilia collector's home.",
"High public interest in the film caused security issues on set; according to producer Peter MacGregor-Scott, paparazzi regularly disrupted the set, and photographs of Schwarzenegger taken during filming sold for $10,000.When comparing work on ''Batman Forever'', O'Donnell explained that \"things felt much sharper and more focused, and it just felt like everything got a little softer on the second one.",
"The first one, I felt like I was making a movie.",
"The second one, I felt like I was making a toy commercial.\"",
"He also complained about the Robin costume, saying that it was more involved and less comfortable than the one that he wore in ''Batman Forever'', with a glued-on mask that caused sweat to pool on his face.",
"According to John Glover, who played Dr. Jason Woodrue, \"Joel Schumacher would sit on a crane with a megaphone and yell before each take, 'Remember, everyone, this is a cartoon'.",
"It was hard to act because that kind of set the tone for the film.\"",
"Several different stunt doubles were used for the roles of Batman, Robin, and Mr.",
"Freeze, some specialized in ice skating, aerial gymnastics, and driving.The film was mostly shot at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California.",
"The grounds of Greystone Mansion were used for scenes taking place at Wayne Manor.",
"Part of the film was also shot in Vienna, Austria, Montreal, Quebec, and Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.",
"Production designer Barbara Ling stated that her influences for the design of Gotham City came from \"neon-ridden Tokyo and the Machine Age.",
"Gotham is like a World's fair on ecstasy.\"",
"Although miniatures and computer-generated elements were used for some scenes, large full-scale sets were constructed, including Gotham City covered in ice.",
"For scenes featuring people frozen by Mr.",
"Freeze's ice-ray, life-sized mannequins covered in fake ice were created.",
"Several different materials were tested for the faux ice before settling on a combination of fiber resin.",
"According to Ling, the ice effects alone took half a year to create.",
"Rhythm and Hues and Pacific Data Images created the visual effects sequences, with John Dykstra and Andrew Adamson credited as the visual effects supervisors.",
"''Batman & Robin'' featured 450 individual visual effects shots, 150 more than ''Batman Forever''.",
"Motion capture was used to animate digital stunt doubles; for a scene featuring skysurfing, the department recorded the motion of a skyboarder in a wind tunnel at a military base in North Carolina."
],
[
"Music",
"Elliot Goldenthal returned to score ''Batman & Robin'' after collaborating with Schumacher on ''Batman Forever''.",
"The soundtrack features a variety of genres by various bands and performers, showcasing alternative rock on the lead single \"The End Is the Beginning Is the End\" by The Smashing Pumpkins, and with the songs \"Lazy Eye\" by Goo Goo Dolls and R.E.M.",
"'s \"Revolution\".",
"R&B singer R. Kelly wrote \"Gotham City\" for the soundtrack, which was featured in the end credits and was chosen as one of the singles, reaching the top 10 in the United States and the United Kingdom.",
"Eric Benét and Meshell Ndegeocello also contributed R&B songs.",
"Also included was the single, \"Look into My Eyes\" by the hip hop group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, which reached the top 5.Other songs featured included electronic dance elements, including those by Moloko and Arkarna.",
"The soundtrack was released on May 27, 1997, two weeks and three days ahead of the film's premiere in the United States.",
"The orchestral score for the film was never commercially released.Lisa Schwarzbaum of ''Entertainment Weekly'' gave the soundtrack a \"C\" and called it \"as incoherent as the Batman films themselves\".",
"Retrospectively, Nicole Drum of ComicBook.com described the soundtrack as a \"colorful sampling of popular music at the time that feels messy, complicated, and comforting all at the same time\".",
"Filmtracks.com deemed the orchestral score an improvement over that of its predecessor ''Batman Forever'', noting that, while borrowing several themes from the previous film, Goldenthal successfully \"expands upon the statements of his title theme and action material so that they are fleshed out into more accessibly enjoyable music\".",
"Nevertheless, the website compared Goldenthal's work negatively to Danny Elfman's scores for ''Batman'' and ''Batman Returns''.",
"In an interview with ''IGN'', composer Hans Zimmer, who contributed the score to Christopher Nolan's trilogy of ''Batman'' films, called Goldenthal's theme \"the most glorious statement of Batman I'd ever heard\".",
"\"The End Is the Beginning Is the End\" by The Smashing Pumpkins won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards."
],
[
"Release",
"''Batman & Robin'' had its premiere on June 12, 1997, in Westwood, Los Angeles.",
"The film marked the United Kingdom's then-\"biggest and most expensive\" movie premiere.",
"The event was held at Battersea Power Station in London, with the building decorated to look like Gotham City and Wayne Manor.",
"Expected to be among the tent poles of the summer movie season, the film opened in the United States on June 20, 1997, in 2,934 theaters, where it remained for an average of approximately 6.2 weeks.",
"The film was released on DVD four months later on October 22, 1997.A special edition DVD was released in 2005 that included a documentary series about the production of the film series, ''Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight''.===Marketing===The theatrical trailer for ''Batman & Robin'' debuted on the February 19, 1997, episode of ''Entertainment Tonight''.",
"Warner Bros. spent $125 million to market and promote the film, in addition to its $160 million production budget.",
"Several Six Flags amusement parks introduced new roller coasters themed to the film.",
"Batman & Robin: The Chiller opened at Six Flags Great Adventure in 1997, and a Mr. Freeze-themed roller coaster opened at both Six Flags Over Texas and Six Flags St. Louis in 1998.Taco Bell launched a $20 million promotional campaign for the film, selling Batman-themed cups, collector toys, and figurines.",
"Themed trading cards produced by Fleer and SkyBox International were also sold, some signed by Clooney, Schwarzenegger, Thurman, Silverstone, O'Donnell, and Schumacher.",
"An eponymous tie-in video game developed by Probe Entertainment was released for the PlayStation on August 5, 1998, to mixed reviews."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Box office===''Batman & Robin'' was released on June 20, 1997 in the United States and Canada, grossing $42,872,605 in its opening weekend.",
"That made it the third-highest opening weekend gross of 1997, behind ''Men in Black'' and ''The Lost World: Jurassic Park'', and the seventh-highest non-holiday opening weekend of all time as of its release.",
"The film would hold the record for having the highest opening weekend for an Arnold Schwarzenegger film until 2003 when it was surpassed by ''Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines''.",
"Its opening weekend gross also remained George Clooney's highest until the release of ''Gravity'' in 2013.It reached the number one spot at the box office during its opening weekend, beating out ''My Best Friend's Wedding'' and ''Speed 2: Cruise Control''.",
"This would become Schwarzenegger's most recent film to achieve this feat for five years until ''Collateral Damage'' opened in 2002.",
"''Batman & Robin'' declined by 63% in its second week, which was credited to poor word of mouth and early competition with ''Face/Off'', ''Hercules'', and ''Men in Black''.",
"In the UK, it had the second-highest opening ever behind ''Independence Day'' with a gross of £4,940,566 ($8.2 million) for the weekend.The film went on to gross $107.3 million in the United States and Canada and $130.9 million internationally, coming to a worldwide total of $238.2 million.",
"It grossed substantially less than the previous film in the series, and finished outside of the top ten films of 1997.With a production budget of $125–160 million, the film was considered to have under-performed at the box-office, although it was estimated to have at least broken even.",
"Schumacher criticized \"prejudicial prerelease buzz\" online and false news reports as a cause for the film's poor commercial performance.",
"Warner Bros. acknowledged ''Batman & Robin''s shortcomings in the domestic market but pointed out its success in other markets.",
"In his book ''Batman: the Complete History'', Les Daniels analyzed the film's relatively strong performance outside of the United States, speculating that \"nuances of languages or personality were likely to be lost in translation and admittedly eye-popping spectacle seemed sufficient.",
"\"===Critical response=== Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"C+\" on an A+ to F scale.Jay Boyar of ''Orlando Sentinel'' believed ''Batman & Robin'' to be the least distinctive chapter in the series, calling it a \"bat-smorgasbord of action, camp, pathos, spectacle and whatever\" and blaming its blandness on the studio's increased involvement in its production.",
"In his \"thumbs down\" review, Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' found the film to be \"wonderful to look at\" although it had \"nothing authentic at its core\", criticizing its toyetic approach.",
"Writing for the ''Chicago Tribune'', Gene Siskel, who gave positive reviews to the previous ''Batman'' films, also gave ''Batman & Robin'' a \"thumbs down\" rating, calling it a \"sniggering, exhausting, overproduced extravaganza\".",
"While commending the film's visuals, Kenneth Turan of the ''Los Angeles Times'' called the film \"indifferently acted\" and \"far too slick for even a toehold's worth of connection\", believing that it \"killed\" the ''Batman'' film series.",
"Desson Howe of ''The Washington Post'' disapproved of Schumacher's direction and Akiva Goldsman's script, calling it an \"emptily flashy, meandering fashion show of a summer flick\" and also believing that it should mark the end to the series.",
"Andrew Johnston, writing in ''Time Out'', remarked, \"It's hard to tell who ''B&R'' is intended for.",
"Anyone who knows the character from the comics or the superb animated show on Fox will be alienated.",
"And though Schumacher treats the Adam West version as gospel, that show's campy humor is completely incompatible with these production values.\"",
"James Berardinelli questioned the \"random amount of rubber nipples and camera angle close-ups of the Dynamic Duo's butts and Bat-crotches\".In his review for the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', Mick LaSalle said that the film failed to \"convincingly inhabit the grandeur of its art direction and special effects\", criticizing George Clooney as \"the big zero of the film\", who \"should go down in history as the George Lazenby of the series\".",
"While deeming Clooney \"the most ideal Batman to date\" in a physical sense, Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' found the character uninteresting and Clooney \"unable to compensate onscreen for the lack of dimension on paper\".",
"Conversely, he described Thurman and Schwarzenegger's performances as the villainous duo as the \"highlights of the film\", pointing out Thurman's \"comic wit conspicuously lacking elsewhere in the picture\".",
"Writing for ''Star Tribune'', Jeff Strickler criticized its \"almost embarrassingly mundane\" dialogue and called Schwarzenegger \"wasted\" in the role of Mr.",
"Freeze and his character \"drably written\".",
"Janet Maslin of ''The New York Times'' gave a more positive review and praised Thurman's performance as \"perfect\", comparing it to Mae West's \"mix of true femininity with the winking womanliness of a drag queen\", but criticizing Silverstone and Clooney's performances.",
"Steven Rea of ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' found Thurman at times \"amusing\" and similarly described her performance as \"Mae West with moss\".===Legacy===''Batman & Robin'' is considered to be one of the worst superhero films and among the worst films ever made.",
"In 2009, Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige said that ''Batman & Robin'' may be the most important comic book film ever made in that it was \"so bad that it demanded a new way of doing things\" and created the opportunity to make ''X-Men'' (2000) and ''Spider-Man'' (2002) in a way that respected the source material to a higher degree.",
"In an interview with ''Vice'' 20 years after its release, director Joel Schumacher apologized for the film while taking full responsibility for its poor reputation, stating, \"I want to apologize to every fan that was disappointed because I think I owe them that.",
"A lot of it was my choice.",
"No one is responsible for my mistakes but me.\"",
"He added, \"I was scum.",
"It was like I had murdered a baby\", recounting his initial reaction to the overwhelmingly negative public response.",
"Screenwriter Akiva Goldsman also apologized, saying, \"we didn't mean for it to be bad.",
"I swear, nobody was like, 'This will be bad.'\"",
"and elaborating that the film was initially intended to be darker in tone.A person cosplaying as Mr.",
"Freeze as depicted in ''Batman & Robin''.Retrospectively, George Clooney has spoken critically of and apologized for his involvement in the film, saying in 2005, \"I think we might have killed the franchise\", and calling it \"a waste of money\".",
"In 2015, while promoting Disney's ''Tomorrowland'' at New York Comic Con, Clooney said that he had met former Batman actor Adam West and apologized to him for the film.",
"Furthermore, when asked during a 2015 interview on ''The Graham Norton Show'' about whether he had ever had to apologize for ''Batman & Robin'', Clooney responded, \"I always apologize for ''Batman & Robin''\".",
"In late 2020, he told Howard Stern that it was \"physically\" painful to watch his work in the role: \"The truth of the matter is, I was bad in it.",
"Akiva Goldsman — who's won the Oscar for writing since then — he wrote the screenplay.",
"And it's a terrible screenplay, he'll tell you.",
"I'm terrible in it, I'll tell you.",
"Joel Schumacher, who just passed away, directed it, and he'd say, 'Yeah, it didn't work.'",
"We all whiffed on that one.\"",
"Conversely, in an interview with ''Empire'' in 2012, Arnold Schwarzenegger stated that, despite its poor reception, he did not regret making the film, commenting about his role as Mr.",
"Freeze and his involvement with the studio, \"I felt that the character was interesting and two movies before that one Joel Schumacher was at his height.",
"So the decision-making process was not off.",
"At the same time I was doing ''Eraser'' over there and Warner Bros. begged me to do the movie.\"",
"Similarly, 25 years after its theatrical release, Uma Thurman described her work on the film as a \"fantastic experience\".The nipples seen on the character's costumes, first appearing in ''Batman Forever'' and accentuated for ''Batman & Robin'' at Schumacher's request, remain among the most defining aspects of the film.",
"Recounting his involvement with the film, costume designer Jose Fernandez stated that he was opposed to \"sharpening\" the nipples, calling them \"ridiculous\".",
"In 2022, Tim Burton commented about Warner Bros.' decision to replace him as director with Schumacher after ''Batman Returns'', \"You complain about me, I'm too weird, I'm too dark, and then you put nipples on the costume?",
"Go fuck yourself.\"",
"George Clooney's screen-worn suit was put up for auction by Heritage Auctions in 2022 with a starting bid of $40,000.A previous owner had estimated it to be worth $100,000 in 2006 when Clooney was at the height of his career.",
"The suit would go on to sell for $57,500.In the 2009 film ''Watchmen'', director Zack Snyder and comic book artist Dave Gibbons chose to parody the molded muscle and nipple Batsuit design from ''Batman & Robin'' for the Ozymandias costume.",
"The film is referenced in the ''Batman: The Brave and the Bold'' episode \"Legends of the Dark Mite!",
"\", when Bat-Mite briefly uses his powers to transform Batman's costume into the same suit shown in Schumacher's ''Batman'' films, before declaring it \"too icky\".",
"26 years after the release of ''Batman & Robin'', Clooney made a cameo appearance as Bruce Wayne in the 2023 DC Studios superhero film ''The Flash''.",
"Clooney was asked to reprise the role when the film was already in post-production, agreeing to join after seeing a cut of the film; filming took place in secret six months before release and lasted half a day.===Accolades=== Award Category Recipient Result Ref Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Picture ''Batman & Robin'' Worst Remake or Sequel Worst Reckless Disregard for Human Life and Public Property Worst Director Joel Schumacher Worst Screenplay Akiva Goldsman Worst Supporting Actor Chris O'Donnell Worst Supporting Actor Arnold Schwarzenegger Worst Supporting Actress Alicia Silverstone Worst Supporting Actress Uma Thurman Worst Screen Couple George Clooney and Chris O'Donnell Worst Song for \"The End Is the Beginning Is the End\" Billy Corgan Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Worst Picture ''Batman & Robin'' Worst Sequel Worst Screenplay for a Film Grossing More Than $100M Worldwide Using Hollywood Math Worst Director Joel Schumacher Worst Supporting Actress Alicia Silverstone"
],
[
"Canceled sequel",
"During the filming of ''Batman & Robin'', Warner Bros. was impressed with the dailies, prompting them to immediately hire Joel Schumacher to return as director for a fifth film.",
"However, writer Akiva Goldsman turned down an offer to write the script.",
"In late 1996, Warner Bros. and Schumacher hired Mark Protosevich to write the script for a fifth ''Batman'' film.",
"A projected mid-1999 release date was announced.",
"''Los Angeles Times'' described their film as \"continuing in the same vein with multiple villains and more silliness\".",
"Titled ''Batman Unchained'', Protosevich's script featured the Scarecrow as the main villain, who, through the use of his fear toxin, resurrects the Joker as a hallucination in Batman's mind.",
"Harley Quinn would appear as a supporting character, written as the Joker's daughter.",
"Schumacher approached Nicolas Cage to portray the Scarecrow while he was filming ''Face/Off'' and Courtney Love was considered for Harley Quinn.Clooney, O'Donnell, Silverstone, and Coolio were set to reprise the roles of Batman, Robin, Batgirl, and Scarecrow.",
"It was hoped that the villains from previous films would make cameo appearances in the hallucinations caused by Scarecrow, culminating with Jack Nicholson reprising the role of the Joker.",
"Following the poor critical and financial reception of ''Batman & Robin'', Clooney vowed never to reprise his role, and Warner Bros. cancelled any future ''Batman'' films, including Schumacher's planned ''Batman Unchained''.In a 2012 interview with ''Access Hollywood'', Chris O'Donnell claimed that a spin-off centered around the character of Robin was planned, but eventually scrapped due to ''Batman & Robin''s poor commercial performance."
],
[
"See also",
"* Homosexuality in the Batman franchise* List of films featuring powered exoskeletons* List of films considered the worst"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* (Warner Bros.)* (DC Comics)* * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Batman Forever"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Batman Forever''''' is a 1995 American superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher and produced by Tim Burton, based on the DC Comics character Batman by Bob Kane and Bill Finger.",
"The third installment of Warner Bros.' initial ''Batman'' film series, it is a stand-alone sequel to ''Batman Returns'' starring Val Kilmer, replacing Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman, alongside Jim Carrey, Tommy Lee Jones, Nicole Kidman, and Chris O'Donnell, while Michael Gough, and Pat Hingle reprise their roles.",
"The film's story focuses on Batman trying to stop Two-Face and the Riddler in their scheme to extract information from all the minds in Gotham City while adopting an orphaned acrobat named Dick Grayson—who becomes his sidekick, Robin—and developing feelings for psychologist Dr. Chase Meridian.Schumacher mostly eschewed the dark, dystopian atmosphere of Burton's films by drawing inspiration from the Batman comic books of the Dick Sprang era, as well as the 1960s television series.",
"After Keaton chose not to reprise his role, William Baldwin and Ethan Hawke were considered as a replacement, before Val Kilmer joined the cast.",
"''Batman Forever'' was released on June 16, 1995, to mixed reviews from critics, who praised the visuals, action sequences, soundtrack, and performances of Carrey and Jones, but criticized the screenplay and tonal departure from previous films, while others were divided by Kilmer's performance.",
"The film was a box office success, grossing over $336 million worldwide and becoming the sixth-highest-grossing film of 1995.It was followed by ''Batman & Robin'' in 1997, with Schumacher returning as the director, Chris O'Donnell returning as Robin, and George Clooney replacing Kilmer as Batman."
],
[
"Plot",
"In Gotham City, local vigilante/superhero Batman defuses a hostage situation orchestrated by a criminal known as \"Two-Face\", formerly district attorney Harvey Dent, although Two-Face escapes.",
"Flashbacks reveal that Two-Face was disfigured with acid by mobster Sal Maroni, which Batman failed to prevent, causing Dent to develop a split personality.",
"Dent blames Batman for his failure to save him and has sworn revenge against him as a result.",
"Edward Nygma, an eccentric and egotistical researcher at Wayne Enterprises, approaches his employer Bruce Wayne, Batman's civilian identity, whom he idealizes due to Bruce's fame.",
"Nygma presents an invention that can beam television signals directly into a person's brain, demanding immediate approval directly from Bruce.",
"Bruce rejects the device, as he is irritated by Nygma's obnoxious demands and is concerned the technology could manipulate minds.",
"After killing his abusive supervisor and staging it as a suicide, Nygma resigns and plots revenge against Bruce, sending him riddles.",
"Criminal psychologist Chase Meridian diagnoses Nygma as psychotic.That night, Bruce attends a Haly's Circus event with Chase.",
"Two-Face hijacks the event and threatens to detonate a bomb unless Batman reveals his identity.",
"Acrobat Richard “Dick” Grayson, the youngest member of the Flying Graysons, manages to throw the bomb into a river, but Two-Face kills his family in the process.",
"Bruce convinces the orphaned Dick to live at Wayne Manor as his ward, where he discovers that Bruce is Batman.",
"Seeking to avenge the death of his family, Dick demands to join Batman in crime-fighting, hoping to kill Two-Face, but Bruce declines.Meanwhile, Nygma adopts a criminal persona, the Riddler, and teams up with Two-Face, having seen and been inspired by the live circus event.",
"They commit a series of robberies to finance Nygma's new company and mass-produce his brainwave device dubbed the \"Box\", which steals information from users' minds and transfers it to Nygma's, making him smarter in the process, but also slowly causing him to lose his grip on reality.",
"At a party hosted by Nygma, Batman pursues Two-Face and is almost killed until Dick saves him.Batman visits Chase, who explains that she has fallen in love with Bruce and reveals to her his secret identity.",
"On Halloween night, The Riddler and Two-Face, having discovered Bruce's secret through the Box, destroy the Batcave, shoot Bruce and abduct Chase.",
"As Bruce recovers, he and his butler, Alfred, deduce that Nygma is the Riddler.",
"Bruce finally accepts Dick as Batman's partner, Robin.At the Riddler's lair, Robin almost kills Two-Face, but spares him, allowing the latter to hold the former at gunpoint.",
"The Riddler reveals that Chase and Robin are trapped in tubes above a deadly drop, giving Batman the chance to save only one.",
"Batman distracts the Riddler with a riddle, before destroying the Riddler's brainwave receiver with a Batarang, damaging the Riddler's mind, and enabling Batman to rescue both.",
"Two-Face corners them and determines their fate by flipping a coin, but Batman throws a handful of identical coins in the air, much to Two-Face’s confusion.",
"He attempts to grab the coins, only to stumble and fall to his death.Committed to Arkham Asylum, Nygma now exclaims that he is Batman, flapping the arms of his straitjacket, now completely delusional due to his scrambled memories.",
"Bruce resumes his crusade as Batman, with Robin as his partner."
],
[
"Cast",
"* Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman: After coming across the journal of his father, Bruce Wayne starts questioning his act of vengeance.",
"He struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter, becoming romantically involved with Dr. Chase Meridian.",
"* Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma / The Riddler: A former Wayne Enterprises employee, Edward resigns after his newest invention is personally rejected by Bruce.",
"He becomes the villainous Riddler, leaving riddles and puzzles at scenes of crime.",
"* Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Two-Face: Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City.",
"Half of Harvey's face is scarred and his brain is also damaged with acid during the conviction of a crime boss.",
"Driven insane, he becomes the criminal Two-Face and desires to kill Batman, who he blames for failing to save him.",
"* Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian: A psychologist and love interest of Bruce.",
"Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman, while her insight into Batman's nature drives Bruce to question his decision to become Batman.",
"She is held as a damsel in distress in the climax.",
"* Chris O'Donnell as Richard \"Dick\" Grayson / Robin: Once a circus acrobat, Dick is taken in by Bruce after Two-Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event.",
"Bruce is reminded when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick, and decides to take him in as his ward.",
"Dick eventually discovers the Batcave and learns Bruce's secret identity.",
"Against Bruce's wishes, Dick becomes his crime fighting partner, Robin.",
"* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth: The Wayne family's faithful butler and Bruce's confidant.",
"Alfred also befriends the young Dick Grayson.",
"* Pat Hingle as James Gordon: The police commissioner of Gotham City.",
"* George Wallace as The Mayor: The unnamed mayor of Gotham City and the successor of Roscoe Jenkins.",
"* Drew Barrymore as Sugar: Two-Face's \"good\" angelic-like assistant.",
"Has short curly blonde hair.",
"She wears a white corset bodysuit with stockings and a fluffy white robe.",
"She shows more of a sweet attitude and tone than a sinister one.",
"* Debi Mazar as Spice: Two-Face's \"bad\" gothic-like assistant/girlfriend.",
"She is clad in a black leather corset with fishnet stockings on her legs with shiny black latex heels and long black leather gloves and appears as of a dominatrix.",
"She wears most of her brunette hair up with red highlights.",
"She speaks in a seductive malevolent tone.",
"Spice has a twisted sense of humor and vile nature.",
"* Ed Begley Jr. as Fred Stickley: Edward Nygma's ill-tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises.",
"After Stickley discovers the true nature of Nygma's invention, Nygma kills him and makes it look like suicide.",
"Begley was uncredited for this role.",
"* Ofer Samra as Harvey's Thug* Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty: Gotham's top gossip columnist.",
"* René Auberjonois as Dr. Burton: Head Doctor of Arkham Asylum.",
"* Larry A. Lee as John Grayson: Dick Grayson's father and leader of the Flying Graysons* Glory Fioramonti as Mary Grayson: Dick Grayson's mother* En Vogue as girls on the corner who are hoping to see Batman.",
"* Joe Grifasi as Hawkins: A bank guard and Two-Face's hostage during the opening scene.",
"* Michael Paul Chan as Assistant #1* Jon Favreau as Assistant #2Additionally, President pro tempore of the United States Senate and Batman fan Patrick Leahy makes an uncredited appearance as himself."
],
[
"Production",
"===Development===''Batman Returns'' was released in 1992 with financial success and generally favorable reviews from critics, but Warner Bros. was disappointed with its box office run, having made $150 million less than the first film.",
"After ''Batman Returns'' was deemed too dark and inappropriate for children, with McDonald's even recalling their Happy Meal tie-in, Warner Bros. decided that this was the primary cause of the film's financial results.",
"After the film's release, Warner Bros. was not interested in Tim Burton's return as director.",
"Burton noted he was unsure about returning to direct, writing: \"I don't think Warner Bros. wanted me to direct a third ''Batman''.",
"I even said that to them.\"",
"Burton and Warner Bros. mutually agreed to part ways, though Burton would stay on as executive producer.",
"Sam Raimi and John McTiernan were considered to direct.",
"McTiernan rejected by his commitments with ''Die Hard with a Vengeance''.",
"In June 1993, Joel Schumacher was selected by Warner Bros. while he was filming ''The Client'', and with Burton's approval.Husband-and-wife screenwriting duo Lee and Janet Scott-Batchler were hired to write the script.",
"Warner Bros. had lost a bidding war for their spec script for an earlier project titled ''Smoke and Mirrors'' to Disney's Hollywood Pictures.",
"The project ultimately fell through, and Warner Bros. offered the Batchlers several of their film properties to write.",
"Being familiar with the ''Batman'' comics from their childhood, the Batchlers chose to work on the next ''Batman'' film as their next project.",
"In a meeting with Burton, they agreed that \"the key element to Batman is his duality.",
"And it's not just that Batman is Bruce Wayne.",
"\"Their original script introduced a psychotic Riddler, real name Lyle Heckendorf, with a pet rat accompanying him.",
"A scene cut from the final film included Heckendorf obtaining his costume from a fortune-telling leprechaun at the circus.",
"Instead of NygmaTech, the company would have been named HeckTech.",
"The story elements and much of the dialogue still remained in the finished film, though Schumacher felt it could be \"lightened down\".",
"Keaton initially approved the selection of Schumacher as director and planned on reprising his role as Batman from the first two films.",
"Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller's ''Batman: Year One'' and Keaton claimed that he was enthusiastic about the idea.",
"Warner Bros. rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel, not a prequel, though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Bruce Wayne's childhood with some events of the comic ''The Dark Knight Returns''.",
"Akiva Goldsman, who worked with Schumacher on ''The Client'', was brought in to rewrite the script, deleting the initial idea of bringing in the Scarecrow as a villain with Riddler, and the return of Catwoman.",
"Burton, who now was more interested in directing ''Ed Wood'', later reflected he was taken aback by some of the focus group meetings for ''Batman Forever'', a title he hated.",
"Producer Peter MacGregor-Scott represented the studio's aim in making a film for the MTV Generation, with full merchandising appeal.=== Casting ===Production went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Chase Meridian, but Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he did not like the direction the series was headed in, and rejected the script.",
"Keaton also wanted to pursue \"more interesting roles\", turning down $15 million.",
"A decision was made to go with a younger actor for Bruce Wayne, and an offer was made to Ethan Hawke, who turned it down, but eventually regretted the decision; he would eventually voice the character in the preschool animated series ''Batwheels'' in 2022.Schumacher had seen Val Kilmer in ''Tombstone'', but was also interested in Keanu Reeves (who would later voice Bruce Wayne / Batman in ''DC League of Super-Pets'' in 2022), Alec and William Baldwin, Dean Cain, Tom Hanks, Kurt Russell, Ralph Fiennes (who would later voice Alfred Pennyworth in ''The Lego Batman Movie'' in 2017), Daniel Day-Lewis and Johnny Depp.",
"Cain was scrapped as he was well known for starring in the TV series ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman''.",
"Burton pushed for Depp to get the role.",
"Kilmer, who as a child visited the studios where the 1960s series was recorded, and shortly before had visited a bat cave in Africa, was contacted by his agent for the role.",
"Kilmer signed on without reading the script or knowing who the director was.With Kilmer's casting, Warner Bros. dropped Russo, considering her too old to be paired with Kilmer.",
"Sandra Bullock, Robin Wright, Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were all considered for the role, which was eventually recast with Nicole Kidman.",
"Billy Dee Williams took the role of Harvey Dent in ''Batman'' on the possibility of portraying Two-Face in a sequel, but Schumacher cast Tommy Lee Jones in the role, although Al Pacino, Clint Eastwood, Martin Sheen and Robert De Niro were considered, after working with him on ''The Client''.",
"Jones was reluctant to accept the role, but did so at his son's insistence.Robin Williams was in discussions to be the Riddler at one point, and was reportedly in competition for the role with John Malkovich.",
"In June 1994, the role was given to Jim Carrey after Williams had reportedly turned it down.",
"In a 2003 interview, Schumacher stated Michael Jackson had lobbied hard for the role, but was turned down before Carrey was cast.",
"Brad Dourif (who was Burton's original choice to portray the Joker and Scarecrow after), Kelsey Grammer, Micky Dolenz, Matthew Broderick, Phil Hartman and Steve Martin were said to have been considered.Robin had appeared in the shooting script for ''Batman Returns'' but was deleted due to having too many characters.",
"Marlon Wayans had been cast in the role and signed on for a potential sequel, but when Schumacher took over, he decided to open up casting to other actors.",
"Leonardo DiCaprio was considered, but decided not to pursue the role after a meeting with Schumacher.",
"Matt Damon, Corey Haim, Corey Feldman, Mark Wahlberg, Michael Worth, Danny Dyer, Toby Stephens Ewan McGregor, Jude Law, Alan Cumming and Scott Speedman were considered.",
"Chris O'Donnell was cast and Mitch Gaylord served as his stunt double, and also portrayed Mitch Grayson, Dick's older brother, created for the film.",
"Schumacher attempted to create a cameo role for Bono as his MacPhisto character, but both came to agree it was not suitable for the film.===Filming===Principal photography began on September 24, 1994, and wrapped on March 5, 1995.Schumacher hired Barbara Ling for production design, claiming that the film needed a \"force\" and good design.",
"Ling could \"advance on it\".",
"Schumacher wanted a design in no way connected to the previous films, and instead inspired by the images from the ''Batman'' comic books seen in the 1940s/early 1950s and New York City architecture in the 1930s, with a combination of modern Tokyo.",
"He also wanted a \"city with personality,\" with more statues, as well as various amounts of neon.===Difficulties and clashes===Schumacher and Kilmer clashed during the making of the film; Schumacher described Kilmer as \"childish and impossible,\" reporting that he fought with various crewmen, and refused to speak to Schumacher for two weeks after the director told him to stop being rude.",
"Schumacher also mentioned Tommy Lee Jones as a source of trouble: \"Jim Carrey was a gentleman, and Tommy Lee was threatened by him.",
"I'm tired of defending overpaid, overprivileged actors.",
"I pray I don't work with them again.\"",
"In a 2014 interview, Carrey acknowledged that Jones was not friendly to him, and recounted an incident wherein Jones found him off-set during the production, and told him: \"I hate you.",
"I really don't like you ...",
"I cannot sanction your buffoonery.",
"\"===Design and visual effects===Rick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup.",
"John Dykstra, Andrew Adamson and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors, with Pacific Data Images also contributing to visual effects work.",
"PDI provided a computer-generated Batman for complicated stunts.",
"For the costume design, producer Peter MacGregor-Scott claimed that 146 workers were at one point working together.",
"Batman's costume was redesigned along the lines of a more \"MTV organic, and edgier feel\" to the suit.",
"Sound editing and mixing was supervised by Bruce Stambler and John Levesque, which included trips to caves to record bat sounds.",
"A new Batmobile was designed for ''Batman Forever'', with two cars being constructed, one for stunt purposes and one for close-ups.",
"Chris O'Donnell has his eyes painted black and then the Robin mask glued on him.",
"Swiss surrealist painter H. R. Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film.",
"Nygma's brainwave device and lair resemble rejected concept artwork of Columbus Lighthouse by Russian avant-garde architect Konstantin Melnikov from 1929.The film used some motion capture for certain visual effects.",
"Warner Bros. had acquired motion capture technology from arcade video game company Acclaim Entertainment for use in the film's production."
],
[
"Music",
"Elliot Goldenthal was hired by Schumacher to compose the film score before the screenplay was written.",
"In discussions with Schumacher, the director wanted Goldenthal to avoid taking inspiration from Danny Elfman, and requested an original composition.",
"The film's promotional teaser trailer however used the main title theme from Elfman's score of 1989's ''Batman''.The soundtrack was commercially successful, selling almost as many copies as Prince's soundtrack to the 1989 ''Batman'' film.",
"Only five of the songs on the soundtrack are actually featured in the movie.",
"Hit singles from the soundtrack include \"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 and \"Kiss from a Rose\" by Seal, both of which were nominated for MTV Movie Awards.",
"\"Kiss from a Rose\" (whose music video was also directed by Joel Schumacher) reached No.",
"1 in the U.S. charts as well.",
"The soundtrack itself, featuring additional songs by The Flaming Lips, Brandy (both songs also included in the film), Method Man, Nick Cave, Michael Hutchence (of INXS), PJ Harvey and Massive Attack, was an attempt to (in producer Peter MacGregor-Scott's words) make the film more \"pop\"."
],
[
"Release",
"===Marketing===In addition to a large line of toys, video games and action figures from Kenner, the McDonald's food chain released several collectibles and mugs to coincide with the release of the film.",
"Peter David and Alan Grant wrote separate novelizations of the film.",
"Dennis O'Neil authored a comic book adaptation, with art by Michal Dutkiewicz.Six Flags Great Adventure theme park re-themed their \"Axis Chemical\" arena, home of the Batman stunt show, to resemble ''Batman Forever'', and the new show featured props from the film.",
"Six Flags Over Texas featured a one-time fireworks show to promote the movie, and replica busts of Batman, Robin, Two-Face, and the Riddler can still be found in the Justice League store in the Looney Tunes U.S.A. section.",
"Batman: The Ride opened at Six Flags St. Louis to promote the movie.",
"At Six Flags Over Georgia, The Mind Bender roller coaster was redesigned to look as though it were the creation of The Riddler and some images and props were used in the design of the roller coaster and its queue.===Video games===Video games based on the film were released.",
"A video game of the same name, was released in 1995 for Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, Sega Genesis, Game Gear, R-Zone and MS-DOS, it was followed by ''Batman & Robin'' for the PlayStation, to promote the release of the film.",
"Two arcade versions, ''Batman Forever: The Arcade Game'', was released in 1996 and was ported to the three consoles, and a pinball machine based on the film was released in 1995 by Sega Pinball.=== Home media ===''Batman Forever'' was released on VHS and LaserDisc on October 31, 1995.Over 3 million VHS copies were sold during the first week of release.",
"The film was then released on DVD on May 20, 1997.This release was a double sided disc containing both widescreen (1.85:1) and full screen (1.33:1) versions of the film.",
"''Batman Forever'' made its Blu-ray debut on April 20, 2010.This was followed by an Ultra HD Blu-ray release on June 4, 2019.====Deleted scenes====''Batman Forever'' went through a few major edits before its release.",
"Originally darker than the final product, the film's original length was closer to two hours and forty minutes, according to Schumacher.",
"There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film's tenth anniversary in 2005.While all four previous ''Batman'' films were given special-edition DVD releases on the same day as the ''Batman Begins'' DVD release, none of them were given extended cuts, although some scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Box office===''Batman Forever'' opened in a record 2,842 theaters and 4,300 screens in the United States and Canada on June 16, 1995, grossing $52.8 million in its opening weekend, taking ''Jurassic Park''s record for having the highest opening-weekend gross of all time (it was surpassed two years later by ''The Lost World: Jurassic Park''s $72.1 million).",
"For six years, it had the largest opening weekend for a Warner Bros. film until 2001, when it was surpassed by ''Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone''.",
"The film also achieved the highest June opening weekend, holding that record until it was beaten by ''Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me'' in 1999, which would then be overtaken by ''Hulk'' in 2003.It was the first film to gross $20 million in one day, on its opening day on Friday.",
"The film also beat out ''Congo'' to reach the number one spot.",
"It grossed $77.4 million in its first week, which was below the record $81.7 million set by ''Jurassic Park''.Additionally, the film held the record for having the highest opening weekend for a superhero film until it was taken by ''X-Men'' in 2000.That year, ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' broke ''Batman Forever''s record for scoring the biggest opening weekend for any film starring Jim Carrey.",
"While the film was overtaken by ''Pocahontas'' during its second weekend, it still made $29.2 million.",
"It then became the first film of 1995 to reach $100 million domestically.",
"The film started its international roll out in Japan on June 17, 1995, and grossed $2.2 million in 5 days from 167 screens, which was only 80% of the gross of its predecessor ''Batman Returns''.The film went on to gross $184 million in the United States and Canada, and $152.5 million in other countries, totaling $336.53 million.",
"The film grossed more than ''Batman Returns'', and is the second-highest-grossing film from 1995 in the United States, behind ''Toy Story'', as well as the sixth-highest-grossing film of that year worldwide.===Critical response===On Rotten Tomatoes, ''Batman Forever'' has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10.The site's critical consensus reads: \"Loud, excessively busy, and often boring, ''Batman Forever'' nonetheless has the charisma of Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones to offer mild relief.\"",
"On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".",
"Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A−\" on an A+ to F scale.Peter Travers of ''Rolling Stone'' wrote: \"''Batman Forever'' still gets in its licks.",
"There's no fun machine this summer that packs more surprises.\"",
"Travers criticized the film's excessive commercialism and felt that \"the script misses the pain Tim Burton caught in a man tormented by the long-ago murder of his parents\", but praised Kilmer's performance as having a \"deftly understated ... comic edge\".",
"James Berardinelli of ''ReelViews'' enjoyed the film, writing: \"It's lighter, brighter, funnier, faster-paced, and a whole lot more colorful than before.",
"\"On the television program ''Siskel & Ebert'', Gene Siskel of the ''Chicago Tribune'' and Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' both gave the film mixed reviews, but with the former giving it a thumbs up and the latter a thumbs down.",
"In his written review, Ebert wrote: \"Is the movie better entertainment?",
"Well, it's great bubblegum for the eyes.",
"Younger children will be able to process it more easily; some kids were led bawling from ''Batman Returns'' where the PG-13 rating was a joke.",
"\"Mick LaSalle of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' had a mixed reaction, concluding: \"a shot of Kilmer's rubber buns at one point is guaranteed to bring squeals from the audience.\"",
"Brian Lowry of ''Variety'' believed: \"One does have to question the logic behind adding nipples to the hard-rubber batsuit.",
"Whose idea was that supposed to be anyway, Alfred's?",
"Some of the computer-generated Gotham cityscapes appear too obviously fake.",
"Elliot Goldenthal's score, while serviceable, also isn't as stirring as Danny Elfman's work in the first two films.",
"\"Some observers thought Schumacher, a gay man, added possible homoerotic innuendo in the storyline.",
"Regarding the costume design, Schumacher stated: \"I had no idea that putting nipples on the Batsuit and Robin suit were going to spark international headlines.",
"The bodies of the suits come from Ancient Greek statues, which display perfect bodies.",
"They are anatomically correct.\"",
"O'Donnell felt: \"it wasn't so much the nipples that bothered me.",
"It was the codpiece.",
"The press obviously played it up and made it a big deal, especially with Joel directing.",
"I didn't think twice about the controversy, but going back and looking and seeing some of the pictures, it was very unusual.",
"\"===Accolades===At the 68th Academy Awards, ''Batman Forever'' was nominated for Cinematography (lost to ''Braveheart''), Sound (Donald O. Mitchell, Frank A. Montaño, Michael Herbick and Petur Hliddal; lost to ''Apollo 13'') and Sound Effects Editing (John Leveque and Bruce Stambler) (also lost to ''Braveheart'').",
"\"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song (lost to \"Colors of the Wind\" from ''Pocahontas''), but was also nominated for the Worst Original Song Golden Raspberry Award (lost to \"Walk into the Wind\" from ''Showgirls'').At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film (lost to ''Babe''), Make-up (lost to ''Seven''), Special Effects (lost to ''Jumanji'') and Costume Design (lost to ''12 Monkeys'').Composer Elliot Goldenthal was given a Grammy Award nomination.",
"''Batman Forever'' received six nominations at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards, four of which were divided between two categories (Carrey and Lee Jones for Best Villain; and Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\" and U2's \"Hold Me\" in Best Song from a Movie).",
"However, it won in just one category: Best Song from a Movie for Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\"."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===Potential director's cut===Cuts were made to the film based on audience reactions during test screenings, like the rest of the ''Batman'' films.",
"Photographs from these scenes have always been available since the film's release, shown in magazines such as ''Starlog''.",
"Some excerpts from these scenes appear in the music video for ''Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me''.",
"In 2005, ''Batman Forever'' was the only film in the franchise to include a dedicated deleted scenes selection among its bonus content on the special edition DVD.After Joel Schumacher died on June 22, 2020, media outlets started reporting the possible existence of an extended cut, with the first rumors being thrown in by American journalist Marc Bernardin.",
"Bernardin claimed it to be darker and contain less camp than the theatrical cut.",
"Some of the differences include Bruce having a vision of a human-sized bat, less of an emphasis on Dick Grayson, and a focus on Bruce's psychological issues with Chase.",
"The cut uses about 50 minutes of additional footage.",
"Warner Bros. confirmed that alternative test screening cuts existed after an interview with ''Variety'', although they have no plans to release it and are unsure about what, if any, footage remains.",
"Later on August 7, Kilmer's appearance at DC FanDome fueled fan speculation about the release of a so-called \"Schumacher Cut\".",
"''Batman Forever'' screenwriter Akiva Goldsman revealed in a YouTube interview in April 2021 that he had recently seen the original cut of the film (dubbed \"Preview Cut: One\") and that he expects a rebirth coming up, suggesting all the footage needed to make the Schumacher cut still exists and that the release of a director's cut might be possible.In July 2023, following a private screening of a workprint version by director Kevin Smith, Goldsman confirmed that the original cut does exist and even though Warner Bros. currently has no plans to release it, he said he was hopeful for a possible distribution in the future.",
"Some of the aforementioned deleted scenes make up a portion of this footage.===''Batman '89''===An alternate six-issue comic book continuation of ''Batman Returns'' titled ''Batman '89'', which ignores the events of ''Batman Forever'' and ''Batman & Robin'' and brings back Keaton's Batman along with Burton's dark setting seen in his first two Batman films, along with elements of his failed third ''Batman'' film (particularly, the return of Billy Dee Williams' Harvey Dent and transformation into Two-Face, the introductions of new versions of Robin and Barbara Gordon, and the return of Catwoman), was launched on August 10, 2021, with its issues releasing monthly before ending in January 2022.In response to a question as to whether Schumacher's Batman films are canon to the world of ''Batman '89'', the first two films' screenwriter Sam Hamm, who also serves as the comics' writer, confirmed that the latter two films take place in a diverging timeline and they are not building toward that fate."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* (Warner Bros.)* (DC Comics)* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Batman: Year One"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Batman: Year One''''' is an American comic book story arc written by Frank Miller and illustrated by David Mazzucchelli.",
"''Year One'' was originally published by DC Comics in ''Batman'' #404–407 in 1987.There have been several reprints of the story: a hardcover, multiple trade paperbacks, several deluxe editions in hardcover and paperback format, and an absolute edition.",
"''Year One'' was also adapted into an animated feature in 2011, after efforts to adapt it into a live-action film were cancelled following the failure of 1997's ''Batman & Robin''.The story recounts Batman's first year as a crime-fighter as well as exploring the life of recently transferred Gotham police detective Jim Gordon – eventually building towards their first encounter and their eventual alliance against Gotham's criminal underworld."
],
[
"Publication history",
"===Development===In an effort to resolve continuity errors in the DC Universe, Marv Wolfman and George Pérez produced the 12-issue limited series ''Crisis on Infinite Earths''.",
"Wolfman's plans for the DC Universe after ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' included relaunching every DC comic with a new first issue.During the production of ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', Frank Miller was the writer of Marvel Comics' ''Daredevil''.",
"He collaborated with artist David Mazzucchelli to produce ''Daredevil: Born Again'' together which was critically acclaimed.",
"Miller also worked for DC and produced the influential four-issue limited series ''Batman: The Dark Knight Returns'' (1986).",
"By 1986, editor Dennis O'Neil moved on from Marvel to work for DC again.Frank Miller, the author of ''Year One'', at the Fan Expo 2016 in Toronto, CanadaThe contract Miller signed to produce ''Dark Knight Returns'' also required him to write a revamped Batman origin story.",
"Miller's past projects overwhelmed him since he had to handle both writing and illustration duties simultaneously.",
"For Year One, he simply wrote the story and the script, with Mazzucchelli signed on to illustrate the artwork.",
"The team also consisted of Mazzucchelli's wife Richmond Lewis who was in charge of coloring, Todd Klein as the story's letterer, and O'Neil editing the overall story.",
"According to O'Neil, the contract Miller and Mazzucchelli signed to produce Year One in the ongoing ''Batman'' series guaranteed publication within 6 months.David Mazzucchelli autographing a copy of the 2005 trade paperback in 2012Year One was originally conceived as a graphic novel.",
"O'Neil, who had been asked to edit several issues of ''Batman'', was friends with Miller and was able to learn of the story.",
"Reflecting on poor sales of ''Batman'', O'Neil caught Miller one day while on a walk in Los Angeles and convinced him and Mazzucchelli to serialize the story in the ongoing series.",
"Miller was initially reluctant; he felt this would be hard because he had to ensure the story stayed canonical to the DC Universe, something he did not have to worry about when writing ''Batman: The Dark Knight Returns''.",
"In addition, Miller's pacing would have to be altered because of ongoing series' relatively small page counts.",
"O'Neil reasoned that ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' had completely remade the DC Universe, so Miller would be able to have the same creative freedom that ''Dark Knight Returns'' provided.",
"He also reassured Miller that he and Mazzucchelli \"weren't going to lose anything\" by serializing it.Miller has said he kept Bob Kane and Bill Finger's basic story for Year One but expanded it.",
"In writing the story, Miller looked for parts of Batman's origin that were never explored.",
"He left the core elements, such as the murder of Bruce's parents, intact, but reduced them to brief flashbacks.",
"Bruce's globe-trotting adventures were removed, as Miller found them uninteresting.",
"Rather than portraying Batman as a larger-than-life icon as he had in ''The Dark Knight Returns'', Miller chose to characterize Batman in Year One as an average, inexperienced man trying to make a change in society because Miller believed a superhero is least interesting when most effective.",
"Examples of this include Batman underestimating his opponents, getting shot by police, and his costume being too big.",
"The story's violence was kept street-level and gritty, emphasizing noir and realism.In illustrating, Mazzucchelli sought to make Year One look grimy, dark, and muted.",
"His interpretation of Gotham City was designed to symbolize corruption, featuring muddy colors that gave the impression of the city being dirty and needing a hero.",
"The newsprint paper used in ''Batman'' was unable to reproduce the bright coloring and visual effects of ''Dark Knight Returns'', so Mazzucchelli took on Year One with a more grounded and darker approach.===Publication===In accordance with Wolfman's plans, O'Neil initially saw \"Year One\" as the start of the second volume of ''Batman'' and expected the first part to be its first issue.",
"However, Miller rejected this idea.",
"He explained: \"I don't need to slash through continuity with a sharp blade as I thought.",
"Doing ''The Dark Knight Returns'' has shown me there's been enough good material...",
"I didn't feel that fleshing out an unknown part of Batman's history justified wiping out 50 years of adventures.\"",
"Thus, the four \"Year One\" issues bear no continuity to past issues of ''Batman''.",
"Title Issue Cover date \"Chapter One: Who I Am – How I Come to Be\" ''Batman'' #404 February 1987 \"Chapter Two: War Is Declared\" ''Batman'' #405 March 1987 \"Chapter Three: Black Dawn\" ''Batman'' #406 April 1987 \"Chapter Four: Friend in Need\" ''Batman'' #407 May 1987===Collected editions===According to Mazzucchelli, Year One was designed to be a graphic novel without advertisement pages.",
"In 1988, DC finally gave the approval to publish Year One as a graphic novel in trade paperback () and hardcover (), containing 96 pages.",
"Both Warner Books () and Titan Books () also published trade paperbacks in 1988.The Year One monthly issues were originally printed on newsprint paper.",
"For the graphic novel, Mazzucchelli specifically wanted to use matt stock paper for printing, so the original artworks were slightly tweaked with Lewis utilizing a new set of color palettes to recolor the entire story in order to accommodate the visual changes.In 1989, Longmeadow Press published \"The Complete Frank Miller Batman\" (), collecting Year One, Wanted: Santa Claus - Dead or Alive!, and The Dark Knight Returns.In April 2005, DC released the \"Deluxe Edition\" of Year One in hardcover () and trade paperback () to coincide with the release of ''Batman Begins''.",
"This edition reuses the story pages from the 1988 graphic novel with Mazzucchelli supplying the promotional and unseen Batman art, Lewis' color samples, some of the original penciled artwork, and some pages of the original script as bonus materials.",
"The cover was designed by Mazzucchelli and Chip Kidd.The hardcover deluxe edition was re-released in 2012 ().",
"Mazzucchelli clarified that he was not contacted by DC to get involved with this edition.",
"Having been sent a copy of the book by DC, Mazzucchelli was unhappy with the quality and opined that \"Anybody who's already paid for the book should send it back to DC and demand a refund.\".",
"He described the re-release as having \"thrown all his work on the 2005 release in the garbage\", citing the redesigned cover, recolored artwork, the \"shiny paper\" used, and the printing of the color \"from corrupted, out-of-focus digital files\" as points of contention.In November 2014, to celebrate Batman's 75th anniversary, DC released a sample of Year One as a part of its ''DC Comics Essentials'' line of promotional comics.In 2015, DC released a hardcover of Year One () which included its 2011 animated film adaptation on both DVD and Blu-ray.In November 2016, DC released a 288-page Absolute Edition of Year One ().",
"This edition comes in a slipcase with two hardcover books.",
"Book One features a whole new scanning from the original artworks by Mazzucchelli and remastered coloring by Lewis, while Book Two features scanning pages from the Year One monthly issues.",
"Over 60 pages of bonus materials are also included, including Miller's complete scripts in Book Two.In 2017, the hardcover deluxe edition was re-released again (), this time with the same paper quality and coloring as Book One of the 2016 Absolute Edition.In March 2022, to coincide with the release of ''The Batman'', DC released ''The Batman Box Set'' (), collecting trade paperbacks of ''Year One'', ''The Long Halloween'', and ''Ego and Other Tails'' in a slipcase with art by Jim Lee.",
"Director Matt Reeves cited the three graphic novels as the major influences for the film.In May 2023, IDW Publishing announced that Year One will be getting the Artist's Edition () treatment, the publishing date will be in July 2024.Mazzucchelli personally supplies the artworks for scanning with Chip Kidd serving as the designer of the book."
],
[
"Plot",
"Billionaire Bruce Wayne returns home to Gotham City after twelve years abroad, training for his eventual one-man war against crime.",
"James \"Jim\" Gordon moves to Gotham with his wife, Barbara, after a transfer from Chicago.",
"Both are swiftly acquainted with the corrupt and violent atmosphere of the city.",
"Gordon tries to focus on purging corruption from the Gotham City Police Department after witnessing his partner, Detective Arnold Flass, abuse his power as a cop.",
"Unfortunately, several officers led by Flass beat him on orders from his superior, Commissioner Gillian Loeb.",
"In revenge, Gordon tracks Flass down, beats him, and leaves him naked and handcuffed in the snow.Bruce believes he is still unprepared to fight against crime despite having the skills he learned abroad.",
"He goes in disguise on a surveillance mission in Gotham's red-light district, but is reluctantly drawn into a brawl with several prostitutes, Holly Robinson and Selina Kyle.",
"Two police officers shoot Bruce on sight and take him away in their patrol car.",
"Bruce breaks free, flees from the scene, and returns to Wayne Manor barely alive.",
"He sits before his father's bust, requesting guidance in his war against crime.",
"A bat suddenly crashes through a window and settles on the bust, inspiring him to save Gotham as Batman.Crimes significantly decline after weeks of Bruce striking as Batman.",
"He even goes after Flass, who is in the middle of accepting a bribe from Jefferson Skeevers, a drug dealer of Carmine Falcone.",
"Batman interrupts a dinner party held at the mansion of Gotham's mayor and announces that everyone in the party will be brought to justice for their crimes.",
"Infuriated by Batman's threats, Loeb orders Gordon and GCPD Sergeant Sarah Essen to arrest him.",
"The two cops later come across a runaway truck that nearly hits an old lady.",
"Batman manages to save the lady's life while Gordon stops the truck.",
"Batman then flees into an abandoned building which Loeb orders a bomb dropped on.",
"He also sends in a SWAT team led by a trigger-happy commander, Branden, to kill any survivors left in the building.",
"Batman uses a signal device to attract a swarm of bats from the Batcave as his only route to escape.",
"After witnessing Batman in action, Selina is inspired to don a costume of her own and begin a life of crime.Gordon and Essen have a brief affair and spend two months dating.",
"Essen, however, chooses to leave Gotham upon learning he is going to be the father of Barbara's child.",
"Gordon is left alone to investigate Bruce's connection to Batman.",
"He travels to Wayne Manor with Barbara to interrogate Bruce, who uses his playboy charms to divert suspicion.",
"While leaving the manor, Gordon confesses his affair with Essen to Barbara.",
"Skeevers gets bailed with the help of a hired lawyer but is attacked by Batman shortly after, who convinces him to testify against Flass.",
"Skeevers is drugged with rat poison in an assassination attempt so that he remains silent about the ties between the GCPD and the mafia, although Skeevers ultimately survives.Bruce sneaks into Falcone's manor as Batman and overhears the private conversation between Falcone and his nephew, Johnny Viti.",
"He surmises their intent to target Gordon's family, so he disguises himself as a motorcyclist to help Gordon.",
"Gordon leaves home on Loeb's orders but becomes suspicious and turns back, only to discover Viti and his men already holding his family hostage.",
"Viti flees the scene with Gordon's infant son.",
"Gordon chases after him on Bruce's motorcycle.",
"The two men end up fighting on a bridge until the baby falls.",
"Bruce catches up in time and leaps over the bridge's railing to save the baby.",
"Gordon thanks Bruce for saving his infant son's life and lets him go.",
"Flass supplies Assistant District Attorney Harvey Dent with the evidence and testimony needed to implicate Loeb, who resigns in disgrace.",
"Gordon is promoted to captain and prepares to meet with Batman to investigate a potential plot orchestrated by a criminal calling himself the Joker."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Popularity===DC's post-''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' revamp was a major success, raising sales 22% in the first year, and DC beat Marvel in direct market sales for the first time in August and September 1987.The four \"Year One\" issues were no exception to this.",
"Two years before the relaunch, ''Batman'' had all-time low sales of 75,000 copies per month; \"Year One\" sold an average of 193,000 copies an issue, numbers not seen since the early 1970s.",
"Despite this, it did not outsell other books like ''Uncanny X-Men'', and the collected edition sold well but never matched the sales of ''The Dark Knight Returns''.",
"The story, with the noir-inspired narrative and ultra-violent tone, quickly caught the attention of readers.",
"The ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote that \"Year One\" offered an interesting and entertaining update to the origin of Batman.===Critical response===Year One's characterization of Batman and Gordon, has been praised.",
"Hilary Goldstein (''IGN'') compared their journey to friendship to the plot of the film ''Serpico''; they found that the two characters' respective story arcs—with Gordon's \"illustrating the corruption in Gotham\" and Batman's detailing \"the transformation from man to myth\"—offered an exploration of Batman's world like no other.",
"Glenn Matchett (''ComicsVerse'') wrote that, unlike ''The Dark Knight Returns'', Batman in Year One is more vulnerable and inexperienced, which made the story more memorable.",
"Nick Roberts (''Geek Syndicate'') thought the characters seemed believable, and comics historian Matthew K. Manning called the characterization realistic and grounded.The story's depiction of Gotham and darker, realistic, mature and more grittier tone and direction, compared to other contemporary Batman comics at the time, has also been acclaimed.",
"Journalist James Lovegrove described \"Year One\" as a \"noir-inflected pulp tale of vigilantism and integrity, focused on a good man doing the right thing in a dirty world\" and noted the brutality of the fight sequences.",
"Jason Serafino (''Complex'') wrote that by ignoring many of Batman's trademark gadgets and villains and focusing in the core essentials of the titular character, Miller managed to present Batman in a relatable and thrilling way, which felt both fresh, unique and reinvigorating, while still being faithful to the spirit of the character.",
"Goldstein found every moment memorable, writing \"Miller does not waste a single panel\" in presenting a gritty and dark story.",
"Matchett agreed; he offered particular praise for the scenes depicting Batman clashing with the police, calling them the moment Batman began to become a legend.Mazzucchelli's art was noted as a standout by many, praising the minimalistic, noir-influenced and realistic art-work."
],
[
"Continuity",
"Before The New 52 in 2011, ''Batman: Year One'' existed in the mainstream DC continuity, and in the same continuity as the other storylines in Miller's \"Dark Knight Universe\", consisting of ''The Dark Knight Returns'', its sequel ''The Dark Knight Strikes Again'', ''The Dark Knight III: The Master Race'', ''The Dark Knight Returns: The Last Crusade'', ''Spawn/Batman'', and ''All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder''.",
"Following The New 52 reboot, ''Batman: Zero Year'' replaced ''Year One'' as the official origin for Batman and ''Year One'' was relegated to the continuity of the other Frank Miller storylines.",
"However, following the DC Rebirth initiative, elements of \"Year One\" were gradually returned to the mainstream DC continuity.After ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', DC rebooted many of its titles.",
"''Year One'' was followed by ''Batman: Year Two'', but the 1994 ''Zero Hour: Crisis in Time'' crossover erased ''Year Two'' from continuity.",
"In another continuity re-arrangement, ''Catwoman: Year One'' (''Catwoman Annual'' #2, 1995) posited that Selina Kyle had not actually been a prostitute, but, rather, a thief posing as one in order to commit crimes.Launched in 1989, following the success of the film ''Batman'', the title ''Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight'' examines crime-fighting exploits primarily, not exclusively, from the first four to five years of Batman's career.",
"This title rotated in creative teams and time placement, but several stories directly relate to the events of ''Year One'', especially the first arc \"Batman: Shaman\".",
"In 1996 and 1999, Jeph Loeb and Tim Sale created ''Batman: The Long Halloween'' and ''Batman: Dark Victory'', two 13-issue maxiseries that recount Batman's early years as a crime-fighter following the events of Miller's original story and retold the origins of Two-Face and Dick Grayson.",
"The ''Year One'' story was continued in the 2005 graphic novel ''Batman: The Man Who Laughs'', following up on Gordon informing Batman about the Joker, and thus recounting their first official encounter.",
"Two other stories, ''Batman and the Monster Men'' and ''Batman and the Mad Monk'' tie into the same time period of Batman's career, filling in the gap between Year One and the Man Who Laughs.",
"The comics ''Robin: Year One'' and ''Batgirl: Year One'' describe his sidekicks' origin stories."
],
[
"Sequels",
"Two sequels, titled ''Batman: Year Two'' and ''Batman: Year Three'', were released in 1987 and 1989."
],
[
"Adaptations",
"Joel Schumacher's ''Batman Forever'', although set during another timespan, adopts some elements directly from the graphic novel.",
"Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller's ''Batman: Year One''.",
"The studio rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel, not a prequel, though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Batman's past.The DC Animated Universe film, ''Batman: Mask of the Phantasm'', adopted elements of the storyline, depicting flashbacks of how Bruce Wayne became Batman and also combines it with elements of ''Batman: Year Two'' and shows Batman's personal connection with original character Phantasm inspired by the Reaper, another character in the comics with a connection to Batman.After the critical failure of ''Batman & Robin'', several attempts were made to reboot the Batman film franchise with an adaptation of ''Year One''.",
"Joss Whedon and Joel Schumacher both pitched their own takes.",
"In 2000, Warner Bros. hired Darren Aronofsky to write and direct ''Batman: Year One''.",
"The film was to be written by Miller, who finished an early draft of the script.",
"The script, however, was a loose adaptation, as it kept most of the themes and elements from the graphic novel but shunned other conventions that were otherwise integral to the character.",
"It was shelved by the studio in 2001, after an individual who claimed to have read Miller's script published a negative review on ''Ain't It Cool News''.",
"In 2016, Miller explained that the film was canceled because of creative differences between him, Aronofsky, and Warner Bros:In 2005, Christopher Nolan began his series with the reboot film ''Batman Begins'', which draws inspiration from \"Year One\" and other stories.",
"''Batman Begins'' and its sequel ''The Dark Knight'' are set during the same timespan and adopt several elements directly from the graphic novel.",
"Major characters like Commissioner Loeb, Detective Flass and Carmine 'The Roman' Falcone are featured prominently in ''Batman Begins''.",
"Film critic Michael Dodd argued that with each major motion picture focused on the Dark Knight's origins, the odes and references to the ''Year One'' comic increased.",
"Comparing ''Mask of the Phantasm'' with ''Batman Begins'' he noted that \"...Phantasm was a Batman story with ''Year One'' elements, while ''Batman Begins'' was a ''Year One'' story with added features\".",
"The film's end scene, with Gordon revealing the Joker's arrival in Gotham, mirrors the end of ''Year One''.In 2011, an animated adaptation was released as a DC Universe Animated Original Movie.",
"It was produced by Bruce Timm, co-directed by Lauren Montgomery and Sam Liu.",
"It features the voices of Benjamin McKenzie as Bruce Wayne/Batman, Bryan Cranston as James \"Jim\" Gordon, Eliza Dushku as Selina Kyle/Catwoman, Katee Sackhoff as Sarah Essen, Grey DeLisle as Barbara Gordon, Jon Polito as Commissioner Loeb, Alex Rocco as Carmine 'The Roman' Falcone, and Jeff Bennett as Alfred Pennyworth.",
"The movie premiered at Comic-Con, with a Catwoman short shown in October.While not a direct adaptation, the video game ''Batman: Arkham Origins'' takes some inspiration from ''Batman: Year One'' and features a younger, less-experienced Batman in his second year of crimefighting.",
"Set eight years before Batman: Arkham Asylum, the prequel follows Batman encountering eight of the world's greatest assassins as they attempt to claim Black Mask's $50-million bounty on his head, all while being hunted by the Gotham City Police Department for his vigilantism.The second half of the fourth season of the Batman-based television series ''Gotham'' is inspired by ''Batman: Year One''.Director Matt Reeves cited ''Year One'' as one of the inspirations for ''The Batman'', with Robert Pattinson portraying a younger Bruce Wayne who is in his second year as a crime-fighter."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Batman: Year One movie official site* Batman: Year One @ The World's Finest* Current edition at DC Comics * Deluxe Hardcover edition at DC Comics"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bidirectional text"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''bidirectional text''' contains two text directionalities, right-to-left (RTL) and left-to-right (LTR).",
"It generally involves text containing different types of alphabets, but may also refer to boustrophedon, which is changing text direction in each row.Many computer programs fail to display bidirectional text correctly.",
"For example, this page is mostly LTR English script, and here is the RTL Hebrew name Sarah: , spelled sin () on the right, resh () in the middle, and heh () on the left.Some so-called right-to-left scripts such as the Persian script and Arabic are mostly, but not exclusively, right-to-left—mathematical expressions, numeric dates and numbers bearing units are embedded from left to right.",
"That also happens if text from a left-to-right language such as English is embedded in them; or vice versa, if Arabic is embedded in a left-to-right script such as English."
],
[
"Bidirectional script support",
"Bidirectional script support is the capability of a computer system to correctly display bidirectional text.",
"The term is often shortened to \"'''BiDi'''\" or \"'''bidi'''\".Early computer installations were designed only to support a single writing system, typically for left-to-right scripts based on the Latin alphabet only.",
"Adding new character sets and character encodings enabled a number of other left-to-right scripts to be supported, but did not easily support right-to-left scripts such as Arabic or Hebrew, and mixing the two was not practical.",
"Right-to-left scripts were introduced through encodings like ISO/IEC 8859-6 and ISO/IEC 8859-8, storing the letters (usually) in writing and reading order.",
"It is possible to simply flip the left-to-right display order to a right-to-left display order, but doing this sacrifices the ability to correctly display left-to-right scripts.",
"With bidirectional script support, it is possible to mix characters from different scripts on the same page, regardless of writing direction.In particular, the Unicode standard provides foundations for complete BiDi support, with detailed rules as to how mixtures of left-to-right and right-to-left scripts are to be encoded and displayed."
],
[
"Unicode bidi support",
"The Unicode standard calls for characters to be ordered 'logically', i.e.",
"in the sequence they are intended to be interpreted, as opposed to 'visually', the sequence they appear.",
"This distinction is relevant for bidi support because at any bidi transition, the visual presentation ceases to be the 'logical' one.",
"Thus, in order to offer bidi support, Unicode prescribes an algorithm for how to convert the logical sequence of characters into the correct visual presentation.",
"For this purpose, the Unicode encoding standard divides all its characters into one of four types: 'strong', 'weak', 'neutral', and 'explicit formatting'.=== Strong characters ===Strong characters are those with a definite direction.",
"Examples of this type of character include most alphabetic characters, syllabic characters, Han ideographs, non-European or non-Arabic digits, and punctuation characters that are specific to only those scripts.=== Weak characters ===Weak characters are those with vague direction.",
"Examples of this type of character include European digits, Eastern Arabic-Indic digits, arithmetic symbols, and currency symbols.=== Neutral characters ===Neutral characters have direction indeterminable without context.",
"Examples include paragraph separators, tabs, and most other whitespace characters.",
"Punctuation symbols that are common to many scripts, such as the colon, comma, full-stop, and the no-break-space also fall within this category.=== Explicit formatting ===Explicit formatting characters, also referred to as \"directional formatting characters\", are special Unicode sequences that direct the algorithm to modify its default behavior.",
"These characters are subdivided into \"marks\", \"embeddings\", \"isolates\", and \"overrides\".",
"Their effects continue until the occurrence of either a paragraph separator, or a \"pop\" character.==== Marks ====If a \"weak\" character is followed by another \"weak\" character, the algorithm will look at the first neighbouring \"strong\" character.",
"Sometimes this leads to unintentional display errors.",
"These errors are corrected or prevented with \"pseudo-strong\" characters.",
"Such Unicode control characters are called ''marks''.",
"The mark ( or ) is to be inserted into a location to make an enclosed weak character inherit its writing direction.For example, to correctly display the for an English name brand (LTR) in an Arabic (RTL) passage, an LRM mark is inserted after the trademark symbol if the symbol is not followed by LTR text (e.g.",
"\"\").",
"If the LRM mark is not added, the weak character ™ will be neighbored by a strong LTR character and a strong RTL character.",
"Hence, in an RTL context, it will be considered to be RTL, and displayed in an incorrect order (e.g.",
"\"\").==== Embeddings ====The \"embedding\" directional formatting characters are the classical Unicode method of explicit formatting, and as of Unicode 6.3, are being discouraged in favor of \"isolates\".",
"An \"embedding\" signals that a piece of text is to be treated as directionally distinct.",
"The text within the scope of the embedding formatting characters is not independent of the surrounding text.",
"Also, characters within an embedding can affect the ordering of characters outside.",
"Unicode 6.3 recognized that directional embeddings usually have too strong an effect on their surroundings and are thus unnecessarily difficult to use.==== Isolates ====The \"isolate\" directional formatting characters signal that a piece of text is to be treated as directionally isolated from its surroundings.",
"As of Unicode 6.3, these are the formatting characters that are being encouraged in new documents – once target platforms are known to support them.",
"These formatting characters were introduced after it became apparent that directional embeddings usually have too strong an effect on their surroundings and are thus unnecessarily difficult to use.",
"Unlike the legacy 'embedding' directional formatting characters, 'isolate' characters have no effect on the ordering of the text outside their scope.",
"Isolates can be nested, and may be placed within embeddings and overrides.==== Overrides ====The \"override\" directional formatting characters allow for special cases, such as for part numbers (e.g.",
"to force a part number made of mixed English, digits and Hebrew letters to be written from right to left), and are recommended to be avoided wherever possible.",
"As is true of the other directional formatting characters, \"overrides\" can be nested one inside another, and in embeddings and isolates.==== Pops ====The \"pop\" directional formatting characters terminate the scope of the most recent \"embedding\", \"override\", or \"isolate\".=== Runs ===In the algorithm, each sequence of concatenated strong characters is called a \"run\".",
"A \"weak\" character that is located between two \"strong\" characters with the same orientation will inherit their orientation.",
"A \"weak\" character that is located between two \"strong\" characters with a different writing direction will inherit the main context's writing direction (in an LTR document the character will become LTR, in an RTL document, it will become RTL).=== Table of possible BiDi character types ====== Security ===Unicode bidirectional characters are used in the Trojan Source vulnerability.Visual Studio Code highlights BiDi control characters since version 1.62 released in October 2021.Visual Studio highlights BiDi control characters since version 17.0.3 released on December 14, 2021."
],
[
"Scripts using bidirectional text",
"=== Egyptian hieroglyphs ===Egyptian hieroglyphs were written bidirectionally, where the signs that had a distinct \"head\" or \"tail\" faced the beginning of the line.=== Chinese characters and other CJK scripts ===Chinese characters can be written in either direction as well as vertically (top to bottom then right to left), especially in signs (such as plaques), but the orientation of the individual characters does not change.",
"This can often be seen on tour buses in China, where the company name customarily runs from the front of the vehicle to its rear — that is, from right to left on the right side of the bus, and from left to right on the left side of the bus.",
"English texts on the right side of the vehicle are also quite commonly written in reverse order.",
"(See pictures of tour bus and post vehicle below.",
")Likewise, other CJK scripts made up of the same square characters, such as the Japanese writing system and Korean writing system, can also be written in any direction, although horizontally left-to-right, top-to-bottom and vertically top-to-bottom right-to-left are the two most common forms.Image:Yangzhou-tour-bus--right-side-3182.jpg|The right side (text runs from right to left, including the English text)Image:Yangzhou-tour-bus--leftt-side-3184.jpg|The left side (text runs from left to right)Image:Hainan Airlines - Boeing 737-86N.jpg| On the right side of this Hainan Airlines aircraft, the text runs from right to left ().Image:Hainan Airlines.JPG|The left side of this Hainan Airlines aircraft, however, shows the text running from left to right ().File:VM 5485 China Post Office car at Zhengzhou Train Station.jpg|A photo that shows text on both sides of a China Post vehicle.",
"On the right door, appears as .=== Boustrophedon ===Boustrophedon is a writing style found in ancient Greek inscriptions, in Old Sabaic (an Old South Arabian language) and in Hungarian runes.",
"This method of writing alternates direction, and usually reverses the individual characters, on each successive line.===Moon type===Moon type is an embossed adaptation of the Latin alphabet invented as a tactile alphabet for the blind.Initially the text changed direction (but not character orientation) at the end of the lines.Special embossed lines connected the end of a line and the beginning of the next.Around 1990, it changed to a left-to-right orientation."
],
[
"See also",
"* Internationalization and localization* Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts* * Cyrillic numerals* Right-to-left mark* Transformation of text* Boustrophedon"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Unicode Standards Annex #9 The Bidirectional Algorithm* W3C guidelines on authoring techniques for bi-directional text - includes examples and good explanations* ICU International Components for Unicode contains an implementation of the bi-directional algorithm — along with other internationalization services"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bernoulli's inequality"
],
[
"Introduction",
"graphs of and shown in red and blue respectively.",
"Here, In mathematics, '''Bernoulli's inequality''' (named after Jacob Bernoulli) is an inequality that approximates exponentiations of .",
"It is often employed in real analysis.",
"It has several useful variants:"
],
[
"Integer exponent",
"* Case 1: for every integer and real number .",
"The inequality is strict if and .",
"* Case 2: for every integer and every real number .",
"* Case 3: for every even integer and every real number ."
],
[
"Real exponent",
"* for every real number and .",
"The inequality is strict if and .",
"* for every real number and ."
],
[
"History",
"Jacob Bernoulli first published the inequality in his treatise \"Positiones Arithmeticae de Seriebus Infinitis\" (Basel, 1689), where he used the inequality often.According to Joseph E. Hofmann, Über die Exercitatio Geometrica des M. A. Ricci (1963), p. 177, the inequality is actually due to Sluse in his Mesolabum (1668 edition), Chapter IV \"De maximis & minimis\"."
],
[
"Proof for integer exponent",
"The first case has a simple inductive proof:Suppose the statement is true for ::Then it follows that :Bernoulli's inequality can be proved for case 2, in which is a non-negative integer and , using mathematical induction in the following form:* we prove the inequality for ,* from validity for some ''r'' we deduce validity for .For ,:is equivalent to which is true.Similarly, for we have:Now suppose the statement is true for ::Then it follows that :since as well as .",
"By the modified induction we conclude the statement is true for every non-negative integer .By noting that if , then is negative gives case 3."
],
[
"Generalizations",
"=== Generalization of exponent ===The exponent can be generalized to an arbitrary real number as follows: if , then:for or , and:for .This generalization can be proved by comparing derivatives.",
"The strict versions of these inequalities require and .=== Generalization of base ===Instead of the inequality holds also in the form where are real numbers, all greater than , all with the same sign.",
"Bernoulli's inequality is a special case when .",
"This generalized inequality can be proved by mathematical induction.In the first step we take .",
"In this case the inequality is obviously true.In the second step we assume validity of the inequality for numbers and deduce validity for numbers.We assume thatis valid.",
"After multiplying both sides with a positive number we get:As all have the same sign, the products are all positive numbers.",
"So the quantity on the right-hand side can be bounded as follows:what was to be shown."
],
[
"Related inequalities",
"The following inequality estimates the -th power of from the other side.",
"For any real numbers and with , one has:where 2.718....",
"This may be proved using the inequality ."
],
[
"Alternative form",
"An alternative form of Bernoulli's inequality for and is::This can be proved (for any integer ) by using the formula for geometric series: (using ):or equivalently"
],
[
"Alternative proofs",
"===Arithmetic and geometric means===An elementary proof for and ''x'' ≥ -1 can be given using weighted AM-GM.",
"Let be two non-negative real constants.",
"By weighted AM-GM on with weights respectively, we get:Note that :and:so our inequality is equivalent to:After substituting (bearing in mind that this implies ) our inequality turns into :which is Bernoulli's inequality.===Geometric series===Bernoulli's inequality is equivalent toand by the formula for geometric series (using ''y'' = 1 + ''x'') we get which leads toNow if then by monotony of the powers each summand , and therefore their sum is greater and hence the product on the LHS of ().If then by the same arguments and thusall addends are non-positive and hence so is their sum.",
"Since the product of two non-positive numbers is non-negative, we get again().===Binomial theorem===One can prove Bernoulli's inequality for ''x'' ≥ 0 using the binomial theorem.",
"It is true trivially for ''r'' = 0, so suppose ''r'' is a positive integer.",
"Then Clearly and hence as required.===Using convexity===For the function is strictly convex.",
"Therefore for holds and the reversed inequality is valid for and ."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Bernoulli Inequality by Chris Boucher, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Benjamin Franklin-class submarine"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''''Benjamin Franklin'' class''' of US ballistic missile submarines were in Navy service from the 1960s–2000s.",
"The class was an evolutionary development from the earlier of fleet ballistic missile submarine.",
"Having quieter machinery and other improvements, it is considered a separate class.",
"A subset of this class is the re-engineered 640 class starting with .",
"The primary difference was that they were built under the new SUBSAFE rules after the loss of , earlier boats of the class had to be retrofitted to meet SUBSAFE requirements.",
"The ''Benjamin Franklin'' class, together with the , , , and classes, comprised the \"41 for Freedom\" that was the Navy's primary contribution to the nuclear deterrent force through the late 1980s.",
"This class and the ''James Madison'' class are combined with the ''Lafayette''s in some references."
],
[
"Design",
"The ''Benjamin Franklin''-class submarines were built with the Polaris A-3 ballistic missile, and in the early 1970s were converted to carry the Poseidon C-3 missile.",
"During the late 1970s and early 1980s, six boats were further modified to carry the Trident I (C-4) missile, along with six ''James Madison''-class boats.",
"These were ''Benjamin Franklin'', ''Simon Bolivar'', ''George Bancroft'', ''Henry L. Stimson'', ''Francis Scott Key'', and ''Mariano G. Vallejo''.Due to the loss of in April 1963, this class was designed to SUBSAFE standards and its equipment was similar to the fast attack submarines (SSNs).",
"Previous US SSBNs except the ''George Washington'' class had equipment similar to the SSNs.This class can be distinguished by the fairwater planes' location halfway up the sail; the ''Lafayette''s and ''James Madison''s had the fairwater planes in the upper front portion of the sail.Two submarines of this class were converted for delivery of up to 66 SEALs or other Special Operations Forces each.",
"In the early 1990s, to make room for the ballistic missile submarines within the limits set by the SALT II strategic arms limitation treaty, the ballistic missile tubes of and were disabled.",
"Those boats were redesignated special operations attack submarines and given attack submarine (SSN) hull classification symbols.",
"They were equipped with dry deck shelters to accommodate SEAL Delivery Vehicles or other equipment."
],
[
"Fate",
"The ''Benjamin Franklin''s were decommissioned between 1992 and 2002 due to a combination of SALT II treaty limitations as the SSBNs entered service, age, and the collapse of the Soviet Union.",
"USS ''Kamehameha'' was decommissioned on 2 April 2002, the last ship of the ''Benjamin Franklin'' class to be decommissioned.The sail of ''George Bancroft'' is preserved at the Naval Submarine Base King's Bay, Georgia.",
"''James K. Polk''s sail is on display at the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History in Albuquerque, New Mexico.",
"''Mariano G. Vallejo'''s sail is preserved at Mare Island, California, where she was built.",
"The sail of Lewis and Clark is on display at the Patriot's Point Maritime Museum in Charleston, South Carolina."
],
[
"Boats in class",
"Submarines of the ''Benjamin Franklin'' class:(Submarines marked with '''*''' indicate Trident C-4 ballistic missile conversions.)",
"Name Hull no.",
"Builder Laid down Launched Commissioned Decommissioned Period of service Fate '''*'''SSBN-640General Dynamics Electric Boat25 May 19635 December 196422 October 196523 November 199328.1Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1995 '''*'''SSBN-641Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co.17 April 196322 August 196429 October 19658 February 199529.3Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1995SSBN-642Mare Island Naval Shipyard2 May 196316 January 196510 December 19652 April 200236.3Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 2003 '''*'''SSBN-643General Dynamics Electric Boat24 August 196320 March 196522 January 196621 September 199327.7Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1998SSBN-644Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co.29 July 196321 November 196422 December 196527 June 199226.5Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1996SSBN-645General Dynamics Electric Boat23 November 196322 May 196516 April 19668 July 199933.3Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 2000SSBN-654Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co.2 March 196421 May 196529 April 196624 September 199226.4Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1994 '''*'''SSBN-655General Dynamics Electric Boat4 April 196413 November 196520 August 19665 May 199326.7Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1994SSBN-656Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co.24 August 196414 August 196515 June 196618 March 199326.8Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1994 '''*'''SSBN-657General Dynamics Electric Boat5 December 196423 April 19663 December 19662 September 199326.8Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1995 '''*'''SSBN-658Mare Island Naval Shipyard7 July 196423 October 196516 December 19669 March 199528.2Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1995SSBN-659General Dynamics Electric Boat20 March 196521 July 19661 April 196712 April 199326.0Disposed of through Ship-Submarine Recycling Program, 1994"
],
[
"See also",
"* ''41 for Freedom'' Fleet Ballistic Missile submarines* Fleet Ballistic Missile* List of submarines of the United States Navy* List of submarine classes of the United States Navy"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Sources===*Gardiner, Robert and Chumbley, Stephen (editors).",
"''Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1947–1995''.",
"Annapolis, USA: Naval Institute Press, 1995..*Polmar, Norman.",
"''The Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet: Twelfth Edition''.",
"London:Arms and Armour Press, 1981..* US Naval Vessel Register - List of SSBN BALLISTIC MISSILE SUBMARINE (NUCLEAR-POWERED) Class vessels*"
],
[
"External links",
"* NavSource.org SSBN photo gallery index"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bastard Operator From Hell"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Bastard Operator From Hell''' ('''BOFH''') is a fictional rogue computer operator created by Simon Travaglia, who takes out his anger on users (who are \"lusers\" to him) and others who pester him with their computer problems, uses his expertise against his enemies and manipulates his employer.Several people have written stories about BOFHs, but only those by Simon Travaglia are considered canonical.",
"The BOFH stories were originally posted in 1992 to Usenet by Travaglia, with some being reprinted in ''Datamation.''",
"Since 2000 they have been published regularly in ''The Register'' (UK).",
"Several collections of the stories have been published as books.By extension, the term is also used to refer to any system administrator who displays the qualities of the original.The early accounts of the BOFH took place in a university; later the scenes were set in an office workplace.",
"In 2000 (BOFH 2k), the BOFH and his pimply-faced youth (PFY) assistant moved to a new company."
],
[
"Other characters",
"* The PFY (Pimply-Faced Youth, the assistant to the BOFH.",
"Real name is Stephen) Possesses a temperament similar to the BOFH, and often either teams up with or plots against him.",
"* The Boss (often portrayed as having no IT knowledge but believing otherwise; identity changes as successive bosses are sacked, leave, are committed, or have nasty \"accidents\")* CEO of the company – The PFY's uncle Brian from 1996 until 2000, when the BOFH and PFY moved to a new company.",
"* The help desk operators, referred to as the \"Helldesk\" and often scolded for giving out the BOFH's personal number.",
"* The Boss's secretary, Sharon.",
"* The security department* George, the cleaner (an invaluable source of information to the BOFH and PFY)"
],
[
"Books",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"Influence",
"The protagonist in Charles Stross's ''The Laundry Files'' series of novels named himself Bob Oliver Francis Howard in reference to the BOFH.",
"As Bob Howard is a self-chosen pseudonym, and Bob is a network manager when not working as a computational demonologist, the name is all too appropriate.",
"In the novella ''Pimpf'', he acquires a pimply-faced young assistant by the name of Peter-Fred Young.BOFH is a text adventure game written by Howard A. Sherman, which took part in the 2002 Interactive Fiction Competition and was placed 26th out of 38."
],
[
"Simon Travaglia<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Simon Travaglia\"></span>",
"Simon Travaglia (born 1964) graduated from the University of Waikato, New Zealand in 1985.He worked as the IT infrastructure manager (2004–2008) and computer operator (1985–1992) at the University of Waikato and the infrastructure manager at the Waikato Innovation Park, Hamilton, New Zealand (since 2008).",
"Since 1999 he is a freelance writer for ''The Register''.",
"He lives in Hautapu, New Zealand."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Brownie McGhee"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Walter Brown''' \"'''Brownie'''\" '''McGhee''' (November 30, 1915 – February 16, 1996) was an American folk and Piedmont blues singer and guitarist, best known for his collaboration with the harmonica player Sonny Terry."
],
[
"Life and career",
"McGhee was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, and grew up in Kingsport, Tennessee.",
"At about the age of four he contracted polio, which incapacitated his right leg.",
"His brother Granville \"Stick\" McGhee, who also later became a musician and composed the famous song \"Drinkin' Wine Spo-Dee-o-Dee,\" was nicknamed for pushing young Brownie around in a cart.",
"Their father, George McGhee, was a factory worker, known around University Avenue for playing guitar and singing.",
"Brownie's uncle made him a guitar from a tin marshmallow box and a piece of board.McGhee spent much of his youth immersed in music, singing with a local harmony group, the Golden Voices Gospel Quartet, and teaching himself to play guitar.",
"He also played the five-string banjo and ukulele and studied piano.",
"Surgery funded by the March of Dimes enabled McGhee to walk.At the age of 22, McGhee became a traveling musician, working in the Rabbit Foot Minstrels and befriending Blind Boy Fuller, whose guitar playing influenced him greatly.",
"After Fuller's death in 1941, J.",
"B.",
"Long of Columbia Records promoted McGhee as \"Blind Boy Fuller No.",
"2\".",
"By that time, McGhee was recording for Columbia's subsidiary Okeh Records in Chicago, but his real success came after he moved to New York in 1942, when he teamed up with Sonny Terry, whom he had known since 1939, when Terry was Fuller's harmonica player.",
"The pairing was an overnight success.",
"They recorded and toured together until around 1980.As a duo, Terry and McGhee did most of their work from 1958 until 1980, spending 11 months of each year touring and recording dozens of albums.Despite their later fame as \"pure\" folk artists playing for white audiences, in the 1940s Terry and McGhee had attempted to be successful recording artists, fronting a jump blues combo with honking saxophone and rolling piano, variously calling themselves \"Brownie McGhee and his Jook House Rockers\" or \"Sonny Terry and his Buckshot Five\", often with Champion Jack Dupree and Big Chief Ellis.",
"They also appeared in the original Broadway productions of ''Finian's Rainbow'' and ''Cat on a Hot Tin Roof''.During the blues revival of the 1960s, Terry and McGhee were popular on the concert and music festival circuits, occasionally adding new material but usually remaining faithful to their roots and playing to the tastes of their audiences.Late in his life, McGhee appeared in small roles in films and on television.",
"He and Terry appeared in the 1979 Steve Martin comedy ''The Jerk''.",
"In 1987, McGhee gave a small but memorable performance as the ill-fated blues singer Toots Sweet in the supernatural thriller movie ''Angel Heart.''",
"In his review of ''Angel Heart'', the critic Roger Ebert singled out McGhee for praise, declaring that he delivered a \"performance that proves saxophonist Dexter Gordon isn't the only old musician who can act.\"",
"McGhee appeared in the television series ''Family Ties'', in a 1988 episode entitled \"The Blues, Brother\", in which he played the fictional blues musician Eddie Dupre.",
"He also appeared in the television series ''Matlock'', in a 1989 episode entitled \"The Blues Singer\", playing a friend of an old blues musician (Joe Seneca) who is accused of murder.",
"In the episode, McGhee, Seneca and star Andy Griffith perform a duet of \"The Midnight Special\".Happy Traum, a former guitar student of McGhee's, edited a blues guitar instruction guide and songbook, ''Guitar Styles of Brownie McGhee'', published in 1971, in which McGhee, between lessons, talked about his life and the blues.",
"The autobiographical section features McGhee talking about growing up, his musical beginnings, and a history of the blues from the 1930s onward.McGhee and Terry were both recipients of a 1982 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the United States government's highest honor in the folk and traditional arts.",
"That year's fellowships were the first bestowed by the NEA.One of McGhee's last concert appearances was at the 1995 Chicago Blues Festival.He died of stomach cancer on February 16, 1996, in Oakland, California, at the age of 80."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Solo albums===* ''Traditional Blues, Vol.",
"1'' (Folkways Records, 1951)* ''Brownie McGhee Blues'' (Folkways, 1955)* ''Brownie McGhee Sings the Blues'' (Folkways, 1959)* ''Traditional Blues, Vol.",
"2'' (Folkways, 1960)* ''Brownie's Blues'' (Bluesville, 1962)* ''Blues Is Truth'' (Blues Alliance, 1976)* ''Facts of Life'' (Blues Rock'It, 1985) with the Ford Blues Band===Compilation===* ''The Folkways Years, 1945–1959'' (Smithsonian Folkways, 1991)===With Sonny Terry===* ''Brownie McGhee Blues'' (Folkways, 1955)* ''Washboard Band: Country Dance Music'' (Folkways, 1956)* ''Folk Songs of Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee'' (Roulette, 1958)* ''Blues with Big Bill Broonzy, Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee'' (Folkways, 1959)* ''Down South Summit Meetin''' (World Pacific, 1960), with Lightnin' Hopkins and Big Joe Williams* ''Down Home Blues'' (Bluesville, 1960)* ''Blues Hoot'' (Horizon, 1961 1963), with Lightnin' Hopkins and Big Joe Williams* ''Brownie McGhee & Sonny Terry at the 2nd Fret'' (Prestige, 1962)* ''Sonny Is King'' (Bluesville, 1963)* ''A Long Way from Home'' (BluesWay, 1969)* ''I Couldn't Believe My Eyes'' (BluesWay, 1969 1973)* ''Sonny & Brownie'' (A&M Records, 1973)* ''Brownie McGhee and Sonny Terry Sing'' (Smithsonian Folkways, 1990)* ''Back Country Blues'' (Southern Routes, 2016)===Other===* ''Songs for Victory: Music for Political Action'', with the Union Boys (1944)"
],
[
"See also",
"*American folk music*Woody Guthrie*List of blues musicians*List of folk musicians*List of people from Tennessee*Union Boys"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Center for Southern African American Music - Brownie McGhee — McGhee bio and audio samples** * Series of taped interviews with Brownie McGhee"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"International Bureau of Weights and Measures"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''International Bureau of Weights and Measures''' (, '''BIPM''') is an intergovernmental organisation, through which its 59 member-states act on measurement standards in four areas: chemistry, ionising radiation, physical metrology, as well as Coordinated Universal Time.",
"It is based in Saint-Cloud, near Paris, France.",
"The organisation has been referred to as '''IBWM''' (from its name in English) in older literature."
],
[
"Structure",
"The BIPM is overseen by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (), a committee of eighteen members that meet normally in two sessions per year, which is in turn overseen by the General Conference on Weights and Measures () that meets in Paris usually once every four years, consisting of delegates of the governments of the Member States and observers from the Associates of the CGPM.",
"These organs are also commonly referred to by their French initialisms."
],
[
"History",
"The BIPM was created on 20 May 1875, following the signing of the Metre Convention, a treaty among 17 Member States ( there are now 59 members).",
"It is based at the Pavillon de Breteuil in Saint-Cloud, France, a site (originally ) granted to the Bureau by the French Government in 1876.Since 1969 the site has been considered international territory, and the BIPM has all the rights and privileges accorded an intergovernmental organisation.",
"This status was further clarified by the French decree No 70-820 of 9 September 1970."
],
[
"Function",
"The BIPM has the mandate to provide the basis for a single, coherent system of measurements throughout the world, traceable to the International System of Units (SI).",
"This task takes many forms, from direct dissemination of units to coordination through international comparisons of national measurement standards (as in electricity and ionising radiation).Following consultation, a draft version of the BIPM Work Programme is presented at each meeting of the General Conference for consideration with the BIPM budget.",
"The final programme of work is determined by the CIPM in accordance with the budget agreed to by the CGPM.Currently, the BIPM's main work includes:* Scientific and technical activities carried out in its four departments: chemistry, ionising radiation, physical metrology, and time* Liaison and coordination work, including providing the secretariat for the CIPM Consultative Committees and some of their Working Groups and for the CIPM MRA, and providing institutional liaison with the other bodies supporting the international quality infrastructure and other international bodies* Capacity building and knowledge transfer programs to increase the effectiveness within the worldwide metrology community of those Member State and Associates with emerging metrology systems* A resource centre providing a database and publications for international metrologyThe BIPM is one of the twelve member organisations of the International Network on Quality Infrastructure (INetQI), which promotes and implements QI activities in metrology, accreditation, standardisation and conformity assessment.The BIPM has an important role in maintaining accurate worldwide time of day.",
"It combines, analyses, and averages the official atomic time standards of member nations around the world to create a single, official Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)."
],
[
"Directors",
"Pavillon de Breteuil in Saint-Cloud, FranceSince its establishment, the directors of the BIPM have been: Name Country Mandate Notes Gilbert Govi Italy 1875–1877 J. Pernet Switzerland 1877–1879 Acting director Ole Jacob Broch Norway 1879–1889 J.-René Benoît France 1889–1915 Charles Édouard Guillaume Switzerland 1915–1936 Albert Pérard France 1936–1951 Charles Volet Switzerland 1951–1961 Jean Terrien France 1962–1977 Pierre Giacomo France 1978–1988 Terry J. Quinn United Kingdom 1988–2003 Honorary director Andrew J. Wallard United Kingdom 2004–2010 Honorary director Michael Kühne Germany 2011–2012 Martin J. T. Milton United Kingdom 2013–present"
],
[
"See also",
"* History of the metre* Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements* International Organization for Standardization* ''Metrologia''* National Institute of Standards and Technology* Seconds pendulum* World Metrology Day* Versailles project on advanced materials and standards"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bayonne"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Bayonne''' (; ; ; ) is a city in Southwestern France near the Spanish border.",
"It is a commune and one of two subprefectures in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.",
"Bayonne is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country.",
"It is the seat of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque which roughly encompasses the western half of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, including the coastal city of Biarritz.",
"This area also constitutes the southern part of Gascony, where the Aquitaine Basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees.Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, as well as several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 273,137 inhabitants at the 2018 census; 51,411 residents lived in the commune of Bayonne proper.",
"It is also a part of Basque Eurocity Bayonne-San Sebastián.The site on the left bank of the Nive and the Adour was probably occupied before ancient times; a fortified enclosure was attested in the 1st century at the time when the Tarbelli occupied the territory.",
"Archaeological studies have confirmed the presence of a Roman castrum, a stronghold in Novempopulania at the end of the 4th century, before the city was populated by the Vascones.In 1023, Bayonne was the capital of Labourd.",
"In the 12th century, it extended to the confluence and beyond of the Nive River.",
"At that time the first bridge was built over the Adour.",
"The city came under the domination of the English in 1152 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine: it became militarily and, above all, commercially important thanks to maritime trade.",
"In 1177, Richard the Lion Heart of England took control of it, separating it from the Viscount of Labourd.In 1451, the city was taken by the Crown of France after the Hundred Years' War.",
"The loss of trade with the English was followed by the river gradually filling with silt and becoming impassable to ships.",
"As the city developed to the north, its position was weakened compared to earlier times.",
"The district of Saint-Esprit developed initially from settlement by Sephardic Jewish refugees fleeing the Spanish expulsions dictated by the Alhambra Decree.",
"This community brought skill in chocolate making, and Bayonne gained a reputation for chocolate.The course of the Adour was changed in 1578 by dredging under the direction of Louis de Foix, and the river returned to its former mouth.",
"Bayonne flourished after regaining the maritime trade that it had lost for more than a hundred years.",
"In the 17th century the city was fortified by Vauban, whose works were followed as models of defense for 100 years.",
"In 1814, Bayonne and its surroundings were the scene of fighting between the Napoleonic troops and the Spanish-Anglo-Portuguese coalition led by the Duke of Wellington.",
"It was the last time the city was under siege.In 1951, the Lacq gas field was discovered in the region; its extracted sulphur and associated oil are shipped from the port of Bayonne.",
"During the second half of the 20th century, many housing estates were built, forming new districts on the periphery.",
"The city developed to form a conurbation with Anglet and Biarritz: this agglomeration became the heart of a vast Basque-Landes urban area.In 2014, Bayonne was a commune with more than 45,000 inhabitants, the heart of the urban area of Bayonne and of the ''Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour''.",
"This includes Anglet and Biarritz.",
"It is an important part of the Basque ''Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity'' and it plays the role of economic capital of the Adour basin.",
"Modern industry—metallurgy and chemicals—have been established to take advantage of procurement opportunities and sea shipments through the harbour.",
"Business services today represent the largest source of employment.",
"Bayonne is also a cultural capital, a city with strong Basque and Gascon influences, and a rich historical past.",
"Its heritage is expressed in its architecture, the diversity of collections in museums, its gastronomic specialties, and traditional events such as the noted Fêtes de Bayonne.The inhabitants of the commune are known as ''Bayonnais'' or ''Bayonnaises''."
],
[
"Toponymy",
"===Etymology===While the modern Basque spelling is ''Baiona'' and the same in Gascon Occitan, \"the name ''Bayonne'' poses a number of problems both historical and linguistic which have still not been clarified\".",
"There are different interpretations of its meaning.The termination ''-onne'' in ''Bayonne'' can come from many in hydronyms ''-onne'' or toponyms derived from that.",
"In certain cases the element ''-onne'' follows an Indo-European theme: ''*ud-r/n'' (Greek ''húdōr'' giving hydro, Gothic ''watt'' meaning \"water\") hence ''*udnā'' meaning \"water\" giving ''unna'' then ''onno'' in the glossary of Vienne.",
"''Unna'' therefore would refer to the Adour.",
"This toponymic type evoking a river traversing a locality is common.",
"The appellative ''unna'' seems to be found in the name of the Garonne (''Garunna'' 1st century; ''Garonna'' 4th century).",
"However it is possible to see a pre-Celtic suffix ''-ona'' in the name of the Charente (''Karantona'' in 875) or the Charentonne (''Carentona'' in 1050).It could also be an augmentative Gascon from the original Latin radical ''Baia-'' with the suffix ''-ona'' in the sense of \"vast expanse of water\" or a name derived from the Basque ''bai'' meaning \"river\" and ''ona'' meaning \"good\", hence \"good river\".The proposal by Eugene Goyheneche repeated by Manex Goyhenetche and supported by Jean-Baptiste Orpustan is ''bai una'', \"the place of the river\" or ''bai ona'' \"hill by the river\"—''Ibai'' means \"river\" in Basque and ''muinoa'' means \"hill\".",
"\"It has perhaps been lost from sight that many urban place names in France, from north to south, came from the element ''Bay-'' or ''Bayon-'' such as: Bayons, Bayonville, Bayonvillers and pose the unusual problem of whether they are Basque or Gascon\" adds Pierre Hourmat.",
"However, the most ancient form of Bayonne: ''Baiona'', clearly indicates a feminine or a theme of ''-a'' whereas this is not the case for Béon or Bayon.",
"In addition, the ''Bayon-'' in Bayonville or Bayonvillers in northern France is clearly the personal Germanic name ''Baio''.===Old attestations===The names of the Basque province of Labourd and the locality of Bayonne have been attested from an early period with the place name ''Bayonne'' appearing in the Latin form ''Lapurdum'' after a period during which the two names could in turn designate a Viscounty or Bishopric.",
"''Labourd'' and ''Bayonne'' were synonymous and used interchangeably until the 12th century before being differentiated: Labord for the province and Bayonne for the city.",
"The attribution of Bayonne as ''Civitas Boatium'', a place mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary and by Paul Raymond in his 1863 dictionary, has been abandoned.",
"The city of the ''Boïates'' may possibly be La Teste-de-Buch but is certainly not Bayonne.The following table details the origins of Labord, Bayonne, and other names in the commune.",
"Name Spelling Date Source Page Origin Description '''Bayonne''' Tribunus cohortis Novempopulanoe: Lapurdo Notary of Provinces City In provincia Novempopulana tribunus cohortis Novempopulanæ in Lapurdo fifth century Lapurdum sixth century Gregory of Tours Episcopatus Lasburdensis 983 Chapter Sancta Maria Lasburdensis 983 Chapter Sancta Maria Baionensis 1105 Cartulary civitas de Baiona 1140 Cartulary Baione 13th century Duchesne Bayona 1248 Camara Bayone 1253 Camara Baionne 14th century Guiart Bayonne 1750 Cassini 1750 Bayonne 1790 Cassini 1790 Baiona 19th century Lhande '''Balichon''' Molendinum de la Mufala, Balaisson 1198 Cartulary Old mill Balaichon 1259 Cartulary Molin de le Muhale 1259 Cartulary Molin de la Muffale 1259 Cartulary lo pont de Belaischon 1259 Cartulary Baleyson 1331 Gascon roles Baleychoun 1334 Gascon roles '''Bénac''' Bénac 1863 Farm '''Bouroutchourry''' Bouroutchourry 1863 Farm '''Glain''' Fons de Coquoanhea 1387 Chapter Farm Camps 17th century Archives of Bayonne '''Jean-d'Amou''' Jean-d'Amou 1863 Hamlet '''Lachepaillet''' Lo portau de Lachepailhet 1516 Chapter District; it was once the name of one of the city gates which was previously called the ''Portail de Tarride''.",
"'''Largenté''' Largenté 1863 Farm '''Les Lauriers''' Les Lauriers 1863 Hamlet '''Lesperon''' L'Esperon 1246 Cartulary Farm at Saint-Esprit '''Les Murailles''' Les Murailles 1863 Farm '''Panecau''' Port de Bertaco 13th century Cartulary Bridge '''Pé-de-Navarre''' Pé-de-Navarre 1863 Farm '''Château Weymann''' Château Weymann 1863 Château '''Sources:'''*'''Raymond:''' ''Topographic Dictionary of the Department of Basses-Pyrenees'', 1863, on the page numbers indicated in the table.",
"*'''Goyheneche:''' according to the ''Notitia Dignitatum Imperii'' dating from 340 to 420*'''Guiart:''' Guillaume Guiart, around 1864*'''Lhande:''' Basque-French Dictionary by Pierre Lhande, 1926.",
"*'''Cassini 1750:''' 1750 Cassini Map*'''Cassini 1790:''' 1790 Cassini Map'''Origins:'''*'''Chapter:''' Titles of the Chapter of Bayonne*'''Cartulary:''' Cartulary of Bayonne or ''Livre d'Or'' (Book of Gold)*'''Camara:''' Chapters of the Camara de Comptos."
],
[
"History",
"===Prehistory===In the absence of accurate objective data there is some credence to the probable existence of a fishing village on the site in a period prior to ancient times.",
"Numerous traces of human occupation have been found in the Bayonne region from the Middle Paleolithic especially in the discoveries at Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, a neighbouring locality.",
"On the other hand, the presence of a mound about high has been detected in the current Cathedral Quarter overlooking the Nive which formed a natural protection and a usable port on the left bank of the Nive.",
"At the time the mound was surrounded north and west by the Adour swamps.",
"At its foot lies the famous \"Bayonne Sea\"—the junction of the two rivers—which may have been about wide between Saint-Esprit and the Grand Bayonne and totally covered the current location of Bourg-Neuf (in the district of Petit Bayonne).",
"To the south the last bend of the Nive widens near the Saint-Léon hills.",
"Despite this, the narrowing of the Adour valley allows easier crossing than anywhere else along the entire length of the estuary.In conclusion, the strategic importance of this height was so obvious it must be presumed that it has always been inhabited.===Ancient times===Map of Novempopulania indicating the position of the Tarbelli territory north-west of the Pyrenees.The oldest documented human occupation site is located on a hill overlooking the Nive and its confluence with the Adour.In the 1st century AD, during the Roman occupation, Bayonne already seems to have been of some importance since the Romans surrounded the city with a wall to keep out the Tarbelli, Aquitani, or the proto-Basque who then occupied a territory that extended south of modern-day Landes, to the modern French Basque country, the Chalosse, the valleys of the Adour, the mountain streams of Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and to the Gave d'Oloron.The archaeological discoveries of October and November 1995 provided a shred of evidence to support this projection.",
"In the four layers of sub-soil along the foundation of the Gothic cathedral (in the \"apse of the cathedral\" area) a 2-metre depth was found of old objects from the end of the 1st century—in particular sigillated Gallic ceramics from Montans imitating Italian styles, thin-walled bowls, and fragments of amphorae.",
"In the \"southern sector\" near the cloister door there were objects from the second half of the 1st century as well as coins from the first half of the 3rd century.A very high probability of human presence, not solely military, seems to provisionally confirm the occupation of the site at least around the third century.A Roman castrum dating to the end of the 4th century has been proven as a fortified place of Novempopulania.",
"Named ''Lapurdum'', the name became the name of the province of ''Labourd''.",
"According to Eugene Goyheneche the name ''Baiona'' designated the city, the port, and the cathedral while that of ''Lapurdum'' was only a territorial designation.",
"This Roman settlement was strategic as it allowed the monitoring of the trans-Pyrenean roads and of local people rebellious to the Roman power.",
"The construction covered 6 to 10 hectares according to several authors.===Middle Ages===The geographical location of the locality at the crossroads of a river system oriented from east to west and the road network connecting Europe to the Iberian Peninsula from north to south predisposed the site to the double role of fortress and port.",
"The city, after being Roman, alternated between the Vascones and the English for three centuries from the 12th to the 15th century.The Romans left the city in the 4th century and the Basques, who had always been present, dominated the former Novempopulania province between the Garonne, the Ocean, and the Pyrénées.",
"Novempopulania was renamed Vasconia and then Gascony after a Germanic deformation (resulting from the Visigoth and Frankish invasions).",
"Basquisation of the plains region was too weak against the advance of romanization.",
"From the mixture between the Basque and Latin language Gascon was created.Documentation on Bayonne for the period from the High Middle Ages are virtually nonexistent.",
"with the exception of two Norman intrusions: one questionable in 844 and a second attested in 892.When Labourd was created in 1023 Bayonne was the capital and the Viscount resided there.",
"The history of Bayonne proper started in 1056 when Raymond II the Younger, Bishop of Bazas, had the mission to build the Church of BayonneThe construction was under the authority of Raymond III of Martres, Bishop of Bayonne from 1122 to 1125, combined with Viscount Bertrand for the Romanesque cathedral, the rear of which can still be seen today, and the first wooden bridge across the Adour extending the Mayou bridge over the Nive, which inaugurated the heyday of Bayonne.",
"From 1120 new districts were created under population pressure.",
"The development of areas between the old Roman city of Grand Bayonne and the Nive also developed during this period, then between the Nive and the Adour at the place that became Petit Bayonne.",
"A Dominican Order Convent was located there in 1225 then that of the Cordeliers in 1247.Construction of and modifications to the defences of the city also developed to protect the new districts.In 1130, the King of Aragon Alfonso the Battler besieged the city without success.",
"Bayonne came under English rule when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152.This alliance gave Bayonne many commercial privileges.",
"The Bayonnaises became carriers of Bordeaux wines and other south-western products like resin, ham, and woad to England.",
"Bayonne was then an important military base.",
"In 1177, King Richard separated the Viscounty of Labourd whose capital then became Ustaritz.",
"Like many cities at the time, in 1215 Bayonne obtained the award of a municipal charter and was emancipated from feudal powers.The official publication in 1273 of a Coutume unique to the city, remained in force for five centuries until the separation of Bayonne from Labourd.Bayonnaise industry at that time was dominated by shipbuilding: wood (oak, beech, chestnut from the Pyrenees, and pine from Landes) being overabundant.",
"There was also maritime activity in providing crews for whaling, commercial marine or, and it was often so at a time when it was easy to turn any merchant ship into a warship, the English Royal Navy.===Renaissance and modern times===View of the ramparts overlooking the river.The Bartizan on the Redoubt, restored in 2005.The Ramparts of Bayonne.Jean de Dunois – a former companion at arms of Joan of Arc—captured the city on 20 August 1451 and annexed it to the Crown \"without making too many victims\", but at the cost of a war indemnity of 40,000 gold Écus payable in a year,—thanks to the opportunism of the bishop who claimed to have seen \"a large white cross surmounted by a crown which turns into a fleur-de-lis in the sky\" to dissuade Bayonne from fighting against the royal troops.The city continued to be fortified by the kings of France to protect it from danger from the Spanish border.",
"In 1454, Charles VII created a separate judicial district: the ''Seneschal of Lannes'' a \"single subdivision of Guyenne during the English period\" which had jurisdiction over a wide area including Bayonne, Dax and Saint-Sever and which exercised civil justice, criminal jurisdiction within the competence of the district councilors.",
"Over time, the \"Seneschal of the Sword\" which was at Dax lost any role other than protocol and Bayonne, along with Dax and Saint-Sever, became the de facto seat of a separate Seneschal under the authority of a \"lieutenant-general of the Seneschal\".In May 1462 King Louis XI authorized the holding of two annual fairs by letters patent after signing the Treaty of Bayonne after which it was confirmed by the coutoumes of the inhabitants in July 1472 following the death of Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, the king's brother.At the time the Spanish Inquisition raged in the Iberian Peninsula Spanish and Portuguese Jews fled Spain and also later, Portugal, then settled in Southern France, including in Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques), a northern district of Bayonne located along the northern bank of the Adour river.",
"They brought with them chocolate and the recipe for its preparation.",
"In 1750, the Jewish population in Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) is estimated to have reached about 3,500 people.The golden age of the city ended in the 15th century with the loss of trade with England and the silting of the port of Bayonne created by the movement of the course of the Adour to the north.At the beginning of the 16th century Labourd suffered the emergence of the plague.",
"Its path can be tracked by reading the ''Registers''.",
"In July 1515 the city of Bayonne was \"prohibited to welcome people from plague-stricken places\" and on 21 October, \"we inhibit and prohibit all peasants and residents of this city ... to go Parish Bidart ... because of the contagion of the plague\".",
"On 11 April 1518 the plague raged in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and the city of Bayonne \"inhibited and prohibited for all peasants and city inhabitants and other foreigners to maintain relationships at the location and Parish of Saint-Jean-de-Luz where people have died of the plague\".",
"On 11 November 1518 plague was present in Bayonne to the point that in 1519 the city council moved to the district of Brindos (Berindos at the time) in Anglet.In 1523, Marshal Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec resisted the Spaniards under Philibert of Chalon in the service of Charles V and lifted the siege of Bayonne.",
"It was at Château-Vieux that the ransom demand for the release of Francis I, taken prisoner after his defeat at the Battle of Pavia, was gathered.",
"The meeting in 1565 between Catherine de Medici and the envoy of Philip II: the Duke of Alba, is known as the ''Interview of Bayonne''.",
"At the time that Catholics and Protestants tore each other apart in parts of the kingdom of France, Bayonne seemed relatively untouched by these troubles.",
"An iron fist from the city leaders did not appear to be unknown.",
"In fact they never hesitated to use violence and criminal sanctions for keeping order in the name of the \"public good\".",
"Two brothers, Saubat and Johannes Sorhaindo who were both lieutenants of the mayor of Bayonne in the second half of the 16th century, perfectly embody this period.",
"They often wavered between Catholicism and Protestantism but always wanted to ensure the unity and prestige of the city.In the 16th century the king's engineers, under the direction of Louis de Foix, were dispatched to rearrange the course of the Adour by creating an estuary to maintain the river bed.",
"The river discharged in the right place to the Ocean on 28 October 1578.The port of Bayonne then attained a greater level of activity.",
"Fishing for cod and whale ensured the wealth of fishermen and shipowners.From 1611 to 1612 the college Principal of Bayonne was a man of 26 years old with a future: Cornelius Jansen known as ''Jansénius'', the future Bishop of Ypres.",
"Bayonne became the birthplace of Jansenism, an austere science which strongly disrupted the monarchy of Louis XIV.During the sporadic conflicts that troubled the French countryside from the mid 17th century, Bayonne peasants were short of powder and projectiles.",
"They attached the long hunting knives in the barrels of their muskets and that way they fashioned makeshift spears later called ''bayonets''.",
"In that same century, Vauban was charged by Louis XIV to fortify the city.",
"He added a citadel built on a hill overlooking the district of ''San Espirit Cap deou do Punt''.The Redoubt, a system of fortifications destroyed at the beginning of the 20th century, seen from the Quai de l'Amiral-Lesseps.===French Revolution and Empire===Activity in Bayonne peaked in the 18th century.",
"The Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1726.Trade with Spain, the Netherlands, the Antilles, the cod fishery off the shores of Newfoundland, and construction sites maintained a high level of activity in the port.In 1792, the district of Saint-Esprit (that revolutionaries renamed ''Port-de-la-Montagne'') located on the right bank of the Adour, was separated from the city and renamed ''Jean-Jacques Rousseau''.",
"It was reunited with Bayonne on 1 June 1857.For 65 years the autonomous commune was part of the department of Landes.In 1808, at the Château of Marracq the act of abdication of the Spanish king Charles IV in favour of Napoleon was signed under the \"friendly pressure\" of the Emperor.",
"In the process the Bayonne Statute was initialed as the first Spanish constitution.Also in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the Duchy of Warsaw the Convention of Bayonne to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia.",
"The debt, amounting to more than 43 million francs in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs.",
"However, although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France resulting from Treaties of Tilsit), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily.Trade was the wealth of the city in the 18th century but suffered greatly in the 19th century, severely sanctioned by conflict with Spain, its historic trading partner in the region.",
"The Siege of Bayonne marked the end of the period with the surrender of the Napoleonic troops of Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult who were defeated by the coalition led by Wellington on 5 May 1814.===19th and 20th Centuries===In 1854, the railway arrived from Paris bringing many tourists eager to enjoy the beaches of Biarritz.",
"Bayonne turned instead to the steel industry with the forges of the Adour.",
"The Port took on an industrial look but its slow decline seemed inexorable in the 19th century.",
"The discovery of the Lacq gas field restored a certain dynamism.The Treaty of Bayonne was concluded on 2 December 1856.It overcame the disputes in fixing the Franco-Spanish border in the area extending from the mouth of the Bidassoa to the border between Navarre and Aragon.The city built three light railway lines to connect to Biarritz at the beginning of the 20th century.",
"The most direct line, that of the ''Tramway Bayonne-Lycée–Biarritz'' was operated from 1888 to 1948.In addition a line further north served Anglet, operated by the ''Chemin de fer Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz'' company from 1877 to 1953.Finally a line following the Adour to its mouth and to the Atlantic Ocean by the bar in Anglet, was operated by ''VFDM réseau basque'' from 1919 to 1948.The second Gare de Bayonne, photographed here in the 1930s.On the morning of 23 December 1933, sub-prefect Anthelme received Gustave Tissier, the director of the ''Crédit Municipal de Bayonne''.",
"He responded well, with some astonishment, to his persistent interview.",
"It did not surprise him to see the man unpacking what became the scam of the century.",
"\"Tissier, director of the ''Crédit Municipal'', was arrested and imprisoned under suspicion of forgery and misappropriation of public funds.",
"He had issued thousands of false bonds in the name of ''Crédit Municipal'' ...\"This was the beginning of the Stavisky Affair which, together with other scandals and political crises, led to the Paris riots of 6 February 1934.===The World Wars===The 249th Infantry Regiment, created from the 49th Infantry Regiment, was engaged in operations in the First World War, including action at Chemin des Dames, especially on the plateau of Craonne.",
"700 Bayonnaises perished in the conflict.",
"A centre for engagement of foreign volunteers was established in August 1914 in Bayonne.",
"Many nationalities were represented, particularly the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Czechs, and the Poles.During the Second World War, Bayonne was occupied by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf from 27 June 1940 to 23 August 1944.On 5 April 1942 the Allies made a landing attempt in Bayonne but after a barge penetrated the Adour with great difficulty, the operation was canceled.On 21 August 1944, after blowing up twenty ships in port, German troops withdrew.",
"On the 22nd a final convoy of five vehicles passed through the city.",
"It transported Gestapo Customs agents and some elements of the ''Feldgendarmerie''.",
"One or more Germans opened fire with machine guns killing three people.",
"On the 23rd there was an informal and immediate installation of a \"special municipal delegation\" by the young deputy prefect Guy Lamassoure representing the Provisional Government of the French Republic which had been established in Algiers since 27 June."
],
[
"Policy and administration",
"===List of mayors under the Ancien Régime===The Gramont family provided captains and governors in Bayonne from 1472 to 1789 as well as mayors, a post which became hereditary from 28 January 1590 by concession of Henry IV to Antoine II of Gramont.",
"From the 15th century they resided in the Château Neuf then in the Château-Vieux from the end of the 16th century:*'''Roger de Gramont''', (1444–1519), Lord of Gramont, Baron of Haux, Seneschal of Guyenne, hereditary mayor of Bayonne.",
"He was an advisor and chamberlain of Louis XI in 1472 and then Charles VIII in 1483.He was Ambassador for Louis XII in Rome in 1502.He became governor of Bayonne and its castles on 26 February 1487.He died of the plague in 1519.",
"*'''Jean II de Gramont''', Lord of Gramont, mayor and captain of Bayonne from 18 March 1523.On 15 September 1523, as a lieutenant in the company of Marshal Lautrec, he rescued Bayonne from the siege by the forces of Charles V under the command of the Prince of Orange.",
"He died during the wars in Italy;*'''Antoine I of Gramont''', born in 1526, he was appointed at the age of nine years (1535) as mayor and captain of Bayonne.",
"In 1571, he charged Louis de Foix with the changes to the mouth of the Adour along the fortifications of the city;*'''Antoine II de Gramont''' (1572–1644), Count of Gramont, Guiche and Toulonjon, Viscount then Count of Louvigny, ruler of Bidache, Viscount of Aster, lord then baron of Lescun.",
"He was a ''Duke de Brevet'' in 1643, but unverified by Parliament.",
"On 28 January 1590 Henry IV granted him and his descendants the perpetual office of Mayor of Bayonne.",
"He then became the Viceroy of Navarre.",
"In 1595, Antoine II de Gramont charged Jean Errard (1599) then Louis de Millet (1612) to strengthen the defenses of the city;*'''Antoine III of Gramont-Touloujon''' (1604–1678), Count and then, in 1648, Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche, Toulonjon, and Louvigny, Viscount of Astern, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, and lord of Lesparre, peer of France in 1648, Marshal of France in 1641.As Ambassador of Louis XIV, in 1660 he sought the hand of the Infanta Maria Theresa.",
"The king gave him power of attorney to represent him in the marriage which was celebrated in Madrid.",
"It was he who welcomed Louis XIV, Anne of Austria, Mazarin, and the rest of the Court to Bayonne.",
"He died on 12 July 1678 at the Château-Vieux;*'''Antoine Charles IV of Gramont''' (1641–1720), Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche and Louvigny, Viscount of Aster, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, Lord of Lesparre, peer of France, Viceroy of Navarre.",
"In 1689, he continued the fortification works undertaken by Vauban in Bayonne, where he remained from 1706 to 1712.He supported Philip V during the War of the Spanish Succession, using Bayonne to supply his troops, weapons, reinforcements and subsidies.",
"In retaliation, the opponents of Philip V organized two attacks in 1707: one at Château-Vieux leaving Antoine IV unharmed.===Modern times==='''List of Successive Mayors''' From To Name 1725 Matthieu de Bruix 1726 Jean de Moracin 1728 François de Poheyt 1730 Léon Dubrocq 1732 Pierre Commarieu 1736 Jean Desbiey 1738 Jean-Louis Rol Montpellier 1740 Joseph Dulivier 1745 Léon Brethous 1749 Joseph Dantes 1750 Dominique Behic 1752 François Casaubon Maisonneuve 1754 Jean Baptiste Picot 1756 Martin Bretous 1758 Jean Desbiey 1760 Jean François Dubrocq 1762 Jean Rol de Montpellier 1764 Martin Antoine Bretous 1766 Jacques Pastoureau 1768 Joseph de Sorhainde 1770 Martin Castera 1772 Pierre Larue 1774 Dominique Duhagon 1775 Jean-Pierre de Nogué 1776 Lasserre 1778 Pierre Anselme Monho 1780 Joachim Dubrocq 1782 Etienne Lalanne 1785 Joseph Verdier 1788 Jacques Poydenot 1790 Dominique Dubrocq 1791 Charles Lasserre 1791 Paul Faurie 1792 Jean-Pierre Joseph de Basterrèche 1793 Leclerc 1794 Johaneau 1795 Dufourcq 1798 Barthélémy Poydenot 1798 Sauvine 1800 Paum Lacroix Ravignan 1803 1806 Joseph Laborde Noguez 1806 Chrysostome Dechegaray 1815 Martin Charles Chégaray 1816 Arnaud Fourcade 1818 Alexandre Betbeder 1824 Antoine Robert d'Hirairt 1829 Joachim Alexandre Dubrocq 1830 1832 Bernard Lanne 1832 1833 Joseph Arnaud Eugène de Basterreche 1833 1848 François Balasque 1848 1849 Eugène Boutouey 1849 1850 Joachim Alexandre Dubrocq 1852 1869 Jules Labat 1871 1876 Jules Séraphin Chateauneuf 1876 1881 Jacques Théodore Plantié 1881 1884 Edouard Séraphin Haulon 1884 1885 Jacques Léon Portes 1885 1888 Joseph Edouard Viard 1888 1908 Gabriel Léo Pouzac 1908 1919 Joseph Garat 1919 1925 Jules Prosper Castagnet 1925 1934 Joseph Garat 1934 1935 Jules Lafourcade 1935 1941 Pierre Simonet ;Mayors from 1941 From To Name Party Position 1941 1944 Marcel Ribeton 1944 1945 Jean Labourdique 1945 1947 Jean Pierre Brana 1947 1958 Maurice Delay Surgeon 1958 1959 Georges Forsans 1959 1995 Henri Grenet UDF Surgeon 1995 2014 Jean Grenet UDI MP, Chairman of the Adour-Basque Coast agglomeration 2008–2014 2014 2026 Jean René Etchegaray UDI President of the Adour-Basque Coast agglomeration===Cantons of Bayonne===As per the Decree of 22 December 1789 Bayonne was part of two cantons: Bayonne-North-east, which includes part of Bayonne commune plus Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, Lahonce, Mouguerre, and Urcuit; and Bayonne Northwest which consisted of the rest of Bayonne commune plus Anglet, Arcangues, and Bassussarry.In a first revision of cantons in 1973 three cantons were created from the same total; geographic area: Bayonne North, Bayonne East, and Bayonne West.",
"A further reconfiguration in 1982 focused primarily on Bayonne and, apart from Bayonne North Canton, which also includes Boucau, the cantons of Bayonne East and Bayonne West did not change.Starting from the 2015 French departmental elections which took place on 22 and 29 March, a new division took effect following the decree of 25 February 2014 Once again three cantons centred on Bayonne are defined: Bayonne-1—with part of Anglet; Bayonne-2—which includes Boucau; and Bayonne-3 now define the cantonal territorial division of the area.===Judicial and administrative proceedings===Bayonne is the seat of many courts for the region.",
"It falls under the jurisdiction of the ''Tribunal d'instance'' (District court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal de grande instance'' (High Court) of Bayonne, the ''Cour d'appel'' (Court of Appeal) of Pau, the ''Tribunal pour enfants'' (Juvenile court) of Bayonne, the ''Conseil de prud'hommes'' (Labour Court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal de commerce'' (Commercial Court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal administratif'' (Administrative tribunal) of Pau, and the ''Cour administrative d'appel'' (Administrative Court of Appeal) of Bordeaux.The commune has a police station, a Departmental Gendarmerie, an Autonomous Territorial Brigade of the district gendarmerie, squadron 24/2 of Mobile Gendarmerie and a Tax collection office.===Intercommunality===The commune is part of twelve inter-communal structures of which eleven are based in the commune:* the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque;* the transport association of Côte basque-Adour Agglomeration (STACBA);* the intercommunal association for the management of the Txakurrak centre;* the intercommunal association for the support of Basque culture;* the Bil Ta Garbi joint association;* the joint association for maritime Nive;* the joint association for the Basque Museum and the History of Bayonne;* the joint association for the development and monitoring of SCOT in the agglomeration of Bayonne and south Landes;* the Kosta Garbia joint association;* the joint association for the development of the European freight centre of Bayonne-Mouguerre-Lahonce;* the joint association for operating the regional Maurice Ravel Conservatory.",
"* the Energy association of Pyrénées-Atlantiques;The city of Bayonne is part of the ''Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque'' which also includes Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Hendaye and Saint-Jean-de-Luz.",
"The statutory powers of the structure extend to economic development—including higher education and research—housing and urban planning, public transport—through Transdev—alternative and the collection and recovery waste collection and management of rain and coastal waters, the sustainable development, interregional cooperation and finally 106.In addition Bayonne is part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity which is a European economic interest grouping (EEIG) established in 1993 based in San Sebastián.===Twin towns – Sister cities===Bayonne has twinning associations with:* Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria since 2004* Satu Mare, Roumania since 2008* Pamplona, Spain since 1970* Nyíregyháza, Hungary since 2008* L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, since 2008* Kajaani, Finland since 2008* Hydra, Greece since 2008* Faro, Portugal since 2008* Daytona Beach, Florida, United States since 1970* Bayonne, New Jersey, United States since 1970* Ascoli Piceno, Italy since 2008}"
],
[
"Geography",
"Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the western border between Basque Country and Gascony.",
"It developed at the confluence of the Adour and tributary on the left bank, the Nive, 6 km from the Atlantic coast.",
"The commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd.===Geology and relief===Bayonne occupies a territory characterized by a flat relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south and east.",
"The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive from the ocean.",
"The meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley.",
"Above this the alluvial plain extends for nearly towards both Tercis-les-Bains and Peyrehorade, and is characterized by swampy meadows called ''barthes''.",
"These were are influenced by floods and high tides.",
"Downstream from this point, the river has shaped a large, wide bed in the sand dunes, creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence.The occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands.",
"Occupants built embankments and the aggradation from flood soil.The Nive has played a leading role in the development of the Bayonne river system in recent geological time by the formation of alluvial terraces; these form the sub-soil of Bayonne beneath the surface accumulations of silt and aeolian sands.",
"The drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees evolved mostly from the Quaternary, from south-east to northwest, oriented east–west.",
"The Adour was captured by the gaves and this system, together with the Nive, led to the emergence of a new alignment of the lower Adour and the Adour-Nive confluence.",
"This capture has been dated to the early Quaternary (80,000 years ago).Before this capture, the Nive had deposited pebbles from the Mindel glaciation of medium to large sizes; this slowed erosion of the hills causing the bottleneck at Bayonne.",
"After the deposit of the lowest alluvial terrace ( high at Grand Bayonne), the course of the Adour became fixed in its lower reaches.Subsequent to these deposits, there was a rise in sea level in the Holocene period (from 15,000 to 5000 years ago).",
"This explains the invasion of the lower valleys with fine sand, peat, and mud with a thickness of more than below the current bed of the Adour and the Nive in Bayonne.",
"These same deposits are spread across the barthes.In the late Quaternary, the current topographic physiognomy was formed—i.e.",
"a set of hills overlooking a swampy lowland.",
"The promontory of Bassussarry–Marracq ultimately extended to the Labourdin foothills.",
"The Grand Bayonne hill is an example.",
"Similarly, on the right bank of the Nive, the heights of Château-Neuf (Mocoron Hill) met the latest advance of the plateau of Saint-Pierre-d'Irube (height ).",
"On the right bank of the Adour, the heights of Castelnau (today the citadel), with an altitude of , and Fort (today Saint-Esprit), with an altitude of , rise above the Barthes of the Adour, the Nive, Bourgneuf, Saint-Frédéric, Sainte-Croix, Aritxague, and Pontots.The area of the commune is and its altitude varies between .===Hydrography===The confluence of the Adour and the Nive from the right bank of the Adour.Confluence of the Nive in Bayonne in 1843, by Eugène de MalbosThe city developed along the river Adour.",
"The river is part of the Natura 2000 network from its source at Bagnères-de-Bigorre to its exit to the Atlantic Ocean after Bayonne, between Tarnos (Landes) for the right bank and Anglet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) for the left bank.Apart from the Nive, which joins the left bank of the Adour after of a sometimes tumultuous course, two tributaries join the Adour in Bayonne commune: the ''Ruisseau de Portou'' and the ''Ruisseau du Moulin Esbouc''.",
"Tributaries of the Nive are the ''Ruisseau de Hillans'' and the ''Ruisseau d'Urdaintz'' which both rise in the commune.===Climate===The nearest weather station is that of Biarritz-Anglet.The climate of Bayonne is relatively similar to that of its neighbour Biarritz, described below, with fairly heavy rainfall; the oceanic climate is due to the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean.",
"The average winter temperature is around 8 °C and is around 20 °C in summer.",
"The lowest temperature recorded was −12.7 °C on 16 January 1985 and the highest 40.6 °C on 4 August 2003 in the 2003 European heat wave.",
"Rains on the Basque coast are rarely persistent except during winter storms.",
"They often take the form of intense thunderstorms of short duration."
],
[
"Transport",
"Public transport around Bayonne: railway lines are black, the intercity bus lines Pyrénées-Atlantiques are green and those of Landes purple.",
"The PTU (perimeter of urban transport, which operates the Chronoplus network is uncharted here) is bounded by a red line.Means of transport (water, roads, bridges, and railways).===Road===Bayonne is located at the intersection of the A63 autoroute (Bordeaux-Spain) and the D1 extension of the A64 autoroute (towards Toulouse).",
"The city is served by three interchanges—two of them on the A63: exit (Bayonne Nord) serves the northern districts of Bayonne but also allows quick access to the centre while exit (Bayonne Sud) provides access to the south and also serves Anglet.",
"The third exit is the D1 / A64 via the Mousserolles interchange (exit Bayonne Mousserolles) which links the district of the same name and also serves the neighbouring communes of Mouguerre and Saint-Pierre-d'Irube.Bayonne was traversed by Route nationale 10 connecting Paris to Hendaye but this is now downgraded to a departmental road D810.Route nationale 117, linking Bayonne to Toulouse has been downgraded to departmental road D817.===Bridges===The Saint-Esprit bridge over the Adour.There are several bridges over both the Nive and the Adour linking the various districts.Coming from upstream on the Adour there is the A63 bridge, then the Saint-Frédéric bridge which carries the D 810, then the railway bridge that replaced the old Eiffel iron bridge, the Saint-Esprit bridge, and finally the Grenet bridge.",
"The Saint-Esprit bridge connects the Saint-Esprit district to the Amiral-Bergeret dock just upstream of the confluence with the river Nive.",
"In 1845, the old bridge, originally made of wood, was rebuilt in masonry with seven arches supporting a deck wide.",
"It was then called the Nemours Bridge in honour of Louis of Orleans, sixth Duke of Nemours, who laid the first stone.",
"The bridge was finally called Saint-Esprit.",
"Until 1868 the bridge had a moving span near the left bank.",
"It was expanded in 1912 to facilitate the movement of horse-drawn carriages and motor vehicles.On the Nive coming from upstream to downstream there is the A63 bridge then the ''Pont Blanc'' (White bridge) railway bridge, and then D810 bridge, the Génie bridge (or ''Pont Millitaire''), the Pannecau bridge, the Marengo bridge leading to the covered markets, and the Mayou Bridge.",
"The Pannecau bridge was long named ''Bertaco bridge'' and was rebuilt in masonry under Napoleon III.",
"According to François Lafitte Houssat, \"... a municipal ordinance of 1327 provided for the imprisonment of any quarrellsome woman of bad character in an iron cage dropped into the waters of the Nive River from the bridge.",
"The practice lasted until 1780 ...\" This punishment bore the evocative name of ''cubainhade''.===Cycling network===The commune is traversed by the ''Vélodyssée''.",
"Bicycle paths are located along the left bank of the Adour, a large part of the left bank of the Nive, and along various axes of the city where there are some bicycle lanes.",
"The city offers free bicycles on loan.===Public transport=======Urban network====Most of the lines of the ''Chronoplus'' bus network operated by the ''Transdev agglomeration of Bayonne'' link Bayonne to other communes in the urban transport perimeter: Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube and Tarnos The Bayonne free shuttle Bayonne serves the city centre (Grand and Petit Bayonne) by connecting several parking stations; other free shuttles perform other short trips within the commune.====Interurban networks====Bayonne is connected to many cities in the western half of the department such as Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Saint-Palais by the Pyrenees-Atlantiques long-distance coach network of ''Transport 64'' managed by the General Council.",
"Since the network restructuring in the summer of 2013, the lines converge on Bayonne.",
"Bayonne is also served by services from the Landes departmental network, ''XL'R''.====Rail transport====The Gare de Bayonne is located in the Saint-Esprit district and is an important station on the Bordeaux-Irun railway.",
"It is also the terminus of lines leading from Toulouse to Bayonne and from Bayonne to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port.",
"It is served by TGV, Intercités, Intercités de nuit, and TER Nouvelle-Aquitaine trains (to Hendaye, Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, Dax, Bordeaux, Pau, and Tarbes).====Air transport====Bayonne is served by the Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport (IATA code: BIQ • ICAO code: LFBZ), located on the communal territories of Anglet and Biarritz.",
"The airport was returned to service in 1954 after repair of damage from bombing during the Second World War."
],
[
"Demographics",
"In 2017, the commune had 51,228 inhabitants."
],
[
"Education",
"Bayonne commune is attached to the Academy of Bordeaux.",
"It has an information and guidance center (CIO).As of 14 December 2015, Bayonne had 10 kindergartens, 22 elementary or primary schools (12 public and 10 private primary schools including two ikastolas).",
"2 public colleges (Albert Camus and Marracq colleges), 5 private colleges (La Salle Saint-Bernard, Saint Joseph, Saint-Amand, Notre-Dame and Largenté) which meet the criteria of the first cycle of second degree studies.",
"For the second cycle Bayonne has 3 public high schools (René-Cassin school (general education), the Louis de Foix school (general, technological and vocational education), and the Paul Bert vocational school), 4 private high schools (Saint-Louis Villa Pia (general education), Largenté, Bernat Etxepare (general and technological), and Le Guichot vocational school).There are also the Maurice Ravel Conservatory of Music, Dance, and Dramatic Art and the art school of the urban community of Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz."
],
[
"Culture",
"===Cultural festivities and events===Fêtes de Bayonne 2004, King Léon.The Bayonne Bullfighting ringFor 550 years every holy Thursday, Friday and Saturday the ''Foire au Jambon'' (Ham festival) is held to mark the beginning of the season.An annual summer festival has been held in the commune since 1932 for five days organized around parades, bulls races, fireworks, and music in the Basque and Gascon tradition.",
"These festivals have become the most important festive events in France in terms of attendance.Bayonne has the oldest French bullfighting tradition.",
"A bylaw regulating the ''encierro'' is dated 1283: cows, oxen and bulls are released each year in the streets of Petit Bayonne during the summer festivals.",
"The current arena, opened in 1893, is the largest in South-west France with more than 10,000 seats.",
"A dozen bullfights are held each year, attracting the biggest names in bullfighting.",
"Throughout summer several ''novilladas'' also take place.",
"The city is a member of the ''Union of French bullfighting cities''."
],
[
"Health",
"Bayonne is the focus of much of the hospital services for the agglomeration of Bayonne and the southern Landes.",
"In this area all inhabitants are less than 35 km from a hospital offering medical, obstetrical, surgical, or psychiatric care.",
"The hospitals for all the Basque Coast are mainly established in Bayonne (the main site of Saint-Léon and Cam-de-Prats) and also in Saint-Jean-de-Luz which has several clinics."
],
[
"Sports",
"Bayonne Rowing Boat shed* '''Rowing''', a popular sport for a long time on the Nive and the Adour near Bayonne.",
"There are two clubs: the Nautical Society of Bayonne (SNB) (established in 1875) and ''Aviron Bayonnais''—established in 1904 by former members of the SNB and which later became a sports club.*'''Basketball'''.",
"''Denek Bat Bayonne Urcuit'' is a basketball club with a male section competing in NM1 (3rd national level of the French league).",
"The club is based in the city of Urcuit but plays in the Lauga Sports Palace in Bayonne.*'''Football'''.",
"Aviron Bayonnais FC play their home games at Didier Deschamps Stadium in Championnat National 3 (the 5th French division) since the 2013–2014 season after a year in CFA and three consecutive years in the .",
"Didier Deschamps started his career at Aviron Bayonnais FC.",
"The stadium, formerly called the ''Grand Basque'', is now named after him.",
"There are also three other football clubs in Bayonne: the ''Crusaders of Saint Andrew'' playing in the higher regional division, the ''Portuguese stars of Bayonne'' (first district division), and the Bayonne association on the right bank of the river (3rd district division).*'''Omnisports'''.",
"Aviron Bayonnais, created in 1904, includes many sports sections and a large number of members.",
"The pro rugby and football club are the most famous sections of the club.",
"The ''Bayonne Olympic Club'', created in 1972, is located in the district of Hauts de Sainte-Croix.",
"The club offers a wide range of sports including pelote, gymnastics, combat sports, and a pool section.",
"The club had nearly 400 members in 2007.",
"*'''Basque Pelota''' Bayonne is an important place for Basque pelota.",
"The ''French Federation of Basque Pelota'' is headquartered at ''Trinquet moderne'' near the Bullring.",
"Many titles were won by pelota players from the city.",
"The World Championships took place in Bayonne in 1978 in association with Biarritz.",
"*'''Rugby''' appeared in Basque Country at the end of the 19th century with the arrival in 1897 at Bayonne High School of a 20-year-old person from Landes who converts his comrades to football-rugby which he had discovered in Bordeaux.",
"Practicing in the fields near the Spanish Gate, they communicated their enthusiasm to other colleges in Bayonne and Biarritz leading to the creation of the Biarritz Sporting Club and Biarritz Stadium which merged in 1913 to become Biarritz Olympique.",
"Bayonne has two rugby clubs: The Bayonne Athletic Association (ASB) plays in Fédérale 3 while the Aviron Bayonnais rugby pro in the 2014–2015 season played in Top 14, where they have played without interruption since the 2004–2005 season.",
"Aviron Bayonnais has won three league titles in France (1913, 1934 and 1943).",
"It was the first club from a small town to become champion of France.",
"Its stadium is the Stade Jean Dauger.",
"There is also a women's team in the ASB, playing in the National Division 1B.",
"This team won the 2014 Armelle Auclair challenge."
],
[
"Religion",
"===Christian worship===Bayonne is in the Diocese of Bayonne, Lescar and Oloron, with a suffragan bishop since 2002 under the Archdiocese of Bordeaux.",
"Monseigneur Marc Aillet has been the bishop of this diocese since 15 October 2008.The diocese is located in Bayonne in the Place Monseigneur-Vansteenberghe.Besides Bayonne Cathedral in Grand Bayonne, Bayonne has Saint-Esprit, Saint Andrew (Rue des Lisses), Arènes (Avenue of the Czech Legion), Saint-Étienne, and Saint-Amand (Avenue Marechal Soult) churches.The ''Carmel of Bayonne'', located in the Marracq district, has had a community of Carmelite nuns since 1858.The ''Way of Baztan'' (also ''ruta del Baztan'' or ''camino Baztanés'') is a way on the pilgrimage of Camino de Santiago which crosses the Pyrenees further west by the lowest pass (by the ''Col de Belate'', 847 m).",
"It is the ancient road used by pilgrims descending to Bayonne then either along the coast on the ''Way of Soulac'' or because they landed there from England, for example, to join the French Way as soon as possible in Pamplona.",
"The ''Way of Bayonne'' joins the French Way further downstream at Burgos.The Protestant church is located at the corner of Rue Albert-I st and Rue du Temple.",
"A gospel church is located in the Saint-Esprit districtit where there is also a church belonging to the Gypsy Evangelical Church of the Protestant Federation of France.===Jewish worship===The synagogue was built in 1837 in the Saint-Esprit district north of the town.",
"The Jewish community of Bayonne is old—it consists of different groups of fugitives from Navarre and Portugal who established at Saint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne after the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496.In 1846, the Central Consistory moved to Saint-Esprit which was integrated with Bayonne in 1857."
],
[
"Economy",
"Rue Poissonnerie, a shopping street in Grand-Bayonne.Bayonne ham.Dark Chocolate with Espelette pepper.===Population and income tax===In 2011, the median household income tax was €22,605, placing Bayonne 28,406th place among the 31,886 communes with more than 49 households in metropolitan France.In 2011, 47.8% of households were not taxable.===Employment===In 2011, the population aged from 15 to 64 years was 29,007 persons of which 70.8% were employable, 60.3% in employment and 10.5% unemployed.",
"While there were 30,012 jobs in the employment area, against 29,220 in 2006, and the number of employed workers residing in the employment area was 17,667, the indicator of job concentration is 169.9% which means that the employment area offers nearly two jobs to for every available worker.===Businesses and shops===Bayonne is the economic capital of the agglomeration of Bayonne and southern Landes.",
"The table below details the number of companies located in Bayonne according to their industry: + Structure of the Economy in Bayonne as at 1 January 2013.No.",
"of Establishments TOTAL '''''' Industry 270 Construction 375 Trade, transport and services Public Administration, education, health, and social services 874Scope: Commercial activities excluding Agriculture.The table below shows employees by business establishments in terms of numbers: + Active establishments by sector of activity on 31 December 2011.Total % 0 Staff 1 to 9 Staff 10 to 19 Staff 20 to 49 Staff 50 Staff or more Ensemble '''''' '''100.0''' '''''' '''''' '''213''' '''155''' '''73''' Agriculture, sylviculture and fishing460.8386020 Industry2924.915010123153 Construction4287.22998426154 Trade, transport, services66.51177327 ''including trade and car repair''''''''18,8''''579''''457''''38''''32''>''9'' Public Administration, education, health, social services20.6920171475039Scope: All activities.The following comments apply to the two previous tables:*the bulk of economic activity is provided by companies in the tertiary sector;*Agriculture is almost non-existent Note 54;*less than 5% of the activity is from the industrial sector which remains focused on establishments of less than 50 employees, as also are construction-related activities;*public administration, education, health and social services are activities of over 20% of establishments, confirming the importance of Bayonne as an administrative centre.In 2013, 549 new establishments were created in Bayonne including 406 Sole proprietorships.===Workshops and Industry===Bayonne has few such industries, as indicated in the previous tables.",
"There is ''Plastitube'' specializing in plastic packaging (190 employees).",
"The Izarra liqueur company set up a distillery in 1912 at Quai Amiral-Bergeret and has long symbolized the economic wealth of Bayonne.",
"Industrial activities are concentrated in the neighbouring communes of Boucau, Tarnos (Turbomeca), Mouguerre, and Anglet.Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and Bayonne ham, a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby Espelette.",
"Izarra, the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally.",
"It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of mayonnaise, supposedly a corruption of ''Bayonnaise'', the French adjective describing the city's people and produce.",
"Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis.Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of ''makilas'', traditional Basque walking-sticks.",
"The Fabrique Alza just outside the city is known for its ''palas'', bats used in ''pelota'', the traditional Basque sport.===Service activities===The active tertiary sector includes some large retail chains such as those detailed by geographer Roger Brunet: BUT (240 staff), Carrefour (150 staff), E.Leclerc (150 staff), Leroy Merlin (130 staff), and Galeries Lafayette (120 employees).",
"Banks, cleaning companies (Onet, 170 employees), and security (Brink's, 100 employees) are also major employers in the commune, as is urban transport which employs nearly 200 staff.",
"Five health clinics, providing a total of more than 500 beds, each employ 120 to 170 staff.===The port of Bayonne===The cargo ship ''BBC-Magellan'' in the port of Bayonne in 2014.The port of Bayonne is located at the mouth of the Adour, downstream of the city.",
"It also occupies part of communes of Anglet and Boucau in Pyrenees-Atlantiques and Tarnos in Landes.",
"It benefits greatly from the natural gas field of Lacq to which it is connected by pipeline.",
"This is the ninth largest French port for trade with an annual traffic of about 4.2 million tonnes of which 2.8 is export.",
"It is also the largest French port for export of maize.",
"It is the property of the Aquitaine region who manage and control the site.",
"Metallurgical products movement are more than one million tons per year and maize exports to Spain vary between 800,000 and 1 million tons.",
"The port also receives refined oil products from the TotalEnergies oil refinery at Donges (800,000 tons per year).",
"Fertilizers are a traffic of 500,000 tons per year and sulphur from Lacq, albeit in sharp decline, is 400,000 tons.The port also receives Ford and General Motors vehicles from Spain and Portugal and wood both tropical and from Landes.===Tourism services===Due to its proximity to the ocean and the foothills of the Pyrenees as well as its historic heritage, Bayonne has developed important activities related to tourism.On 31 December 2012 there were 15 hotels in the city offering more than 800 rooms to visitors, but there were no camp sites.",
"The tourist infrastructure in the surrounding urban area of Bayonne complements the local supply with around 5800 rooms spread over nearly 200 hotels and 86 campsites offering over 14,000 beds."
],
[
"Sights",
"The Château VieuxThe Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne with five bridges between the two, both quarters still being backed by Vauban's walls.",
"The houses lining the Nive are examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green.",
"The much wider Adour is to the north.",
"The Pont Saint-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier Saint-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located.",
"Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville.The Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets.",
"It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries.",
"The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower.",
"The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters.",
"There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.Nearby is the Château Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince.Sainte-Marie CathedralThe Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country.",
"It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment.",
"It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and ''pelota'', handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat.",
"The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Edgar Degas, El Greco, Sandro Botticelli, and Francisco Goya, among others.At the back of Petit Bayonne is the Château Neuf, among the ramparts.",
"Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly arrived French in 1460 to control the city.",
"The walls nearby have been opened to visitors.",
"They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway.",
"The Saint-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela.",
"It is home to a wooden ''Flight into Egypt'' sculpture.Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle.",
"The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz.The distillery of the famous local liqueur Izarra is located on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors.Citadel"
],
[
"Notable people",
"===1200s===* Edmund Crouchback or Edmond Plantagenet, Earl of Lancaster, born in 1245 at London and died in 1296 at Bayonne, was an English prince.",
"Second surviving son of King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence, he was the 1st Earl of Lancaster and the founder of the House of Lancaster===1500s===* Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, (1581–1643), theologian, who introduced Jansenism into France===1700s===* Guillaume du Tillot (1711–1774), politician* Marguerite Brunet, called Mademoiselle Montansier, born in 1730 at Bayonne and died in 1820 at Paris, was an actress and director of theatre.",
"The house where she was born still exists in Rue des Faures, at Bayonne;* Dominique Joseph Garat (1749–1833), writer and politician* François Cabarrus (1752–1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier* Armand Joseph Dubernad (1741–1799), financial trader, consul general of the Holy Roman Empire* Bertrand Pelletier (1761–1797), chemist and pharmacologist* Jacques Laffitte (1767–1844), banker and politician===1800s===* Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), classical-liberal author and political economist* Hélène Feillet (1812–1889), painter and lithographer, images of the Basque Country* Charles Lavigerie born at Bayonne in 1825 and died in 1892 at Algiers (Algérie), was a 19th-century Cardinal.",
"He was the founder of the ''Society of Missionaries of Africa'' which is better known under the name White Fathers* Achille Zo (1826–1901), painter* Léon Bonnat (1833–1922), painter* Ramón Altarriba y Villanueva (1841–1906), Spanish Carlist politician* Leandro Ramón Garrido (1868–1909), English–Spanish painter born in Bayonne, France.",
"* René Cassin (1887–1976), lawyer and judge; recipient of the 1968 Nobel Peace Prize* François Duhourcau (1883–1951), writer and historian===1900s===* Loleh Bellon (1925–1999), actress and playwright* Michel Camdessus (born 1933), managing director of the International Monetary Fund from 1997 to 2000* Maurice André (1933–2012), virtuoso classical trumpet player* Didier Deschamps (born 1968), World-Cup-winning footballer, manager of the France national team since 2012.",
"* Sylvain Luc (born 1965), jazz guitarist* Anthony Dupuis (born 1973), professional tennis player* Xavier de le Rue (born 1979), a snowboarder* Imanol Harinordoquy (born 1980), French international rugby union player * Éva Bisséni (born 1981), judoka* Stéphane Ruffier (born 1986) a France national football team goalkeeper* Xavier Ouellet (born 1993), ice hockey player for the Laval Rocket* Aymeric Laporte (born 1994), footballer.",
"Raised in the city.",
"* Jessika Ponchet (born 1996), tennis player"
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* In Wyndham Lewis's novel ''The Wild Body'' (1927) the protagonist, Ker-Orr, in the first story, \"A Soldier of Humour\", takes the train from Paris and stays in Bayonne before going to Spain.",
"* In Ernest Hemingway's novel ''The Sun Also Rises'', three of the characters visit Bayonne en route to Pamplona, Spain.",
"* In Kim Stanley Robinson's novel ''The Years of Rice and Salt'' (2002), Bayonne is the first city recolonized by the Muslims after the total depopulation of Europe by the Black Death.",
"Named \"Baraka\", its earliest colonizers were later driven out by rivals from Al-Andalus and flee to the Loire Valley, where they found the city of Nsara.",
"* In Trevanian's novel Shibumi, Hannah has been called as \"a whore from Bayonne\" by elderly Basque women in a village of the Northern Basque Country.",
"* The seventh track of Joe Bonamassa's album Dust Bowl is entitled ''The Last Matador of Bayonne''.",
"* In the summer of 2008, Manu Chao's live album ''Baionarena'' was recorded in the Arena of Bayonne.",
"* The album Life is Elsewhere, by English band Little Comets, features a song titled Bayonne.,* The eighth track of La Nef's album ''La Traverse Miraculeuse'' is entitled ''Le Navire de Bayonne''."
],
[
"Notes and references",
"===Notes======References======= Insee ====* Dossier 2013 relative to the commune, * National Database==== Bibliographic sources ====* Leon H. ''Histoire des Juifs de Bayonne'', Paris, Armand Durlacher, 1893.in-4 : xvj, 436 pp.",
"; illustré de 4 planches hors-texte.",
"*Pierre Dubourg-Noves ''Bayonne'', Ouest-France, 1986, .",
"Noted \"DN\" in the text.",
"*Eugène Goyheneche, ''Basque Country: Soule, Labourd, Lower-Navarre'', Société nouvelle d’éditions régionales et de diffusion, Pau, 1979, BnF FRBNF34647711 .",
"Noted \"EG\" in the text.",
"*Pierre Hourmat, ''History of Bayonne from its origins to the French Revolution of 1789'', Société des Sciences Lettres & Arts de Bayonne, 1986 .",
"Noted \"PH\" in the text.",
"*Pierre Hourmat ''Visiting Bayonne'', Sud Ouest, 1989 .",
"Noted \"PiH\" in the text.",
"*''Bayonne of the Nive and Adour'', François Lafitte Houssat, Alan Sutton, Joué-lès-Tours, 2001, .",
"Noted as \"FL\" in the text.",
"* The Bayonne Official website.",
"Noted as \"M\" in the text."
],
[
"External links",
"* City council website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bubblegum Crisis"
],
[
"Introduction",
" is a 1987 to 1991 cyberpunk original video animation (OVA) series produced by Youmex and animated by AIC and Artmic.",
"The series was planned to run for 13 episodes, but was cut short to just 8.The series involves the adventures of the Knight Sabers, an all-female group of mercenaries who don powered exoskeletons and fight numerous problems, most frequently rogue robots.",
"The success of the series spawned several sequel series."
],
[
"Plot",
"The series begins in late 2032, seven years after the Second Great Kanto earthquake has split Tokyo geographically and culturally in two and it also forced the United States of America to annex Japan in the legitimate name of keeping the peace and from it descending into anarchy.",
"During the first episode, disparities in wealth are shown to be more pronounced than in previous periods in post-war Japan.",
"The main adversary is Genom, a megacorporation with immense power and global influence.",
"Its main product are boomers—artificial cybernetic life forms that are usually in the form of humans, with most of their bodies being machine; also known as \"cyberoids\".",
"While Boomers are intended to serve mankind, they become deadly instruments in the hands of ruthless individuals.",
"The AD Police (Advanced Police) are tasked to deal with Boomer-related crimes.",
"One of the series' themes is the inability of the department to deal with threats due to political infighting, red tape, and an insufficient budget."
],
[
"Setting",
"The setting displays strong influences from the movies ''Blade Runner'' and ''Streets of Fire''.",
"The opening sequence of episode 1 is even modeled on that of the latter film.",
"The humanoid robots known as \"boomers\" in the series were inspired by several movies, including Replicants from the aforementioned ''Blade Runner'', the titular cyborgs of the ''Terminator'' film franchise, and the Beast from the film ''Krull''.Suzuki explained in a 1993 ''Animerica'' interview the meaning behind the cryptic title: \"We originally named the series 'bubblegum' to reflect a world in crisis, like a chewing-gum bubble that's about to burst.\""
],
[
"Production",
"The series started with Toshimichi Suzuki's intention to remake the 1982 film ''Techno Police 21C''.",
"In 1985, he met Junji Fujita and the two discussed ideas, and decided to collaborate on what later became ''Bubblegum Crisis''.",
"Kenichi Sonoda acted as character designer, and designed the four female leads.",
"Masami Ōbari created the mechanical designs.",
"Obari would also go on to direct episodes 5 and 6.Satoshi Urushihara acted as the chief production supervisor and guest character designer for Episode 7.The OVA series is eight episodes long but was originally slated to run for 13 episodes.",
"Due to legal problems between Artmic and Youmex, who jointly held the rights to the series, the series was discontinued prematurely."
],
[
"Cast",
"+Major castRoleJapaneseEnglishSouthwynde StudiosSylia StingrayYoshiko SakakibaraJemila EricsonPriscilla \"Priss\" AsagiriKinuko OomoriSinda NicholsLinna YamazakiMichie TomizawaElizabeth BeckaNene RomanovaAkiko HiramatsuSusan GrilloMackie StingrayNozomu SasakiFrank TrimbleDaley WongKenyu HoriuchiMarshall CarollLeon McNicholToshio FurukawaBrad MoranzBrian J. MasonShuuichi IkedaEric PaisleyLargoKazuyuki SogabePierre BrulatourQuincy RosenkreutzKiyoshi KawakuboJ.",
"David ArnoldChief TodoMasaharu SatouDavid KrausFargoKouichi YamaderaGeoffrey Honaker+Minor cast#RoleJapaneseEnglishSouthwynde Studios1Chopper 3 PilotDavid KrausAD Police CommunicatorBarbara LewisCommander SwarzTeiji OomiyaMichael S. WaySylia Stingray (young)Loren MashMackie Stingray (young)Michael SinterniklaasKatsuhito StingrayHiroya IshimaruKevin DowlingBogeyYusaku YaraMarc MatneyRetortKeiichi NanbaMarc GarberF.G.",
"FrederickJuurouta KosugiClifton DanielDeputy CommanderShinya OotakiPatt NodayCheckpoint GuardMichitaka KobayashiSteve RassinCynthiaHiroko KasaharaMaryann WebbFemale BoomerUrara TakanoBelinda Bizic-Keller2Irene ChangMiki ItouJean HrdlickaCompany Man 1Matt SullivanCompany Man 2Sean ClayAD Police OfficerMasaaki OkamuraMichael SinterniklaasFemale Boomer VocalsUrara TakanoGuardNathan Gray3ManagerIkuya SawakiMick McGovernShouKyouko HamuraTed DavisShou's MotherMinori MatsushimaAmy ParrishFunkDaisuke GouriMarc Matney4Dr.",
"RavenKenichi OgataMichael TittertonJ.B.",
"GibsonKaneto ShiozawaZach HannerNaomi AndersonMayumi ShouMindi L. LyonsOutriderMichitaka KobayashiPatt Noday5AnriYuko MizutaniKatherine Kopec-BurtonSylvieYoshino TakamoriMartha Ellen SenseneyKaufmanIkuya SawakiChuck KinlawFlintShin'ya OotakiJon GuttmanCaptainMichitaka KobayashiJay BrysonLouYumi ToumaTammy StarlingMegTomoko MaruoHadley EureNamMegumi HayashibaraBelinda Bizic-KellerCaptainMichitaka KobayashiJay BrysonDoctorMotomu KiyokawaTom Holmes6KateUrara TakanoEmily Young-KeeleyCallahanShin'ya OotakiSteve VernonExecutive 1Ikuya SawakiSean ClayExecutive 2Kouzou ShioyaNicolas BottomBoomerMichitaka KobayashiZach Hanner7Reika ChangMaiko HashimotoMindi L. LyonsKouYasunori MatsumotoZach HannerRichard McLarenIkuya SawakiEddie HarrellGulf and Bradley ChairmanMasashi HiroseTimothy J. WalshYamadaMichitaka KobayashiGray SibleyStafferKatsumi SuzukiKevin ReillyInterviewerYumi ToumaJoyce Leigh BowdenMr.",
"ChangEken MineMark Fincannon8Lisa VanettaAya HisakawaAmy ParrishNaokoJunko AsamiBelinda Bizic-KellerMiriam YoshidaIssei FutamataDick BuntingEbisu OperatorKenichi OnoEliot PreschuttiEbisu PresidentHideyuki UmezuDavid LongEbisu WorkerMichitaka KobayashiJay BrysonAD Police ReceptionistChisa YokoyamaAmanda Tancredi===Additional voices==='''English:''' Amanda Tancredi, Chuck Denson Jr., Chuck Kinlaw, David Kraus, Eliot Preschutti, Gray Sibley, Hadley Eure, Hank Troscianiec, J. Patrick Lawlor, Jack Bowden, Jay Bryson, Kevin Reilly, Marc Garber, Marc Matney, Michael Sinterniklaas, Scott Simpson, Sean Clay, Sophia Tolar, Steve Lalla, Steve Rassin, Steve Vernon, Zach Hanner"
],
[
"Episodes"
],
[
"Release",
"In North America, AnimEigo first released ''Bubblegum Crisis'' to VHS and Laserdisc in 1991 in Japanese with English subtitles.",
"The series is notable in that it was one of the few early anime series that were brought over from Japan unedited and subtitled in English.",
"While anime has become much more popular in the years since, in 1991, it was still mostly unknown as a storytelling medium in North America.",
"''Bubblegum Crisis'' was aired in the US when it first aired on PBS affiliate Superstation KTEH in the 1990s, and STARZ!",
"'s Action Channel in 2000.An English dub of the series was produced beginning in 1994 by AnimEigo through Southwynde Studios in Wilmington, NC, and released to VHS and Laserdisc beginning that year.",
"A digitally-remastered compilation, featuring bilingual audio tracks and production extras, was released on DVD in 2004 by AnimEigo.",
"The company later successfully crowdfunded a collector's edition Blu-ray release through Kickstarter in November 2013.The series was released on a regular edition Blu-ray on September 25, 2018.The series is currently available for streaming on Night Flight Plus.===Soundtracks===There are eight soundtrack releases (one per OVA), as well as numerous \"vocal\" albums which feature songs \"inspired by\" the series as well as many drawn directly from it."
],
[
"Reception",
"Critical reception of ''Bubblegum Crisis'' has been generally positive.",
"Raphael See of THEM Anime Reviews gave the series a rating of 4 out of 5 stars, praising the quality of the animation, the soundtrack, and the series' sense of humor.",
"However, he suggested it was held back by a low quality dub, a lack of character development, and an inconsistent plot, saying that while some episodes were \"really solid\", others would leave out many major details, forcing the viewer to make their own assumptions: \"Overall, not a bad watch.",
"In fact, at times, ''Bubblegum Crisis'' can be really good.",
"Unfortunately, oversights and carelessness here and there keep this series from being all it can be.",
"\"Tim Henderson of Anime News Network gave the series an A− rating, praising the animation, soundtrack, story, and characters.",
"He states that the series gets better with every passing episode, and that the final two episodes are the best of the series."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Masaki Kajishima and Hiroki Hayashi, who both worked on the ''Bubblegum Crisis'' OVAs, cite the show as being the inspiration for their harem series ''Tenchi Muyo!",
"Ryo-Ohki''.",
"In an interview with AIC, Hayashi described ''Bubblegum Crisis'' as \"a pretty gloomy anime.",
"Serious fighting, complicated human relationships, and dark Mega Tokyo.\"",
"They thought it would be fun to create some comedy episodes with ideas like the girls going to the hot springs, but it was rejected by the sponsors.",
"He also said that there was a trend to have a bunch of characters of one gender and a single one of the other gender, and asked what if Mackey (Sylia's brother) was a main character, reversing the ''Bubblegum'' scenario.",
"This idea then became the basis for Tenchi.",
"Hayashi said that Mackey is \"sort of\" the original model for Tenchi.Kevin Siembieda's becoming aware of \"Boomers\" being already in use in this caused him to change his planned name for the ''Rifts'' RPG which he had named after the \"Boom Gun\"–wielding power armor which was also renamed to ''Glitter Boy''."
],
[
"Other entries",
"* ''A.D.",
"Police Files'' is a three-part original video animation prequel produced by Youmex and animated by Artmic and AIC, released in 1990.It takes place in the original ''Bubblegum Crisis'' universe, and is a prequel to the original OVA series.",
"* ''Bubblegum Crash'' is a sequel to ''Bubblegum Crisis'', released in 1991.It takes place one year after the events of ''Crisis'' and follows a dissolved Knight Sabers as they try to figure out their paths in life before being forced to join forces one more time to take down a powerful enemy.",
"* ''Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040'' is a 26-episode anime television series broadcast in 1998–1999.It is a reboot of the original series.",
"* ''A.D.",
"Police: To Protect and Serve'' is 12-episode anime television series released in 1999.It is a prequel to ''Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040''.",
"* ''Parasite Dolls'' is a three-part original video animation series by AIC, released in 2003.It is set in the original ''Bubblegum Crisis'' universe, taking place after the events of the original OVA series.===Crossover appearances===In 1993, it appeared on ''Scramble Wars'', a crossover event between ''Bubblegum Crisis'', ''Gall Force'', ''Genesis Survivor Gaiarth'', ''AD Police'' and ''Riding Bean''.",
"In 2023, the theme song \"Konya Wa Hurricane\" appeared in the series ''Scott Pilgrim Takes Off''."
],
[
"Other media",
"===RPGs===* ''Bubblegum Crisis'' role-playing game produced by R. Talsorian Games.",
"It introduces an alternate setting named \"Bubblegum Crossfire\", basing on a premise that data units with hardsuit blueprints have been sent to more individuals than just Sylia Stingray, resulting in that by 2033 there are numerous Knight Saber-like groups spread all over the globe.",
"RTG's license to produce this game has expired and at present all copies of back stock have been sold.",
"** \"Bubblegum Crisis: Before and After\" (covering material from ''A.D.",
"Police Files'' and ''Bubblegum Crash!",
"'')** \"Bubblegum Crisis EX\" which includes completely new materials (also incorporating early design concepts for BGC mecha and hardsuits as new variants)===Novels===The series' creator Toshimichi Suzuki wrote two novels:* ''Bubblegum Crisis Vol.",
"1: Silent Fanfare'', Fujimi Shobo* ''Bubblegum Crisis Vol.",
"2: Break Down-48'', Fujimi Shobo* A third novel titled ''Bubblegum Crisis Hard Metal Guardians'' was also later written by Hajime Shima and released in 2012===Comic book===In Japan, a number of comic books were produced that featured characters and storylines based in the same universe.",
"Some were very much thematically linked to the OVA series, while others were \"one-shots\" or comedy features.",
"A number of artists participated in the creation of these comics, including Kenichi Sonoda, who had produced the original Knight Saber character designs.",
"A North American comic based in the ''Bubblegum Crisis'' universe was published in English by Dark Horse Comics.",
"* ''Go!",
"Go!",
"Sabers!",
"'', a comic by Tokio Kazuka.",
"* ''AD.",
"Police: 25:00'', a comic by Tony Takezaki* ''Soldier Blue'', a comic by Toshimichi Suzuki.",
"It serves as a prequel to ''Bubblegum Crash!''",
"It was also made as an audio drama.",
"It was translated into English language in 1997 by R.Talsorian Games.",
"A copy of the translated dialogue can be found here.",
"* ''Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal'' produced by Adam Warren via Dark Horse Comics.===Video games===* ''Crime Wave'': a game for PC-88, set in Megatokyo and featuring Knight Sabers as the main characters.",
"* ''Bubblegum Crash'': a game for TurboGrafx-16.===Live-action movie===In May 2009 it was announced that a live-action movie of \"Bubblegum Crisis\" was in the early stages of production.",
"A production agreement was signed at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival.",
"The film was expected to be released in late 2012 with a budget of 30 million.",
"The production staff was said to have consulted with the original anime's staff members, Shinji Aramaki and Kenichi Sonoda, to help maintain consistency with the world of the original.",
"However, no further developments have been announced."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* AnimEigo's ''Bubblegum Crisis'' website* ''Bubblegum Crisis'' – AIC's official ''Bubblegum Crisis'' page * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Black people"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Black''' is a racialized classification of people, usually a political and skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown complexion.",
"Not all people considered \"black\" have dark skin; in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification in the Western world, the term \"black\" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations.",
"It is most commonly used for people of sub-Saharan African ancestry, Indigenous Australians and Melanesians, though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever.",
"Indigenous African societies do not use the term ''black'' as a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.Contemporary anthropologists and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable \"Black race\" as socially constructed.",
"Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified \"black\", and these social constructs have changed over time.",
"In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for \"blackness\" vary.",
"In the United Kingdom, \"black\" was historically equivalent with \"person of color\", a general term for non-European peoples.",
"While the term \"person of color\" is commonly used and accepted in the United States, the near-sounding term \"colored person\" is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where it is a descriptor for a person of mixed race.",
"In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the adjective \"black” to the indigenous population.",
"It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 70s.",
"“Black” was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor (e.g.",
"“black ****”).",
"As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Aboriginals adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic.Several American style guides, including the ''AP Stylebook'', changed their guides to capitalize the ‘b’ in ‘black’, following the 2020 murder of George Floyd, an African American.",
"The ''ASA Style Guide'' says that the ‘b’ should not be capitalized.",
"Some perceive the term ‘black’ as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonial racial segregation."
],
[
"Africa",
"===Northern Africa===The main slave routes in the Middle East and Northern Africa during the Middle Ages.Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities.",
"Others descend from migrants via the historical trans-Saharan trade or, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from the trans-Saharan slave trade in North Africa.Haratin women, a community of recent Sub-Saharan African origin residing in the Maghreb.In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail \"the Warrior King\" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called his Black Guard.According to Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the Arab world, including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in Latin America.",
"He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-toned Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese (Sudanese Arab) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned Egyptian.",
"In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, \"I am not white but I am not exactly black either.",
"My blackness is tending to reddish\".Due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men.",
"The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture.",
"The men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (see Ma malakat aymanukum and sex), leading to many mixed-race children.",
"When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as ''umm walad'' or \"mother of a child\", a status that granted her privileged rights.",
"The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father.",
"Because the society was patrilineal, the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608.He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was Fulani and a concubine of his father.In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa people of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people of Nilotic ancestry).",
"Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens.",
"The government was accused of \"deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity\" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.Sudanese Arabs are also black people in that they are culturally and linguistically Arabized indigenous peoples of Sudan of mostly Nilo-Saharans, Nubian, and Cushitic ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens.",
"According to Ayittey, \"In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid.\"",
"Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.===Sahara===Ibenheren (Bella) womanIn the Sahara, the native Tuareg Berber populations kept \"negro\" slaves.",
"Most of these captives were of Nilotic extraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in the Western Sudan or taken during raids.",
"Their origin is denoted via the Ahaggar Berber word ''Ibenheren'' (sing.",
"''Ébenher''), which alludes to slaves that only spoke a Nilo-Saharan language.",
"These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowed Songhay term ''Bella''.Similarly, the Sahrawi indigenous peoples of the Western Sahara observed a class system consisting of high castes and low castes.",
"Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were \"Negro\" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas.===North-Eastern Africa===In Ethiopia and Somalia, the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders or other surrounding areas of Nilotic and Bantu peoples who were collectively known as ''Shanqella'' and ''Adone'' (both analogues to \"negro\" in an English-speaking context).",
"Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants.",
"The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to the Kingdom of Damat.These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished as ''tsalim barya'' (dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles or ''saba qayh'' (\"red men\") or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate between ''saba qayh'' (\"red men\"—light-skinned) or ''saba tiqur'' (\"black men\"—dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as \"black people\" (and in some case \"negro\") according to Western society's notion of race.===Southern Africa===In South Africa, the period of colonization resulted in many unions and marriages between European and Africans (Bantu peoples of South Africa and Khoisans) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children.",
"As the European colonialists acquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status.",
"During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups: ''Black'', ''White'', ''Asian'' (mostly Indian), and ''Coloured''.",
"The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with some Malay ancestry, especially in the Western Cape).",
"The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa.",
"It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as apartheid.The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group.",
"Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications.",
"When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the \"pencil test\" was used.",
"A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair.",
"If so, the person was classified as Black.",
"Such classifications sometimes divided families.Sandra Laing is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her skin colour and hair texture, although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors.",
"At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school.",
"The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life.",
"She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film ''Skin'', which won numerous awards.",
"During the apartheid era, those classed as \"Coloured\" were oppressed and discriminated against.",
"But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as \"Black\".",
"The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a \"Non-racial democracy\".",
"In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of affirmative action policies for Blacks; under these they define \"Black\" people to include \"Africans\", \"Coloureds\" and \"Asians\".",
"Some affirmative action policies favor \"Africans\" over \"Coloureds\" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits.",
"Some South Africans categorized as \"African Black\" say that \"Coloureds\" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid.",
"\"Coloured\" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, \"we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress)\".In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that Chinese South Africans who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as \"Black people,\" solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also \"disadvantaged\" by racial discrimination.",
"Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.Other than by appearance, \"Coloureds\" can usually be distinguished from \"Blacks\" by language.",
"Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language, as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu or Xhosa.",
"They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names."
],
[
"Asia",
"===Afro-Asians===\"Afro-Asians\" or \"African-Asians\" are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African and Asian ancestry.",
"In the United States, they are also called \"black Asians\" or \"Blasians\".",
"Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.===Western Asia=======Arab world====Bilal ibn Ribah (''pictured'' atop the Kaaba, Mecca) was a former Ethiopian slave and the first muezzin, ca.",
"630.In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of \"Black\" encompassed not only Zanj, or Africans, but also communities like Zūtt, Sindis and Indians from the Indian subcontinent.",
"Historians estimate that between the advent of Islam in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved by east African slave traders and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.",
"This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas.",
"Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as concubines in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.",
"Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as harem guards.",
"The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high.",
"The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the patrilineal kinship system.",
"As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people (Afro-Iraqis), and they attest to a history of discrimination.",
"These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population.",
"According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab.====Iran====Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran.",
"During the Qajar dynasty, many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work.",
"This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who were Bantu-speaking peoples that lived along the African Great Lakes, in an area roughly comprising modern-day Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi.====Israel====African Hebrew Israelite child in Dimona|279x279pxethnic Jewish (Beta Israel Ethiopian Jew) Israeli Border Policeman |left|278x278pxAbout 150,000 East African and black people live in Israel, amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population.",
"The vast majority of these, some 120,000, are Beta Israel, most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s from Ethiopia.",
"In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem movement that are ancestry of African Americans who emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in the Negev town of Dimona.",
"Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum.",
"Most of the migrants are from communities in Sudan and Eritrea, particularly the Niger-Congo-speaking Nuba groups of the southern Nuba Mountains; some are illegal immigrants.====Turkey====A Bashi-bazouk of the Ottoman Empire, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1869|280x280pxBeginning several centuries ago, during the period of the Ottoman Empire, tens of thousands of Zanj captives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated between Antalya and Istanbul, which gave rise to the Afro-Turk population in present-day Turkey.",
"Some of their ancestry remained ''in situ'', and many migrated to larger cities and towns.",
"Other black slaves were transported to Crete, from where they or their descendants later reached the İzmir area through the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923, or indirectly from Ayvalık in pursuit of work.Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s.",
"The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal.",
"According to official figures 1.5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located in Istanbul.",
"Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and report Tarlabaşı, Dolapdere, Kumkapı, Yenikapı and Kurtuluş as having a strong African presence.Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe.",
"Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven.",
"It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notably racism and opposition to immigration by locals.===Southern Asia===A Siddi girl from the town of Yellapur in Uttara Karnataka district, Karnataka, India.The Siddi are an ethnic group inhabiting India and Pakistan.",
"Members are descended from the Bantu peoples of Southeast Africa.",
"Some were merchants, sailors, indentured servants, slaves or mercenaries.",
"The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly in Karnataka, Gujarat, and Hyderabad in India and Makran and Karachi in Pakistan.",
"In the Makran strip of the Sindh and Balochistan provinces in southwestern Pakistan, these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani.",
"There was a brief \"Black Power\" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry.===Southeastern Asia===leftAti woman, Philippinesthe Negritos are an indigenous people of Southeast Asia.Negritos, are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancient East Eurasian meta-population which gave rise to modern East Asian peoples, and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity.",
"They inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia, and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India.Negrito means \"little black people\" in Spanish (negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., \"little black person\"); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in the Philippines.",
"The term ''Negrito'' itself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptable Semang, although this term actually refers to a specific group.They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination.",
"Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment."
],
[
"Europe",
"===Western Europe=======France====''Young Negro with a Bow'' by Hyacinthe Rigaud, ca.",
"1697.While census collection of ethnic background is illegal in France, it is estimated that there are about 2.5 – 5 million black people residing there.====Germany====As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.====Netherlands====Afro-Dutch are residents of the Netherlands who are of Black African or Afro-Caribbean ancestry.",
"They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Sint Maarten and Suriname.",
"The Netherlands also has sizable Cape Verdean and other African communities.==== Portugal ====As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living in Portugal.",
"They mainly live in the regions of Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra.",
"As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquired Portuguese citizenship from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now Portuguese citizens.====Spain====The term \"Moors\" has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims, especially those of Arab or Berber ancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia.",
"Moors were not a distinct or self-defined people.",
"Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike.Isidore of Seville, writing in the 7th century, claimed that the Latin word Maurus was derived from the Greek ''mauron'', μαύρον, which is the Greek word for \"black\".",
"Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write his ''Etymologies'', the word Maurus or \"Moor\" had become an adjective in Latin, \"for the Greeks call black, mauron\".",
"\"In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition...\"Afro-Spaniards are Spanish nationals of West/Central African ancestry.",
"Today, they mainly come from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal.",
"Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colony Equatorial Guinea.",
"Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards in Spain.====United Kingdom====According to the Office for National Statistics, at the 2001 census there were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as \"Black Caribbean\", 0.8% as \"Black African\", and 0.2% as \"Black other\".",
"Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship the ''Empire Windrush'' and, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known as the Windrush generation.",
"The preferred official umbrella term is \"black, Asian and minority ethnic\" (BAME), but sometimes the term \"black\" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the Southall Black Sisters, which started with a mainly British Asian constituency, and the National Black Police Association, which has a membership of \"African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin\".===Eastern Europe===Bust of Russian general Abram Gannibal, who was the great-grandfather of Alexander Pushkin.As African states became independent in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered many of their citizens the chance to study in Russia.",
"Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans.",
"This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the Eastern bloc.====Balkans====Due to the slave trade in the Ottoman Empire that had flourished in the Balkans, the coastal town of Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community.",
"In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people."
],
[
"Oceania",
"===Indigenous Australians===Aboriginal woman in 1911Indigenous Australians have been referred to as \"black people\" in Australia since the early days of European settlement.",
"While originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.Being identified as either \"black\" or \"white\" in Australia during the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects.",
"Various state-based Aboriginal Protection Boards were established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents.",
"Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour.",
"The social position of mixed-race or \"half-caste\" individuals varied over time.",
"A 1913 report by Baldwin Spencer states that:After the First World War, however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the \"half-caste menace\" undermining the White Australia ideal from within was being taken as a serious concern.",
"Cecil Cook, the Northern Territory Protector of Natives, noted that:The official policy became one of biological and cultural assimilation: \"Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white\".",
"This led to different treatment for \"black\" and \"half-caste\" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as \"white\" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as the Stolen Generation.Aboriginal activist Sam Watson addressing Invasion Day Rally 2007 in an \"Australia has a Black History\" T-shirtThe second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people.",
"In a 1967 referendum, more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the national census.",
"During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term \"black\" and use their ancestry as a source of pride.",
"Activist Bob Maza said:In 1978, Aboriginal writer Kevin Gilbert received the National Book Council award for his book ''Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert'', a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature for ''Inside Black Australia'', a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography.",
"In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.",
"The reappropriation of the term \"black\" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets, government agencies, and private companies.",
"In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxer Anthony Mundine being widely criticized for questioning the \"blackness\" of another boxer and journalist Andrew Bolt being successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.===Melanesians===The region of Melanesia is named from Greek , ''black'', and , ''island'', etymologically meaning \"islands of black people\", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples.",
"Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa.Fijian warrior, 1870s.Melanesians, along with other Pacific Islanders, were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known as blackbirding.",
"In Queensland, some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought from the New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, and New Guinea to work in sugarcane fields.",
"Under the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901, most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands.",
"Those who remained in Australia, commonly called South Sea Islanders, often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society.",
"Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, including Faith Bandler, Evelyn Scott and Bonita Mabo.Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people.",
"Stephanie Lawson writes that the term \"moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation\".",
"For instance, the term is used in the Melanesian Spearhead Group, which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries.===Other===John Caesar, nicknamed \"Black Caesar\", a convict and bushranger with parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they were born in Africa.",
"This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includes white Africans."
],
[
"North America",
"===Canada===\"Black Canadians\" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents of Canada.",
"The majority of black Canadians are of Caribbean origin, though the population also consists of African American immigrants and their descendants (including black Nova Scotians), as well as many African immigrants.Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those of Afro-Caribbean ancestry and those of other African roots.",
"The term ''African Canadian'' is occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland.",
"Promised freedom by the British during the American Revolutionary War, thousands of Black Loyalists were resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such as Thomas Peters.",
"In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousand fugitive slaves reached freedom in Canada from the Southern United States during the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term \"African Canadian\" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage, and instead identify as ''Caribbean Canadian''.",
"Unlike in the United States, where \"African American\" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term \"black Canadian\" being widely accepted there.===United States===Civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr.There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere.",
"The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade.",
"As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others.",
"Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:* Senegambia (Senegal and The Gambia): 4.8%* Upper Guinea (Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone): 4.1%* Windward Coast (Liberia and Ivory Coast): 1.8%* Gold Coast (Ghana and east of Ivory Coast): 10.4%* Bight of Benin (Togo, Benin and Nigeria west of the Niger Delta): 20.2%* Bight of Biafra (Nigeria east of the Niger Delta, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon): 14.6%* West Central Africa (Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola): 39.4%* Southeastern Africa (Mozambique and Madagascar): 4.7%The main slave routes in the Atlantic Slave Trade.By the early 1900s, ''nigger'' had become a pejorative word in the United States.",
"In its stead, the term ''colored'' became the mainstream alternative to ''negro'' and its derived terms.",
"After the American Civil Rights Movement, the terms ''colored'' and ''negro'' gave way to \"black\".",
"''Negro'' had superseded ''colored'' as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when ''black'' was considered more offensive.",
"This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later Civil Rights movement in the late 1960s.",
"One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev.",
"Martin Luther King Jr. of \"Negro\" in his famous speech of 1963, I Have a Dream.",
"During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably Malcolm X, objected to the word ''Negro'' because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse.",
"Malcolm X preferred ''Black'' to ''Negro'', but later gradually abandoned that as well for ''Afro-American'' after leaving the Nation of Islam.Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage.",
"Aside from ''black American'', these include ''Afro-American'' (in use from the late 1960s to 1990) and ''African American'' (used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past as ''American Negroes'').In the first 200 years that black people were in the United States, they primarily identified themselves by their specific ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color.",
"Individuals identified themselves, for example, as Ashanti, Igbo, Bakongo, or Wolof.",
"However, when the first captives were brought to the Americas, they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists.",
"In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together.",
"This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south-east coast such as Mozambique.",
"A new ''African-American'' identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and African-American English.",
"This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.The U.S. racial or ethnic classification \"black\" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including albinos, if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage).",
"There are also certain cultural traits associated with being \"African American\", a term used effectively as a synonym for \"black person\" within the United States.In March 1807, Great Britain, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared the transatlantic slave trade illegal, as did the United States.",
"(The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which Congress had the power to do so after protecting the slave trade under Article I, Section 9 of the United States Constitution.",
")By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term \"African\" became problematic.",
"Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States.",
"They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa.",
"In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of \"African\" from their institutions and replace it with \"Negro\" or \"Colored American\".",
"A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church.",
"African Americans popularly used the terms \"Negro\" or \"colored\" for themselves until the late 1960s.The term ''black'' was used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma.",
"In his 1963 \"I Have a Dream\" speech, Martin Luther King Jr. uses the terms ''negro'' fifteen times and ''black'' four times.",
"Each time that he uses ''black'', it is in parallel construction with ''white''; for example, \"black men and white men\".With the successes of the American Civil Rights Movement, a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination.",
"In place of ''Negro'', activists promoted the use of ''black'' as standing for racial pride, militancy, and power.",
"Some of the turning points included the use of the term \"Black Power\" by Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) and the popular singer James Brown's song \"Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud\".In 1988, the civil rights leader Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use instead the term \"African American\" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc.",
"Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status.",
"However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate.",
"Maulana Karenga argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin.",
"Others have argued that \"black\" is a better term because \"African\" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States.",
"Still others believe that the term \"black\" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.",
"Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for \"African American\" or \"black\", although they have a slight preference for \"black\" in personal settings and \"African American\" in more formal settings.In the U.S. census race definitions, black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa.",
"According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa.",
"The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are \"black\".",
"The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.According to U.S. Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American.",
"The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%).",
"Immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.Recent surveys of African Americans using a genetic testing service have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors.",
"These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9% West African, 18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9% Native American genetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.====One-drop rule====Multiracial social reformer Frederick Douglass.From the late 19th century, the South used a colloquial term, the ''one-drop rule'', to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry.",
"This practice of hypodescent was not put into law until the early 20th century.",
"Legally, the definition varied from state to state.",
"Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before the American Civil War.",
"For instance, President Thomas Jefferson held in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle of ''partus sequitur ventrem'', which Virginia adopted into law in 1662.Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop \"rule\" applies varies greatly from country to country.The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race \"pure\".",
"One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community.",
"Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such as Frederick Douglass, Robert Purvis and James Mercer Langston.",
"They advocated equality for all.====Blackness====Barack Obama—the first person of color, biracial, and self-identified African American President of the United States—was throughout his campaign criticized as being either \"too black\" or \"not black enough\".The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream African-American culture, politics, and values.",
"To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation, culture and behavior.",
"Blackness can be contrasted with \"acting white\", where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music, and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement.Due to the often political and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people.",
"Toni Morrison once described Bill Clinton as the first black President of the United States, because, as she put it, he displayed \"almost every trope of blackness\".",
"Clinton welcomed the label.The question of blackness also arose in the Democrat Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign.",
"Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was \"black enough\", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was a white American and his father was a black student visitor from Kenya.",
"Obama chose to identify as black and African American.===Mexico===The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population).",
"The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in the Costa Chica of Guerrero region.===Caribbean=======Dominican Republic====The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to the Dominican Republic by Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade.====Puerto Rico====Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa to Puerto Rico.",
"Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island."
],
[
"South America",
"Capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian martial art.Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888.Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped to South America and the Caribbean.",
"Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million.",
"Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean.",
"In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean.",
"In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of \"blanqueamiento\" (racial whitening) and related concepts.===Brazil===The concept of race in Brazil is complex.",
"A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from.",
"Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very light mulatto individual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color.",
"These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest.",
"In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity.Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil.",
"It is generally believed that achieving upward mobility and education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin.",
"The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white.",
"Some scholars disagree, arguing that \"whitening\" of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, a large part of the population known as ''pardo'', but a person perceived as ''preto'' (black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status.====Statistics====Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)Ethnic groupWhiteBlackBrownYellow (East Asian)UndeclaredTotal18723,787,2891,954,4524,188,737––9,930,478194026,171,7786,035,8698,744,365242,32041,98341,236,315199175,704,9277,335,13662,316,064630,656534,878146,521,661+Demographics of BrazilYear WhitePardoBlack183524.4%18.2%51.4%200053.7%38.5%6.2%201048.4%42.4%6.7%From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil.",
"The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas.",
"Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals.",
"Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa.",
"In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-miscegenation or segregation laws.",
"As in other Latin American countries, intermarriage was prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward.",
"In addition, people of mixed race (''pardo'') often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white.",
"As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood.",
"According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons.In the 19th century, a philosophy of racial whitening emerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage.",
"Until recently the government did not keep data on race.",
"However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population was ''preto'' (black; most were enslaved), a further 20% was ''pardo'' (brown), and 25% white, with the remainder Amerindian.",
"Some classified as pardo were tri-racial.By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white.",
"Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing.",
"A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.====Race relations in Brazil====Brazilian Candomblé ceremonyAccording to the 2010 census, 6.7% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 6.2% in 2000, and 43.1% said they were racially mixed, up from 38.5%.",
"In 2010, Elio Ferreira de Araujo, Brazil's minister for racial equality, attributed the increases to growing pride among his country's black and indigenous communities.The philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues.",
"Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world.",
"The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%.",
"The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry.",
"One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other people of color accounting for 70 percent of the poor.Rio de Janeiro c. 1820In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people.",
"By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014.The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color.",
"Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.Black people in Brazil c. 1821Some commentators observe that the United States practice of segregation and white supremacy in the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony.",
"This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians.",
"The city of Salvador, Bahia, for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color.Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese term ''negro'' to encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a \"black\" consciousness and identity.===Colombia===Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-Haitians.===Venezuela===Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization; others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia.",
"Many blacks were part of the independence movement, and several managed to be heroes.",
"There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as the Tambor, a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or the Llanera music or the Gaita zuliana that both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage.",
"Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.There are entire communities of blacks in the Barlovento zone, as well as part of the Bolívar state and in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela.",
"Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actually mixed people."
],
[
"See also",
"* African diaspora* Afrophobia* Black elite* Black supremacy* Black women* Lists of black people* Mulatto* Negrito* San Basilio de Palenque – the first free African town in the Americas* Scientific racism* Zambo"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Plague (disease)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Plague''' is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium ''Yersinia pestis''.",
"Symptoms include fever, weakness and headache.",
"Usually this begins one to seven days after exposure.",
"There are three forms of plague, each affecting a different part of the body and causing associated symptoms.",
"Pneumonic plague infects the lungs, causing shortness of breath, coughing and chest pain; bubonic plague affects the lymph nodes, making them swell; and septicemic plague infects the blood and can cause tissues to turn black and die.The bubonic and septicemic forms are generally spread by flea bites or handling an infected animal, whereas pneumonic plague is generally spread between people through the air via infectious droplets.",
"Diagnosis is typically by finding the bacterium in fluid from a lymph node, blood or sputum.Those at high risk may be vaccinated.",
"Those exposed to a case of pneumonic plague may be treated with preventive medication.",
"If infected, treatment is with antibiotics and supportive care.",
"Typically antibiotics include a combination of gentamicin and a fluoroquinolone.",
"The risk of death with treatment is about 10% while without it is about 70%.Globally, about 600 cases are reported a year.",
"In 2017, the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar and Peru.",
"In the United States, infections occasionally occur in rural areas, where the bacteria are believed to circulate among rodents.",
"It has historically occurred in large outbreaks, with the best known being the Black Death in the 14th century, which resulted in more than 50 million deaths in Europe."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"There are several different clinical manifestations of plague.",
"The most common form is bubonic plague, followed by septicemic and pneumonic plague.",
"Other clinical manifestations include plague meningitis, plague pharyngitis, and ocular plague.",
"General symptoms of plague include fever, chills, headaches, and nausea.",
"Many people experience swelling in their lymph nodes if they have bubonic plague.",
"For those with pneumonic plague, symptoms may (or may not) include a cough, pain in the chest, and haemoptysis.===Bubonic plague===Swollen inguinal lymph glands on a person infected with the bubonic plague.",
"The swollen lymph glands are termed ''buboes'' from the Greek word for groin, swollen gland: ''bubo''.When a flea bites a human and contaminates the wound with regurgitated blood, the plague-causing bacteria are passed into the tissue.",
"''Y.",
"pestis'' can reproduce inside cells, so even if phagocytosed, they can still survive.",
"Once in the body, the bacteria can enter the lymphatic system, which drains interstitial fluid.",
"Plague bacteria secrete several toxins, one of which is known to cause beta-adrenergic blockade.''Y.",
"pestis'' spreads through the lymphatic vessels of the infected human until it reaches a lymph node, where it causes acute lymphadenitis.",
"The swollen lymph nodes form the characteristic buboes associated with the disease, and autopsies of these buboes have revealed them to be mostly hemorrhagic or necrotic.If the lymph node is overwhelmed, the infection can pass into the bloodstream, causing ''secondary septicemic plague'' and if the lungs are seeded, it can cause ''secondary pneumonic plague''.===Septicemic plague===Septicemic plague resulting in necrosisLymphatics ultimately drain into the bloodstream, so the plague bacteria may enter the blood and travel to almost any part of the body.",
"In septicemic plague, bacterial endotoxins cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), causing tiny clots throughout the body and possibly ischemic necrosis (tissue death due to lack of circulation/perfusion to that tissue) from the clots.",
"DIC results in depletion of the body's clotting resources so that it can no longer control bleeding.",
"Consequently, there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which can cause red and/or black patchy rash and hemoptysis/hematemesis (coughing up/ vomiting of blood).",
"There are bumps on the skin that look somewhat like insect bites; these are usually red, and sometimes white in the centre.",
"Untreated, the septicemic plague is usually fatal.",
"Early treatment with antibiotics reduces the mortality rate to between 4 and 15 per cent.===Pneumonic plague===The pneumonic form of plague arises from infection of the lungs.",
"It causes coughing and thereby produces airborne droplets that contain bacterial cells and are likely to infect anyone inhaling them.",
"The incubation period for pneumonic plague is short, usually two to four days, but sometimes just a few hours.",
"The initial signs are indistinguishable from several other respiratory illnesses; they include headache, weakness, and spitting or vomiting of blood.",
"The course of the disease is rapid; unless diagnosed and treated soon enough, typically within a few hours, death may follow in one to six days; in untreated cases, mortality is nearly 100%."
],
[
"Cause",
"The Oriental rat flea (''Xenopsylla cheopis'') engorged with blood after a blood meal.",
"This species of flea is the primary vector for the transmission of ''Yersinia pestis'', the organism responsible for bubonic plague in most plague epidemics in Asia, Africa, and South America.",
"Both male and female fleas feed on blood and can transmit the infection.infected with the bacterium ''Yersinia pestis''.",
"''Y.",
"pestis'', a member of the family Yersiniaceae, has caused the bite to become ulcerated.Transmission of ''Y.",
"pestis'' to an uninfected individual is possible by any of the following means:* droplet contact – coughing or sneezing on another person* Direct physical contact;– touching an infected person, including sexual contact* indirect contact – usually by touching soil contamination or a contaminated surface* airborne transmission – if the microorganism can remain in the air for long periods* fecal-oral transmission – usually from contaminated food or water sources* vector borne transmission – carried by insects or other animals.",
"''Yersinia pestis'' circulates in animal reservoirs, particularly in rodents, in the natural foci of infection found on all continents except Australia.",
"The natural foci of plague are situated in a broad belt in the tropical and sub-tropical latitudes and the warmer parts of the temperate latitudes around the globe, between the parallels 55° N and 40° S.Contrary to popular belief, rats did not directly start the spread of the bubonic plague.",
"It is mainly a disease in the fleas (''Xenopsylla cheopis'') that infested the rats, making the rats themselves the first victims of the plague.",
"Rodent-borne infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by a flea that has been infected by biting a rodent that itself has been infected by the bite of a flea carrying the disease.",
"The bacteria multiply inside the flea, sticking together to form a plug that blocks its stomach and causes it to starve.",
"The flea then bites a host and continues to feed, even though it cannot quell its hunger, and consequently, the flea vomits blood tainted with the bacteria back into the bite wound.",
"The bubonic plague bacterium then infects a new person and the flea eventually dies from starvation.",
"Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents or a rise in the rodent population.A 21st-century study of a 1665 outbreak of plague in the village of Eyam in England's Derbyshire Dales – which isolated itself during the outbreak, facilitating modern study – found that three-quarters of cases are likely to have been due to human-to-human transmission, especially within families, a much bigger proportion than previously thought."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"Symptoms of plague are usually non-specific and to definitively diagnose plague, laboratory testing is required.",
"''Y.",
"pestis'' can be identified through both a microscope and by culturing a sample and this is used as a reference standard to confirm that a person has a case of plague.",
"The sample can be obtained from the blood, mucus (sputum), or aspirate extracted from inflamed lymph nodes (buboes).",
"If a person is administered antibiotics before a sample is taken or if there is a delay in transporting the person's sample to a laboratory and/or a poorly stored sample, there is a possibility for false negative results.Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may also be used to diagnose plague, by detecting the presence of bacterial genes such as the ''pla'' gene (plasmogen activator) and ''caf1'' gene, (F1 capsule antigen).",
"PCR testing requires a very small sample and is effective for both alive and dead bacteria.",
"For this reason, if a person receives antibiotics before a sample is collected for laboratory testing, they may have a false negative culture and a positive PCR result.Blood tests to detect antibodies against ''Y.",
"pestis'' can also be used to diagnose plague, however, this requires taking blood samples at different periods to detect differences between the acute and convalescent phases of F1 antibody titres.In 2020, a study about rapid diagnostic tests that detect the F1 capsule antigen (F1RDT) by sampling sputum or bubo aspirate was released.",
"Results show rapid diagnostic F1RDT test can be used for people who have suspected pneumonic and bubonic plague but cannot be used in asymptomatic people.",
"F1RDT may be useful in providing a fast result for prompt treatment and fast public health response as studies suggest that F1RDT is highly sensitive for both pneumonic and bubonic plague.",
"However, when using the rapid test, both positive and negative results need to be confirmed to establish or reject the diagnosis of a confirmed case of plague and the test result needs to be interpreted within the epidemiological context as study findings indicate that although 40 out of 40 people who had the plague in a population of 1000 were correctly diagnosed, 317 people were diagnosed falsely as positive."
],
[
"Prevention",
"=== Vaccination ===Bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine developed the first plague vaccine in 1897.He conducted a massive inoculation program in British India, and it is estimated that 26 million doses of Haffkine's anti-plague vaccine were sent out from Bombay between 1897 and 1925, reducing the plague mortality by 50–85%.Since human plague is rare in most parts of the world as of 2023, routine vaccination is not needed other than for those at particularly high risk of exposure, nor for people living in areas with enzootic plague, meaning it occurs at regular, predictable rates in populations and specific areas, such as the western United States.",
"It is not even indicated for most travellers to countries with known recent reported cases, particularly if their travel is limited to urban areas with modern hotels.",
"The United States CDC thus only recommends vaccination for (1) all laboratory and field personnel who are working with ''Y.",
"pestis'' organisms resistant to antimicrobials: (2) people engaged in aerosol experiments with ''Y.",
"pestis''; and (3) people engaged in field operations in areas with enzootic plague where preventing exposure is not possible (such as some disaster areas).",
"A systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration found no studies of sufficient quality to make any statement on the efficacy of the vaccine.=== Early diagnosis ===Diagnosing plague early leads to a decrease in transmission or spread of the disease.=== Prophylaxis ===Pre-exposure prophylaxis for first responders and health care providers who will care for patients with pneumonic plague is not considered necessary as long as standard and droplet precautions can be maintained.",
"In cases of surgical mask shortages, patient overcrowding, poor ventilation in hospital wards, or other crises, pre-exposure prophylaxis might be warranted if sufficient supplies of antimicrobials are available.Postexposure prophylaxis should be considered for people who had close (<6 feet), sustained contact with a patient with pneumonic plague and were not wearing adequate personal protective equipment.",
"Antimicrobial postexposure prophylaxis also can be considered for laboratory workers accidentally exposed to infectious materials and people who had close (<6 feet) or direct contact with infected animals, such as veterinary staff, pet owners, and hunters.Specific recommendations on pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis are available in the clinical guidelines on treatment and prophylaxis of plague published in 2021."
],
[
"Treatments",
"If diagnosed in time, the various forms of plague are usually highly responsive to antibiotic therapy.",
"The antibiotics often used are streptomycin, chloramphenicol and tetracycline.",
"Amongst the newer generation of antibiotics, gentamicin and doxycycline have proven effective in monotherapeutic treatment of plague.",
"Guidelines on treatment and prophylaxis of plague were published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2021.The plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat.",
"One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995.Further outbreaks in Madagascar were reported in November 2014 and October 2017."
],
[
"Epidemiology",
"Distribution of plague-infected animals 1998Globally about 600 cases are reported a year.",
"In 2017, the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar and Peru.",
"It has historically occurred in large outbreaks, with the best known being the Black Death in the 14th century which resulted in more than 50 million dead.",
"In recent years, cases have been distributed between small seasonal outbreaks which occur primarily in Madagascar, and sporadic outbreaks or isolated cases in endemic areas.In 2022 the possible origin of all modern strands of ''Yersinia pestis'' DNA was found in human remains in three graves located in Kyrgyzstan, dated to 1338 and 1339.The siege of Caffa in Crimea in 1346, is known to have been the first plague outbreak with following strands, later to spread over Europe.",
"Sequencing DNA compared to other ancient and modern strands paints a family tree of the bacteria.",
"Bacteria today affecting marmots in Kyrgyzstan, are closest to the strand found in the graves, suggesting this is also the location where plague transferred from animals to humans."
],
[
"Biological weapon",
"The plague has a long history as a biological weapon.",
"Historical accounts from ancient China and medieval Europe details the use of infected animal carcasses, such as cows or horses, and human carcasses, by the Xiongnu/Huns, Mongols, Turks and other groups, to contaminate enemy water supplies.",
"Han Dynasty General Huo Qubing is recorded to have died of such contamination while engaging in warfare against the Xiongnu.",
"Plague victims were also reported to have been tossed by catapult into cities under siege.In 1347, the Genoese possession of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde under the command of Jani Beg.",
"After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon.",
"The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants.",
"This event might have led to the transfer of the Black Death via their ships into the south of Europe, possibly explaining its rapid spread.During World War II, the Japanese Army developed weaponized plague, based on the breeding and release of large numbers of fleas.",
"During the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, Unit 731 deliberately infected Chinese, Korean and Manchurian civilians and prisoners of war with the plague bacterium.",
"These subjects, termed \"maruta\" or \"logs\", were then studied by dissection, others by vivisection while still conscious.",
"Members of the unit such as Shiro Ishii were exonerated from the Tokyo tribunal by Douglas MacArthur but 12 of them were prosecuted in the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials in 1949 during which some admitted having spread bubonic plague within a radius around the city of Changde.Ishii innovated bombs containing live mice and fleas, with very small explosive loads, to deliver the weaponized microbes, overcoming the problem of the explosive killing the infected animal and insect by the use of a ceramic, rather than metal, casing for the warhead.",
"While no records survive of the actual usage of the ceramic shells, prototypes exist and are believed to have been used in experiments during WWII.After World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed means of weaponising pneumonic plague.",
"Experiments included various delivery methods, vacuum drying, sizing the bacterium, developing strains resistant to antibiotics, combining the bacterium with other diseases (such as diphtheria), and genetic engineering.",
"Scientists who worked in USSR bio-weapons programs have stated that the Soviet effort was formidable and that large stocks of weaponised plague bacteria were produced.",
"Information on many of the Soviet and US projects is largely unavailable.",
"Aerosolized pneumonic plague remains the most significant threat.The plague can be easily treated with antibiotics.",
"Some countries, such as the United States, have large supplies on hand if such an attack should occur, making the threat less severe."
],
[
"See also",
"* Timeline of plague"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* WHO Health topic* CDC Plague map world distribution, publications, information on bioterrorism preparedness and response regarding plague* Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Baudot code"
],
[
"Introduction",
"An early \"piano\" Baudot keyboardThe '''Baudot code''' () is an early character encoding for telegraphy invented by Émile Baudot in the 1870s.",
"It was the predecessor to the International Telegraph Alphabet No.",
"2 (ITA2), the most common teleprinter code in use before ASCII.",
"Each character in the alphabet is represented by a series of five bits, sent over a communication channel such as a telegraph wire or a radio signal by asynchronous serial communication.",
"The symbol rate measurement is known as baud, and is derived from the same name."
],
[
"History",
"===Baudot code (ITA1)===In the below table, Columns I, II, III, IV, and V show the code; the Let.",
"and Fig.",
"columns show the letters and numbers for the Continental and UK versions; and the sort keys present the table in the order: alphabetical, Gray and UK+Baudot code (Continental and UK versions) Europesort keys UK sort keys V IV I II III Continental Gray Let.",
"Fig.",
"V IV I II III UK - data-sort-value=\"000\" A 1 ● A 1 ● É & ● ● / 1/ ● ● E 2 ● E 2 ● I ● ● I 3/ ● ● O 5 ● ● ● O 5 ● ● ● U 4 ● ● U 4 ● ● Y 3 ● Y 3 ● ● B 8 ● B 8 ● ● C 9 ● ● C 9 ● ● ● D 0 ● ● ● D 0 ● ● ● ● F ● ● F 5/ ● ● ● G 7 ● G 7 ● ● H ● ● H ¹ ● ● ● J 6 ● J 6 ● ● ''Figure'' ''Blank'' ''Fig.''",
"''Bl.''",
"● ● ''Erasure'' ''Erasure'' * * ● ● ● K ( ● K ( ● ● ● ● L = ● ● L = ● ● ● ● ● M ) ● M ) ● ● ● ● N N° ● ● N £ ● ● ● ● ● P % ● ● ● P + ● ● ● ● ● ● Q / ● ● Q / ● ● ● ● ● R – ● R – ● ● ● S ; ● S 7/ ● ● ● T ● ● T ² ● ● ● ● V ' ● ● ● V ¹ ● ● ● ● ● W ?",
"● ● W ?",
"● ● ● ● X , ● X 9/ ● ● ● Z : ● ● Z : ● ● ● ● .",
"● – .",
"● ● ● ''Blank'' ''Letter'' ''Bl.''",
"''Let.''",
"● Baudot developed his first multiplexed telegraph in 1872 and patented it in 1874.In 1876, he changed from a six-bit code to a five-bit code, as suggested by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber in 1834,with equal on and off intervals, which allowed for transmission of the Roman alphabet, and included punctuation and control signals.",
"The code itself was not patented (only the machine) because French patent law does not allow concepts to be patented.Baudot's 5-bit code was adapted to be sent from a manual keyboard, and no teleprinter equipment was ever constructed that used it in its original form.",
"The code was entered on a keyboard which had just five piano-type keys and was operated using two fingers of the left hand and three fingers of the right hand.",
"Once the keys had been pressed, they were locked down until mechanical contacts in a distributor unit passed over the sector connected to that particular keyboard, at which time the keyboard was unlocked ready for the next character to be entered, with an audible click (known as the \"cadence signal\") to warn the operator.",
"Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.The table \"shows the allocation of the Baudot code which was employed in the British Post Office for continental and inland services.",
"A number of characters in the continental code are replaced by fractionals in the inland code.",
"Code elements 1, 2 and 3 are transmitted by keys 1, 2 and 3, and these are operated by the first three fingers of the right hand.",
"Code elements 4 and 5 are transmitted by keys 4 and 5, and these are operated by the first two fingers of the left hand.",
"\"Baudot's code became known as the '''International Telegraph Alphabet No.",
"1''' ('''ITA1''').",
"It is no longer used.===Murray code===Paper tape with holes representing the \"Baudot–Murray Code\".",
"Note the fully punched columns of \"Delete/Letters select\" codes at end of the message (on the right) which were used to cut the band easily between distinct messages.",
"The last symbols before the fully punched columns at the end are BRASIL CR LF CR FS (word Brasil, carriage return, line feed, carriage return, shift to figures)In 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray (1865–1945), prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard.",
"The Murray system employed an intermediate step; a keyboard perforator, which allowed an operator to punch a paper tape, and a tape transmitter for sending the message from the punched tape.",
"At the receiving end of the line, a printing mechanism would print on a paper tape, and/or a reperforator could be used to make a perforated copy of the message.",
"As there was no longer a connection between the operator's hand movement and the bits transmitted, there was no concern about arranging the code to minimize operator fatigue, and instead Murray designed the code to minimize wear on the machinery, assigning the code combinations with the fewest punched holes to the most frequently used characters.For example, the one-hole letters are E and T. The ten two-hole letters are AOINSHRDLZ, very similar to the \"Etaoin shrdlu\" order used in Linotype machines.",
"Ten more letters, BCGFJMPUWY, have three holes each, and the four-hole letters are VXKQ.The Murray code also introduced what became known as \"format effectors\" or \"control characters\" the CR (Carriage Return) and LF (Line Feed) codes.",
"A few of Baudot's codes moved to the positions where they have stayed ever since: the NULL or BLANK and the DEL code.",
"NULL/BLANK was used as an idle code for when no messages were being sent, but the same code was used to encode the space separation between words.",
"Sequences of DEL codes (fully punched columns) were used at start or end of messages or between them, allowing easy separation of distinct messages.",
"(BELL codes could be inserted in those sequences to signal to the remote operator that a new message was coming or that transmission of a message was terminated).Early British Creed machines also used the Murray system.===Western Union===Keyboard of a teleprinter using the Baudot code (US variant), with FIGS and LTRS shift keysMurray's code was adopted by Western Union which used it until the 1950s, with a few changes that consisted of omitting some characters and adding more control codes.",
"An explicit SPC (space) character was introduced, in place of the BLANK/NULL, and a new BEL code rang a bell or otherwise produced an audible signal at the receiver.",
"Additionally, the WRU or \"Who aRe yoU?\"",
"code was introduced, which caused a receiving machine to send an identification stream back to the sender.===ITA2===In 1924, the CCITT introduced the '''International Telegraph Alphabet No.",
"2''' ('''ITA2''') code as an international standard, which was based on the Western Union code with some minor changes.",
"The US standardized on a version of ITA2 called the American Teletypewriter code (US TTY) which was the basis for 5-bit teletypewriter codes until the debut of 7-bit ASCII in 1963.Some code points (marked blue in the table) were reserved for national-specific usage.A four-row teletype keyboard with Roman and Cyrillic letters.+International telegraphy alphabet No.",
"2 (Baudot–Murray code) Impulse patterns (1=mark, 0=space) Letter shift Figure shift LSB on right;''code elements:'' 543·21 LSB on left; ''code elements:'' 12·345 Count of punched marks ITA2 standard RussianMTK-2 variant RussianMTK-2 variant ITA2 standard US TTY variant 000·00 00·000 0 Null Shift to Cyrillic Letters Null 010·00 00·010 1 Carriage return 000·10 01·000 1 Line feed 001·00 00·100 1 Space 101·11 11·101 4 Q Я 1 100·11 11·001 3 W В 2 000·01 10·000 1 E Е 3 010·10 01·010 2 R Р 4 100·00 00·001 1 T Т 5 101·01 10·101 3 Y Ы 6 001·11 11·100 3 U У 7 001·10 01·100 2 I И 8 110·00 00·011 2 O О 9 101·10 01·101 3 P П 0 000·11 11·000 2 A А – 001·01 10·100 2 S С ' Bell 010·01 10·010 2 D Д WRU?",
"$ 011·01 10·110 3 F Ф Э 110·10 01·011 3 G Г Ш & 101·00 00·101 2 H Х Щ £ # 010·11 11·010 3 J Й Ю Bell ' 011·11 11·110 4 K К ( 100·10 01·001 2 L Л ) 100·01 10·001 2 Z З + \" 111·01 10·111 4 X Ь / 011·10 01·110 3 C Ц : 111·10 01·111 4 V Ж = ; 110·01 10·011 3 B Б ?",
"011·00 00·110 2 N Н , 111·00 00·111 3 M М .",
"110·11 11·011 4 Shift to Figures (FS) ''Reserved for figures extension'' 111·11 11·111 5 ''Reserved for lettercase extension'' Shift to Letters (LS) / Erasure / DeleteThe code position assigned to Null was in fact used only for the idle state of teleprinters.",
"During long periods of idle time, the impulse rate was not synchronized between both devices (which could even be powered off or not permanently interconnected on commuted phone lines).",
"To start a message it was first necessary to calibrate the impulse rate, a sequence of regularly timed \"mark\" pulses (1), by a group of five pulses, which could also be detected by simple passive electronic devices to turn on the teleprinter.",
"This sequence of pulses generated a series of Erasure/Delete characters while also initializing the state of the receiver to the Letters shift mode.",
"However, the first pulse could be lost, so this power on procedure could then be terminated by a single Null immediately followed by an Erasure/Delete character.",
"To preserve the synchronization between devices, the Null code could not be used arbitrarily in the middle of messages (this was an improvement to the initial Baudot system where spaces were not explicitly differentiated, so it was difficult to maintain the pulse counters for repeating spaces on teleprinters).",
"But it was then possible to resynchronize devices at any time by sending a Null in the middle of a message (immediately followed by an Erasure/Delete/LS control if followed by a letter, or by a FS control if followed by a figure).",
"Sending Null controls also did not cause the paper band to advance to the next row (as nothing was punched), so this saved precious lengths of punchable paper band.",
"On the other hand, the Erasure/Delete/LS control code was always punched and always shifted to the (initial) letters mode.",
"According to some sources, the Null code point was reserved for country-internal usage only.The Shift to Letters code (LS) is also usable as a way to cancel/delete text from a punched tape after it has been read, allowing the safe destruction of a message before discarding the punched band.",
"Functionally, it can also play the same filler role as the Delete code in ASCII (or other 7-bit and 8-bit encodings, including EBCDIC for punched cards).",
"After codes in a fragment of text have been replaced by an arbitrary number of LS codes, what follows is still preserved and decodable.",
"It can also be used as an initiator to make sure that the decoding of the first code will not give a digit or another symbol from the figures page (because the Null code can be arbitrarily inserted near the end or beginning of a punch band, and has to be ignored, whereas the Space code is significant in text).The cells marked as reserved for extensions (which use the LS code again a second time—just after the first LS code—to shift from the figures page to the letters shift page) has been defined to shift into a new mode.",
"In this new mode, the letters page contains only lowercase letters, but retains access to a third code page for uppercase letters, either by encoding for a single letter (by sending LS before that letter), or locking (with FS+LS) for an unlimited number of capital letters or digits before then unlocking (with a single LS) to return to lowercase mode.",
"The cell marked as \"Reserved\" is also usable (using the FS code from the figures shift page) to switch the page of figures (which normally contains digits and ''national'' lowercase letters or symbols) to a fourth page (where national letters are uppercase and other symbols may be encoded).ITA2 is still used in telecommunications devices for the deaf (TDD), Telex, and some amateur radio applications, such as radioteletype (\"RTTY\").",
"ITA2 is also used in Enhanced Broadcast Solution, an early 21st-century financial protocol specified by Deutsche Börse, to reduce the character encoding footprint."
],
[
"Nomenclature",
"Nearly all 20th-century teleprinter equipment used Western Union's code, ITA2, or variants thereof.",
"Radio amateurs casually call ITA2 and variants \"Baudot\" incorrectly, and even the American Radio Relay League's Amateur Radio Handbook does so, though in more recent editions the tables of codes correctly identifies it as ITA2."
],
[
"Character set",
"The values shown in each cell are the Unicode codepoints, given for comparison.===Original Baudot variants=======Original Baudot, domestic UK========Original Baudot, Continental European==== ====Original Baudot, ITA 1=======Baudot–Murray variants=======Murray Code==== ====ITA 2 and US-TTY=======Weather code===Meteorologists used a variant of ITA2 with the figures-case symbols, except for the ten digits, BEL and a few other characters, replaced by weather symbols:Weather teleprinter encoding"
],
[
"Details",
"Note: This table presumes the space called \"1\" by Baudot and Murray is rightmost, and least significant.",
"The way the transmitted bits were packed into larger codes varied by manufacturer.",
"The most common solution allocates the bits from the least significant bit towards the most significant bit (leaving the three most significant bits of a byte unused).Table of ITA2 codes (expressed as hexadecimal numbers)In ITA2, characters are expressed using five bits.",
"ITA2 uses two code sub-sets, the \"letter shift\" (LTRS), and the \"figure shift\" (FIGS).",
"The FIGS character (11011) signals that the following characters are to be interpreted as being in the FIGS set, until this is reset by the LTRS (11111) character.",
"In use, the LTRS or FIGS shift key is pressed and released, transmitting the corresponding shift character to the other machine.",
"The desired letters or figures characters are then typed.",
"Unlike a typewriter or modern computer keyboard, the shift key isn't kept depressed whilst the corresponding characters are typed.",
"\"ENQuiry\" will trigger the other machine's answerback.",
"It means \"Who are you?",
"\"CR is carriage return, LF is line feed, BEL is the bell character which rang a small bell (often used to alert operators to an incoming message), SP is space, and NUL is the null character (blank tape).Note: the binary conversions of the codepoints are often shown in reverse order, depending on (presumably) from which side one views the paper tape.",
"Note further that the \"control\" characters were chosen so that they were either symmetric or in useful pairs so that inserting a tape \"upside down\" did not result in problems for the equipment and the resulting printout could be deciphered.",
"Thus FIGS (11011), LTRS (11111) and space (00100) are invariant, while CR (00010) and LF (01000), generally used as a pair, are treated the same regardless of order by page printers.",
"LTRS could also be used to overpunch characters to be deleted on a paper tape (much like DEL in 7-bit ASCII).The sequence ''RYRYRY...'' is often used in test messages, and at the start of every transmission.",
"Since R is 01010 and Y is 10101, the sequence exercises much of a teleprinter's mechanical components at maximum stress.",
"Also, at one time, fine-tuning of the receiver was done using two coloured lights (one for each tone).",
"'RYRYRY...' produced 0101010101..., which made the lights glow with equal brightness when the tuning was correct.",
"This tuning sequence is only useful when ITA2 is used with two-tone FSK modulation, such as is commonly seen in radioteletype (RTTY) usage.US implementations of Baudot code may differ in the addition of a few characters, such as #, & on the FIGS layer.The Russian version of Baudot code (MTK-2) used three shift modes; the Cyrillic letter mode was activated by the character (00000).",
"Because of the larger number of characters in the Cyrillic alphabet, the characters !, &, £ were omitted and replaced by Cyrillics, and BEL has the same code as Cyrillic letter Ю.",
"The Cyrillic letters Ъ and Ё are omitted, and Ч is merged with the numeral 4."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bacon's cipher – A 5-bit binary encoding of the English alphabet devised by Francis Bacon in 1605.",
"* List of information system character sets* CCIR 476"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * MTK-2 code table* Baudot, Murray, ITA2, ITA5, etc.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blu Tack"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Blu TackBlu Tack under a scanning electron microscopeBlu Tack out of the box'''Blu Tack''' is a reusable putty-like pressure-sensitive adhesive produced by Bostik, commonly used to attach lightweight objects (such as posters or sheets of paper) to walls, doors or other dry surfaces.",
"Traditionally blue, it is also available in other colours.",
"Generic versions of the product are also available from other manufacturers.",
"The spelling now used is without a hyphen.The composition is described as a synthetic rubber compound without hazardous properties under normal conditions.",
"It can be swallowed without harm and is not carcinogenic.",
"It is non-soluble and is denser than water.",
"The material is not flammable, but emits carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide when exposed to fire or high temperatures.As of 2015, Bostik was manufacturing around 100 tonnes of Blu Tack weekly at its Leicester factory."
],
[
"History",
"While the inventor of the commercially released Bostik product is unknown, a precursor product to Blu Tack was created by a sealant developer around 1970, as an accidental by-product of an attempt to develop a new sealant using chalk powder, rubber and oil.",
"Originally Blu Tack was white, but consumer research showed fears that children may mistake it for chewing gum, so a blue colouring was added.In the United Kingdom in March 2008, 20,000 numbered packs of pink Blu Tack were made available, to help raise money for Breast Cancer Campaign, with 10 pence from each pack going to the charity.",
"The formulation was slightly altered to retain complete consistency with its blue counterpart.",
"Since then, many coloured variations have been made, including red and white, yellow, and a green Halloween pack."
],
[
"Similar products",
"Similar products of various colours are made by many manufacturers, including Faber-Castell's \"Tack-it\", Henkel's \"Fun-Tak\", UHU's \"Poster Putty\" and \"Sticky Tack\", UFO's \"Dough Tack\", \"Gummy Sticker\" Pritt's \"Sticky Stuff\", Bostik's \"Prestik\" and Elmer's \"Poster Tack\".",
"Plasti-Tak by Brooks Manufacturing Company appears to pre-date Blu Tack, with a trademark registration in 1964.Versions of the product are also sold under the generic names \"adhesive putty\" and \"mounting putty\".",
"The generic trademark or common name for mounting putty varies by region.",
"It is known as \"Patafix\" in France, Italy, Portugal, Austria and Turkey, '''' in Iceland and ''lærertyggis'' in Norway (both meaning \"teacher's chewing gum\"), '''' (\"attachment paste\") or '''' in Sweden, and '''' in South Africa (an Afrikaans word, literally translated as \"wonder glue\")."
],
[
"Alternative uses",
"Like all poster putties, Blu Tack provides an alternative to the artist's traditional kneaded eraser.Blu Tack was often used with the Sinclair ZX81 microcomputer to help mitigate crashes caused by wobbly external RAM modules.",
"This was such a widespread problem that Sinclair Research's technical support department officially recommended the use of Blu Tack to resolve this issue.In 2007 the artist Elizabeth Thompson created a sculpture of a house spider using Blu Tack over a wire frame.",
"It was exhibited at London Zoo.Blu Tack can be used as a damping agent for sound and vibration applications, due to its low amplitude response properties.",
"A 2013 study concluded that the substance is a comfortable alternative to over-the-counter ear plugs for the attenuation of everyday sound.The New Zealand Government Earthquake Commission recommends that products such as Blu Tack should be used to prevent ornaments and small household items from falling or moving in the event of an earthquake.Blu Tack is sometimes used by electronic hobbyists to hold through-hole electronic components in position for soldering onto PC-boards."
],
[
"See also",
"* Glue stick"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official Blu-Tack site, UK* Official Blu Tack site, Australia* Letter regarding development of a similar precursor product, from sealant developer Alan Holloway to James Ward, author of ''Adventures in Stationery'', on discussion page"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bacillus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Bacillus''''' (Latin \"stick\") is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria, a member of the phylum ''Bacillota'', with 266 named species.",
"The term is also used to describe the shape (rod) of other so-shaped bacteria; and the plural ''Bacilli'' is the name of the class of bacteria to which this genus belongs.",
"''Bacillus'' species can be either obligate aerobes which are dependent on oxygen, or facultative anaerobes which can survive in the absence of oxygen.",
"Cultured ''Bacillus'' species test positive for the enzyme catalase if oxygen has been used or is present.",
"''Bacillus'' can reduce themselves to oval endospores and can remain in this dormant state for years.",
"The endospore of one species from Morocco is reported to have survived being heated to 420 °C.",
"Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients: the bacterium divides within its cell wall, and one side then engulfs the other.",
"They are not true spores (i.e., not an offspring).",
"Endospore formation originally defined the genus, but not all such species are closely related, and many species have been moved to other genera of the ''Bacillota''.",
"Only one endospore is formed per cell.",
"The spores are resistant to heat, cold, radiation, desiccation, and disinfectants.",
"''Bacillus anthracis'' needs oxygen to sporulate; this constraint has important consequences for epidemiology and control.",
"In vivo, ''B.",
"anthracis'' produces a polypeptide (polyglutamic acid) capsule that kills it from phagocytosis.",
"The genera ''Bacillus'' and ''Clostridium'' constitute the family ''Bacillaceae''.",
"Species are identified by using morphologic and biochemical criteria.",
"Because the spores of many ''Bacillus'' species are resistant to heat, radiation, disinfectants, and desiccation, they are difficult to eliminate from medical and pharmaceutical materials and are a frequent cause of contamination.",
"Not only are they resistant to heat, radiation, etc., but they are also resistant to chemicals such as antibiotics.",
"This resistance allows them to survive for many years and especially in a controlled environment.",
"''Bacillus'' species are well known in the food industries as troublesome spoilage organisms.Ubiquitous in nature, ''Bacillus'' includes symbiotic (sometimes referred to as endophytes) as well as independent species.",
"Two parasitic pathogenic species are medically significant: ''B.",
"anthracis'' causes anthrax; and ''B.",
"cereus'' causes food poisoning.Many species of ''Bacillus'' can produce copious amounts of enzymes, which are used in various industries, such as in the production of alpha amylase used in starch hydrolysis and the protease subtilisin used in detergents.",
"''B.",
"subtilis'' is a valuable model for bacterial research.Some ''Bacillus'' species can synthesize and secrete lipopeptides, in particular surfactins and mycosubtilins.",
"''Bacillus'' species are also found in marine sponges.",
"Marine sponge associated ''Bacillus subtilis'' (strains WS1A and YBS29) can synthesize several antimicrobial peptides.",
"These ''Bacillus subtilis'' strains can develop disease resistance in ''Labeo rohita''."
],
[
"Structure",
"=== Cell wall ===''Bacillus subtilis'' (thumbThe cell wall of ''Bacillus'' is a structure on the outside of the cell that forms the second barrier between the bacterium and the environment, and at the same time maintains the rod shape and withstands the pressure generated by the cell's turgor.",
"The cell wall is made of teichoic and teichuronic acids.",
"''B.",
"subtilis'' is the first bacterium for which the role of an actin-like cytoskeleton in cell shape determination and peptidoglycan synthesis was identified and for which the entire set of peptidoglycan-synthesizing enzymes was localized.",
"The role of the cytoskeleton in shape generation and maintenance is important.",
"''Bacillus'' species are rod-shaped, endospore-forming aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria; in some species cultures may turn Gram-negative with age.",
"The many species of the genus exhibit a wide range of physiologic abilities that allow them to live in every natural environment.",
"Only one endospore is formed per cell.",
"The spores are resistant to heat, cold, radiation, desiccation, and disinfectants."
],
[
"Origin of name",
"The genus ''Bacillus'' was named in 1835 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, to contain rod-shaped (bacillus) bacteria.",
"He had seven years earlier named the genus ''Bacterium''.",
"''Bacillus'' was later amended by Ferdinand Cohn to further describe them as spore-forming, Gram-positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacteria.",
"Like other genera associated with the early history of microbiology, such as ''Pseudomonas'' and ''Vibrio'', the 266 species of ''Bacillus'' are ubiquitous.",
"The genus has a very large ribosomal 16S diversity."
],
[
"Isolation and identification",
"Established methods for isolating ''Bacillus'' species for culture primarily involve suspension of sampled soil in distilled water, heat shock to kill off vegetative cells leaving primarily viable spores in the sample, and culturing on agar plates with further tests to confirm the identity of the cultured colonies.",
"Additionally, colonies which exhibit characteristics typical of ''Bacillus'' bacteria can be selected from a culture of an environmental sample which has been significantly diluted following heat shock or hot air drying to select potential ''Bacillus'' bacteria for testing.Cultured colonies are usually large, spreading, and irregularly shaped.",
"Under the microscope, the ''Bacillus'' cells appear as rods, and a substantial portion of the cells usually contain oval endospores at one end, making them bulge."
],
[
"Characteristics of ''Bacillus'' spp.",
"S.I.",
"Paul et al.",
"(2021) isolated and identified multiple strains of ''Bacillus'' species (strains WS1A, YBS29, KSP163A, OA122, ISP161A, OI6, WS11, KSP151E, S8) from marine sponges of the Saint Martin's Island Area of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh.",
"Based on their study, colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of ''Bacillus'' spp.",
"are shown in the Table below.",
"'''Test type''''''Test''''''Characteristics'''Colony charactersSizeMediumTypeRoundColorWhitishShapeConvexMorphological charactersShapeRodPhysiological charactersMotilityGrowth at 6.5% NaClBiochemical charactersGram's stainingOxidaseCatalaseOxidative-FermentativeO/FMotilityMethyl RedVoges-ProskauerIndoleH2S ProductionUreaseNitrate reductaseβ-GalactosidaseHydrolysis ofGelatinAesculinCaseinTween 40Tween 60Tween 80Acid production fromGlycerolGalactoseD-GlucoseD-FructoseD-MannoseMannitolN-AcetylglucosamineAmygdalinMaltoseD-MelibioseD-TrehaloseGlycogenD-TuranoseNote: + = Positive, – =Negative, O= Oxidative, F= Fermentative"
],
[
"Phylogeny",
"Three proposals have been presented as representing the phylogeny of the genus ''Bacillus''.",
"The first proposal, presented in 2003, is a ''Bacillus''-specific study, with the most diversity covered using 16S and the ITS regions.",
"It divides the genus into 10 groups.",
"This includes the nested genera ''Paenibacillus, Brevibacillus, Geobacillus, Marinibacillus'' and ''Virgibacillus''.The second proposal, presented in 2008, constructed a 16S (and 23S if available) tree of all validated species.",
"The genus ''Bacillus'' contains a very large number of nested taxa and majorly in both 16S and 23S.",
"It is paraphyletic to the Lactobacillales (''Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Listeria'', etc.",
"), due to ''Bacillus coahuilensis'' and others.A third proposal, presented in 2010, was a gene concatenation study, and found results similar to the 2008 proposal, but with a much more limited number of species in terms of groups.",
"(This scheme used ''Listeria'' as an outgroup, so in light of the ARB tree, it may be \"inside-out\").One clade, formed by ''Bacillus anthracis'', ''Bacillus cereus'', ''Bacillus mycoides'', ''Bacillus pseudomycoides'', ''Bacillus thuringiensis'', and ''Bacillus weihenstephanensis'' under the 2011 classification standards, should be a single species (within 97% 16S identity), but due to medical reasons, they are considered separate species (an issue also present for four species of ''Shigella'' and ''Escherichia coli'').A phylogenomic study of 1104 ''Bacillus'' proteomes was based on 114 core proteins and delineated the relationships among the various species, defined as ''Bacillus'' from the NCBI taxonomy.",
"The various strains were clustered into species, based on Average Nucleotide identity (ANI) values, with a species cutoff of 95%."
],
[
"Species",
"* ''B.",
"Symun''* ''B.",
"acidicola''* ''B.",
"acidiproducens''* ''B.",
"acidocaldarius''* ''B.",
"acidoterrestris''* ''B.",
"aeolius''* ''B.",
"aerius''* ''B.",
"aerophilus''* ''B.",
"agaradhaerens''* ''B.",
"agri''* ''B.",
"aidingensis''* ''B.",
"akibai''* ''B.",
"albus''* ''B.",
"alcalophlus''* ''B.",
"algicola''* ''B.",
"alginolyticus''* ''B.",
"alkalidiazotrophicus''* ''B.",
"alkalinitrilicus''* ''B.",
"alkalisediminis''* ''B.",
"alkalitelluris''* ''B.",
"altitudinis''* ''B.",
"alveayuensis''* ''B.",
"alvei''* ''B.",
"amyloliquefaciens''** ''B.",
"a.",
"''subsp.''",
"amyloliquefaciens''** ''B.",
"a.",
"''subsp.''",
"plantarum''* ''B.",
"aminovorans''* ''B.",
"amylolyticus''* ''B.",
"andreesenii''* ''B.",
"aneurinilyticus''* ''B.",
"anthracis''* ''B.",
"aquimaris''* ''B.",
"arenosi''* ''B.",
"arseniciselenatis''* ''B.",
"arsenicus''* ''B.",
"aurantiacus''* ''B.",
"arvi''* ''B.",
"aryabhattai''* ''B.",
"asahii''* ''B.",
"atrophaeus''* ''B.",
"axarquiensis''* ''B.",
"azotofixans''* ''B.",
"azotoformans''* ''B.",
"badius''* ''B.",
"barbaricus''* ''B.",
"bataviensis''* ''B.",
"beijingensis''* ''B.",
"benzoevorans''* ''B.",
"beringensis''* ''B.",
"berkeleyi''* ''B.",
"beveridgei''* ''B.",
"bogoriensis''* ''B.",
"boroniphilus''* ''B.",
"borstelensis''* ''B.",
"brevis''* ''B.",
"butanolivorans''* ''B.",
"canaveralius''* ''B.",
"carboniphilus''* ''B.",
"cecembensis''* ''B.",
"cellulosilyticus''* ''B.",
"centrosporus''* ''B.",
"cereus''* ''B.",
"chagannorensis''* ''B.",
"chitinolyticus''* ''B.",
"chondroitinus''* ''B.",
"choshinensis''* ''B.",
"chungangensis''* ''B.",
"cibi''* ''B.",
"circulans''* ''B.",
"clarkii''* ''B.",
"clausii''* ''B.",
"coagulans''* ''B.",
"coahuilensis''* ''B.",
"cohnii''* ''B.",
"composti''* ''B.",
"curdlanolyticus''* ''B.",
"cycloheptanicus''* ''B.",
"cytotoxicus''* ''B.",
"daliensis''* ''B.",
"decisifrondis''* ''B.",
"decolorationis''* ''B.",
"deserti''* ''B.",
"dipsosauri''* ''B.",
"drentensis''* ''B.",
"edaphicus''* ''B.",
"ehimensis''* ''B.",
"eiseniae''* ''B.",
"enclensis''* ''B.",
"endophyticus''* ''B.",
"endoradicis''* ''B.",
"farraginis''* ''B.",
"fastidiosus''* ''B.",
"fengqiuensis''* ''B.",
"filobacterium rodentuim''* ''B.",
"firmus''* ''B.",
"flexus''* ''B.",
"foraminis''* ''B.",
"fordii''* ''B.",
"formosus''* ''B.",
"fortis''* ''B.",
"fumarioli''* ''B.",
"funiculus''* ''B.",
"fusiformis''* ''B.",
"gaemokensis''* ''B.",
"galactophilus''* ''B.",
"galactosidilyticus''* ''B.",
"galliciensis''* ''B.",
"gelatini''* ''B.",
"gibsonii''* ''B.",
"ginsengi''* ''B.",
"ginsengihumi''* ''B.",
"ginsengisoli''* ''B.",
"glucanolyticus''* ''B.",
"gordonae''* ''B.",
"gottheilii''* ''B.",
"graminis''* ''B.",
"halmapalus''* ''B.",
"haloalkaliphilus''* ''B.",
"halochares''* ''B.",
"halodenitrificans''* ''B.",
"halodurans''* ''B.",
"halophilus''* ''B.",
"halosaccharovorans''* ''B.",
"hemicellulosilyticus''* ''B.",
"hemicentroti''* ''B.",
"herbersteinensis''* ''B.",
"horikoshii''* ''B.",
"horneckiae''* ''B.",
"horti''* ''B.",
"huizhouensis''* ''B.",
"humi''* ''B.",
"hwajinpoensis''* ''B.",
"idriensis''* ''B.",
"indicus''* ''B.",
"infantis''* ''B.",
"infernus''* ''B.",
"insolitus''* ''B.",
"invictae''* ''B.",
"iranensis''* ''B.",
"isabeliae''* ''B.",
"isronensis''* ''B.",
"jeotgali''* ''B.",
"kaustophilus''* ''B.",
"kobensis''* ''B.",
"kochii''* ''B.",
"kokeshiiformis''* ''B.",
"koreensis''* ''B.",
"korlensis''* ''B.",
"kribbensis''* ''B.",
"krulwichiae''* ''B.",
"laevolacticus''* ''B.",
"larvae''* ''B.",
"laterosporus''* ''B.",
"lautus''* ''B.",
"lehensis''* ''B.",
"lentimorbus''* ''B.",
"lentus''* ''B.",
"licheniformis''* ''B.",
"ligniniphilus''* ''B.",
"litoralis''* ''B.",
"locisalis''* ''B.",
"luciferensis''* ''B.",
"luteolus''* ''B.",
"luteus''* ''B.",
"macauensis''* ''B.",
"macerans''* ''B.",
"macquariensis''* ''B.",
"macyae''* ''B.",
"malacitensis''* ''B.",
"mannanilyticus''* ''B.",
"marisflavi''* ''B.",
"marismortui''* ''B.",
"marmarensis''* ''B.",
"massiliensis''* ''B.",
"megaterium''* \"''B.",
"mesentericus''\"* ''B.",
"mesonae''* ''B.",
"methanolicus''* ''B.",
"methylotrophicus''* ''B.",
"migulanus''* ''B.",
"mojavensis''* ''B.",
"mucilaginosus''* ''B.",
"muralis''* ''B.",
"murimartini''* ''B.",
"mycoides''* ''B.",
"naganoensis''* ''B.",
"nanhaiensis''* ''B.",
"nanhaiisediminis''* ''B.",
"nealsonii''* ''B.",
"neidei''* ''B.",
"neizhouensis''* ''B.",
"niabensis''* ''B.",
"niacini''* ''B.",
"novalis''* ''B.",
"oceanisediminis''* ''B.",
"odysseyi''* ''B.",
"okhensis''* ''B.",
"okuhidensis''* ''B.",
"oleronius''* ''B.",
"oryzaecorticis''* ''B.",
"oshimensis''* ''B.",
"pabuli''* ''B.",
"pakistanensis''* ''B.",
"pallidus''* ''B.",
"pallidus''* ''B.",
"panacisoli''* ''B.",
"panaciterrae''* ''B.",
"pantothenticus''* ''B.",
"parabrevis''* ''B.",
"paraflexus''* ''B.",
"pasteurii''* ''B.",
"patagoniensis''* ''B.",
"peoriae''* ''B.",
"persepolensis''* ''B.",
"persicus''* ''B.",
"pervagus''* ''B.",
"plakortidis''* ''B.",
"pocheonensis''* ''B.",
"polygoni''* ''B.",
"polymyxa''* ''B.",
"popilliae''* ''B.",
"pseudalcalophilus''* ''B.",
"pseudofirmus''* ''B.",
"pseudomycoides''* ''B.",
"psychrodurans''* ''B.",
"psychrophilus''* ''B.",
"psychrosaccharolyticus''* ''B.",
"psychrotolerans''* ''B.",
"pulvifaciens''* ''B.",
"pumilus''* ''B.",
"purgationiresistens''* ''B.",
"pycnus''* ''B.",
"qingdaonensis''* ''B.",
"qingshengii''* ''B.",
"reuszeri''* ''B.",
"rhizosphaerae''* ''B.",
"rigui''* ''B.",
"ruris''* ''B.",
"safensis''* ''B.",
"salarius''* ''B.",
"salexigens''* ''B.",
"saliphilus''* ''B.",
"schlegelii''* ''B.",
"sediminis''* ''B.",
"selenatarsenatis''* ''B.",
"selenitireducens''* ''B.",
"seohaeanensis''* ''B.",
"shacheensis''* ''B.",
"shackletonii''* ''B.",
"siamensis''* ''B.",
"silvestris''* ''B.",
"simplex''* ''B.",
"siralis''* ''B.",
"smithii''* ''B.",
"soli''* ''B.",
"solimangrovi''* ''B.",
"solisalsi''* ''B.",
"songklensis''* ''B.",
"sonorensis''* ''B.",
"sphaericus''* ''B.",
"sporothermodurans''* ''B.",
"stearothermophilus''* ''B.",
"stratosphericus''* ''B.",
"subterraneus''* ''B.",
"subtilis''** ''B.",
"s.",
"''subsp.''",
"inaquosorum''** ''B.",
"s.",
"''subsp.''",
"spizizenii''** ''B.",
"s.",
"''subsp.''",
"subtilis''* ''B.",
"taeanensis''* ''B.",
"tequilensis''* ''B.",
"thermantarcticus''* ''B.",
"thermoaerophilus''* ''B.",
"thermoamylovorans''* ''B.",
"thermocatenulatus''* ''B.",
"thermocloacae''* ''B.",
"thermocopriae''* ''B.",
"thermodenitrificans''* ''B.",
"thermoglucosidasius''* ''B.",
"thermolactis''* ''B.",
"thermoleovorans''* ''B.",
"thermophilus''* ''B.",
"thermoproteolyticus''* ''B.",
"thermoruber''* ''B.",
"thermosphaericus''* ''B.",
"thiaminolyticus''* ''B.",
"thioparans''* ''B.",
"thuringiensis''* ''B.",
"tianshenii''* ''B.",
"trypoxylicola''* ''B.",
"tusciae''* ''B.",
"validus''* ''B.",
"vallismortis''* ''B.",
"vedderi''* ''B.",
"velezensis''* ''B.",
"vietnamensis''* ''B.",
"vireti''* ''B.",
"vulcani''* ''B.",
"wakoensis''* ''B.",
"xiamenensis''* ''B.",
"xiaoxiensis''* ''B.",
"zanthoxyli''* ''B.",
"zhanjiangensis"
],
[
"Ecological and clinical significance",
"''Bacillus'' species are ubiquitous in nature, e.g.",
"in soil.",
"They can occur in extreme environments such as high pH (''B.",
"alcalophilus''), high temperature (''B.",
"thermophilus''), and high salt concentrations (''B.",
"halodurans'').",
"They also are very commonly found as endophytes in plants where they can play a critical role in their immune system, nutrient absorption and nitrogen fixing capabilities.",
"''B.",
"thuringiensis'' produces a toxin that can kill insects and thus has been used as insecticide.",
"''B.",
"siamensis'' has antimicrobial compounds that inhibit plant pathogens, such as the fungi ''Rhizoctonia solani'' and ''Botrytis cinerea'', and they promote plant growth by volatile emissions.",
"Some species of ''Bacillus'' are naturally competent for DNA uptake by transformation.",
"* Two ''Bacillus'' species are medically significant: ''B.",
"anthracis'', which causes anthrax; and ''B.",
"cereus'', which causes food poisoning, with symptoms similar to that caused by ''Staphylococcus''.",
"** ''B.",
"cereus'' produces toxins which cause two different set of symptoms:*** emetic toxin which can cause vomiting and nausea*** diarrhea* ''B.",
"thuringiensis'' is an important insect pathogen, and is sometimes used to control insect pests.",
"* ''B.",
"subtilis'' is an important model organism.",
"It is also a notable food spoiler, causing ropiness in bread and related food.",
"** ''B.",
"subtilis'' can also produce and secrete antibiotics.",
"* Some environmental and commercial strains of ''B.",
"coagulans'' may play a role in food spoilage of highly acidic, tomato-based products."
],
[
"Industrial significance",
"Many ''Bacillus'' species are able to secrete large quantities of enzymes.",
"''Bacillus amyloliquefaciens'' is the source of a natural antibiotic protein barnase (a ribonuclease), alpha amylase used in starch hydrolysis, the protease subtilisin used with detergents, and the BamH1 restriction enzyme used in DNA research.A portion of the ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' genome was incorporated into corn (and cotton) crops.",
"The resulting GMOs are resistant to some insect pests.",
"''Bacillus subtilis'' (natto) is the key microbial participant in the ongoing production of the soya-based traditional natto fermentation, and some ''Bacillus'' species are on the Food and Drug Administration's GRAS (generally regarded as safe) list.",
"The capacity of selected ''Bacillus'' strains to produce and secrete large quantities (20–25 g/L) of extracellular enzymes has placed them among the most important industrial enzyme producers.",
"The ability of different species to ferment in the acid, neutral, and alkaline pH ranges, combined with the presence of thermophiles in the genus, has led to the development of a variety of new commercial enzyme products with the desired temperature, pH activity, and stability properties to address a variety of specific applications.",
"Classical mutation and (or) selection techniques, together with advanced cloning and protein engineering strategies, have been exploited to develop these products.",
"Efforts to produce and secrete high yields of foreign recombinant proteins in ''Bacillus'' hosts initially appeared to be hampered by the degradation of the products by the host proteases.",
"Recent studies have revealed that the slow folding of heterologous proteins at the membrane-cell wall interface of Gram-positive bacteria renders them vulnerable to attack by wall-associated proteases.",
"In addition, the presence of thiol-disulphide oxidoreductases in ''B.",
"subtilis'' may be beneficial in the secretion of disulphide-bond-containing proteins.",
"Such developments from our understanding of the complex protein translocation machinery of Gram-positive bacteria should allow the resolution of current secretion challenges and make ''Bacillus'' species preeminent hosts for heterologous protein production.",
"''Bacillus'' strains have also been developed and engineered as industrial producers of nucleotides, the vitamin riboflavin, the flavor agent ribose, and the supplement poly-gamma-glutamic acid.",
"With the recent characterization of the genome of ''B.",
"subtilis'' 168 and of some related strains, ''Bacillus'' species are poised to become the preferred hosts for the production of many new and improved products as we move through the genomic and proteomic era."
],
[
"Use as model organism",
"Colonies of the model species ''Bacillus subtilis'' on an agar plate''Bacillus subtilis'' is one of the best understood prokaryotes, in terms of molecular and cellular biology.",
"Its superb genetic amenability and relatively large size have provided the powerful tools required to investigate a bacterium from all possible aspects.",
"Recent improvements in fluorescent microscopy techniques have provided novel insight into the dynamic structure of a single cell organism.",
"Research on ''B.",
"subtilis'' has been at the forefront of bacterial molecular biology and cytology, and the organism is a model for differentiation, gene/protein regulation, and cell cycle events in bacteria."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''Paenibacillus'' and ''Virgibacillus'', genera of bacteria formerly included in ''Bacillus''."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Bacillus genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Brasília"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Brasília''' (; ) is the federal capital of Brazil and seat of government of the Federal District.",
"The city is located high in the Brazilian highlands in the country's Central-West region.",
"It was founded by President Juscelino Kubitschek on 21 April 1960, to serve as the new national capital.",
"Brasília is estimated to be Brazil's third-most populous city after São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.",
"Among major Latin American cities, it has the highest GDP per capita.Brasília was a planned city developed by Lúcio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer and Joaquim Cardozo in 1956 in a scheme to move the capital from Rio de Janeiro to a more central location.",
"The landscape architect was Roberto Burle Marx.",
"The city's design divides it into numbered blocks as well as sectors for specified activities, such as the Hotel Sector, the Banking Sector, and the Embassy Sector.",
"Brasília was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 due to its modernist architecture and uniquely artistic urban planning.",
"It was named \"City of Design\" by UNESCO in October 2017 and has been part of the Creative Cities Network since then.It is notable for its white-colored, modern architecture, designed by Oscar Niemeyer.",
"All three branches of Brazil's federal government are located in the city: executive, legislative and judiciary.",
"Brasília also hosts 124 foreign embassies.",
"The city's international airport connects it to all other major Brazilian cities and some international destinations, and it is the third-busiest airport in Brazil.",
"It was one of the main host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and hosted some of the football matches during the 2016 Summer Olympics; it also hosted the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.Laid out in the shape of an airplane, its \"fuselage\" is the Monumental Axis, a pair of wide avenue flanking a large park.",
"In the \"cockpit\" is Praça dos Três Poderes, named for the 3 branches of government surrounding it.",
"Brasília has a unique legal status, as it is an administrative region rather than a municipality like other cities in Brazil.",
"The name \"Brasília\" is often used as a synonym for the Federal District as a whole, which is divided into 33 administrative regions, one of which (Plano Piloto) includes the area of the originally planned city and its federal government buildings.",
"The entire Federal District is considered by IBGE to make up Brasília's city area, and the local government considers the entirety of the district plus 12 neighboring municipalities in the state of Goiás to be its metropolitan area."
],
[
"History",
"=== Background ===Brazil's independenceBrazil's first capital was Salvador; in 1763 Rio de Janeiro became Brazil's capital and remained so until 1960.During this period, resources tended to be centered in Brazil's southeastern region, and most of the country's population was concentrated near its Atlantic coast.",
"Brasilia's geographically central location fostered a more regionally neutral federal capital.",
"An article of the country's first republican constitution, dated 1891, states that the capital should be moved from Rio de Janeiro to a place close to the country's center.The plan was conceived in 1827 by José Bonifácio, an advisor to Emperor Pedro I.",
"He presented a plan to the General Assembly of Brazil for a new city called Brasilia, with the idea of moving the capital westward from the heavily populated southeastern corridor.",
"The bill was not enacted because Pedro I dissolved the Assembly.According to a legend, Italian saint Don Bosco in 1883 had a dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasilia's location.",
"In Brasilia today, many references to Bosco, who founded the Salesian order, are found throughout the city and one church parish in the city bears his name.=== Costa plan ===Urban planner Lúcio Costa was the winner of the competition for the construction project of Brasília and played a key role in the city's landmarking.Plano PilotoJuscelino Kubitschek was elected President of Brazil in 1955.Upon taking office in January 1956, in fulfilment of his campaign pledge, he initiated the planning and construction of the new capital.",
"The following year an international jury selected Lúcio Costa's plan to guide the construction of Brazil's new capital, Brasilia.",
"Costa was a student of the famous modernist architect Le Corbusier, and some of modernism's architecture features can be found in his plan.",
"Costa's plan was not as detailed as some of the plans presented by other architects and city planners.",
"It did not include land use schedules, models, population charts or mechanical drawings; however, it was chosen by five out of six jurors because it had the features required to align the growth of a capital city.",
"Even though the initial plan was transformed over time, it oriented much of the construction and most of its features survived.Brasilia's accession as the new capital and its designation for the development of an extensive interior region inspired the symbolism of the plan.",
"Costa used a cross-axial design indicating the possession and conquest of this new place with a cross, often likened to a dragonfly, an airplane or a bird.",
"Costa's plan included two principal components, the Monumental Axis (east to west) and the Residential Axis (north to south).",
"The Monumental Axis was assigned political and administrative activities, and is considered the body of the city with the style and simplicity of its buildings, oversized scales, and broad vistas and heights, producing the idea of Monumentality.",
"This axis includes the various ministries, national congress, presidential palace, supreme court building and the television and radio tower.",
"The Residential Axis was intended to contain areas with intimate character and is considered the most important achievement of the plan; it was designed for housing and associated functions such as local commerce, schooling, recreation and churches, constituted of 96 limited to six-story buildings and 12 additional superblocks limited to three-story buildings; Costa's intention with superblocks was to have small self-contained and self-sufficient neighborhoods and uniform buildings with apartments of two or three different categories, where he envisioned the integration of upper and middle classes sharing the same residential area.The urban design of the communal apartment blocks was based on Le Corbusier's Ville Radieuse of 1935, and the superblocks on the North American Radburn layout from 1929.Visually, the blocks were intended to appear absorbed by the landscape because they were isolated by a belt of tall trees and lower vegetation.",
"Costa attempted to introduce a Brazil that was more equitable, he also designed housing for the working classes that was separated from the upper- and middle-class housing and was visually different, with the intention of avoiding slums (''favelas'') in the urban periphery.",
"The has been accused of being a space where individuals are oppressed and alienated to a form of spatial segregation.One of the main objectives of the plan was to allow the free flow of automobile traffic, the plan included lanes of traffic in a north–south direction (seven for each direction) for the Monumental Axis and three arterials (the W3, the Eixo and the L2) for the residential Axis; the cul-de-sac access roads of the superblocks were planned to be the end of the main flow of traffic.",
"And the reason behind the heavy emphasis on automobile traffic is the architect's desire to establish the concept of modernity in every level.Brasília in 1958.Only Asa Sul is already leased, and Ministries Esplanade is also visible.Ministries Esplanade in 1959Brasilia in 1964Though automobiles were invented prior to the 20th century, mass production of vehicles in the early 20th made them widely available; thus, they became a symbol of modernity.",
"The two small axes around the Monumental axis provide loops and exits for cars to enter small roads.",
"Some argue that his emphasis of the plan on automobiles caused the lengthening of distances between centers and it attended only the necessities of a small segment of the population who owned cars.",
"But one can not ignore the bus transportation system in the city.",
"The buses routes inside the city operate heavily on W3 and L2.Almost anywhere, including satellite cities, can be reached just by taking the bus and most of the Plano Piloto can be reached without transferring to other buses.Later, as the population of the city increased, the transportation system also played an important role in mediating the relationship between the Pilot plan and the satellite cities.",
"Due to the larger influx of vehicles, traffic lights were introduced to the Monumental Axis, which violates the concept of modernity and advancement the architect first employed.",
"Additionally, the metro system in Brasilia was mainly built for inhabitants of satellite cities.",
"Though this growth has made Brasilia no longer a pure utopia with incomparable modernity, the later development of traffic management, bus routes to satellite cities, and the metro system all serve as a remedy to the dystopia, enabling the citizens to enjoy the kind of modernity that was not carefully planned.At the intersection of the Monumental and Residential Axis Costa planned the city center with the transportation center (Rodoviaria), the banking sector and the hotel sector, near to the city center, he proposed an amusement center with theaters, cinemas and restaurants.",
"Costa's Plan is seen as a plan with a sectoral tendency, segregating all the banks, the office buildings, and the amusement center.One of the main features of Costa's plan was that he presented a new city with its future shape and patterns evident from the beginning.",
"This meant that the original plan included paving streets that were not immediately put into use; the advantage of this was that the original plan is hard to undo because he provided for an entire street network, but on the other hand, is difficult to adapt and mold to other circumstances in the future.",
"In addition, there has been controversy with the monumental aspect of Lúcio Costa's Plan, because it appeared to some as 19th century city planning, not modern 20th century in urbanism.An interesting analysis can be made of Brasilia within the context of Cold War politics and the association of Lúcio Costa's plan to the symbolism of aviation.",
"From an architectural perspective, the airplane-shaped plan was certainly an homage to Le Corbusier and his enchantment with the aircraft as an architectural masterpiece.",
"However, Brasilia was constructed soon after the end of World War II.",
"Despite Brazil's minor participation in the conflict, the airplane shape of the city was key in envisioning the country as part of the newly globalized world, together with the victorious Allies.",
"Furthermore, Brasilia is a unique example of modernism both as a guideline for architectural design but also as a principle for organizing society.",
"Modernism in Brasilia is explored in James Holston's book, ''The Modernist City''.=== Construction ===Juscelino Kubitschek, president of Brazil from 1956 to 1961, ordered Brasilia's construction, fulfilling the promise of the Constitution and his own political campaign promise.",
"Building Brasilia was part of Juscelino's \"fifty years of prosperity in five\" plan.",
"Already in 1892, the astronomer Louis Cruls, in the service of the Brazilian government, had investigated the site for the future capital.",
"Lúcio Costa won a contest and was the main urban planner in 1957, with 5550 people competing.",
"Oscar Niemeyer was the chief architect of most public buildings, Joaquim Cardozo was the structural engineer, and Roberto Burle Marx was the landscape designer.",
"Brasilia was built in 41 months, from 1956 to 21 April 1960, when it was officially inaugurated."
],
[
"Geography",
"Brasilia from Hodoyoshi 1 satelliteMap from OpenStreetMap, covering the Plano Piloto area of BrasíliaThe city sits at an elevation of and more, high on the Brazilian Highlands in the country's center-western region.",
"Paranoá Lake, a large artificial lake, was built to increase the amount of water available and to maintain the region's humidity.",
"It has a marina, and hosts wakeboarders and windsurfers.",
"Diving can also be practiced and one of the main attractions is Vila Amaury, an old village submerged in the lake.",
"This is where the first construction workers of Brasilia used to live.===Climate===Brasilia has a tropical savanna climate (''Aw'', according to the Köppen climate classification), milder due to the elevation and with two distinct seasons: the rainy season, from October to April, and the dry season, from May to September.",
"The average temperature is .",
"September, at the end of the dry season, has the highest average maximum temperature, , and July has major and minor lower maximum average temperature, of and , respectively.",
"Average temperatures from September through March are a consistent .",
"With , November is the month with the highest rainfall of the year, while July is the lowest, with only .",
"During the dry season, the city can have very low relative humidity levels, often below 30%.According to the Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), the record low temperature was on 18 July 1975, and the record high was on 18 October 2015 and 8 October 2020.The highest accumulated rainfall in 24 hours was on 15 November 1963."
],
[
"Demographics",
"ISS===Ethnic groups===According to the 2022 IBGE Census, 2,817,381 people resided in Brasilia and its metropolitan area, of whom 1,370,836 were Mixed (48.7%), 1,126,334 White (40%), 301,765 Black (10.7%), 12,810 Asian (0.5%), and 5,536 Amerindian (0.1%).In 2010, Brasilia was ranked the fourth-most populous city in Brazil after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Salvador.",
"In 2010, the city had 474,871 opposite-sex couples and 1,241 same-sex couples.",
"The population of Brasilia was 52.2% female and 47.8% male.In the 1960 census there were almost 140,000 residents in the new Federal district.",
"By 1970 this figure had grown to 537,000.By 2010 the population of the Federal District had surpassed 2,5 million.",
"The city of Brasilia proper, the plano piloto was planned for about 500,000 inhabitants, a figure the plano piloto never surpassed, with a current population of only 214,529, but its metropolitan area within the Federal District has grown past this figure.From the beginning, the growth of Brasilia was greater than original estimates.",
"According to the original plans, Brasilia would be a city for government authorities and staff.",
"However, during its construction, Brazilians from all over the country migrated to the satellite cities of Brasilia, seeking public and private employment.At the close of the 20th century, Brasilia was the largest city in the world which had not existed at the beginning of the century.",
"Brasilia has one of the highest population growth rates in Brazil, with annual growth of 2.82%, mostly due to internal migration.Brasilia's inhabitants include a foreign population of mostly embassy workers as well as large numbers of Brazilian internal migrants.",
"Today, the city has important communities of immigrants and refugees.",
"The city's Human Development Index was 0.936 in 2000 (developed level), and the city's literacy rate was around 95.65%.===Religion===Cathedral of BrasiliaChristianity is by far the most prevalent religion in Brasília, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination.",
"Religion Percentage NumberCatholic56.62%1,455,134Protestant26.88%690,982No religion9.20%236,528Other3.72%95,605Spiritist3.50%89,836Jewish0.04%1,103Muslim0.04%972Total100.00%2,570,160''Source: IBGE 2010.''"
],
[
"Government",
"Palácio Buriti, seat of government of the Federal DistrictBrasília does not have a mayor or councillors, because article 32 of the Constitution of Brazil expressly prohibits the Federal District being divided into municipalities.The Federal District is a legal entity of internal public law, which is part of the political-administrative structure of Brazil of a ''sui generis'' nature, because it is neither a state nor a municipality, but rather a special entity that incorporates the legislative powers reserved to the states and municipalities, as provided in Article 32, § 1º of the Constitution, which gives it a hybrid nature, both state and municipal.The executive power of the Federal District was represented by the mayor of the Federal District until 1969, when the position was transformed into governor of the Federal District.The legislative power of the Federal District is represented by the Legislative Chamber of the Federal District, whose nomenclature includes a mixture of legislative assembly (legislative power of the other units of the federation) and of municipal chamber (legislative of the municipalities).",
"The Legislative Chamber is made up of 24 district deputies.Legislative Chamber of the Federal District buildingThe judicial power which serves the Federal District also serves federal territories as it is constituted, but Brazil does not have any territories.",
"Therefore, the Court of Justice of the Federal District and of the Territories only serves the Federal District.Part of the budget of the Federal District Government comes from the Constitutional Fund of the Federal District.",
"In 2012, the fund totaled 9.6 billion reais.",
"By 2015, the forecast is 12.4 billion reais, of which more than half (6.4 billion) is spent on public security spending.=== International relations ===;Twin towns and sister citiesBrasilia is twinned with:* '''Abuja''', Nigeria* '''Asunción''', Paraguay* '''Brussels''', Belgium* '''Buenos Aires''', Argentina ''(since 2002)''* '''Gaza City''', Palestine* '''Havana''', Cuba* '''Khartoum''', Sudan* '''Lisbon''', Portugal* '''Luxor''', Egypt* '''Montevideo''', Uruguay* '''Pretoria''', South Africa* '''Santiago''', Chile* '''Tehran''', Iran* '''Vienna''', Austria* '''Washington, D.C.''', United States ''(since 2013)''* '''Xi'an''', China ''(since 1997)''* '''Guadalajara''', Mexico.Of these, Abuja and Washington, D.C. were also cities specifically planned as the seat of government of their respective countries.",
";Brasília DeclarationsBrasília is associated with several significant declarations in the international political and social field, including:*The Brasília Declaration of the IBSA Dialogue Forum (2003), signed by the foreign ministers of India, Brazil and South Africa (IBSA) regarding representation at the United Nations Security Council*Brasília Declaration on the Protection of Refugees and Stateless Persons in the Americas (2010)*Brasília Declaration on Child Labour (2013), issued by the Third Global Conference on Child Labour – hosted in Brasília by the Brazilian Government*Brasília Declaration of Judges on Water Justice (2018), adopted in 2018 during the Conference of Judges and Prosecutors on Water Justice at the 8th World Water Forum, described as \"a landmark in the development of water justice jurisprudence\"*The 15th Conference of Defense Ministers of the Americas, meeting in Brasília in 2022, issued a Declaration condemning Russia's invasion of Ukraine."
],
[
"Economy",
"South Banking SectorSouth Hotel SectorBrasília products treemap, 2020The major roles of construction and of services (government, communications, banking and finance, food production, entertainment, and legal services) in Brasilia's economy reflect the city's status as a governmental rather than an industrial center.Industries connected with construction, food processing, and furnishings are important, as are those associated with publishing, printing, and computer software.",
"The gross domestic product (GDP) is divided in Public Administration 54.8%, Services 28.7%, Industry 10.2%, Commerce 6.1%, Agrobusiness 0.2%.Besides being the political center, Brasilia is an important economic center.",
"In 2018, it has the third highest GDP of cities in Brazil, R$254 billion reais, representing 3.6% of the total Brazilian GDP.",
"Most economic activity in the federal capital results from its administrative function.Its industrial planning is studied carefully by the Government of the Federal District.",
"Being a city registered by UNESCO, the government in Brasilia has opted to encourage the development of non-polluting industries such as software, film, video, and gemology among others, with emphasis on environmental preservation and maintaining ecological balance, preserving the city property.According to Mercer's city rankings of cost of living for expatriate employees, Brasilia ranks 45th among the most expensive cities in the world in 2012, up from the 70th position in 2010, ranking behind São Paulo (12th) and Rio de Janeiro (13th).===Industries===Industries in the city include construction (Paulo Octavio, Via Construções, and Irmãos Gravia among others); food processing (Perdigão, Sadia); furniture making; recycling (Novo Rio, Rexam, Latasa and others); pharmaceuticals (União Química); and graphic industries.",
"The main agricultural products produced in the city are coffee, guavas, strawberries, oranges, lemons, papayas, soybeans, and mangoes.",
"It has over 110,000 cows and it exports wood products worldwide.The Federal District, where Brasilia is located, has a GDP of R$133,4 billion (about US$64.1 billion), about the same as Belarus according to The Economist.",
"Its share of the total Brazilian GDP is about 3.8%.",
"The Federal District has the largest GDP per capita income of Brazil US$25,062, slightly higher than Belarus.The city's planned design included specific areas for almost everything, including accommodation, Hotels Sectors North and South.",
"New hotel facilities are being developed elsewhere, such as the hotels and tourism Sector North, located on the shores of Lake Paranoá."
],
[
"Culture",
"Cultural Complex of the RepublicAs a venue for political events, music performances and movie festivals, Brasilia is a cosmopolitan city, with around 124 embassies, a wide range of restaurants and a complete infrastructure ready to host any kind of event.",
"Not surprisingly, the city stands out as an important business/tourism destination, which is an important part of the local economy, with dozens of hotels spread around the federal capital.",
"Traditional parties take place throughout the year.In June, large festivals known as \"festas juninas\" are held celebrating Catholic saints such as Saint Anthony of Padua, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Peter.",
"On 7 September, the traditional Independence Day parade is held on the Ministries Esplanade.",
"Throughout the year, local, national, and international events are held throughout the city.",
"Christmas is widely celebrated, and New Year's Eve usually hosts major events celebrated in the city.The city also hosts a varied assortment of art works from artists like Bruno Giorgi, Alfredo Ceschiatti, Athos Bulcão, Marianne Peretti, Alfredo Volpi, Di Cavalcanti, Dyllan Taxman, Victor Brecheret and Burle Marx, whose works have been integrated into the city's architecture, making it a unique landscape.",
"The cuisine in the city is very diverse.",
"Many of the best restaurants in the city can be found in the Asa Sul district.The city is the birthplace of Brazilian rock and place of origin of bands like: Legião Urbana, Capital Inicial, Aborto Elétrico, Plebe Rude and Raimundos.",
"Brasilia has the Rock Basement Festival which brings new bands to the national scene.",
"The festival is held in the parking of the Brasilia National Stadium Mané Garrincha.Cláudio Santoro National TheaterSince 1965, the annual Brasilia Festival of Brazilian Cinema is one of the most traditional cinema festivals in Brazil, being compared only to the Brazilian Cinema Festival of Gramado, in Rio Grande do Sul.",
"The difference between both is that the festival in Brasilia still preserves the tradition to only submit and reward Brazilian movies.The International Dance Seminar in Brasilia has brought top-notch dance to the Federal Capital since 1991.International teachers, shows with choreographers and guest groups and scholarships abroad are some of the hallmarks of the event.",
"The Seminar is the central axis of the DANCE BRAZIL program and is promoted by the DF State Department of Culture in partnership with the Cultural Association Claudio Santoro.",
"Brasilia has also been the focus of modern-day literature.",
"Published in 2008, ''The World In Grey: Dom Bosco's Prophecy'', by author Ryan J. Lucero, tells an apocalyptical story based on the famous prophecy from the late 19th century by the Italian saint Don Bosco.",
"According to Don Bosco's prophecy: \"Between parallels 15 and 20, around a lake which shall be formed; A great civilization will thrive, and that will be the Promised Land\".",
"Brasilia lies between the parallels 15° S and 20° S, where an artificial lake (Paranoá Lake) was formed.",
"Don Bosco is Brasilia's patron saint.",
"''American Flagg!",
"'', the First Comics comic book series created by Howard Chaykin, portrays Brasilia as a cosmopolitan world capital of culture and exotic romance.",
"In the series, it is a top vacation and party destination.",
"The 2015 Rede Globo series ''Felizes para Sempre?''",
"was set in Brasilia.=== Architecture and urbanism ===Brazilian Flag and the National Congress in springAt the Square of Three Powers, Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer and Brazilian structural engineer Joaquim Cardozo made buildings in the style of modern Brazilian architecture.",
"The Congress also occupies various other surrounding buildings, some connected by tunnels.The National Congress building is located in the middle of the Eixo Monumental, the city's main avenue.",
"In front lies a large lawn and reflecting pool.",
"The building faces the Praça dos Três Poderes where the Palácio do Planalto and the Supreme Federal Court are located.",
"The Brazilian landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx designed landmark modernist gardens for some of the principal buildings.",
"In residential areas, buildings were built that were inspired in French modernist and bauhaus design.Although not fully accomplished, the \"Brasilia utopia\" has produced a city of relatively high quality of life, in which the citizens live in forested areas with sporting and leisure structure (the '''') surrounded by small commercial areas, bookstores and cafés; the city is famous for its cuisine and efficiency of transit.",
"Even these positive features have sparked controversy, expressed in the nickname \"ilha da fantasia\" (\"fantasy island\"), indicating the sharp contrast between the city and surrounding regions, marked by poverty and disorganization in the cities of the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais, around Brasilia.Critics of Brasilia's grand scale have characterized it as a modernist bauhaus platonic fantasy about the future:The Monumental AxisAerial view of South Wing (''Asa Sul'') districtMonumental Axis and Brasilia TV Tower====Notable structures====The Cathedral of Brasilia in the capital of the Federative Republic of Brazil, is an expression of the atheist architect Oscar Niemeyer and the structural engineer Joaquim Cardozo.",
"This concrete-framed hyperboloid structure, seems with its glass roof reaching up, open, to the heavens.The cathedral's structure was finished on 31 May 1970, and only the diameter of the circular area were visible.",
"Niemeyer's and Cardozo's project of Cathedral of Brasilia is based in the hyperboloid of revolution which sections are asymmetric.",
"The hyperboloid structure itself is a result of 16 identical assembled concrete columns.",
"There is controversy as to what these columns, having hyperbolic section and weighing 90 t, represent, some say they are two hands moving upwards to heaven, others associate it to the chalice Jesus used in the last supper and some claim it represent his crown of thorns.",
"The cathedral was dedicated on 31 May 1970.At the end of the ''Eixo Monumental'' (\"Monumental Axis\") lies the ''Esplanada dos Ministérios'' (\"Ministries Esplanade\"), an open area in downtown Brasilia.",
"The rectangular lawn is surrounded by two eight-lane avenues where many government buildings, monuments and memorials are located.",
"On Sundays and holidays, the Eixo Monumental is closed to cars so that locals may use it as a place to walk, bike, and have picnics under the trees.",
"''Praça dos Três Poderes'' (Portuguese for ''Square of the Three Powers'') is a plaza in Brasilia.",
"The name is derived from the encounter of the three federal branches around the plaza: the Executive, represented by the Palácio do Planalto (presidential office); the Legislative, represented by the National Congress (Congresso Nacional); and the Judiciary branch, represented by the Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal).",
"It is a tourist attraction in Brasilia, designed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer as a place where the three branches would meet harmoniously.Praça dos Três Poderes (Three Powers Plaza)The Palácio da AlvoradaThe Palácio da Alvorada is the official residence of the president of Brazil.",
"The palace was designed, along with the rest of the city of Brasilia, by Oscar Niemeyer and inaugurated in 1958.One of the first structures built in the republic's new capital city, the \"Alvorada\" lies on a peninsula at the shore of Lake Paranoá.The principles of simplicity and modernity that in the past characterized the great works of architecture motivated Niemeyer.",
"The viewer has an impression of looking at a glass box, softly landing on the ground with the support of thin external columns.",
"The building has an area of 7,000 m2 with three floors consisting of the basement, landing, and second floor.The auditorium, kitchen, laundry, medical center, and administration offices are at basement level.",
"The rooms used by the presidency for official receptions are on the landing.",
"The second floor has four suites, two apartments, and various private rooms which make up the residential part of the palace.",
"The building also has a library, a heated Olympic-sized swimming pool, a music room, two dining rooms and various meeting rooms.",
"A chapel and heliport are in adjacent buildings.The Palácio do Planalto is the official workplace of the president of Brazil.",
"It is located at the Praça dos Três Poderes in Brasilia.",
"As the seat of government, the term \"Planalto\" is often used as a metonym for the executive branch of government.",
"The main working office of the President of the Republic is in the Palácio do Planalto.The President and his or her family do not live in it, rather in the official residence, the Palácio da Alvorada.",
"Besides the President, senior advisors also have offices in the \"Planalto\", including the Vice-President of Brazil and the Chief of Staff.",
"The other Ministries are along the Esplanada dos Ministérios.",
"The architect of the Palácio do Planalto was Oscar Niemeyer, creator of most of the important buildings in Brasilia.",
"The idea was to project an image of simplicity and modernity using fine lines and waves to compose the columns and exterior structures.",
"The Palace is four stories high, and has an area of 36,000 m2.Four other adjacent buildings are also part of the complex."
],
[
"Education",
"University of BrasiliaThe city has six international schools: American School of Brasilia, Brasilia International School (BIS), Escola das Nações, Swiss International School (SIS), Lycée français François-Mitterrand (LfFM) and Maple Bear Canadian School.",
"August 2016 will see the opening of a new international school – the British School of Brasilia.",
"Brasilia has two universities, three university centers, and many private colleges.The main tertiary educational institutions are: Universidade de Brasilia – University of Brasilia (UnB) (public); Universidade Católica de Brasilia – Catholic University of Brasilia (UCB); Centro Universitário de Brasilia (UniCEUB); Centro Universitário Euroamaricano (Unieuro); (UDF); (UNIP); and Instituto de Educação Superior de Brasilia (IESB)."
],
[
"Transportation",
"The average commute time on public transit in Brasilia, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 96 min.",
"31% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.",
"The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 28 min, while 61% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.",
"The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 50% travel for over in a single direction.===Airport===Brasilia International Airport (BSB)Aerial view of the airportBrasilia–Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport serves the metropolitan area with major domestic and international flights.",
"It is the third busiest Brazilian airport based on passengers and aircraft movements.",
"Because of its strategic location it is a civil aviation hub for the rest of the country.",
"This results in a large number of takeoffs and landings and it is not unusual for flights to be delayed in a holding pattern before landing.",
"Following the airport's master plan, Infraero built a second runway, which was finished in 2006.In 2007, the airport handled 11,119,872 passengers.",
"The main building's third floor, with 12 thousand square meters, has a panoramic deck, a food court, shops, four movie theaters with total capacity of 500 people, and space for exhibitions.",
"Brasilia Airport has 136 vendor spaces.",
"The airport is located about from the central area of Brasilia, outside the metro system.",
"The area outside the airport's main gate is lined with taxis as well as several bus line services that connect the airport to Brasilia's central district.",
"The parking lot accommodates 1,200 cars.The airport is serviced by domestic and regional airlines (TAM, GOL, Azul, WebJET, Trip and Avianca), in addition to a number of international carriers.",
"In 2012, Brasilia's International Airport was won by the InfraAmerica consortium, formed by the Brazilian engineering company ENGEVIX and the Argentine Corporacion America holding company, with a 50% stake each.",
"During the 25-year concession, the airport may be expanded to up to 40 million passengers a year.In 2014 the airport received 15 new boarding bridges, totaling 28 in all.",
"This was the main requirement made by the federal government, which transferred the operation of the terminal to the Inframerica Group after an auction.",
"The group invested R$750 million in the project.",
"In the same year, the number of parking spaces doubled, reaching three thousand.",
"The airport's entrance has a new rooftop cover and a new access road.",
"Furthermore, a VIP room was created on Terminal 1's third floor.",
"The investments resulted an increase the capacity of Brasilia's airport from approximately 15 million passengers per year to 21 million by 2014.Brasília Air Force Base - ALA1, one of their most important bases of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in Brasília.===Road transport===Juscelino Kubitschek BridgeLike most Brazilian cities, Brasilia has a good network of taxi companies.",
"Taxis from the airport are available outside the terminal, but at times there can be quite a queue of people.",
"Although the airport is not far from the downtown area, taxi prices do seem to be higher than in other Brazilian cities.",
"Booking in advance can be advantageous, particularly if time is limited, and local companies should be able to assist airport transfer or transport requirements.The Juscelino Kubitschek bridge, also known as the 'President JK Bridge' or the 'JK Bridge', crosses Lake Paranoá in Brasilia.",
"It is named after Juscelino Kubitschek, former president of Brazil.",
"It was designed by architect Alexandre Chan and structural engineer Mário Vila Verde.",
"Chan won the Gustav Lindenthal Medal for this project at the 2003 International Bridge Conference in Pittsburgh due to \"...outstanding achievement demonstrating harmony with the environment, aesthetic merit and successful community participation\".",
"It consists of three tall asymmetrical steel arches that crisscross diagonally.",
"With a length of 1,200 m (0.75 miles), it was completed in 2002 at a cost of US$56.8 million.",
"The bridge has a pedestrian walkway and is accessible to bicyclists and skaters.Central Bus StationThe main bus hub in Brasilia is the Central Bus Station, located in the crossing of the Eixo Monumental and the Eixão, about from the Three Powers Plaza.",
"The original plan was to have a bus station as near as possible to every corner of Brasilia.",
"Today, the bus station is the hub of urban buses only, some running within Brasilia and others connecting Brasilia to the satellite cities.",
"In the original city plan, the interstate buses would also stop at the Central Station.",
"Because of the growth of Brasilia (and corresponding growth in the bus fleet), today the interstate buses leave from the older interstate station (called Rodoferroviária) located at the western end of the Eixo Monumental.",
"The Central Bus Station also contains a main metro station.",
"A new bus station was opened in July 2010.It is on Saída Sul (South Exit) near Parkshopping Mall with its metro station, and is also an inter-state bus station, used only to leave the Federal District.===Metro===Federal District MetroThere is no passenger rail service in Brasilia, but the Expresso Pequi rail line is planned to link Brasilia and Goiânia.",
"A 22 km light rail line is planned, estimated to cost between 1 billion reais (US$258 million) and 1.5 billion reais with capacity to transport around 200,000 passengers per day.The Federal District Metro is Federal District's underground metro system.",
"The system has 24 stations on two lines, the Orange and Green lines, along a total network of , covering some of the Federal District.",
"Both lines begin at the Central Station and run parallel until the Águas Claras Station.",
"The Federal District Metro is not comprehensive so buses may provide better access to the center.",
"The metro leaves the Rodoviária (bus station) and goes south, avoiding most of the political and tourist areas.",
"The main purpose of the metro is to serve cities, such as Samambaia, Taguatinga and Ceilândia, as well as Guará and Águas Claras.",
"The satellite cities served are more populated in total than the Plano Piloto itself (the census of 2000 indicated that Ceilândia had 344,039 inhabitants, Taguatinga had 243,575, and the Plano Piloto had approximately 400,000 inhabitants), and most residents of the satellite cities depend on public transportation.A high-speed railway was planned between Brasilia and Goiânia, the capital of the state of Goias, but it will probably be turned into a regional service linking the capital cities and cities in between, like Anápolis and Alexânia."
],
[
"Sport",
"The main stadiums are the Brasilia National Stadium Mané Garrincha (which was re-inaugurated on 18 May 2013), the Serejão Stadium (home for Brasiliense) and the Bezerrão Stadium (home for Gama).Brasilia was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, for which Brazil was the host nation.",
"Brasilia hosted the opening of the Confederations Cup and hosted 7 World Cup games.",
"Brasilia also hosted the football tournaments during the 2016 Summer Olympics held in Rio de Janeiro.Brasilia is known as a departing point for the practice of unpowered air sports, sports that may be practiced with hang gliding or paragliding wings.",
"Practitioners of such sports reveal that, because of the city's dry weather, the city offers strong thermal winds and great \"cloud-streets\", which is also the name for a maneuver quite appreciated by practitioners.",
"In 2003, Brasilia hosted the 14th Hang Gliding World Championship, one of the categories of free flying.",
"In August 2005, the city hosted the second stage of the Brazilian Hang Gliding Championship.Brasilia is the site of the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet which hosted the Grande Prêmio Presidente Emílio Médici, a non-championship round of the 1974 Formula One Grand Prix season, which was won by Emerson Fittipaldi.",
"An IndyCar race was cancelled at the last minute in 2015 due to financial concerns.",
"The track, which has been closed since 2015, is being renovated for the end of 2023 after a deal was struck with Banco de Brasília and Terracap.The city is also home to Uniceub BRB, one of Brazil's best basketball clubs, who became NBB champion in 2010, 2011 and 2012.The club hosts some of its games at the 16,000 all-seat Nilson Nelson Gymnasium.",
"Brasília attempted to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, but withdrew its application.",
"In Tennis, Brasília is host to the Aberto da República, and formerly hosted the Aberto de Brasília.File:Estadio Nacional Mané Garrincha - Brasilia (14911413223).jpg|Estádio Nacional Mané GarrinchaFile:Brasília Ginásio Nilson Nelson 2009.jpg|Nilson Nelson GymnasiumFile:Autódromo de Brasília.jpg|Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of purpose-built national capitals'''Purpose-built Brazilian state capitals'''* Aracaju* Belo Horizonte* Boa Vista* Palmas* Teresina"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Regional Administration of Brasilia website* Government of the Federal District website* * Explore Brasilia in the UNESCO collection on Google Arts & Culture*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blue Streak (missile)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The de Havilland Propellers '''Blue Streak''' was a British Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), and later the first stage of the Europa satellite launch vehicle.",
"Blue Streak was cancelled without entering full production.The project was intended to maintain an independent British nuclear deterrent, replacing the V bomber fleet which would become obsolete by 1965.The operational requirement for the missile was issued in 1955 and the design was complete by 1957.During development, it became clear that the missile system was too expensive and too vulnerable to a surprise attack.",
"The missile project was cancelled in 1960, with US-led Skybolt the preferred replacement.Partly to avoid political embarrassment from the cancellation, the UK government proposed that the rocket be used as the first stage of a civilian satellite launcher called Black Prince.",
"As the cost was thought to be too great for the UK alone, international collaboration was sought.",
"This led to the formation of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO), with Blue Streak used as the first stage of a carrier rocket named Europa.Europa was tested at Woomera Test Range, Australia and later at Kourou in French Guiana.",
"Following launch failures, the ELDO project was cancelled in 1972 and Blue Streak with it."
],
[
"Background",
"Post-war Britain's nuclear weapons armament was initially based on free-fall bombs delivered by the V bomber force.",
"It soon became clear that if Britain wanted to have a credible nuclear deterrent threat, a ballistic missile was essential.",
"There was a political need for an independent deterrent, so that Britain could remain a major world power.",
"Britain was unable to purchase American weapons wholesale due to the restrictions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946.In April 1954 the Americans proposed a joint development programme for ballistic missiles.",
"The United States would develop an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) of range (SM-65 Atlas), while the United Kingdom with United States support would develop an Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) of range.",
"The proposal was accepted as part of the Wilson-Sandys Agreement of August 1954, which provided for collaboration, exchange of information, and mutual planning of development programmes.",
"The decision to develop was influenced by what could be learnt about missile design and development in the US.",
"Initial requirements for the booster were made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough with input on the rocket engine design from the Rocket Propulsion Establishment at Westcott.",
"Operational Requirement 1139 demanded a rocket of at least range and the initially proposed rocket would have just reached that threshold."
],
[
"Development",
"The de Havilland Propellers company won the contract to build the missile, which was to be powered by an uprated liquid-fuelled Rocketdyne S-3D engine, developed by Rolls-Royce, called RZ.2.Two variants of this engine were developed: the first provided a static thrust of and the second (intended for the three-stage satellite launch vehicle) .",
"The engines could be vectored by seven degrees in flight and were used to guide the missile.",
"This configuration, however, put considerable pressure on the autopilot which had to cope with the problem of a vehicle whose weight was diminishing rapidly and that was steered by large engines whose thrust remained more or less constant.",
"Vibration was also a problem, particularly at engine cut-off, and the later development of the autopilot for the satellite launcher was, in itself, a considerable achievement.Subcontractors included the Sperry Gyroscope Company who produced the missile guidance system whilst the nuclear warhead was designed by the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston.The missiles used liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants.",
"Whilst the vehicle could be left fully laden with over 20 tonnes of kerosene, the 60 tonnes of liquid oxygen had to be loaded immediately before launch or icing became a problem.",
"Due to this, fuelling the rocket took 4.5 minutes, which would have made it useless as a rapid response to an attack.",
"The missile was vulnerable to a pre-emptive nuclear strike, launched without warning or in the absence of any heightening of tension sufficient to warrant readying the missile.",
"To negate this problem de Havilland created a stand-by feature.",
"A missile could be held at 30 seconds' notice to launch for ten hours.",
"As the missiles were to be deployed in pairs and it took ten hours for one missile to be prepared for stand-by, one of the two missiles could always be ready for rapid launch.To protect the missiles against a pre-emptive strike while being fuelled, the idea of sitting the missiles in underground launchers was developed.",
"These would have been designed to withstand a one megaton blast at a distance of and were a British innovation, subsequently exported to the United States.",
"Finding sites for these silos proved extremely difficult.",
"RAF Spadeadam in Cumberland (now Cumbria) was the only site where construction was started on a full scale underground launcher, although test borings were undertaken at a number of other locations.",
"The remains of this test silo, known as U1, were rediscovered by tree felling at Spadeadam.",
"This was also the site where the RZ.2 rocket engines and also the complete Blue Streak missile were tested.",
"The best sites for silo construction were the more stable rock strata in parts of southern and north-east England and eastern Scotland, but the construction of many underground silos in the countryside carried enormous economic, social, and political costs.",
"Development of the underground launchers presented a major technical challenge.",
"1/60- and 1/6-scale models based on a U-shaped design were constructed and tested at RPE Westcott.",
"Three alternative designs were drawn up with one chosen as the prototype, designated K11.RAF Upavon would appear to have been the preferred location for the prototype operational launcher with the former RNAS at Crail as the likely first operational site.In 1955–1956, the rocket motors were test-fired at High Down Rocket Test Site on the Isle of Wight.",
"As no site in Britain provided enough space for test flights, a test site was established at Woomera, South Australia.+Blue Streak launches from Woomera Flight No.",
"Launch date Result F1 5 June 1964 uncontrollable oscillations during final phase of burn due to fuel sloshing in tanks F2 21 October 1964 Successful flight F3 23 March 1965 Successful flight"
],
[
"Cancellation as a military project",
"Doubts arose as the cost escalated from the first tentative figure of £50 million submitted to the Treasury in early 1955, to £300 million in late 1959.Its detractors in the civil service claimed that the programme was crawling along when compared with the speed of development in the US and the Soviet Union.",
"Estimates within the Civil Service for completion of the project ranged from a total spend of £550 million to £1.3 billion, as different ministers were set on either abandoning or continuing the project.The project was unexpectedly cancelled in April 1960.Whitehall opposition grew, and it was cancelled on the ostensible grounds that it would be too vulnerable to a first-strike attack.",
"Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten had spent considerable effort arguing that the project should be cancelled at once in favour of the Navy being armed with nuclear weapons, capable of pre-emptive strike.Some considered the cancellation of Blue Streak to be not only a blow to British military-industrial efforts, but also to Commonwealth ally Australia, which had its own vested interest in the project.The British military transferred its hopes for a strategic nuclear delivery system to the Anglo-American Skybolt missile, before the project's cancellation by the United States as its ICBM programme reached maturity.",
"The British instead purchased the Polaris system from the Americans, carried in British-built submarines."
],
[
"Civilian programmes - Black Prince and ELDO",
"After the cancellation as a military project, there was reluctance to cancel the project because of the huge cost incurred.",
"Blue Streak would have become the first stage of a projected all British satellite launcher known as \"Black Prince\": the second stage was derived from the ''Black Knight'' test vehicle, and the orbital injection stage was a small hydrogen peroxide/kerosene motor.Black Prince proved too expensive for the UK, and the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) was set up.",
"This used Blue Streak as the first stage, with French and German second and third stages.",
"The Blue Streak first stage was successfully tested three times at the Woomera test range in Australia as part of the ELDO programme.=== Black Prince ===In 1959, a year before the cancellation of the Blue Streak as a missile, the government requested that the RAE and Saunders-Roe design a carrier rocket based on Blue Streak and Black Knight.",
"This design used Blue Streak as a first stage and a second stage based on the Black Knight.",
"Several different third stages would be available, depending on the required payload and orbit.The cost of developing Black Prince was estimated to be £35 million.It was planned that Black Prince would be a Commonwealth project.",
"As the government of John Diefenbaker in Canada was already spending more money than publicly acknowledged on Alouette and Australia was not interested in the project, these two countries were unwilling to contribute.",
"South Africa was no longer a member of the Commonwealth.",
"New Zealand was only likely to make \"modest\" contributions.===European Launcher Development Organisation===The placard reads: \"Remains of the first Blue Streak rocket launched from Woomera 5 June 1964.Discovered 50 km SE of Giles in 1980.",
"\"The UK instead proposed a collaboration with other European countries to build a three-stage launcher capable of placing a one-ton payload into low Earth orbit.",
"The European Launcher Development Organisation consisted of Belgium, Britain, France, West Germany, Italy and the Netherlands, with Australia as an associate member.Preliminary work began in 1962 and ELDO was formally signed into existence in 1964.With Blue Streak, the UK became the first stage of the European launch vehicle with France providing the Coralie second stage and Germany the third.",
"Italy worked on the satellite project, the Netherlands and Belgium concentrated on tracking and telemetry systems and Australia supplied the launch site.The combined launcher was named Europa.After ten test launches, the Woomera launch site was not suitable for putting satellites into geosynchronous orbit, and in 1966 it was decided to move to the French site of Kourou in South America.",
"F11 was fired from here in November 1971, but the failure of the autopilot caused the vehicle to break up.",
"The launch of F12 was postponed whilst a project review was carried out, which led to the decision to abandon the Europa design.ELDO was merged with the European Space Research Organisation to form the European Space Agency.+List of Blue Streak launches as part of ELDO Flight No.",
"Launch dateVersionFirst stage (Blue Streak) Second stage (Corali) Third stage (Astris) Payload Result F4 24 May 1966Europa-1successful untested untested untested Successful flight F5 15 November 1966Europa-1successful untested untested untested Successful flight F6.1 4 June 1967Europa-1successful failed untested untested 2nd stage failed to ignite F6.2 6 December 1967Europa-1successful failed failed failed 2nd stage failed to separate F7 29 November 1968Europa-1successful successful failed failed 3rd stage failure after separation F8 3 July 1969Europa-1successful successful failed failed 3rd stage failure after separation F9 24 June 1970Europa-1successful successful successful failed Fairing failed to separate F11 5 November 1971Europa-2successful successful successful failed Guidance system failed F12 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to French Guiana F13 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to National Museum of Flight, near Edinburgh F14 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to Deutsches Museum, Munich F15 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to Euro Space Center, Redu, Belgium F16 n/a untested untested untested On display at NSC Leicester, on loan from Liverpool Museums F17 n/a n/a n/a n/a Parts only completed F18 n/a n/a n/a n/a Parts only completed"
],
[
"Related projects",
"Aside from Black Prince, a range of other proposals was made between 1959 and 1972 for a carrier rocket based on Blue Streak, but none of these were ever built in full and today only exist in design.===De Havilland/British Interplanetary Society proposal===In 1959 de Havilland suggested solving the problem of the Blue Streak/Black Knight geometry by compressing the 10 by 1 metre (30 by 3-foot) Black Knight into a sphere.",
"Although this seemed logical, the development costs proved to be too high for the limited budget of the programme.===Westland Helicopters Black Arrow===Following its merger with Saunders Roe, Westland Helicopters developed the three-stage Black Arrow satellite carrier rocket, derived from the Black Knight test vehicle.",
"The first stage of Black Arrow was given the same diameter as the French Coralie (the second stage of Europa) to make it compatible with Blue Streak.",
"Using Blue Streak as an additional stage would have increased Black Arrow's payload capacity.",
"To maintain this compatibility, the first stage diameter was given in metres, although the rest of the rocket was defined in imperial units.Black Arrow carried out four test launches (without an additional Blue Streak stage) from Woomera between 1969 and 1971, with the final launch carrying the satellite Prospero X-3 into orbit.",
"The United Kingdom remains the only country to have developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability.===Hawker Siddeley Dynamics proposal===In 1972, Hawker Siddeley Dynamics ltd produced a brochure for a design using Blue Streak as the first stage of a two-stage to orbit rocket, with an American Centaur upper stage.",
"The Centaur second stage would have either been built in the UK under licence or imported directly from the USA.",
"Both the Centaur and Blue Streak had proved to be very reliable up to this point, and since they were both already designed development costs would have been low.",
"Furthermore, it had a payload of 870–920 kg to a geosynchronous orbit with, and 650–700 kg without the use of additional booster rockets."
],
[
"Blue Streak today",
"Following the cancellation of the Blue Streak project some of the remaining rockets were preserved at:* '''Europa F13''', at the National Museum of Flight in East Fortune, Scotland.",
"* '''Europa F14''', at the Deutsches Museum, Munich.",
"* '''Europa F15''', at the Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium.",
"* '''Europa F16''', at the National Space Centre in Leicester, England.",
"* '''Mid-section outer shell and launch sites''', at the RAF Spadeadam near Brampton, England.A section of the propulsion bay, engines and equipment can be found at the Solway Aviation Museum, Carlisle Lake District Airport.",
"Only a few miles from the Spadeadam testing site, the museum carries many exhibits, photographs and models of the Blue Streak programme, having inherited the original Spadeadam collection that used to be displayed on site.RZ.2 engines are on display at National Space Centre – a pair on cradles alongside the Blue Streak rocket – and at the Armagh Planetarium in Northern Ireland and The Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium.Blue Streak enthusiast Robin Joseph from the United Kingdom has a collection of parts including start systems and combustion chambers amongst other things.",
"He can often be seen displaying his collection at space days in the West Midlands.A part of the '''Blue Streak F1''' rocket launched on 5 June 1964 from Woomera, Australia, found 50 km SE of Giles in 1980 (c.1000 km) is on display at Giles Weather Station.",
"Another piece was located in 2006, but its exact location has been kept secret by the finders.",
"The titanium structure of a German third stage was, for some time, sited on the edge of a gravel pit in Gloucestershire.Remains of '''Blue Streak F4''', launched on 24 May 1965, are on display at Woomera.Footage from the Blue Streak launch was briefly incorporated into ''The Prisoner''s final episode, \"Fall Out\".",
"It was also used in the ''Doctor Who'' serial \"The Tenth Planet\", treated within the story as the launch of the ''Zeus IV'' spacecraft.",
"Images of the Blue Streak 1 are incorporated in the 1997 film ''Contact''.File:Blue Streak rocket remains.jpg|'''Blue Streak F1''' rocket remainsFile:Bluestreak in WoomeraPark.jpg|'''Blue Streak F4''' rocket remainsFile:Blue Streak at Scottish Museum of Flight - side rear view.jpg|'''Europa F13''', at the National Museum of Flight in East Fortune, Scotland.File:Blue Streak rocket engines.jpg|'''Europa F14''', at the Deutsches Museum, Munich.File:Lanceur Europa (1).jpg|'''Europa F15''', at the Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium.File:Rocket in Leicester.JPG|'''Europa F16''', at the National Space Centre in Leicester, England.File:Booster stage of a Blue Streak rocket, RAF Spadeadam.jpg|'''Mid-section outer shell''', at the RAF Spadeadam near Brampton, England."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of missiles*Rainbow Codes* Black Arrow* Black Knight* Skylark* Silbervogel*Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom*Martu*Len Beadell*Beatrice Shilling*Roy Dommett"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"**Boyes, J.",
"(2013).",
"''The Blue Streak Underground Launchers.''",
"Airfield Review No 140.Airfield Research Group.",
"*Boyes, J.",
"(2014).",
"''The Blue Streak Underground Launchers.''",
"Royal Air Force Historical Society Journal No.",
"58."
],
[
"External links",
"**https://web.archive.org/web/20050404101923/http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluestreak.htm*https://web.archive.org/web/20010409071059/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/6133/bluestreak.html* Blue Streak including newsreel footage* RAF Spadeadam* National Museum of Scotland description of the Museum of Flight exhibit* Free papermodel of a Blue Streak missile* British Public information film on the Blue Streak at the National Archives (15 minutes QuickTime and Windows Media formats)*BBC Radio 4 – ''\"The Archive Hour – Britain's Space Race\"''.",
"11 August 2007.",
"* A cutaway drawing of the Blue Streak.",
"*U1 underground launcher Spadeadam.",
"*The Register 'Talking a Blue Streak: The ambitious, quiet waste of the Spadeadam Rocket Establishment'"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bakassi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Nigeria-Cameroon border region on the coast from a 1963 map, with Bakassi peninsula in the middle'''Bakassi''' is a peninsula on the Gulf of Guinea.",
"It lies between the Cross River estuary, near the city of Calabar and the Rio del Ray estuary on the east.",
"It is governed by Cameroon, following the transfer of sovereignty from neighbouring Nigeria as a result of a judgment by the International Court of Justice.",
"On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate rejected the transfer, since the Greentree Agreement ceding the area to Cameroon was contrary to Section 12(1) of the 1999 Constitution.",
"Regardless, the territory was completely ceded to Cameroon on 14 August 2008, exactly two years after the first part of it was transferred."
],
[
"Geography and economy",
"The peninsula lies between latitudes 4°25′ and 5°10′N and longitudes 8°20′ and 9°08′E .",
"It consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665 km2 (257 sq mi).",
"The population of Bakassi is the subject of some dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000 and 300,000 people.Bakassi is situated at the extreme eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea, where the warm east-flowing Guinea Current (called Aya Efiat in Efik) meets the cold north-flowing Benguela Current (called Aya Ubenekang in Efik).",
"These two ocean currents interact, creating huge foamy breakers which constantly advance towards the shore, and building submarine shoals rich in fish, shrimps, and a wide variety of other marine life forms.",
"This makes the area a very fertile fishing ground, comparable only to Newfoundland in North America and Scandinavia in Western Europe.",
"Most of the population make their living through fishing.The peninsula is commonly described as \"oil-rich\", though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have been discovered.",
"However, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil companies in the light of the discovery of rich reserves of high grade crude oil in Nigeria.",
"At least eight multinational oil companies have participated in the exploration of the peninsula and its offshore waters.",
"In October 2012, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation announced it had discovered new oil and gas resources in the Bakassi region."
],
[
"History",
"During the Scramble for Africa, Queen Victoria signed a Treaty of Protection with the King and Chiefs of Akwa Akpa, known to Europeans as Old Calabar, on 10 September 1884.This enabled the British Empire to exercise control over the entire territory around Calabar, including Bakassi.",
"The territory subsequently became ''de facto'' part of Nigeria, although the border was never permanently delineated.",
"However, documents released by the Cameroonians, in parity with that of the British and Germans, clearly places Bakassi under Cameroonian Territory as a consequence of colonial era Anglo-German agreements.",
"After Southern Cameroons voted in 1961 to leave Nigeria and became a part of Cameroon, Bakassi remained under Calabar administration in Nigeria until ICJ judgement of 2002."
],
[
"Population",
"Bakassi inhabitants are mainly the Oron people, the people of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria."
],
[
"Territorial dispute",
"Nigeria and Cameroon have disputed the possession of Bakassi for some years, leading to considerable tension between the two countries.",
"In 1981 the two countries went to the brink of war over Bakassi and another area around Lake Chad, at the other end of the two countries' common border.",
"More armed clashes broke out in the early 1990s.",
"In response, Cameroon took the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on 29 March 1994.The case was extremely complex, requiring the court to review diplomatic exchanges dating back over 100 years.",
"Nigeria relied largely on Anglo-German correspondence dating from 1885 as well as treaties between the colonial powers and the indigenous rulers in the area, particularly the 1884 Treaty of Protection.",
"Cameroon pointed to the Anglo-German treaty of 1913, which defined sphere of control in the region, as well as two agreements signed in the 1970s between Cameroon and Nigeria.",
"These were the Yaoundé II Declaration of 4 April 1971 and the Maroua Declaration of 1 June 1975, which were devised to outline maritime boundaries between the two countries following their independence.",
"The line was drawn through the Cross River estuary to the west of the peninsula, thereby implying Cameroonian ownership over Bakassi.",
"However, Nigeria never ratified the agreement, while Cameroon regarded it as being in force.===ICJ verdict===The ICJ delivered its judgment on 10 October 2002, finding (based principally on the Anglo-German agreements) that sovereignty over Bakassi did indeed rest with Cameroon.",
"It instructed Nigeria to transfer possession of the peninsula, but did not require the inhabitants to move or to change their nationality.",
"Cameroon was thus given a substantial Nigerian population and was required to protect their rights, infrastructure and welfare.The verdict caused consternation in Nigeria.",
"It aroused vitriolic comments from Nigerian officials and the Nigerian media alike.",
"Chief Richard Akinjide, a former Nigerian Attorney-General and Minister of Justice who had been a leading member of Nigeria's legal team, described the decision as \"50% international law and 50% international politics\", \"blatantly biased and unfair\", \"a total disaster\", and a \"complete fraud\".",
"The Nigerian newspaper ''The Guardian'' went further, declaring that the judgment was \"a rape and unforeseen potential international conspiracy against Nigerian territorial integrity and sovereignty\" and \"part of a Western ploy to foment and perpetuate trouble in Africa\".",
"The outcome of the controversy was a ''de facto'' Nigerian refusal to withdraw its troops from Bakassi and transfer sovereignty.",
"The Nigerian government did not, however, openly reject the judgment but instead called for an agreement that would provide \"peace with honour, with the interest and welfare of our people\".The ICJ judgement was backed up by the United Nations, whose charter potentially allowed sanctions or even the use of force to enforce the court's ruling.",
"Secretary-General Kofi Annan stepped in as a mediator and chaired a tripartite summit with the two countries' presidents on 15 November 2002, which established a commission to facilitate the peaceful implementation of the ICJ's judgement.",
"A further summit was held on 31 January 2004.This made significant progress, but the process was complicated by the opposition of Bakassi's inhabitants to being transferred to Cameroon.Flag used by Bakassian separatistsBakassian leaders threatened to seek independence if Nigeria renounced sovereignty.",
"This secession was announced on 9 July 2006, as the \"Democratic Republic of Bakassi\".",
"The decision was reportedly made at a meeting on 2 July 2006 and ''The Vanguard'' newspaper of Nigeria reported the decision to secede.",
"The decision was reportedly made by groups of militants including Southern Cameroons under the aegis of Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), Bakassi Movement for Self-Determination (BAMOSD), and the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND).",
"The Biafra separatist group, Biafra Nations League (BNL), initially known as Biafra Nations Youth League, led by Princewill Chimezie Richard (known as Prince Obuka) and Ebuta Akor Takon (not the former Deputy, Ebuta Ogar Takon) moved their operational base to the peninsula, after series of warnings to the Nigeria government over the plight of the internally displaced natives and the reported killing of remnants in the peninsula by Cameroon forces.",
"This came amid clashes between Nigerian troops and the Bakassi Strike Force, a militant group that focused on attacking Nigerian and Cameroon forces.",
"BNL Leaders were later apprehended in the Ikang-Cameroon border area on 9 November 2016 by Nigerian troops according to the ''Nigeria nation'' newspaper; reports linked the Biafra group to the militant groups.BNL demanded oil companies at the maritime boundary area of Bakassi Peninsula where Nigeria and Cameroon drills oil to leave.",
"The group also threatened to attack Cameroon Forces.===Resolution===On 13 June 2006, President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria and President Paul Biya of Cameroon resolved the dispute in talks led by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in New York City.",
"Obasanjo agreed to withdraw Nigerian troops within 60 days and to leave the territory completely in Cameroonian control within the next two years.",
"Annan said, \"With today's agreement on the Bakassi peninsula, a comprehensive resolution of the dispute is within our grasp.",
"The momentum achieved must be sustained.",
"\"=== Nigerian withdrawal and low-level insurgency ===Nigeria began to withdraw its forces, comprising some 3,000 troops, beginning 1 August 2006, and a ceremony on 14 August marked the formal handover of the northern part of the peninsula.",
"The remainder stayed under Nigerian civil authority for two more years.On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate passed a resolution declaring that the withdrawal from the Bakassi Peninsula was illegal.",
"The government took no action, and handed the final parts of Bakassi over to Cameroon on 14 August 2008 as planned, but a Federal High Court had stated this should be delayed until all accommodations for resettled Bakassians had been settled; the government did not seem to plan to heed this court order, and set the necessary mechanisms into motion to override it.",
"Fishermen displaced from Bakassi were first settled in a landlocked area called New Bakassi, which they claimed was already inhabited and not suitable for fishermen like them but only for farmers.",
"The displaced people were then moved to Akpabuyo, and eventually established a new community of Dayspring.Despite the formal handover of Bakassi by Nigeria to Cameroon in 2006, the territory of Bakassi is still mentioned as part of the 774 local governments in Nigeria as embodied in the First Schedule, Part I of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999.After the Nigerian 2015 general elections, Nigeria's 8th National Assembly still accommodates the Calabar-South/Akpabuyo/Bakassi Federal Constituency represented by Hon.",
"Essien Ekpeyong Ayi of the People's Democratic Party.In the 2010s and 2020s, Biafran separatists, most importantly Biafra Nations League, still continue a low-level militant resistance against Cameroon in regards to Bakassi."
],
[
"See also",
"*Bakassi conflict"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* International Court of Justice, press release on decision * Nigerian Government official statement in response to the rulingAdey* BBC News report on handover, 8 August 2006* BBC News report on handover, 14 August 2008* Archive of Articles on the Bakassi conundrum"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bestiary"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Monoceros and Bear.",
"Bodleian Library, MS. Ashmole 1511, ''The Ashmole Bestiary'', Folio 21r, England (Peterborough?",
"), Early 13th century.",
"\"The Leopard\" from the 13th-century bestiary known as the \"Rochester Bestiary\"Peridexion TreeA '''bestiary''' () is a compendium of beasts.",
"Originating in the ancient world, bestiaries were made popular in the Middle Ages in illustrated volumes that described various animals and even rocks.",
"The natural history and illustration of each beast was usually accompanied by a moral lesson.",
"This reflected the belief that the world itself was the Word of God and that every living thing had its own special meaning.",
"For example, the pelican, which was believed to tear open its breast to bring its young to life with its own blood, was a living representation of Jesus.",
"Thus the bestiary is also a reference to the symbolic language of animals in Western Christian art and literature."
],
[
"History",
"The bestiary — the medieval book of beasts — was among the most popular illuminated texts in northern Europe during the Middle Ages (about 500–1500).",
"Medieval Christians understood every element of the world as a manifestation of God, and bestiaries largely focused on each animal's religious meaning.",
"Much of what is in the bestiary came from the ancient Greeks and their philosophers.",
"The earliest bestiary in the form in which it was later popularized was an anonymous 2nd-century Greek volume called the ''Physiologus'', which itself summarized ancient knowledge and wisdom about animals in the writings of classical authors such as Aristotle's ''Historia Animalium'' and various works by Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Solinus, Aelian and other naturalists.Following the ''Physiologus'', Saint Isidore of Seville (Book XII of the ''Etymologiae'') and Saint Ambrose expanded the religious message with reference to passages from the Bible and the Septuagint.",
"They and other authors freely expanded or modified pre-existing models, constantly refining the moral content without interest or access to much more detail regarding the factual content.",
"Nevertheless, the often fanciful accounts of these beasts were widely read and generally believed to be true.",
"A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the migration of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era.Medieval bestiaries are remarkably similar in sequence of the animals of which they treat.",
"Bestiaries were particularly popular in England and France around the 12th century and were mainly compilations of earlier texts.",
"The Aberdeen Bestiary is one of the best known of over 50 manuscript bestiaries surviving today.Much influence comes from the Renaissance era and the general Middle Ages, as well as modern times.",
"The Renaissance has been said to have started around the 14th century in Italy.",
"Bestiaries influenced early heraldry in the Middle Ages, giving ideas for charges and also for the artistic form.",
"Bestiaries continue to give inspiration to coats of arms created in our time.Two illuminated Psalters, the Queen Mary Psalter (British Library Ms. Royal 2B, vii) and the Isabella Psalter (State Library, Munich), contain full Bestiary cycles.",
"The bestiary in the Queen Mary Psalter is found in the \"marginal\" decorations that occupy about the bottom quarter of the page, and are unusually extensive and coherent in this work.",
"In fact the bestiary has been expanded beyond the source in the Norman bestiary of Guillaume le Clerc to ninety animals.",
"Some are placed in the text to make correspondences with the psalm they are illustrating.Many decide to make their own bestiary with their own observations including knowledge from previous ones.",
"These observations can be made in text form, as well as illustrated out.",
"The Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci also made his own bestiary.A ''volucrary'' is a similar collection of the symbols of birds that is sometimes found in conjunction with bestiaries.",
"The most widely known volucrary in the Renaissance was Johannes de Cuba's ''Gart der Gesundheit'' which describes 122 birds and which was printed in 1485."
],
[
"Bestiary content",
"The contents of medieval bestiaries were often obtained and created from combining older textual sources and accounts of animals, such as the ''Physiologus''.Medieval bestiaries contained detailed descriptions and illustrations of species native to Western Europe, exotic animals and what in modern times are considered to be imaginary animals.",
"Descriptions of the animals included the physical characteristics associated with the creature, although these were often physiologically incorrect, along with the Christian morals that the animal represented.",
"The description was then often accompanied by an artistic illustration of the animal as described in the bestiary.",
"For example, in one bestiary the eagle is depicted in an illustration and is said to be the “king of birds.”Bestiaries were organized in different ways based upon the sources they drew upon.",
"The descriptions could be organized by animal groupings, such as terrestrial and marine creatures, or presented in an alphabetical manner.",
"However, the texts gave no distinction between existing and imaginary animals.",
"Descriptions of creatures such as dragons, unicorns, basilisk, griffin and caladrius were common in such works and found intermingled amongst accounts of bears, boars, deer, lions, and elephants.",
"In one source, the author explains how fables and bestiaries are closely linked to one another as “each chapter of a bestiary, each fable in a collection, has a text and has a meaning.This lack of separation has often been associated with the assumption that people during this time believed in what the modern period classifies as nonexistent or \"imaginary creatures\".",
"However, this assumption is currently under debate, with various explanations being offered.",
"Some scholars, such as Pamela Gravestock, have written on the theory that medieval people did not actually think such creatures existed but instead focused on the belief in the importance of the Christian morals these creatures represented, and that the importance of the moral did not change regardless if the animal existed or not.",
"The historian of science David C. Lindberg pointed out that medieval bestiaries were rich in symbolism and allegory, so as to teach moral lessons and entertain, rather than to convey knowledge of the natural world."
],
[
"Religious significance",
"Adam naming the animals, in a detail from the 12th century Aberdeen BestiaryThe significance shown between animals and religion started much before bestiaries came into play.",
"In many ancient civilizations there are references to animals and their meaning within that specific religion or mythology that we know of today.",
"These civilizations included Egypt and their gods with the faces of animals or Greece which had symbolic animals for their godly beings, an example being Zeus and the eagle.",
"With animals being a part of religion before bestiaries and their lessons came out, they were influenced by past observations of meaning as well as older civilizations and their interpretations.As most of the students who read these bestiaries were monks and clerics, it is not impossible to say that there is a major religious significance within them.",
"The bestiary was used to educate young men on the correct morals they should display.",
"All of the animals presented in the bestiaries show some sort of lesson or meaning when presented.",
"Much of the symbolism shown of animals.",
"Much of what is proposed by the bestiaries mentions much of paganism because of the religious significance and time period of the medieval ages.One of the main 'animals' mentioned in some of the bestiaries is dragons, which hold much significance in terms of religion and meaning.",
"The unnatural part of dragon's history shows how important the church can be during this time.",
"Much of what is covered in the article talks about how the dragon that is mentioned in some of the bestiaries shows a glimpse of the religious significance in many of these tales.These bestiaries held much content in terms of religious significance.",
"In almost every animal there is some way to connect it to a lesson from the church or a familiar religious story.",
"With animals holding significance since ancient times, it is fair to say that bestiaries and their contents gave fuel to the context behind the animals, whether real or myth, and their meanings."
],
[
"Modern bestiaries",
"In modern times, artists such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Saul Steinberg have produced their own bestiaries.",
"Jorge Luis Borges wrote a contemporary bestiary of sorts, the ''Book of Imaginary Beings'', which collects imaginary beasts from bestiaries and fiction.",
"Nicholas Christopher wrote a literary novel called \"The Bestiary\" (Dial, 2007) that describes a lonely young man's efforts to track down the world's most complete bestiary.",
"John Henry Fleming's ''Fearsome Creatures of Florida'' (Pocol Press, 2009) borrows from the medieval bestiary tradition to impart moral lessons about the environment.",
"Caspar Henderson's ''The Book of Barely Imagined Beings'' (Granta 2012, University of Chicago Press 2013), subtitled \"A 21st Century Bestiary\", explores how humans imagine animals in a time of rapid environmental change.",
"In July 2014, Jonathan Scott wrote ''The Blessed Book of Beasts'', Eastern Christian Publications, featuring 101 animals from the various translations of the Bible, in keeping with the tradition of the bestiary found in the writings of the Saints, including Saint John Chrysostom.",
"In today’s world there is a discipline called cryptozoology which is the study of unknown species.",
"This discipline can be linked to medieval bestiaries because in many cases the unknown animals can be the same, as well as having meaning or significance behind them.The lists of monsters to be found in video games (such as ''NetHack'', ''Dragon Quest'', and ''Monster Hunter'') are often termed bestiaries."
],
[
"See also",
"* Allegory in the Middle Ages* List of medieval bestiaries* Marine counterparts of land creatures"
],
[
"References",
"*“Animal Symbolism (Illustrated).” OpenSIUC, https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2505&context=ocj.",
"Accessed 5 March 2022.",
"* * * * * * *Morrison, Elizabeth, and Larisa Grollemond.",
"“An Introduction to the Bestiary, Book of Beasts in the Medieval World (article).” Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/beginners-guide-to-medieval-europe/manuscripts/a/an-introduction-to-the-bestiary-book-of-beasts-in-the-medieval-world.",
"Accessed 2 March 2022.",
"*Morrison, Elizabeth.",
"“Beastly tales from the medieval bestiary.” The British Library, https://www.bl.uk/medieval-english-french-manuscripts/articles/beastly-tales-from-the-medieval-bestiary .",
"Accessed 2 March 2022.",
"*“The Renaissance | Boundless World History.” Lumen Learning, LumenCandela, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-renaissance/.",
"Accessed 5 March 2022.",
"* \" The Medieval Bestiary\", by James Grout, part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''.",
"* McCulloch, Florence.",
"(1962) ''Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries.''",
"* Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn.",
"eds.",
"(1989) ''Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages.",
"The Bestiary and its Legacy.",
"''* Payne, Ann.",
"(1990) \"Mediaeval Beasts.",
"''* George, Wilma and Brunsdon Yapp.",
"(1991) ''The Naming of the Beasts: Natural History in the Medieval Bestiary''.",
"* Benton, Janetta Rebold.",
"(1992) ''The Medieval Menagerie: Animals in the Art of the Middle Ages''.",
"* Lindberg, David C. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science.",
"The European Tradition in Philosophhical, Religious and Institutional Context, 600 B. C. to A. D. 1450''* Flores, Nona C. (1993) \"The Mirror of Nature Distorted: The Medieval Artist's Dilemma in Depicting Animals\".",
"* Hassig, Debra (1995) ''Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology.",
"''* Gravestock, Pamela.",
"(1999) \"Did Imaginary Animals Exist?",
"\"* Hassig, Debra, ed.",
"(1999) ''The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature''."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* '' The Bestiary: The Book of Beasts,'' T.H.",
"White's translation of a medieval bestiary in the Cambridge University library; digitized by the University of Wisconsin–Madison libraries.",
"* The Medieval Bestiary online, edited by David Badke.",
"* '' The Bestiaire of Philippe de Thaon'' at the National Library of Denmark.",
"* '' The Bestiary of Anne Walshe'' at the National Library of Denmark.",
"* '' The Aberdeen Bestiary'' at the University of Aberdeen.",
"* Exhibition (in English, but French version is fuller) at the Bibliothèque nationale de France* Christian Symbology Animals and their meanings in Christian texts.",
"* Bestiairy - Monsters & Fabulous Creatures of Greek Myth & Legend with pictures"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Ballad of the Green Berets"
],
[
"Introduction",
"\"'''The Ballad of the Green Berets'''\" is a patriotic song in the ballad style about the United States Army Special Forces.",
"It is one of the few popular songs of the Vietnam War years to cast the military in a positive light.",
"In 1966, it became a major hit, reaching No.",
"1 for five weeks on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and four weeks on Cashbox.",
"It was also a crossover hit, reaching No.",
"1 on ''Billboard'' Easy Listening chart and No.",
"2 on ''Billboard'' Country survey.The song was written by then-Staff Sergeant or \"SSG\" Barry Sadler, beginning when he was training to be a Special Forces medic.",
"The author Robin Moore, who wrote the book ''The Green Berets'', helped Sadler write the lyrics and get a recording contract with RCA Records.",
"The demo of the song was produced in a rudimentary recording studio at Fort Liberty, with the help of Gerry Gitell and LTG William P. Yarborough.The lyrics were written, in part, in honor of U.S. Army Specialist 5 James Gabriel Jr., a Special Forces operator and the first native Hawaiian to die in Vietnam, who was killed by Viet Cong gunfire while on a training mission with the South Vietnamese Army on April 8, 1962.One verse mentioned Gabriel by name, but it was not used in the recorded version.Sadler recorded the song and eleven other tunes with Sid Bass at RCA's 24th Street Studios in New York City on December 18, 1965.The song and album, ''Ballads of the Green Berets'', were released in January 1966.He performed the song on television on January 30, 1966, on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', and on other TV shows including ''The Hollywood Palace'' and ''The Jimmy Dean Show''."
],
[
"Popularity",
"In the United States, \"The Ballad of the Green Berets\" topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in March 1966, staying at No.",
"1 for five weeks.",
"It placed tenth on the year-end Hot 100 chart published by ''Billboard'' in December 1966.When ''Billboard'' later revised its year-end rankings for 1966, the song was re-ranked at No.",
"1; since then, ''Billboard'' has recognized \"The Ballad of the Green Berets\" as the top Hot 100 song of that year.",
"On ''Cash Box'' 1966 year-end chart, \"The Ballad of the Green Berets\" tied for first with \"California Dreamin'\" by the Mamas and the Papas.",
"It was also the No.",
"21 song of the 1960s as ranked by Joel Whitburn.",
"The single sold more than nine million copies; the album, more than two million.",
"\"The Ballad of the Green Berets\" is currently used as one of the four primary marching tunes of the Fightin' Texas Aggie Band."
],
[
"In film",
"The song is heard in a choral rendition by Ken Darby in the 1968 John Wayne film ''The Green Berets'', based on Robin Moore's book.",
"The film's score was not released as an album until ''Film Score Monthly'' released it in 2005.A movie tie-in featuring artwork from the film and a cover version by Ennio Morricone was released in Europe, though the album's other tracks were from ''A Fistful of Dollars'' and ''For a Few Dollars More''.",
"In ''The Many Saints of Newark'', while Dickie Moltisanti is driving over in his car to meet Harold McBrayer for the first time, \"The Ballad of the Green Berets\" is playing on the radio.The cast of the 2018 movie ''12 Strong'' sing the tune as their Chinook helicopter takes off.This song is featured in the 1979 film ''More American Graffiti'', during the first sequence of Terry the Toad's New Year's Eve in 1965 Vietnam.The song is featured prominently as a prop (with French lyrics unrelated to the American lyrics), in the opening scene of the French-produced Netflix biopic miniseries about Bernard Tapie eponymously titled ''Tapie''."
],
[
"Other versions derivatives",
"Many other American recording artists did their own versions of the song ranging from Kate Smith and Duane Eddy to unknown artists singing on various drugstore records.Many versions in other languages are rewritten to reference local units; these include:* A German version (''Hundert Mann und ein Befehl''), sung by Freddy Quinn and later again by Heidi Brühl had considerable success in Germany.",
"The German version is a song ''against'' the war.",
"Freddy Quinn sings the song from the point of view of a reluctant but forced soldier, Heidi Brühl from the point of view of the crying girlfriend of the soldier.",
"Freddy Quinn's version was later recorded by Welle: Erdball and also by Cryptic Wintermoon.",
"* The Royal Netherlands Army's Korps Commandotroepen (KCT) use the original lyrics with a couple changes referencing the Netherlands.",
"This version is sung to recruits who have successfully completed the harsh Basic Commando Training (ECO), and who receive their Green Beret.",
"* The Residents recorded a cover of the song for the album ''The Third Reich 'n Roll'' as a part of \"Hitler was a Vegetarian\"* Rhodesian singer-songwriter John Edmond recorded the \"Ballad of the Green Berets\" with reference to the soldiers of the Rhodesian Light Infantry (RLI), commando-style fireforce units of Rhodesian Security Forces who wore berets of green color, with a slight difference in the chorus, saying \"''These are men, of The Fatherland’s Best.''\"",
"& \"''Make him one of The Fatherlands best''\" A \"Ballad of the Red Beret\" was sung by the Rhodesian Ministry of Internal Affairs at their battlecamp in Chikurubi.",
"In South Africa, the \"Ballad of the Green Berets\" was recorded as the \"Ballad of the Maroon Berets\".",
"The Maroon beret is a symbol of the South African Special Forces Brigade and the South African 44 Parachute Regiment.",
"Also this song was re-recorded by South African opera singer Leonore Veenemans as \"My Land Suid-Afrika\".",
"* The Swedish version \"Balladen om den blå baskern\" is a salute to the Swedish soldiers serving in the United Nations' peace-keeping forces (the Blue Berets).",
"It was sung by Anita Lindblom.",
"* The Italian version is called ''La Ballata del Soldato'', sung by Quartetto Cetra.",
"* Since 2004, the Infantry Officer's School of the Swiss Armed Forces uses a quadrlingual (German, French, Italian and Rumansch) version of the song, ''Die Infanterieballade'' (The Infantry Ballad), as their anthem.",
"The lyrics were written by cadets from all linguistical regions of Switzerland.",
"It is sung everyday onwards to the morning roll call, before the National Anthem.",
"* In 1966, Bernard Tapy (real name Bernard Tapie, businessman and politician), recorded an adaptation in French as \"Passeport pour le soleil\"* The official song of the Portuguese Paratroopers a.k.a.",
"\"Boinas Verdes\" (\"Green Berets\") uses the melody with Português-language lyrics* The Ukrainian version 2015 ''100 Soldiers''.",
"Lyrics by Oleksa Nehrebets'kyi.",
"* The Finnish version titled \"Balladi punaisista bareteista\" was released in 1966 by Kivikasvot.",
"* The Norwegian version \"Balladen om den grønne beret\" (both Norwegian and English lyrics) is about the Garrison of Sør-Varanger (GSV).",
"They monitor the border between Norway and Russia 24/7.Their motto is \"VOGT OG VERN\" (GUARD AND PROTECT)."
],
[
"Parodies or humorous use",
"* The melody and rhyme pattern were adapted by Filipino musician Eddie Tallada recording the ''Ballad of Subic Bay'' describing Vietnam war sailors' liberty in the town of Olongapo adjacent to the Subic Bay Naval Base.",
"* In 1968, The Beach Bums, an ad hoc group featuring a young Bob Seger, recorded \"The Ballad of the Yellow Beret\", chronicling the adventures of a draft dodger.",
"The record was withdrawn after a cease and desist letter from Sadler.",
"* The Residents parodied the song on their ''Third Reich & Roll'' album.",
"* Another parody was used on an episode of ''Saturday Night Live'' that William Shatner hosted in 1986, called \"Ollie North, The Mute Marine\".",
"Shatner participated in the sketch, outfitted in a USMC Class A uniform, alluding to Oliver North's refusal to speak about his participation in the Iran-Contra Affair; Shatner spoke no words.",
"* The song is used to humorous effect in Michael Moore's film ''Canadian Bacon'' as ill-informed Americans prepare for an invasion by Canada.",
"* In the film ''Caddyshack'', Bill Murray mumbles the song under his breath while he is connecting the wires to the plunger as he prepares for his final battle with his gopher nemesis.",
"* In an episode of ''Cheers'', Cliff Clavin aborts his plans to emigrate to Canada with his love interest when Sam, Woody, and Frasier appeal to his patriotic side by singing the song."
],
[
"Charts",
" Chart (1966) PeakpositionGermany (Official German Charts)4South Africa (Springbok Radio SA Top 20)1===All-time charts=== Chart (1958-2018) PositionUS ''Billboard'' Hot 100369"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Collins, Ace (2003).",
"''Songs Sung, Red, White, and Blue: The Stories Behind America's Best-Loved Patriotic Songs''.",
"HarperResource.",
"."
],
[
"External links",
"* '' Ballad of the Green Berets: The Life and Wars of Army Staff Sergeant Barry Sadler'' by Marc Leepson (Stackpole Books, 2017)* ''Ballads of the Green Berets'' at AllMusic* \"Soon This Will Pass\" sung by Joan Gibbs at Barbara Joan Gushin"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Baroque dance"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Final plate of the minuet from Kellom Tomlinson's dancing manual ''The Art of Dancing Explained'' (London, 1735) '''Baroque dance''' is dance of the Baroque era (roughly 1600–1750), closely linked with Baroque music, theatre, and opera."
],
[
"English country dance",
"The majority of surviving choreographies from the period are English country dances, such as those in the many editions of Playford's ''The Dancing Master''.",
"Playford only gives the floor patterns of the dances, with no indication of the steps.",
"However, other sources of the period, such as the writings of the French dancing-masters Feuillet and Lorin, indicate that steps more complicated than simple walking were used at least some of the time.English country dance survived well beyond the Baroque era and eventually spread in various forms across Europe and its colonies, and to all levels of society."
],
[
"The French Noble style",
"Le Ballet de la Nuit'' (1653)The great innovations in dance in the 17th century originated at the French court under Louis XIV, and it is here that we see the first clear stylistic ancestor of classical ballet.",
"The same basic technique was used both at social events, and as theatrical dance in court ballets and at public theaters.",
"The style of dance is commonly known to modern scholars as the ''French noble style'' or ''belle danse'' (French, literally \"beautiful dance\"), however it is often referred to casually as ''baroque dance'' in spite of the existence of other theatrical and social dance styles during the baroque era.Primary sources include more than three hundred choreographies in Beauchamp–Feuillet notation, as well as manuals by Raoul Auger Feuillet and Pierre Rameau in France, Kellom Tomlinson, P. Siris, and John Weaver in England, and Gottfried Taubert in Germany (i.e.",
"Leipzig, Saxony).",
"This wealth of evidence has allowed modern scholars and dancers to recreate the style, although areas of controversy still exist.",
"The standard modern introduction is Hilton.French dance types include:* Allemande* Bourrée* Canarie (canary)* Chaconne* (French) courante* Entrée grave* Forlane (forlana)* Gavotte* Gigue* Loure (slow gigue)* Menuet (minuet)* Musette* Passacaille (passacaglia)* Passepied* Polonaise* Rigaudon* Sarabande* TambourinThe English, working in the French style, added their own hornpipe to this list.Many of these dance types are familiar from baroque music, perhaps most spectacularly in the stylized suites of J. S. Bach.",
"Note, however, that the allemandes, that occur in these suites do not correspond to a French dance from the same period."
],
[
"Theatrical dance",
"The French noble style was danced both at social events and by professional dancers in theatrical productions such as opera-ballets and court entertainments.",
"However, 18th-century theatrical dance had at least two other styles: comic or grotesque, and semi-serious."
],
[
"Other social dance styles",
"Other dance styles, such as the Italian and Spanish dances of the period, are much less well studied than either English country dance or the French style.",
"The general picture seems to be that during most of the 17th century, a style of late Renaissance dance was widespread, but as time progressed, French ballroom dances such as the minuet were widely adopted at fashionable courts.",
"Beyond this, the evolution and cross-fertilisation of dance styles is an area of ongoing research."
],
[
"Modern reconstructions",
"Young ladies enjoying a Time Travelers' Ball – dances from the 15th to early 20th century including BaroqueThe revival of baroque music in the 1960s and '70s sparked renewed interest in 17th and 18th century dance styles.",
"While some 300 of these dances had been preserved in Beauchamp–Feuillet notation, it wasn't until the mid-20th century that serious scholarship commenced in deciphering the notation and reconstructing the dances.Perhaps best known among these pioneers was Britain's Melusine Wood, who published several books on historical dancing in the 1950s.",
"Wood passed her research on to her student Belinda Quirey, and also to Pavlova Company ballerina and choreographer Mary Skeaping (1902–1984).",
"The latter became well known for her reconstructions of baroque ballets for London's \"Ballet for All\" company in the 1960s.The leading figures of the second generation of historical dance research include Shirley Wynne and her Baroque Dance Ensemble which was founded at Ohio State University in the early 1970s and Wendy Hilton (1931–2002), a student of Belinda Quirey who supplemented the work of Melusine Wood with her own research into original sources.A native of Britain, Hilton arrived in the U.S. in 1969 joining the faculty of the Juilliard School in 1972 and establishing her own baroque dance workshop at Stanford University in 1974 which endured for more than 25 years.Catherine Turocy (b. circa 1950) began her studies in Baroque dance in 1971 as a student of dance historian Shirley Wynne.",
"She founded The New York Baroque Dance Company in 1976 with Ann Jacoby, and the company has since toured internationally.",
"In 1982/83 as part of the French national celebration of Jean Philippe Rameau's 300th birthday, Turocy choreographed the first production of Jean-Philippe Rameau's ''Les Boréades'' - it was never performed during the composer's lifetime.",
"This French supported production with John Eliot Gardiner, conductor, and his orchestra was directed by Jean Louis Martinoty.",
"Turocy has been decorated as Chevalier in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government.In 1973, French dance historian Francine Lancelot (1929–2003) began her formal studies in ethnomusicology which later led her to research French traditional dance forms and eventually Renaissance and Baroque dances.",
"In 1980, at the invitation of the French Minister of Culture, she founded the baroque dance company \"Ris et Danceries\".",
"Her work in choreographing the landmark 1986 production of Lully's 1676 tragedie-lyrique ''Atys'' was part of the national celebration of the 300th anniversary of Lully's death.",
"This production propelled the career of William Christie and his ensemble Les Arts Florissants.",
"Since the Ris et Danseries company was disbanded circa 1993, choreographers from the company have continued with their own work.",
"Béatrice Massin with her \"Compagnie Fetes Galantes\", along with Marie-Geneviève Massé and her company \"L'Eventail\" are among the most prominent.",
"In 1995 Francine Lancelot's catalogue raisonné of baroque dance, entitled ''La Belle Dance'', was published."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BaroqueDance.info - background information, period dancing manuals, and a large collection of links* The Calendar of Early Dance - information about upcoming baroque events, choreographies and photo galleries"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Borzoi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Borzoi''' or '''Russian Hunting Sighthound''' is a Russian breed of hunting dog of sighthound type.",
"It was formerly used for wolf hunting, and until 1936 was known as the Russian Wolfhound."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The system by which Russians over the ages named their sighthounds was a series of descriptive terms rather than actual names.",
"is the masculine singular form of an archaic Russian adjective that means 'fast'.",
"('fast dog') is the basic term for sighthounds used by Russians, though is usually dropped.",
"The name derived from the word , which means 'wavy, silky coat', just as (as in hortaya borzaya) means shorthaired.",
"In modern Russian, the breed commonly called the Borzoi is officially known as .",
"Other Russian sighthound breeds are (from the steppe), called ; and (from the Crimea), called ."
],
[
"History",
"The Borzoi originated in the sixteenth century Russia by crossing Saluki and European sighthounds with thick-coated Russian breeds.The Borzoi was popular with the Tsars before the 1917 revolution.",
"For centuries, Borzois could not be purchased but only given as gifts from the Tsar.",
"Grand Duke Nicholas Nicolaievich of Russia bred countless Borzoi at Perchino, his private estate.The Russkaya Psovaya Borzaya was definitively accepted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 1956.File:1879 Borzoi Flock.jpg|Borzoi owned by Max Hartenstein, Berlin, Germany, 1879Borzo by a Chair-George Hare.jpg|\"Borzo by a Chair\" (St George Hare, 19th century)File:Tikhmenev (1904) Wolf hunt with borzois.jpg|''Wolf hunting with borzois'' (1904), Efim A. TikhmenevFile:Sarah Bernhardt Clairin Henderson.jpg|Sarah Bernhardt, portrait by Georges Clairin"
],
[
"Description",
"=== Appearance ===Borzois are large Russian sighthounds that resemble some central Asian breeds such as the Afghan hound, Saluki, and the Kyrgyz Taigan.",
"Borzois come in a variety of colours.",
"The Borzoi coat is silky and flat, often wavy or slightly curly.",
"The long top-coat is quite flat, with varying degrees of waviness or curling.",
"The soft undercoat thickens during winter or in cold climates, but is shed in hot weather to prevent overheating.",
"In its texture and distribution over the body, the Borzoi coat is unique.",
"There should be a frill on its neck, as well as feathering on its hindquarters and tail.=== Temperament ===The Borzoi is an affectionate and athletic breed of dog with a calm temperament.",
"In terms of obedience, Borzois are selective learners who quickly become bored with repetitive, apparently pointless activity, and they can be very stubborn when they are not properly motivated.",
"For example, food rewards, or \"baiting\", may work well for some individuals, but not at all for others.",
"Nevertheless, Borzois are definitely capable of enjoying and performing well in competitive obedience and agility trials with the right kind of training."
],
[
"Health",
"Stated life expectancy is 10 to 12 years.",
"Median lifespan based on a UK Kennel Club survey is 9 years 1 month.",
"One in five died of old age, at an average of 10 to 11.5 years.",
"The longest lived dog lived to 14 years 3 months.",
"Dogs that are physically fit and vigorous in their youth through middle age are more vigorous and healthy as elderly dogs, all other factors being equal.",
"In the UK, cancer and cardiac problems seem to be the most frequent causes of premature death.File:Medalowy borgoj.jpg|RedFile:Borzoi black female.png|BlackFile:Three Borzoi.jpg|White and yellow-and-whiteFile:Borzoi red & white.jpg|Red and whiteFile:Black and white borzoi.jpg|Black and whiteFile:Borzoi 600.jpg|White and brownFile:Kidai.jpg|White and greyFile:Borzoi portrait Flickr.jpg|White and sandy"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Further reading ===* Including a translation of ''The Perchino Hunt by His Excellency Dmitri Walzoff'' (1912).",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Basenji"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Basenji''' () is a breed of hunting dog.",
"It was bred from stock that originated in central Africa.",
"The Fédération Cynologique Internationale places the breed in the Spitz and primitive types.",
"The Basenji produces an unusual yodel-like sound, due to its unusually shaped larynx.",
"This trait also gives the Basenji the nickname the 'barkless dog.",
"'Basenjis share many distinctive traits with pariah dog types.",
"Basenjis come into estrus only once annually similar to dingoes, New Guinea singing dogs and Tibetan Mastiffs, when compared with other dog breeds which may have two or more breeding seasons each year.",
"They can run up to 30-35 miles per hour and Basenji lack a distinctive odor, and are prone to howls, yodels, and other vocalizations over the characteristic bark of modern dog breeds.",
"The breed's original foundation stock came from Congo."
],
[
"Name",
"The Azande and Mangbetu people from the northeastern Congo region describe a Basenji, in the local Lingála language, as , meaning \"dog of the savages\" or \"dog of the villagers\".",
"In the Congo, the Basenji is also known as the \"dog of the bush\".The dogs are also known to the Azande of South Sudan as .The word itself is the plural form of .In Swahili, another Bantu language, from East Africa, translates to \"savage dog\".",
"Another local name is ''m'bwa m'kube, 'mbwa wa mwitu'' \"wild dog\", or \"dog that jumps up and down\", a reference to their tendency to jump straight up to spot their quarry."
],
[
"Lineage",
"The Basenji has been identified as a basal breed that predates the emergence of the modern breeds in the 19th century.",
"DNA studies based on whole-genome sequences indicate that the basenji and the dingo are both considered to be basal members of the domestic dog clade.In 2021, the genome of two basenjis were assembled, which indicated that the basenji fell within the Asian spitz group.",
"The AMY2B gene produces an enzyme, amylase, that helps to digest starch.",
"The wolf, the husky and the dingo possess only two copies of this gene, which provides evidence that they arose before the expansion of agriculture.",
"The genomic study found that similarly, the basenji possesses only two copies of this gene."
],
[
"History",
"A black and white BasenjiThe Basenji originated on the continent of Africa.",
"Europeans first described the breed in 1895 in the Congo.",
"These local dogs, which Europeans identified as a distinct breed and called ''basenji'', were prized by locals for their intelligence, courage, speed, and silence.Several attempts were made to introduce the breed into England, but the earliest imports succumbed to disease.",
"In 1923 six Basenjis were taken from Sudan, but all six died from distemper shots received in quarantine.",
"It was not until the 1930s that foundation stock was successfully established in England, and then in the United States by animal importer Henry Trefflich.",
"It is likely that nearly all the Basenjis in the Western world are descended from these few original imports.",
"The breed was officially accepted into the AKC in 1943.In 1990, the AKC stud book was reopened to 14 new imports at the request of the Basenji Club of America.",
"The stud book was reopened again to selected imported dogs from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2013.An American-led expedition collected breeding stock in villages in the Basankusu area of the Democratic Republic of Congo, in 2010.Basenjis are also registered with the United Kennel Club.The popularity of the Basenji in the United States, according to the American Kennel Club, has declined over the past decade, with the breed ranked 71st in 1999, decreasing to 84th in 2006, and to 93rd in 2011."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"=== Appearance ===Red Basenji with white markingsTwo Basenjis; a tricolour male (left) and a red female (right).A Basenji brindle puppyRed BasenjiA tricolour Basenji with white markingsBasenjis are small, short-haired dogs with erect ears, tightly curled tails and graceful necks.",
"A Basenji's forehead is wrinkled, even more so when it is young or extremely excited.",
"A Basenji's eyes are typically almond-shaped.",
"Basenjis typically weigh about and stand at the shoulder.",
"They are a square breed, which means they are as long as they are tall with males usually larger than females.",
"Basenjis are athletic dogs, and deceptively powerful for their size.They have a graceful, confident gait like a trotting horse, and skim the ground in a double suspension gallop, with their characteristic curled tail straightened out for greater balance when running at their top speed.",
"Basenjis come in a few different colorations: red, black, tricolor, and brindle, and they all have white feet, chests and tail tips.",
"They can also come in ''trindle'', which is a tricolor with brindle points, a rare combination.=== Temperament and behavior ===The Basenji is alert, energetic, curious and reserved with strangers.",
"The Basenji tends to become emotionally attached to a single human.",
"Basenjis may not get along with non-canine pets.",
"Basenjis dislike wet weather, much like cats, and will often refuse to go outside in any sort of damp conditions.",
"They like to climb, and can easily scale chain wire/link fences.Basenjis often stand on their hind legs, somewhat like a meerkat, by themselves or leaning on something; this behavior is often observed when the dog is curious about something.",
"Basenjis have a strong prey drive.",
"According to the book ''The Intelligence of Dogs'', they are the second least trainable dog, when required to do human commands (behind only the Afghan Hound).",
"Their real intelligence manifests when they are required to actually solve problems for the sake of the dogs' own goals (such as food, or freedom).Basenjis are highly prey driven and will go after cats and other small animals."
],
[
"Health",
"There is only one completed health survey of dog breeds, including the Basenji, that was conducted by the UK Kennel Club in 2004.The survey indicated the prevalence of diseases in Basenjis with dermatitis (9% of responses), incontinence and bladder infection (5%), hypothyroidism (4%), pyometra and infertility (4%).=== Longevity ===Basenjis in the 2004 UK Kennel Club survey had a median lifespan of 13.6 years (sample size of 46 deceased dogs), which is 1–2 years longer than the median lifespan of other breeds of similar size.",
"The oldest dog in the survey was 17.5 years.",
"The most common causes of death were old age (30%), urologic (incontinence, Fanconi syndrome, chronic kidney failure 13%), behavior (\"unspecified\" and aggression 9%), and cancer (9%).=== Fanconi syndrome ===Fanconi syndrome, an inheritable disorder in which the renal (kidney) tubes fail to reabsorb electrolytes and nutrients, is unusually common in Basenjis.",
"Symptoms include excessive drinking, excessive urination, and glucose in the urine, which may lead to a misdiagnosis of diabetes.",
"Fanconi syndrome usually presents between 4 and 8 years of age, but sometimes as early as 3 years or as late as 10 years.",
"Fanconi syndrome is treatable and organ damage is reduced if treatment begins early.",
"Basenji owners are advised to test their dog's urine for glucose once a month beginning at the age of 3 years.",
"Glucose testing strips designed for human diabetics are inexpensive and available at most pharmacies.",
"A Fanconi disease management protocol has been developed that can be used by veterinarians to treat Fanconi-afflicted dogs.=== Other Basenji health issues ===Basenjis sometimes carry a simple recessive gene that, when homozygous for the defect, causes genetic hemolytic anemia.",
"Most 21st-century Basenjis are descended from ancestors that have tested clean.",
"When lineage from a fully tested line (set of ancestors) cannot be completely verified, the dog should be tested before breeding.",
"As this is a non-invasive DNA test, a Basenji can be tested for HA at any time.Basenjis sometimes suffer from hip dysplasia, resulting in loss of mobility and arthritis-like symptoms.",
"All dogs should be tested by either OFA or PennHIP prior to breeding.Malabsorption, or immunoproliferative enteropathy, is an autoimmune intestinal disease that leads to anorexia, chronic diarrhea, and even death.",
"A special diet can improve the quality of life for afflicted dogs.The breed can also fall victim to progressive retinal atrophy (a degeneration of the retina causing blindness) and several less serious hereditary eye problems such as coloboma (a hole in the eye structure), and persistent pupillary membrane (tiny threads across the pupil).File:Trindle basenji.jpg|Trindle BasenjiFile:Basenjis Charly e Bravo a sette mesi.jpg|A pair of red BasenjisFile:Basenji Profile.jpg|Side profile of a red and white Basenji"
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* In Nyanga mythology, Rukuba was a talking Basenji and the pet of the fire god Nyamuriri.",
"A man named either Nkhango or Mikhango convinced Rukuba to help him steal fire for his people.",
"Angered by this, Nyamuriri sent his dog away.",
"In some versions, he also takes the dog's ability to speak.",
"In most versions, Rukuba is still able to speak when he goes to live with the Nyanga, but refuses to do so anymore once Nkhango tries to make him a messenger for the village.",
"* The title character of the 1954 novel ''Good-bye, My Lady'', by James H. Street, is a Basenji (female).",
"The book was made into a film of the same name in 1956, with a cast that included Brandon deWilde, Walter Brennan, and Sidney Poitier.",
"Several Basenjis were used in the lead role, the main \"star\" being \"My Lady of the Congo\" a six-month-old Basenji bred by Veronica Tudor-Williams of Molesey, England.",
"She was followed by four other young Basenjis to act as doubles including her sibling, \"My Lord of the Congo\", and \"Flageolet of the Congo\", (who would become an International Champion).",
"\"My Lady\" did most of the scenes.",
"* The true story of a Basenji was featured in the episode \"The Cat Came Back\" on the radio program ''This American Life''.",
"* According to the webcomic ''Achewood'', if Jesus Christ were a dog, he would be a Basenji.",
"* Basenjis are featured in the fourth episode, \"Tyler Tucker, I Presume?",
"\", of the third season of the animated television series ''The Wild Thornberrys''.",
"Nigel Thornberry encounters a group of tribesmen along with their Congolese hunting dogs.",
"The series's director, Mark Risley, owns several Basenjis, and his dogs provided the recorded voices for their animated counterparts.",
"* An episode of ''Pound Puppies'', \"The Pups Who Loved Me\", revolves around a Basenji secret agent character by the name of Bondo.",
"The dog is drawn with an appropriate likeness, but appears to bark, which is uncharacteristic of the breed.",
"*Basenjis are featured in the first part of ''The Apu Trilogy'' (India).",
"*A Basenji dog is one of the main protagonists of the novel ''August Magic'' by Veronica Anne Starbuck.",
"*Anubis, the barkless dog, is a Basenji dog featured in a horror movie ''Soulmate'' and ''Tales of Halloween''.",
"*''Yodels, Wails and Basenji Tails'' – the 1998 book that features a compilation of Basenji stories.",
"*''The Story of Tongdaeng'' by His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand features one of his pets Tongdaeng, the Basenji dog.",
"*''Ace Ventura: Pet Detective''.",
"New release of this film on video includes footage of a black and white Basenji, which was cut from the original release.",
"This Basenji has also been featured on Australia's video cover.",
"*''The African Queen'' features a Basenji sitting on the lap of the native in the church scene at the beginning of the film.",
"*''Ring of Fire: An Indonesian Odyssey'' features a Basenji.",
"*''Mystic Fire Video'' contains the Borneo Basenji.",
"*''The Magic of Lassie'' – Basenji is seen during one of the scenes in the cab of an 18-wheeler in the parking lot.",
"*''The Constant Gardener'' features a Basenji puppy in the village, held by a child on a rope leash.",
"*''So Quiet on the Canine Front'' and ''Trader Hound'', movie shorts of the ''Dogville Comedies'' series, contain trained dogs as actors, two of which are Basenjis.",
"*''Air Bud: World Pup'' – two Basenjis of different colors are seen running with the pack of dogs and chasing two crooks at the end of the film.",
"*A Basenji is carried on Matthew Barney's head, in depiction of the Egyptian god of the dead Anubis, in his 2007 performance ''Guardian of the Veil''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dogs portal* List of dog breeds* African village dog* Indian pariah dog* Pariah dog* New Guinea singing dog"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Brit milah"
],
[
"Introduction",
"1824 illustration from Lipník nad Bečvou.The '''''brit milah''''' (, , ; \"covenant of circumcision\") or '''''bris''''' (, ) is the ceremony of circumcision in Judaism and Samaritanism.",
"According to the Book of Genesis, God commanded the biblical patriarch Abraham to be circumcised, an act to be followed by his male descendants on the eighth day of life, symbolizing the covenant between God and the Jewish people.",
"Today, it is generally performed by a mohel on the eighth day after the infant's birth and is followed by a celebratory meal known as ''seudat mitzvah''.",
"''Brit Milah'' is considered among the most important and central commandments in Judaism, and the rite has played a central role in the formation and history of Jewish civilization.",
"The Talmud, when discussing the importance of ''Brit Milah'', compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on the gematria for ''brit'' of 612.Jews who voluntarily fail to undergo ''Brit Milah'', barring extraordinary circumstances, are believed to suffer ''Kareth'' in Jewish theology: the extinction of the soul and denial of a share in the world to come.",
"Judaism does not see circumcision as a universal moral law.",
"Rather, the commandment is exclusive to followers of Judaism and the Jewish people; Gentiles who follow the Noahide Laws are believed to have a portion in the World to Come.",
"Historical conflicts between Jews and European civilizations have occurred several times over ''Brit Milah'', which saw multiple campaigns of Jewish ethnic, cultural, and religious persecution over the subject, with subsequent bans and restrictions on the practice as an attempted means of forceful assimilation, conversion, and ethnocide, most famously in the Maccabean Revolt by the Seleucid Empire.",
"According to historian Michael Livingston, \"In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution\".",
"These periods have generally been linked to suppression of Jewish religious, ethnic, and cultural identity and subsequent \"punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision\".",
"The Maccabee victory in the Maccabean Revolt — ending the prohibition against circumcision — is celebrated in Hanukkah.",
"Circumcision rates are near-universal among Jews.",
"''Brit Milah'' also has immense importance in other religions.",
"The Gospel of Luke records that Mary and Joseph, the parents of Jesus, had him undergo ''Brit Milah''."
],
[
"Origins (Unknown to 515 BCE)",
"\"Isaac's Circumcision\", Regensburg Pentateuch, c1300The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty; however, artistic and literary evidence from ancient Egypt suggests it was practiced in the ancient Near East from at least the Sixth Dynasty (ca.",
"2345–ca.",
"2181 BCE).",
"According to some scholars, it appears that it only appeared as a sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile.",
"Scholars who posit the existence of a hypothetical J source (likely composed during the seventh century BCE) of the Pentateuch in Genesis 15 hold that it would not have mentioned a covenant that involves the practice of circumcision.",
"Only in the P source (likely composed during the sixth century BCE) of Genesis 17 does the notion of circumcision become linked to a covenant.Some scholars have argued that it originated as a replacement for child sacrifice."
],
[
"Biblical references",
"According to the Hebrew Bible, Adonai commanded the biblical patriarch Abraham to be circumcised, an act to be followed by his descendants:Leviticus 12:3 says: \"And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised.",
"\"According to the Hebrew Bible, it was \"a reproach\" for an Israelite to be uncircumcised.",
"The plural term (\"uncircumcised\") is used opprobriously, denoting the Philistines and other non-Israelites and used in conjunction with (unpure) for heathen.",
"The word (\"uncircumcised\" singular) is also employed for \"impermeable\"; it is also applied to the first three years' fruit of a tree, which is forbidden.However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the Exodus from Egypt were not circumcised.",
"Joshua 5:2–9, explains, \"all the people that came out\" of Egypt were circumcised, but those \"born in the wilderness\" were not.",
"Therefore, Joshua, before the celebration of the Passover, had them circumcised at Gilgal specifically before they entered Canaan.",
"Abraham, too, was circumcised when he moved into Canaan.The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior, see Noahide Law.",
"Thus, Jeremiah 9:25–26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for \"all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart.",
"\"The penalty of willful non-observance is ''kareth'' (making oneself liable to extirpation), as noted in Genesis 17:1-14.Conversion to Judaism for non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision, otherwise one could not partake in the Passover offering.",
"Today, as in the time of Abraham, it is required of converts in Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism.As found in Genesis 17:1–14, ''brit milah'' is considered to be so important that should the eighth day fall on the Sabbath, actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise.",
"The Talmud, when discussing the importance of Milah, compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on the gematria for ''brit'' of 612.Covenants in ancient times were sometimes sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate.",
"In Hebrew, the verb meaning \"to seal a covenant\" translates literally as \"to cut\".",
"It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant."
],
[
"Ceremony",
"Jewish circumcision in Venice around 1780 Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme=== Mohalim ===Mohalim are Jews trained in the practice of ''brit milah'', the \"covenant of circumcision.\"",
"According to traditional Jewish law, in the absence of a grown free Jewish male expert, anyone who has the required skills is also authorized to perform the circumcision, if they are Jewish.",
"Yet, most streams of non-Orthodox Judaism allow women to be (, plural of , feminine of ), without restriction.",
"In 1984, Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform ; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism.Jewish Museum of Switzerland.=== Time and place ===''Chair of Elijah'' used during the ''brit milah'' ceremony – Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du JudaïsmeIt is customary for the brit to be held in a synagogue, but it can also be held at home or any other suitable location.",
"The brit is performed on the eighth day from the baby's birth, taking into consideration that according to the Jewish calendar, the day begins at the sunset of the day before.",
"If the baby is born on Sunday before sunset, the brit will be held the following Sunday.",
"However, if the baby is born on Sunday night after sunset, the brit is on the following Monday.",
"The brit takes place on the eighth day following birth even if that day is Shabbat or a holiday; however, if the baby is born on Friday night between sunset and nightfall, the Berit is delayed until the following Sunday.",
"Furthermore, the berit is performed on the Sabbath only if it is a natural birth; if the birth is a Caesarean section, the berit is delayed until Sunday.",
"A brit is traditionally performed in the morning, but it may be performed any time during daylight hours.==== Postponement for health reasons ====Family circumcision set and trunk, ca.",
"eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.The Talmud explicitly instructs that a boy must not be circumcised if he had two brothers who died due to complications arising from their circumcisions, and Maimonides says that this excluded paternal half-brothers.",
"This may be due to a concern about hemophilia.An Israeli study found a high rate of urinary tract infections if the bandage is left on too long.If the child is born prematurely or has other serious medical problems, the brit milah will be postponed until the doctors and mohel deem the child strong enough for his foreskin to be surgically removed.==== Adult circumcision ====In recent years, the circumcision of adult Jews who were not circumcised as infants has become more common than previously thought.",
"In such cases, the brit milah will be done at the earliest date that can be arranged.",
"The actual circumcision will be private, and other elements of the ceremony (e.g., the celebratory meal) may be modified to accommodate the desires of the one being circumcised.==== Circumcision for the dead ====According to Halacha, a baby who dies before they had time to circumcise him must be circumcised before burial.",
"Several reasons were given for this commandment.",
"Some have written that there is no need for this circumcision.=== Anesthetic ===Most prominent ''acharonim'' rule that the ''mitzvah'' of brit milah lies in the pain it causes, and anesthetic, sedation, or ointment should generally not be used.",
"However, it is traditionally common to feed the infant a drop of wine or other sweet liquid to soothe him.Eliezer Waldenberg, Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg, Shmuel Wosner, Moshe Feinstein and others agree that the child should not be sedated, although pain relieving ointment may be used under certain conditions; Shmuel Wosner particularly asserts that the act ought to be painful, per Psalm 44:23.In a letter to the editor published in ''The New York Times'' on January 3, 1998, Rabbi Moshe David Tendler disagrees with the above and writes, \"It is a biblical prohibition to cause anyone unnecessary pain\".",
"Rabbi Tendler recommends the use of an analgesic cream.",
"Lidocaine should not be used, however, because lidocaine has been linked to several pediatric near-death episodes.=== Kvatter ===The title of ''kvater'' () among Ashkenazi Jews is for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the father, who in turn carries him to the ''mohel.''",
"This honor is usually given to a couple without children, as a merit or ''segula'' (efficacious remedy) that they should have children of their own.",
"The origin of the term is Middle High German ''gevater/gevatere'' (\"godfather\").Seudat Mitzah at a brit (1824 Czechia).=== Seudat mitzvah ===After the ceremony, a celebratory meal takes place.",
"At the ''birkat hamazon'', according to the Eastern Asheknazic rite, additional introductory lines, known as ''Nodeh Leshimcha'', are added.",
"These lines praise God and request the permission of God, the Torah, Kohanim and distinguished people present to proceed with the grace.",
"When the four main blessings are concluded, special ''ha-Rachaman'' prayers are recited.",
"They request various blessings by God that include:# the parents of the baby, to help them raise him wisely;# the ''sandek'' (companion of child);# the baby boy to have strength and grow up to trust in God and perceive Him three times a year;# the ''mohel'' for unhesitatingly performing the ritual;# to send the Messiah in Judaism speedily in the merit of this ''mitzvah'';# to send Elijah the prophet, known as \"The Righteous Kohen\", so that God's covenant can be fulfilled with the re-establishment of the throne of King David.According to the Western Ashkenazic rite, ''Nodeh Leshimcha'' is not recited.",
"''Elohim tzivita li-yedidcha bechiracha'' is recited during the second blessing, and a set of ''ha-Rachaman'' prayers, different from the ones in the Eastern Ashkenazic rite, are recited."
],
[
"Ritual components",
"=== Uncovering, ''priah'' ===Infant after britJewish Museum of SwitzerlandAt the neonatal stage, the inner preputial epithelium is still linked with the surface of the glans.The ''mitzvah'' is executed only when this epithelium is either removed, or permanently peeled back to uncover the glans.On medical circumcisions performed by surgeons, the epithelium is removed along with the foreskin, to prevent post operative penile adhesion and its complications.However, on ritual circumcisions performed by a mohel, the epithelium is most commonly peeled off only after the foreskin has been amputated.",
"This procedure is called ''priah'' (), which means: 'uncovering'.",
"The main goal of \"priah\" (also known as \"bris periah\"), is to remove as much of the inner layer of the foreskin as possible and prevent the movement of the shaft skin, what creates the look and function of what is known as a \"low and tight\" circumcision.According to Rabbinic interpretation of traditional Jewish sources, the 'priah' has been performed as part of the Jewish circumcision since the Israelites first inhabited the Land of Israel.The ''Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion'' states that many Hellenistic Jews attempted to restore their foreskins, and that similar action was taken during the Hadrianic persecution, a period in which a prohibition against circumcision was issued.",
"The writers of the dictionary hypothesize that the more severe method practiced today was probably begun in order to prevent the possibility of restoring the foreskin after circumcision, and therefore the rabbis added the requirement of cutting the foreskin in periah.According to Shaye J. D. Cohen, the Torah only commands milah.",
"David Gollaher has written that the rabbis added the procedure of priah to discourage men from trying to restore their foreskins: \"Once established, priah was deemed essential to circumcision; if the mohel failed to cut away enough tissue, the operation was deemed insufficient to comply with God's covenant,\" and \"Depending on the strictness of individual rabbis, boys (or men thought to have been inadequately cut) were subjected to additional operations.",
"\"Engraving of a brit (1657)=== '''' ===:note: alternate spellings Metzizah or Metsitsah are also used to refer to this.In the Metzitzah (), the guard is slid over the foreskin as close to the glans as possible to allow for maximum removal of the former without any injury to the latter.",
"A scalpel is used to detach the foreskin.",
"A tube is used for ''metzitzah''In addition to '''' (the initial cut amputating the akroposthion) and '''' and subsequent circumcision, mentioned above, the Talmud (Mishnah Shabbat 19:2) mentions a third step, '''', translated as suction, as one of the steps involved in the circumcision rite.",
"The Talmud writes that a \"Mohel (Circumciser) who does not suck creates a danger, and should be dismissed from practice\".",
"Rashi on that Talmudic passage explains that this step is in order to draw some blood from deep inside the wound to prevent danger to the baby.There are other modern antiseptic and antibiotic techniques—all used as part of the ''brit milah'' today—which many say accomplish the intended purpose of ''metzitzah'', however, since ''metzitzah'' is one of the four steps to fulfill Mitzvah, it continues to be practiced by a minority of Orthodox and Hassidic Jews.==== '''' (oral suction) ====:This has also been abbreviated as MBP.The ancient method of performing ''metzitzah b'peh'' ()—or oral suction—has become controversial.",
"The process has the ''mohel'' place his mouth directly on the infant's genital wound to draw blood away from the cut.",
"The vast majority of Rabbinical Jewish circumcision ceremonies do not use metzitzah b'peh, but some Haredi Jews continue to perform it, while traditional Karaites and Beta Israel never practiced it.",
"It has been documented that the practice poses a serious risk of spreading herpes to the infant.",
"Proponents maintain that there is no conclusive evidence that links herpes to ''Metzitza'', and that attempts to limit this practice infringe on religious freedom.The practice has become a controversy in both secular and Jewish medical ethics.",
"The ritual of ''metzitzah'' is found in Mishnah Shabbat 19:2, which lists it as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite.",
"Rabbi Moses Sofer, also known as the Chatam Sofer (1762–1839), observed that the Talmud states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child.",
"As such, the Chatam Sofer issued a ruling to perform ''metzitzah'' with a sponge instead of oral suction in order to safeguard the child from potential risks.",
"He also cited a passage in Nedarim 32a as a warrant for the position that metzitzah b’peh was not an obligatory part of the circumcision ceremony.",
"It relates the story that a mohel (who was suspected of transmitting herpes via metzizah to infants) was checked several times and never found to have signs of the disease and that a ban was requested because of the \"possibility of future infections\".",
"Moshe Schick (1807–1879), a student of Moses Sofer, states in his book of Responsa, ''She’eilos u’teshuvos Maharam Schick'' (Orach Chaim 152,) that Moses Sofer gave the ruling in that specific instance only because the mohel refused to step down and had secular government connections that prevented his removal in favor of another mohel, and the Heter may not be applied elsewhere.",
"He also states (''Yoreh Deah'' 244) that the practice is possibly a Sinaitic tradition, i.e., Halacha l'Moshe m'Sinai.",
"Other sources contradict this claim, with copies of Moses Sofer's responsa making no mention of the legal case or of his ruling applying in only one situation.",
"Rather, that responsa makes quite clear that \"metzizah\" was a health measure and should never be employed where there is a health risk to the infant.Chaim Hezekiah Medini, after corresponding with the greatest Jewish sages of the generation, concluded the practice to be Halacha l'Moshe m'Sinai and elaborates on what prompted Moses Sofer to give the above ruling.",
"He tells the story that a student of Moses Sofer, Lazar Horowitz, Chief Rabbi of Vienna at the time and author of the responsa ''Yad Elazer'', needed the ruling because of a governmental attempt to ban circumcision completely if it included ''metztitzah b'peh.''",
"He therefore asked Sofer to give him permission to do ''brit milah'' without ''metzitzah b’peh.''",
"When he presented the defense in secular court, his testimony was erroneously recorded to mean that Sofer stated it as a general ruling.",
"The Rabbinical Council of America (RCA), which claims to be the largest American organization of Orthodox rabbis, published an article by mohel Yehudi Pesach Shields in its summer 1972 issue of ''Tradition'' magazine, calling for the abandonment of Metzitzah b'peh.",
"Since then the RCA has issued an opinion that advocates methods that do not involve contact between the mohel's mouth and the infant's genitals, such as the use of a sterile syringe, thereby eliminating the risk of infection.",
"According to the Chief Rabbinate of Israel and the Edah HaChareidis ''metzitzah b'peh'' should still be performed.The practice of ''metzitzah b'peh'' posed a serious risk in the transfer of herpes from mohelim to eight Israeli infants, one of whom suffered brain damage.",
"When three New York City infants contracted herpes after ''metzizah b'peh'' by one ''mohel'' and one of them died, New York authorities took out a restraining order against the ''mohel'' requiring use of a sterile glass tube, or pipette.",
"The mohel's attorney argued that the New York Department of Health had not supplied conclusive medical evidence linking his client with the disease.",
"In September 2005, the city withdrew the restraining order and turned the matter over to a rabbinical court.",
"Thomas Frieden, the Health Commissioner of New York City, wrote, \"There exists no reasonable doubt that ‘metzitzah b'peh’ can and has caused neonatal herpes infection....The Health Department recommends that infants being circumcised not undergo metzitzah b'peh.\"",
"In May 2006, the Department of Health for New York State issued a protocol for the performance of metzitzah b'peh.",
"Antonia Novello, Commissioner of Health for New York State, together with a board of rabbis and doctors, worked, she said, to \"allow the practice of metzizah b'peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health's responsibility to protect the public health.\"",
"Later in New York City in 2012 a 2-week-old baby died of herpes because of metzitzah b'peh.In three medical papers done in Israel, Canada, and the US, oral suction following circumcision was suggested as a cause in 11 cases of neonatal herpes.",
"Researchers noted that prior to 1997, neonatal herpes reports in Israel were rare, and that the late incidences were correlated with the mothers carrying the virus themselves.",
"Rabbi Doctor Mordechai Halperin implicates the \"better hygiene and living conditions that prevail among the younger generation,\" which lowered to 60% the rate of young Israeli Haredi mothers who carry the virus.",
"He explains that an \"absence of antibodies in the mothers’ blood means that their newborn sons received no such antibodies through the placenta, and therefore are vulnerable to infection by HSV-1.",
"\"==== Barriers ====Because of the risk of infection, some rabbinical authorities have ruled that the traditional practice of direct contact should be replaced by using a sterile tube between the wound and the mohel's mouth, so there is no direct oral contact.",
"The Rabbinical Council of America, the largest group of Modern Orthodox rabbis, endorses this method.",
"The RCA paper states: \"Rabbi Schachter even reports that Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik reports that his father, Rav Moshe Soloveitchik, would not permit a mohel to perform metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, and that his grandfather, Rav Chaim Soloveitchik, instructed mohelim in Brisk not to do metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact.",
"However, although Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik also generally prohibited metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, he did not ban it by those who insisted upon it.\"",
"The sefer Mitzvas Hametzitzah by Rabbi Sinai Schiffer of Baden, Germany, states that he is in possession of letters from 36 major Russian (Lithuanian) rabbis that categorically prohibit Metzitzah with a sponge and require it to be done orally.",
"Among them is Rabbi Chaim Halevi Soloveitchik of Brisk.In September 2012, the New York Department of Health unanimously ruled that the practice of metztizah b'peh should require informed consent from the parent or guardian of the child undergoing the ritual.",
"Prior to the ruling, several hundred rabbis, including Rabbi David Neiderman, the executive director of the United Jewish Organization of Williamsburg, signed a declaration stating that they would not inform parents of the potential dangers that came with metzitzah b'peh, even if informed consent became law.In a motion for preliminary injunction with intent to sue, filed against New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, affidavits by Awi Federgruen, Brenda Breuer, and Daniel S. Berman argued that the study on which the department passed its conclusions is flawed.The \"informed consent\" regulation was challenged in court.",
"In January 2013 the U.S. District court ruled that the law did not specifically target religion and therefore must not pass strict scrutiny.",
"The ruling was appealed to the Court of Appeals.On August 15, 2014, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision by the lower court, and ruled that the regulation does have to be reviewed under strict scrutiny to determine whether it infringes on Orthodox Jews' freedom of religion.On September 9, 2015, after coming to an agreement with the community the New York City Board of Health voted to repeal the informed consent regulation.=== Hatafat dam brit ===A brit milah is more than circumcision; it is a sacred ritual in Judaism, as distinguished from its non-ritual requirement in Islam.",
"One ramification is that the brit is not considered complete unless a drop of blood is actually drawn.",
"The standard medical methods of circumcision through constriction do not meet the requirements of the halakhah for brit milah, because they are done with hemostasis, ''i.e.",
"'', they stop the flow of blood.",
"Moreover, circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah.",
"Therefore, in cases involving a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, an already-circumcised convert, or an aposthetic (born without a foreskin) individual, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood (, ) from the penis at the point where the foreskin would have been or was attached."
],
[
"''Milah L'shem Giur''",
"Set of brit milah implements, Göttingen city museumA ''milah l'shem giur'' is a \"circumcision for the purpose of conversion\".",
"In Orthodox Judaism, this procedure is usually done by adoptive parents for adopted boys who are being converted as part of the adoption or by families with young children converting together.",
"It is also required for adult converts who were not previously circumcised, e.g., those born in countries where circumcision at birth is not common.",
"The conversion of a minor is valid in both Orthodox and Conservative Judaism until a child reaches the age of majority (13 for a boy, 12 for a girl); at that time the child has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered retroactively invalid.",
"He must be informed of his right to renounce his conversion if he wishes.",
"If he does not make such a statement, it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish.",
"Orthodox rabbis will generally not convert a non-Jewish child raised by a mother who has not converted to Judaism.The laws of conversion and conversion-related circumcision in Orthodox Judaism have numerous complications, and authorities recommend that a rabbi be consulted well in advance.In Conservative Judaism, the milah l'shem giur procedure is also performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish.",
"This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed by Conservative interpretations of halakha.",
"Conservative Rabbis will authorize it only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household.",
"Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in the mikveh with the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish.",
"If the mother does not convert, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child's conversion to Judaism.",
"This can be done before the child is even one year old.",
"If the child did not immerse in the mikveh, or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish at age 13 as a Bar Mitzvah, and complete the conversion then.",
"* The ceremony, when performed l'shem giur, does not have to be performed on a particular day, and does not override Shabbat and Jewish Holidays.",
"* In Orthodox Judaism, there is a split of authorities on whether the child receives a Hebrew name at the Brit ceremony or upon immersion in the Mikvah.",
"According to ''Zichron Brit LeRishonim'', naming occurs at the Brit with a different formula than the standard Brit Milah.",
"The more common practice among Ashkenazic Jews follows Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, with naming occurring at immersion.Where the procedure was performed but not followed by immersion or other requirements of the conversion procedure (e.g., in Conservative Judaism, where the mother has not converted), if the boy chooses to complete the conversion at Bar Mitzvah, a ''milah l'shem giur'' performed when the boy was an infant removes the obligation to undergo either a full brit milah or ''hatafat dam brit''.=== Visible symbol of a covenant ===Rabbi Saadia Gaon considers something to be \"complete\" if it lacks nothing, but also has nothing that is unneeded.",
"He regards the foreskin as an unneeded organ that God created in man, and so by amputating it, the man is completed.",
"The author of Sefer ha-Chinuch provides three reasons for the practice of circumcision:# To complete the form of man, by removing what he claims to be a redundant organ;# To mark the chosen people, so that their bodies will be different as their souls are.",
"The organ chosen for the mark is the one responsible for the sustenance of the species;# The completion effected by circumcision is not congenital, but left to the man.",
"This implies that as he completes the form of his body, so can he complete the form of his soul.Talmud professor Daniel Boyarin offered two explanations for circumcision.",
"One is that it is a literal inscription on the Jewish body of the name of God in the form of the letter \"yud\" (from \"yesod\").",
"The second is that the act of bleeding represents a feminization of Jewish men, significant in the sense that the covenant represents a marriage between Jews and (a symbolically male) God.=== Other reasons ===In ''Of the Special Laws, Book 1'', the Jewish philosopher Philo additionally gave other reasons for the practice of circumcision.He attributes four of the reasons to \"men of divine spirit and wisdom.\"",
"These include the idea that circumcision:# Protects against disease,# Secures cleanliness \"in a way that is suited to the people consecrated to God,\"# Causes the circumcised portion of the penis to resemble a heart, thereby representing a physical connection between the \"breath contained within the heart that is generative of thoughts, and the generative organ itself that is productive of living beings,\" and# Promotes prolificness by removing impediments to the flow of semen.",
"\"Is a symbol of a man's knowing himself.\""
],
[
"Judaism, Christianity, and the Early Church (4 BCE – 150 CE)",
"The 1st-century Jewish author Philo Judaeus defended Jewish circumcision on several grounds.",
"He thought that circumcision should be done as early as possible as it would not be as likely to be done by someone's own free will.",
"He claimed that the foreskin prevented semen from reaching the vagina and so should be done as a way to increase the nation's population.",
"He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure.There was also division in Pharisaic Judaism between Hillel the Elder and Shammai on the issue of circumcision of proselytes.According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was circumcised on the 8th day.According to saying 53 of the Gospel of Thomas,Foreskin was considered a sign of beauty, civility, and masculinity throughout the Greco-Roman world; it was custom to spend an hour a day or so exercising nude in the ''gymnasium'' and in Roman baths; many Jewish men did not want to be seen in public deprived of their foreskins, where matters of business and politics were discussed.",
"To expose one's glans in public was seen as indecent, vulgar, and a sign of sexual arousal and desire.Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman culture widely found circumcision to be barbaric, cruel, and utterly repulsive in nature.",
"By the period of the Maccabees, many Jewish men attempted to hide their circumcisions through the process of epispasm due to the circumstances of the period, although Jewish religious writers denounced these practices as abrogating the covenant of Abraham in 1 Maccabees and the Talmud.",
"After Christianity and Second Temple Judaism split apart from one another, ''Milah'' was declared spiritually unnecessary as a condition of justification by Christian writers such as Paul the Apostle and subsequently in the Council of Jerusalem, while it further increased in importance for Jews.In the mid-2nd century CE, the Tannaim, the successors of the newly ideologically dominant Pharisees, introduced and made mandatory a secondary step of circumcision known as the ''Periah.''",
"Without it circumcision was newly declared to have no spiritual value.",
"This new form removed as much of the inner mucosa as possible, the frenulum and its corresponding delta from the penis, and prevented the movement of shaft skin, in what creates a \"low and tight\" circumcision.",
"It was intended to make it impossible to restore the foreskin.",
"This is the form practiced among the large majority of Jews today, and, later, became a basis for the routine neonatal circumcisions performed in the United States.The steps, justifications, and imposition of the practice have dramatically varied throughout history; commonly cited reasons for the practice have included it being a way to control male sexuality by reducing sexual pleasure and desire, as a visual marker of the covenant of the pieces, as a metaphor for mankind perfecting creation, and as a means to promote fertility.",
"The original version in Judaic history was either a ritual nick or cut done by a father to the ''acroposthion'', the part of the foreskin that overhangs the glans penis.",
"This form of genital nicking or cutting, known as simply ''milah,'' became adopted among Jews by the Second Temple period and was the predominant form until the second century CE.",
"The notion of ''milah'' being linked to a biblical covenant is generally believed to have originated in the 6th century BCE as a product of the Babylonian captivity; the practice likely lacked this significance among Jews before the period."
],
[
"Reform Judaism",
"The Reform societies established in Frankfurt and Berlin regarded circumcision as barbaric and wished to abolish it.",
"However, while prominent rabbis such as Abraham Geiger believed the ritual to be barbaric and outdated, they refrained from instituting any change in this matter.",
"In 1843, when a father in Frankfurt refused to circumcise his son, rabbis of all shades in Germany stated it was mandated by Jewish law; even Samuel Holdheim affirmed this.",
"By 1871, Reform rabbinic leadership in Germany reasserted \"the supreme importance of circumcision in Judaism,\" while affirming the traditional viewpoint that non-circumcised Jews are Jews nonetheless.",
"Although the issue of circumcision of converts continues to be debated, the necessity of Brit Milah for Jewish infant boys has been stressed in every subsequent Reform rabbis manual or guide.",
"While the Reform movement does not require the circumcision of adult male converts, it is increasingly acknowledged and practiced by many Reform communities as an important part of the conversion process.",
"Since 1984 Reform Judaism has trained and certified over 300 of their own practicing ''mohalim'' in this ritual."
],
[
"In Samaritanism",
"Samaritan ''brit milah'' occurs on the eighth day following the child's birth at the father's home.",
"In addition to special prayers and readings from the Torah pertaining to the ritual, an old hymn that invokes blessings for parents and children is sung.According to 19th century British explorer Conder, in their circumcision hymn, Samaritans express their gratitude for a certain Roman soldier by the name of Germon, who was sent by an unknown Roman Emperor as a sentinel over the home of the Samaritan High Priest for his kindness in allowing the process of circumcision to take place.",
"They tried to give him money, but he refused, just requesting to be included in their future prayers instead."
],
[
"See also",
"* Circumcision of Jesus* Khitan (circumcision)* History of male circumcision"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Chabad.org's Brit Milah: The Covenant of Circumcision* Jewish Encyclopedia's entry for Circumcision* CircCentral, an online museum of Brit Milah instruments"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Business ethics"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Business ethics''' (also known as '''corporate ethics''') is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics, that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment.",
"It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.",
"These ethics originate from individuals, organizational statements or the legal system.",
"These norms, values, ethical, and unethical practices are the principles that guide a business.Business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern the actions and behavior of an individual in the business organization.",
"Business ethics have two dimensions, normative business ethics or descriptive business ethics.",
"As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative.",
"Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods.",
"The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns.Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia.",
"For example, most major corporations today promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters.Adam Smith said in 1776, \"People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices.\"",
"Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions.",
"Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control.",
"The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.Maintaining an ethical status is the responsibility of the manager of the business.",
"According to a 1990 article in the ''Journal of Business Ethics'', \"Managing ethical behavior is one of the most pervasive and complex problems facing business organizations today.\""
],
[
"History",
"Business ethics reflect the norms of each historical period.",
"As time passes, norms evolve, causing accepted behaviors to become objectionable.",
"Business ethics and the resulting behavior evolved as well.",
"Business was involved in slavery, colonialism, and the Cold War.The term 'business ethics' came into common use in the United States in the early 1970s.",
"By the mid-1980s at least 500 courses in business ethics reached 40,000 students, using some twenty textbooks and at least ten casebooks supported by professional societies, centers and journals of business ethics.",
"The Society for Business Ethics was founded in 1980.European business schools adopted business ethics after 1987 commencing with the European Business Ethics Network.",
"In 1982 the first single-authored books in the field appeared.Firms began highlighting their ethical stature in the late 1980s and early 1990s, possibly in an attempt to distance themselves from the business scandals of the day, such as the savings and loan crisis.",
"The concept of business ethics caught the attention of academics, media and business firms by the end of the Cold War.",
"However, criticism of business practices was attacked for infringing the freedom of entrepreneurs and critics were accused of supporting communists.",
"This scuttled the discourse of business ethics both in media and academia.",
"The Defense Industry Initiative on Business Ethics and Conduct (DII) was created to support corporate ethical conduct.",
"This era began the belief and support of self-regulation and free trade, which lifted tariffs and barriers and allowed businesses to merge and divest in an increasing global atmosphere.=== Religious and philosophical origins ===One of the earliest written treatments of business ethics is found in the ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'', a Tamil book dated variously from 300 BCE to the 7th century CE and attributed to Thiruvalluvar.",
"Many verses discuss business ethics, in particular, verse 113, adapting to a changing environment in verses 474, 426, and 140, learning the intricacies of different tasks in verses 462 and 677."
],
[
"Overview",
"Business ethics reflects the philosophy of business, of which one aim is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company.",
"Business purpose expresses the company's reason for existing.",
"Modern discussion on the purpose of business has been freshened by views from thinkers such as Richard R. Ellesworth, Peter Drucker, and Nikos Mourkogiannis: Earlier views such as Milton Friedman's held that the purpose of a business organization is to make profit for shareholders.",
"Nevertheless, the purpose of maximizing shareholder's wealth often \"fails to energize employees\".",
"In practice, many non-shareholders also benefit from a firm's economic activity, among them employees through contractual compensation and its broader impact, consumers by the tangible or non-tangible value derived from their purchase choices; society as a whole through taxation and/or the company's involvement in social action when it occurs.",
"On the other hand, if a company's purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits for other concerns is a violation of its fiduciary responsibility.",
"Corporate entities are legal persons but this does not mean they are legally entitled to all of the rights and liabilities as natural persons.Ethics are the rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis.",
"Many consider \"ethics\" with conscience or a simplistic sense of \"right\" and \"wrong\".",
"Others would say that ethics is an internal code that governs an individual's conduct, ingrained into each person by family, faith, tradition, community, laws, and personal mores.",
"Corporations and professional organizations, particularly licensing boards, generally will have a written code of ethics that governs standards of professional conduct expected of all in the field.It is important to note that \"law\" and \"ethics\" are not synonymous, nor are the \"legal\" and \"ethical\" courses of action in a given situation necessarily the same.",
"Statutes and regulations passed by legislative bodies and administrative boards set forth the \"law\".",
"Slavery once was legal in the US, but one certainly would not say enslaving another was an \"ethical\" act.Economist Milton Friedman wrote that corporate executives' \"responsibility ... generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to their basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom\".",
"Friedman also said, \"the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals ... A business cannot have responsibilities.",
"So the question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible?",
"And my answer to that is, no, they do not.\"",
"This view is known as the Friedman doctrine.",
"A multi-country 2011 survey found support for this view among the \"informed public\" ranging from 30 to 80%.",
"Ronald Duska and Jacques Cory have described Friedman's argument as consequentialist or utilitarian rather than pragmatic: Friedman's argument implies that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit the most people in the long term.",
"Duska argued that Friedman failed to differentiate two very different aspects of business: (1) the ''motive'' of individuals, who are generally motivated by profit to participate in business, and (2) the socially sanctioned ''purpose'' of business, or the reason why people allow businesses to exist, which is to provide goods and services to people.",
"So Friedman was wrong that making a profit is the only concern of business, Duska argued.Peter Drucker once said, \"There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed\", implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations.",
"However, Drucker in another instance said that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm—''primum non nocere''.Philosopher and author Ayn Rand has put forth her idea of rational egoism, which also applies to business ethics.",
"She stresses that position of the entrepreneur, who has to be responsible for his own happiness and the business is a means to said happiness, where the entrepreneur is not required to serve the interest of anyone else and no-one is entitled to his/her work.Another view of business is that it must exhibit corporate social responsibility (CSR): an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of the communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals.",
"In the US and most other nations, corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects.",
"For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their free speech rights are limited.",
"This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilities.",
"Duska argued that stakeholders expect a business to be ethical and that violating that expectation must be counterproductive for the business.Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors, its fiduciary responsibility to its shareholders.",
"Issues concerning relations between different companies include hostile take-overs and industrial espionage.",
"Related issues include corporate governance; corporate social entrepreneurship; political contributions; legal issues such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter; and the marketing of corporations' ethics policies.According to research published by the Institute of Business Ethics and Ipsos MORI in late 2012, the three major areas of public concern regarding business ethics in Britain are executive pay, corporate tax avoidance and bribery and corruption.Ethical standards of an entire organization can be damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge.",
"This will not only affect the company and its outcome but the employees who work under a corporate psychopath.",
"The way a corporate psychopath can rise in a company is by their manipulation, scheming, and bullying.",
"They do this in a way that can hide their true character and intentions within a company."
],
[
"Functional business areas",
"===Finance===Fundamentally, finance is a social science discipline.",
"The discipline borders behavioral economics, sociology, economics, accounting and management.",
"It concerns technical issues such as the mix of debt and equity, dividend policy, the evaluation of alternative investment projects, options, futures, swaps, and other derivatives, portfolio diversification and many others.",
"Finance is often mistaken by the people to be a discipline free from ethical burdens.",
"The 2008 financial crisis caused critics to challenge the ethics of the executives in charge of U.S. and European financial institutions and financial regulatory bodies.",
"Finance ethics is overlooked for another reason—issues in finance are often addressed as matters of law rather than ethics.====Finance paradigm====Aristotle said, \"the end and purpose of the polis is the good life\".",
"Adam Smith characterized the good life in terms of material goods and intellectual and moral excellences of character.",
"Smith in his ''The Wealth of Nations'' commented, \"All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind.\"",
"However, a section of economists influenced by the ideology of neoliberalism, interpreted the objective of economics to be maximization of economic growth through accelerated consumption and production of goods and services.",
"Neoliberal ideology promoted finance from its position as a component of economics to its core.",
"Proponents of the ideology hold that unrestricted financial flows, if redeemed from the shackles of \"financial repressions\", best help impoverished nations to grow.",
"The theory holds that open financial systems accelerate economic growth by encouraging foreign capital inflows, thereby enabling higher levels of savings, investment, employment, productivity and \"welfare\", along with containing corruption.",
"Neoliberals recommended that governments open their financial systems to the global market with minimal regulation over capital flows.",
"The recommendations however, met with criticisms from various schools of ethical philosophy.",
"Some pragmatic ethicists, found these claims to be unfalsifiable and a priori, although neither of these makes the recommendations false or unethical per se.",
"Raising economic growth to the highest value necessarily means that welfare is subordinate, although advocates dispute this saying that economic growth provides more welfare than known alternatives.",
"Since history shows that neither regulated nor unregulated firms always behave ethically, neither regime offers an ethical panacea.Neoliberal recommendations to developing countries to unconditionally open up their economies to transnational finance corporations was fiercely contested by some ethicists.",
"The claim that deregulation and the opening up of economies would reduce corruption was also contested.Dobson observes, \"a rational agent is simply one who pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum.",
"In essence, to be rational in finance is to be individualistic, materialistic, and competitive.",
"Business is a game played by individuals, as with all games the object is to win, and winning is measured in terms solely of material wealth.",
"Within the discipline, this rationality concept is never questioned, and has indeed become the theory-of-the-firm's sine qua non\".",
"Financial ethics is in this view a mathematical function of shareholder wealth.",
"Such simplifying assumptions were once necessary for the construction of mathematically robust models.",
"However, signalling theory and agency theory extended the paradigm to greater realism.===Other issues===Fairness in trading practices, trading conditions, financial contracting, sales practices, consultancy services, tax payments, internal audit, external audit and executive compensation also, fall under the umbrella of finance and accounting.",
"Particular corporate ethical/legal abuses include: creative accounting, earnings management, misleading financial analysis, insider trading, securities fraud, bribery/kickbacks and facilitation payments.",
"Outside of corporations, bucket shops and forex scams are criminal manipulations of financial markets.",
"Cases include accounting scandals, Enron, WorldCom and Satyam.===Human resource management===Human resource management occupies the sphere of activity of recruitment selection, orientation, performance appraisal, training and development, industrial relations and health and safety issues.",
"Business Ethicists differ in their orientation towards labor ethics.",
"Some assess human resource policies according to whether they support an egalitarian workplace and the dignity of labor.Issues including employment itself, privacy, compensation in accord with comparable worth, collective bargaining (and/or its opposite) can be seen either as inalienable rights or as negotiable.Discrimination by age (preferring the young or the old), gender/sexual harassment, race, religion, disability, weight and attractiveness.",
"A common approach to remedying discrimination is affirmative action.Once hired, employees have the right to the occasional cost of living increases, as well as raises based on merit.",
"Promotions, however, are not a right, and there are often fewer openings than qualified applicants.",
"It may seem unfair if an employee who has been with a company longer is passed over for a promotion, but it is not unethical.",
"It is only unethical if the employer did not give the employee proper consideration or used improper criteria for the promotion.",
"Each employer should know the distinction between what is unethical and what is illegal.",
"If an action is illegal it is breaking the law but if an action seems morally incorrect that is unethical.",
"In the workplace what is unethical does not mean illegal and should follow the guidelines put in place by OSHA, EEOC, and other law binding entities.Potential employees have ethical obligations to employers, involving intellectual property protection and whistle-blowing.Employers must consider workplace safety, which may involve modifying the workplace, or providing appropriate training or hazard disclosure.",
"This differentiates on the location and type of work that is taking place and can need to comply with the standards to protect employees and non-employees under workplace safety.Larger economic issues such as immigration, trade policy, globalization and trade unionism affect workplaces and have an ethical dimension, but are often beyond the purview of individual companies.====Trade unions====Trade unions, for example, may push employers to establish due process for workers, but may also cause job loss by demanding unsustainable compensation and work rules.Unionized workplaces may confront union busting and strike breaking and face the ethical implications of work rules that advantage some workers over others.====Management strategy====Among the many people management strategies that companies employ are a \"soft\" approach that regards employees as a source of creative energy and participants in workplace decision making, a \"hard\" version explicitly focused on control and Theory Z that emphasizes philosophy, culture and consensus.",
"None ensure ethical behavior.",
"Some studies claim that sustainable success requires a humanely treated and satisfied workforce.===Sales and marketing===Marketing ethics came of age only as late as the 1990s.",
"Marketing ethics was approached from ethical perspectives of virtue or virtue ethics, deontology, consequentialism, pragmatism and relativism.Ethics in marketing deals with the principles, values and/or ideas by which marketers (and marketing institutions) ought to act.",
"Marketing ethics is also contested terrain, beyond the previously described issue of potential conflicts between profitability and other concerns.",
"Ethical marketing issues include marketing redundant or dangerous products/services, transparency about environmental risks, transparency about product ingredients such as genetically modified organisms possible health risks, financial risks, security risks, etc., respect for consumer privacy and autonomy, advertising truthfulness and fairness in pricing & distribution.According to Borgerson, and Schroeder (2008), marketing can influence individuals' perceptions of and interactions with other people, implying an ethical responsibility to avoid distorting those perceptions and interactions.Marketing ethics involves pricing practices, including illegal actions such as price fixing and legal actions including price discrimination and price skimming.",
"Certain promotional activities have drawn fire, including greenwashing, bait and switch, shilling, viral marketing, spam (electronic), pyramid schemes and multi-level marketing.",
"Advertising has raised objections about attack ads, subliminal messages, sex in advertising and marketing in schools.=== Inter-organizational relationships ===Scholars in business and management have paid much attention to the ethical issues in the different forms of relationships between organizations such as buyer-supplier relationships, networks, alliances, or joint ventures.",
"Drawing in particular on Transaction Cost Theory and Agency Theory, they note the risk of opportunistic and unethical practices between partners through, for instance, shirking, poaching, and other deceitful behaviors.",
"In turn, research on inter-organizational relationships has observed the role of formal and informal mechanisms to both prevent unethical practices and mitigate their consequences.",
"It especially discusses the importance of formal contracts and relational norms between partners to manage ethical issues.===Emerging issues===Being the most important element of a business, stakeholders' main concern is to determine whether or not the business is behaving ethically or unethically.",
"The business's actions and decisions should be primarily ethical before it happens to become an ethical or even legal issue.",
"\"In the case of the government, community, and society what was merely an ethical issue can become a legal debate and eventually law.",
"\"Some emerging ethical issues are:* Corporate Environmental Responsibility: Businesses impacts on eco-systemic environments can no longer be neglected and ecosystems' impacts on business activities are becoming more imminent.",
"* Fairness: The three aspects that motivate people to be fair is; equality, optimization, and reciprocity.",
"Fairness is the quality of being just, equitable, and impartial.",
"* Misuse of company's times and resources: This particular topic may not seem to be a very common one, but it is very important, as it costs a company billions of dollars on a yearly basis.",
"This misuse is from late arrivals, leaving early, long lunch breaks, inappropriate sick days etc.",
"This has been observed as a major form of misconduct in businesses today.",
"One of the greatest ways employees participate in the misuse of company's time and resources is by using the company computer for personal use.",
"* Consumer fraud: There are many different types of fraud, namely; friendly fraud, return fraud, wardrobing, price arbitrage, returning stolen goods.",
"Fraud is a major unethical practice within businesses which should be paid special attention.",
"Consumer fraud is when consumers attempt to deceive businesses for their very own benefit.",
"* Abusive behavior: A common ethical issue among employees.",
"Abusive behavior consists of inflicting intimidating acts on other employees.",
"Such acts include harassing, using profanity, threatening someone physically and insulting them, and being annoying.===Production===This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm.",
"Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining the ethical course can be problematic.",
"In some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products.",
"Production may have environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction and urban sprawl.",
"The downstream effects of technologies nuclear power, genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood.",
"While the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited the newest technology introduced since the industrial revolution.",
"Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals.",
"There are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals.===Property===The etymological root of property is the Latin , which refers to 'nature', 'quality', 'one's own', 'special characteristic', 'proper', 'intrinsic', 'inherent', 'regular', 'normal', 'genuine', 'thorough, complete, perfect' etc.",
"The word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership.",
"A 'proper' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure.====Modern history of property rights====Modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time.",
"For instance, John Locke justified property rights saying that God had made \"the earth, and all inferior creatures, in common to all men\".In 1802 utilitarian Jeremy Bentham stated, \"property and law are born together and die together\".One argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person.",
"Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection.",
"Blackstone conceptualized property as the \"sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe\".=====Slaves as property=====During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property.",
"During this time settlers began the centuries-long process of dispossessing the natives of America of millions of acres of land.",
"The natives lost about of land in the Louisiana Territory under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, who championed property rights.Combined with theological justification, the property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God.",
"Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of the 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labor or idea, and property right over slaves had the same theological and essentialized justification It was even held that the property in slaves was a sacred right.",
"Wiecek noted, \"slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution as it had been under the Articles\".",
"Accordingly, US Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in his 1857 judgment stated, \"The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution\".====Natural right vs social construct====Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right.",
"Davies counters with \"property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons.\"",
"Singer claims, \"Property is a form of power, and the distribution of power is a political problem of the highest order\".",
"Rose finds, Property' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable.",
"Persons and things, are 'constituted' or 'fabricated' by legal and other normative techniques.\"",
"Singer observes, \"A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights.\"",
"Davis claims that common law theory generally favors the view that \"property is not essentially a 'right to a thing', but rather a separable bundle of rights subsisting between persons which may vary according to the context and the object which is at stake\".In common parlance property rights involve a bundle of rights including occupancy, use and enjoyment, and the right to sell, devise, give, or lease all or part of these rights.",
"Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights.",
"Michelman writes, \"A property regime thus depends on a great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self-restraint among the people who enjoy it.",
"\"Menon claims that the autonomous individual, responsible for his/her own existence is a cultural construct moulded by Western culture rather than the truth about the human condition.",
"Penner views property as an \"illusion\"—a \"normative phantasm\" without substance.In the neoliberal literature, the property is part of the private side of a public/private dichotomy and acts a counterweight to state power.",
"Davies counters that \"any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict\".Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so.",
"Some societies, e.g., Native American bands, held land, if not all property, in common.",
"When groups came into conflict, the victor often appropriated the loser's property.",
"The rights paradigm tended to stabilize the distribution of property holdings on the presumption that title had been lawfully acquired.Property does not exist in isolation, and so property rights too.",
"Bryan claimed that property rights describe relations among people and not just relations between people and things Singer holds that the idea that owners have no legal obligations to others wrongly supposes that property rights hardly ever conflict with other legally protected interests.",
"Singer continues implying that legal realists \"did not take the character and structure of social relations as an important independent factor in choosing the rules that govern market life\".",
"Ethics of property rights begins with recognizing the vacuous nature of the notion of property.===Intellectual property===Intellectual property (IP) encompasses expressions of ideas, thoughts, codes, and information.",
"\"Intellectual property rights\" (IPR) treat IP as a kind of real property, subject to analogous protections, rather than as a reproducible good or service.",
"Boldrin and Levine argue that \"government does not ordinarily enforce monopolies for producers of other goods.",
"This is because it is widely recognized that monopoly creates many social costs.",
"Intellectual monopoly is no different in this respect.",
"The question we address is whether it also creates social benefits commensurate with these social costs.",
"\"International standards relating to Intellectual Property Rights are enforced through Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.",
"In the US, IP other than copyrights is regulated by the United States Patent and Trademark Office.The US Constitution included the power to protect intellectual property, empowering the Federal government \"to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries\".",
"Boldrin and Levine see no value in such state-enforced monopolies stating, \"we ordinarily think of innovative monopoly as an oxymoron.",
"Further, they comment, 'intellectual property' \"is not like ordinary property at all, but constitutes a government grant of a costly and dangerous private monopoly over ideas.",
"We show through theory and example that intellectual monopoly is not necessary for innovation and as a practical matter is damaging to growth, prosperity, and liberty\".",
"Steelman defends patent monopolies, writing, \"Consider prescription drugs, for instance.",
"Such drugs have benefited millions of people, improving or extending their lives.",
"Patent protection enables drug companies to recoup their development costs because for a specific period of time they have the sole right to manufacture and distribute the products they have invented.\"",
"The court cases by 39 pharmaceutical companies against South Africa's 1997 Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act, which intended to provide affordable HIV medicines has been cited as a harmful effect of patents.One attack on IPR is moral rather than utilitarian, claiming that inventions are mostly a collective, cumulative, path dependent, social creation and therefore, no one person or firm should be able to monopolize them even for a limited period.",
"The opposing argument is that the benefits of innovation arrive sooner when patents encourage innovators and their investors to increase their commitments.Roderick T. Long, a libertarian philosopher, argued:Machlup concluded that patents do not have the intended effect of enhancing innovation.",
"Self-declared anarchist Proudhon, in his 1847 seminal work noted, \"Monopoly is the natural opposite of competition,\" and continued, \"Competition is the vital force which animates the collective being: to destroy it, if such a supposition were possible, would be to kill society.",
"\"Mindeli and Pipiya argued that the knowledge economy is an economy of abundance because it relies on the \"infinite potential\" of knowledge and ideas rather than on the limited resources of natural resources, labor and capital.",
"Allison envisioned an egalitarian distribution of knowledge.",
"Kinsella claimed that IPR create artificial scarcity and reduce equality.",
"Bouckaert wrote, \"Natural scarcity is that which follows from the relationship between man and nature.",
"Scarcity is natural when it is possible to conceive of it before any human, institutional, contractual arrangement.",
"Artificial scarcity, on the other hand, is the outcome of such arrangements.",
"Artificial scarcity can hardly serve as a justification for the legal framework that causes that scarcity.",
"Such an argument would be completely circular.",
"On the contrary, artificial scarcity itself needs a justification\" Corporations fund much IP creation and can acquire IP they do not create, to which Menon and others have objected.",
"Andersen claims that IPR has increasingly become an instrument in eroding public domain.Ethical and legal issues include patent infringement, copyright infringement, trademark infringement, patent and copyright misuse, submarine patents, biological patents, patent, copyright and trademark trolling, employee raiding and monopolizing talent, bioprospecting, biopiracy and industrial espionage, digital rights management.Notable IP copyright cases include ''A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.'', ''Eldred v. Ashcroft'', and Disney's lawsuit against the Air Pirates."
],
[
"International issues",
"While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970s, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990s, looking back on the international developments of that decade.",
"Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business.",
"Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field.",
"Other, older issues can be grouped here as well.",
"Issues and subfields include:*The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behavior*Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries and on the basis of their respective GDP and corruption rankings*Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives*Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions—e.g., bioprospecting and biopiracy in the pharmaceutical industry; the fair trade movement; transfer pricing.",
"*Issues such as globalization and cultural imperialism*Varying global standards—e.g., the use of child labor*The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production (e.g.",
"clothes) and services (e.g.",
"call centers) to low-wage countries*The permissibility of international commerce with pariah statesForeign countries often use dumping as a competitive threat, selling products at prices lower than their normal value.",
"This can lead to problems in domestic markets.",
"It becomes difficult for these markets to compete with the pricing set by foreign markets.",
"In 2009, the International Trade Commission has been researching anti-dumping laws.",
"Dumping is often seen as an ethical issue, as larger companies are taking advantage of other less economically advanced companies."
],
[
"Issues",
"Ethical issues often arise in business settings, whether through business transactions or forming new business relationships.",
"It also has a huge focus in the auditing field whereby the type of verification can be directly dictated by ethical theory.",
"An ethical issue in a business atmosphere may refer to any situation that requires business associates as individuals, or as a group (for example, a department or firm) to evaluate the morality of specific actions, and subsequently, make a decision amongst the choices.",
"Some ethical issues of particular concern in today's evolving business market include such topics as: honesty, integrity, professional behaviors, environmental issues, harassment, and fraud to name a few.",
"From a 2009 National Business Ethics survey, it was found that types of employee-observed ethical misconduct included abusive behavior (at a rate of 22 percent), discrimination (at a rate of 14 percent), improper hiring practices (at a rate of 10 percent), and company resource abuse (at a rate of percent).The ethical issues associated with honesty are widespread and vary greatly in business, from the misuse of company time or resources to lying with malicious intent, engaging in bribery, or creating conflicts of interest within an organization.",
"Honesty encompasses wholly the truthful speech and actions of an individual.",
"Some cultures and belief systems even consider honesty to be an essential pillar of life, such as Confucianism and Buddhism (referred to as sacca, part of the Four Noble Truths).",
"Many employees lie in order to reach goals, avoid assignments or negative issues; however, sacrificing honesty in order to gain status or reap rewards poses potential problems for the overall ethical culture organization, and jeopardizes organizational goals in the long run.",
"Using company time or resources for personal use is also, commonly viewed as unethical because it boils down to stealing from the company.",
"The misuse of resources costs companies billions of dollars each year, averaging about 4.25 hours per week of stolen time alone, and employees' abuse of Internet services is another main concern.",
"Bribery, on the other hand, is not only considered unethical is business practices, but it is also illegal.",
"In accordance with this, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act was established in 1977 to deter international businesses from giving or receiving unwarranted payments and gifts that were intended to influence the decisions of executives and political officials.",
"Although, small payments known as facilitation payments will not be considered unlawful under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act if they are used towards regular public governance activities, such as permits or licenses."
],
[
"Influential factors on business ethics",
"Many aspects of the work environment influence an individual's decision-making regarding ethics in the business world.",
"When an individual is on the path of growing a company, many outside influences can pressure them to perform a certain way.",
"The core of the person's performance in the workplace is rooted in their personal code of behavior.",
"A person's personal code of ethics encompasses many different qualities such as integrity, honesty, communication, respect, compassion, and common goals.",
"In addition, the ethical standards set forth by a person's superior(s) often translate into their own code of ethics.",
"The company's policy is the 'umbrella' of ethics that play a major role in the personal development and decision-making processes that people make with respect to ethical behavior.The ethics of a company and its individuals are heavily influenced by the state of their country.",
"If a country is heavily plagued with poverty, large corporations continuously grow, but smaller companies begin to wither and are then forced to adapt and scavenge for any method of survival.",
"As a result, the leadership of the company is often tempted to participate in unethical methods to obtain new business opportunities.",
"Additionally, Social Media is arguably the most influential factor in ethics.",
"The immediate access to so much information and the opinions of millions highly influence people's behaviors.",
"The desire to conform with what is portrayed as the norm often manipulates our idea of what is morally and ethically sound.",
"Popular trends on social media and the instant gratification that is received from participating in such quickly distort people's ideas and decisions."
],
[
"Economic systems",
"Political economy and political philosophy have ethical implications, particularly regarding the distribution of economic benefits.",
"John Rawls and Robert Nozick are both notable contributors.",
"For example, Rawls has been interpreted as offering a critique of offshore outsourcing on social contract grounds."
],
[
"Law and regulation",
"Laws are the written statutes, codes, and opinions of government organizations by which citizens, businesses, and persons present within a jurisdiction are expected to govern themselves or face legal sanction.",
"Sanctions for violating the law can include (a) civil penalties, such as fines, pecuniary damages, and loss of licenses, property, rights, or privileges; (b) criminal penalties, such as fines, probation, imprisonment, or a combination thereof; or (c) both civil and criminal penalties.Very often it is held that business is not bound by any ethics other than abiding by the law.",
"Milton Friedman is the pioneer of the view.",
"He held that corporations have the obligation to make a profit within the framework of the legal system, nothing more.",
"Friedman made it explicit that the duty of the business leaders is, \"to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom\".",
"Ethics for Friedman is nothing more than abiding by customs and laws.",
"The reduction of ethics to abidance to laws and customs, however, have drawn serious criticisms.Counter to Friedman's logic it is observed that legal procedures are technocratic, bureaucratic, rigid and obligatory whereas ethical act is conscientious, voluntary choice beyond normativity.",
"Law is retroactive.",
"Crime precedes law.",
"Law against crime, to be passed, the crime must have happened.",
"Laws are blind to the crimes undefined in it.",
"Further, as per law, \"conduct is not criminal unless forbidden by law which gives advance warning that such conduct is criminal\".",
"Also, the law presumes the accused is innocent until proven guilty and that the state must establish the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt.",
"As per liberal laws followed in most of the democracies, until the government prosecutor proves the firm guilty with the limited resources available to her, the accused is considered to be innocent.",
"Though the liberal premises of law is necessary to protect individuals from being persecuted by Government, it is not a sufficient mechanism to make firms morally accountable."
],
[
"Implementation",
"===Corporate policies===As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees.",
"These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes).",
"They are generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business.",
"It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.An increasing number of companies also require employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements.",
"Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct.Many companies are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct.",
"A competitive business environment may call for unethical behavior.",
"Lying has become expected in fields such as trading.",
"An example of this are the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the Salomon Brothers.Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct.",
"Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen.",
"Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules.",
"Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.Some corporations have tried to burnish their ethical image by creating whistle-blower protections, such as anonymity.",
"In the case of Citi, they call this the Ethics Hotline.",
"Though it is unclear whether firms such as Citi take offences reported to these hotlines seriously or not.",
"Sometimes there is a disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices.",
"Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool.Jones and Parker wrote, \"Most of what we read under the name business ethics is either sentimental common sense or a set of excuses for being unpleasant.\"",
"Many manuals are procedural form filling exercises unconcerned about the real ethical dilemmas.",
"For instance, the US Department of Commerce ethics program treats business ethics as a set of instructions and procedures to be followed by 'ethics officers'., some others claim being ethical is just for the sake of being ethical.",
"Business ethicists may trivialize the subject, offering standard answers that do not reflect the situation's complexity.Richard DeGeorge wrote in regard to the importance of maintaining a corporate code:===Ethics officers===Following a series of fraud, corruption, and abuse scandals that affected the United States defense industry in the mid-1980s, the Defense Industry Initiative (DII) was created to promote ethical business practices and ethics management in multiple industries.",
"Subsequent to these scandals, many organizations began appointing ethics officers (also referred to as \"compliance\" officers).",
"In 1991, the Ethics & Compliance Officer Association —originally the Ethics Officer Association (EOA)—was founded at the Center for Business Ethics at Bentley University as a professional association for ethics and compliance officers.The 1991 passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991 was another factor in many companies appointing ethics/compliance officers.",
"These guidelines, intended to assist judges with sentencing, set standards organizations must follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense.Following the high-profile corporate scandals of companies like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco between 2001 and 2004, and following the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, many small and mid-sized companies also began to appoint ethics officers.Often reporting to the chief executive officer, ethics officers focus on uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions.",
"This is accomplished by assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations on ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees.The effectiveness of ethics officers is not clear.",
"The establishment of an ethics officer position is likely to be insufficient in driving ethical business practices without a corporate culture that values ethical behavior.",
"These values and behaviors should be consistently and systemically supported by those at the top of the organization.",
"Employees with strong community involvement, loyalty to employers, superiors or owners, smart work practices, trust among the team members do inculcate a corporate culture.===Sustainability initiatives===Many corporate and business strategies now include sustainability.",
"In addition to the traditional environmental 'green' sustainability concerns, business ethics practices have expanded to include social sustainability.",
"Social sustainability focuses on issues related to human capital in the business supply chain, such as worker's rights, working conditions, child labor, and human trafficking.",
"Incorporation of these considerations is increasing, as consumers and procurement officials demand documentation of a business's compliance with national and international initiatives, guidelines, and standards.",
"Many industries have organizations dedicated to verifying ethical delivery of products from start to finish, such as the Kimberly Process, which aims to stop the flow of conflict diamonds into international markets, or the Fair Wear Foundation, dedicated to sustainability and fairness in the garment industry.As mentioned, initiatives in sustainability encompass \"green\" topics, as well as social sustainability.",
"There are however many different ways in which sustainability initiatives can be implemented in a company.====Improving operations====An organization can implement sustainability initiatives by improving its operations and manufacturing process so as to make it more aligned with environment, social, and governance issues.",
"Johnson & Johnson incorporates policies from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, applying these principles not only for members of its supply chain but also internal operations.",
"Walmart has made commitments to doubling its truck fleet efficiency by 2015 by replacing 2/3rds of its fleet with more fuel-efficient trucks, including hybrids.",
"Dell has integrated alternative, recycled, and recyclable materials in its products and packaging design, improving energy efficiency and design for end-of-life and recyclability.",
"Dell plans to reduce the energy intensity of its product portfolio by 80% by 2020.====Board leadership====The board of a company can decide to lower executive compensation by a given percentage, and give the percentage of compensation to a specific cause.",
"This is an effort which can only be implemented from the top, as it will affect the compensation of all executives in the company.",
"In Alcoa, an aluminum company based in the US, \"1/5th of executive cash compensation is tied to safety, diversity, and environmental stewardship, which includes greenhouse gas emission reductions and energy efficiency\" (Best Practices).",
"This is not usually the case for most companies, where we see the board take a uniform step towards the environment, social, and governance issues.",
"This is only the case for companies that are directly linked to utilities, energy, or material industries, something which Alcoa as an aluminum company, falls in line with.",
"Instead, formal committees focused on the environment, social, and governance issues are more usually seen in governance committees and audit committees, rather than the board of directors.",
"\"According to research analysis done by Pearl Meyer in support of the NACD 2017 Director Compensation Report shows that among 1,400 public companies reviewed, only slightly more than five percent of boards have a designated committee to address ESG issues.\"",
"(How compensation can).====Management accountability====Similar to board leadership, creating steering committees and other types of committees specialized for sustainability, senior executives are identified who are held accountable for meeting and constantly improving sustainability goals.====Executive compensation====Introducing bonus schemes that reward executives for meeting non-financial performance goals including safety targets, greenhouse gas emissions, reduction targets, and goals engaging stakeholders to help shape the companies public policy positions.",
"Companies such as Exelon have implemented policies like this.====Stakeholder engagement====Other companies will keep sustainability within its strategy and goals, presenting findings at shareholder meetings, and actively tracking metrics on sustainability.",
"Companies such as PepsiCo, Heineken, and FIFCO take steps in this direction to implement sustainability initiatives.",
"(Best Practices).",
"Companies such as Coca-Cola have actively tried improve their efficiency of water usage, hiring 3rd party auditors to evaluate their water management approach.",
"FIFCO has also led successfully led water-management initiatives.====Employee engagement====Implementation of sustainability projects through directly appealing to employees (typically through the human resource department) is another option for companies to implement sustainability.",
"This involves integrating sustainability into the company culture, with hiring practices and employee training.",
"General Electric is a company that is taking the lead in implementing initiatives in this manner.",
"Bank of America directly engaged employees by implement LEED (leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certified buildings, with a fifth of its building meeting these certifications.====Supply chain management====Establishing requirements for not only internal operations but also first-tier suppliers as well as second-tier suppliers to help drive environmental and social expectations further down the supply chain.",
"Companies such as Starbucks, FIFCO and Ford Motor Company have implemented requirements that suppliers must meet to win their business.",
"Starbucks has led efforts in engaging suppliers and local communities where they operate to accelerate investment in sustainable farming.",
"Starbucks set a goal of ethically sourcing 100% of its coffee beans by 2015.====Transparency====By revealing decision-making data about how sustainability was reached, companies can give away insights that can help others across the industry and beyond make more sustainable decisions.",
"Nike launched its \"making app\" in 2013 which released data about the sustainability in the materials it was using.",
"This ultimately allows other companies to make more sustainable design decisions and create lower impact products."
],
[
"Academic discipline",
"As an academic discipline, business ethics emerged in the 1970s.",
"Since no academic business ethics journals or conferences existed, researchers published in general management journals and attended general conferences.",
"Over time, specialized peer-reviewed journals appeared, and more researchers entered the field.",
"Corporate scandals in the earlier 2000s increased the field's popularity.",
"As of 2009, sixteen academic journals devoted to various business ethics issues existed, with ''Journal of Business Ethics'' and ''Business Ethics Quarterly'' considered the leaders.",
"''Journal of Business Ethics Education'' publishes articles specifically about education in business ethics.The International Business Development Institute is a global non-profit organization that represents 217 nations and all 50 United States.",
"It offers a Charter in Business Development that focuses on ethical business practices and standards.",
"The Charter is directed by Harvard, MIT, and Fulbright Scholars, and it includes graduate-level coursework in economics, politics, marketing, management, technology, and legal aspects of business development as it pertains to business ethics.",
"IBDI also oversees the International Business Development Institute of Asia which provides individuals living in 20 Asian nations the opportunity to earn the Charter."
],
[
"Religious views",
"In Sharia law, followed by many Muslims, banking specifically prohibits charging interest on loans.",
"Traditional Confucian thought discourages profit-seeking.",
"Christianity offers the Golden Rule command, \"Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets.",
"\"According to the article \"Theory of the real economy\", there is a more narrow point of view from the Christianity faith towards the relationship between ethics and religious traditions.",
"This article stresses how Christianity is capable of establishing reliable boundaries for financial institutions.",
"One criticism comes from Pope Benedict by describing the \"damaging effects of the real economy of badly managed and largely speculative financial dealing.\"",
"It is mentioned that Christianity has the potential to transform the nature of finance and investment but only if theologians and ethicist provide more evidence of what is real in the economic life.",
"Business ethics receives an extensive treatment in Jewish thought and Rabbinic literature, both from an ethical (''Mussar'') and a legal (''Halakha'') perspective; see article ''Jewish business ethics'' for further discussion.According to the article \"Indian Philosophy and Business Ethics: A Review\", by Chandrani Chattopadyay, Hindus follow \"Dharma\" as Business Ethics and unethical business practices are termed \"Adharma\".",
"Businessmen are supposed to maintain steady-mindedness, self-purification, non-violence, concentration, clarity and control over senses.",
"Books like Bhagavat Gita and Arthashastra contribute a lot towards conduct of ethical business."
],
[
"Related disciplines",
"Business ethics is related to philosophy of economics, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical, political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics.",
"Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible—those who dispute that premise, such as libertarian socialists (who contend that \"business ethics\" is an oxymoron) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper.The philosophy of economics also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the social responsibilities of a business; business management theory; theories of individualism vs. collectivism; free will among participants in the marketplace; the role of self interest; invisible hand theories; the requirements of social justice; and natural rights, especially property rights, in relation to the business enterprise.Business ethics is also related to political economy, which is economic analysis from political and historical perspectives.",
"Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions."
],
[
"See also",
"*B Corporation (certification)*Business culture*Business law*Corporate behaviour*Corporate crime*Corporate social responsibility*Eastern ethics in business*Ethical code*Ethical consumerism*Ethical implications in contracts*Ethical job*Ethicism*Evil corporation*Moral psychology*Optimism bias*Organizational ethics*Penny stock scam*Philosophy and economics*Political corruption*Strategic misrepresentation*Strategic planning"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"**********************"
],
[
"Further reading",
"**"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"BBS"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''BBS''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Ammunition",
"* BBs, BB gun metal bullets* BBs, airsoft gun plastic pellets"
],
[
"Computing and gaming",
"* Bulletin board system, a computer server users dial into via dial-up or telnet; precursor to the Internet* BIOS Boot Specification, a firmware specification for the boot process* Blum Blum Shub, a pseudorandom number generator* ''Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep'', a Disney-based video game for the PlayStation Portable"
],
[
"Organisations",
"===United Kingdom===* Birmingham Business School (University of Birmingham), a faculty* British Blind Sport, a parasports charity* British Boy Scouts, a national youth association* British Bryological Society, a botanists' learned society===United States===* BBS Productions, a film company of early 1970s New Hollywood* Badger Boys State, a youth camp held in Wisconsin===Elsewhere===* BBS Kraftfahrzeugtechnik, a German wheel manufacturer* Bahrain Bayan School* Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics* Baton Broadcast System, Canada* Bhutan Broadcasting Service, Bhutan* Bodu Bala Sena, Sri Lanka* Bologna Business School, Italy* Budapest Business School, Hungary"
],
[
"Science",
"* Bardet–Biedl syndrome, a genetic disorder* Behavioral and Brain Sciences, a peer-reviewed journal* Behavior-based safety, the risk reduction subfield of behavioural engineering* Berg Balance Scale, a medical function test* Bogart–Bacall syndrome, a vocal misuse disorder* Borate buffered saline, in biochemistry* Breeding bird survey, to monitor avian populations"
],
[
"Titles",
"* Bachelor of Business Studies, an academic degree* Bronze Bauhinia Star, in the Hong Kong honors system"
],
[
"Train stations",
"* Bhubaneswar railway station, Odisha, India (by Indian Railways code)* Bras Basah MRT station, Singapore (by MRT abbreviation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"British Standards"
],
[
"Introduction",
"BSI Kitemark certification symbol'''British Standards''' ('''BS''') are the standards produced by the BSI Group which is incorporated under a royal charter and which is formally designated as the national standards body (NSB) for the UK.",
"The BSI Group produces British Standards under the authority of the charter, which lays down as one of the BSI's objectives to:Formally, as stated in a 2002 memorandum of understanding between the BSI and the United Kingdom Government, British Standards are defined as:Products and services which BSI certifies as having met the requirements of specific standards within designated schemes are awarded the Kitemark."
],
[
"History",
"BSI Group began in 1901 as the ''Engineering Standards Committee'', led by James Mansergh, to standardize the number and type of steel sections, in order to make British manufacturers more efficient and competitive.",
"Over time the standards developed to cover many aspects of tangible engineering, and then engineering methodologies including quality systems, safety and security."
],
[
"British Standards creation",
"The BSI Group as a whole does not produce British Standards, as standards work within the BSI is decentralized.",
"The governing board of BSI establishes a Standards Board.",
"The Standards Board does little apart from setting up sector boards (a sector in BSI parlance being a field of standardization such as ICT, quality, agriculture, manufacturing, or fire).",
"Each sector board, in turn, constitutes several technical committees.",
"It is the technical committees that, formally, approve a British Standard, which is then presented to the secretary of the supervisory sector board for endorsement of the fact that the technical committee has indeed completed a task for which it was constituted."
],
[
"Standards",
"The standards produced are titled '''British Standard XXXX-P:YYYY''' where XXXX is the number of the standard, P is the number of the part of the standard (where the standard is split into multiple parts) and YYYY is the year in which the standard came into effect.",
"'''BSI Group''' currently has over 27,000 active standards.",
"Products are commonly specified as meeting a particular British Standard, and in general, this can be done without any certification or independent testing.",
"The standard simply provides a shorthand way of claiming that certain specifications are met, while encouraging manufacturers to adhere to a common method for such a specification.The Kitemark can be used to indicate certification by BSI, but only where a Kitemark scheme has been set up around a particular standard.",
"It is mainly applicable to safety and quality management standards.",
"There is a common misunderstanding that Kitemarks are necessary to prove compliance with any BS standard, but in general, it is neither desirable nor possible that every standard be 'policed' in this way.Following the move on harmonization of the standard in Europe, some British Standards are gradually being superseded or replaced by the relevant European Standards (EN)."
],
[
"Status of standards",
"Standards are continuously reviewed and developed and are periodically allocated one or more of the following status keywords.",
"*'''Confirmed''' - the standard has been reviewed and confirmed as being current.",
"*'''Current''' - the document is the current, most recently published one available.",
"*'''Draft for public comment/DPC''' - a national stage in the development of a standard, where wider consultation is sought within the UK.",
"*'''Obsolescent''' - indicating by amendment that the standard is not recommended for use for new equipment, but needs to be retained to provide for the servicing of equipment that is expected to have a long working life, or due to legislative issues.",
"*'''Partially replaced''' - the standard has been partially replaced by one or more other standards.",
"*'''Proposed for confirmation''' - the standard is being reviewed and it has been proposed that it is confirmed as the current standard.",
"*'''Proposed for obsolescence''' - the standard is being reviewed and it has been proposed that it is made obsolescent.",
"*'''Proposed for withdrawal''' - the standard is being reviewed and it has been proposed that it is withdrawn.",
"*'''Revised''' - the standard has been revised.",
"*'''Superseded''' - the standard has been replaced by one or more other standards.",
"*'''Under review''' - the standard is under review.",
"*'''Withdrawn''' - the document is no longer current and has been withdrawn.",
"*'''Work in hand''' - there is work being undertaken on the standard and there may be a related draft for public comment available."
],
[
"Examples",
"BSI Group headquarters in Chiswick, London.",
"*BS 0 ''A standard for standards'' specifies development, structure and drafting of standards.",
"*BS 1 Lists of rolled sections for structural purposes*BS 2 Specification and sections of tramway rails and fishplates*BS 3 Report on influence of gauge length and section of test bar on the percentage of elongation*BS 4 Specification for structural steel sections*BS 5 Report on locomotives for Indian railways *BS 7 Dimensions of copper conductors insulated annealled, for electric power and light*BS 9 Specifications for bullhead railway rails*BS 11 Specifications and sections of Flat Bottom railway rails*BS 12 Specification for Portland Cement*BS 15 Specification for structural steel for bridges, etc., and general building construction*BS 16 Specification for telegraph material (insulators, pole fittings, et cetera)*BS 17 Interim report on electrical machinery*BS 22 Report on effect of temperature on insulating materials*BS 24 Specifications for material used in the construction of standards for railway rolling stock*BS 26 Second report on locomotives for Indian Railways (Superseding No 5) *BS 27 Report on standard systems of limit gauges for running fits*BS 28 Report on nuts, bolt heads and spanners*BS 31 Specification for steel conduits for electrical wiring*BS 32 Specification for steel bars for use in automatic machines*BS 33 Carbon filament electric lamps*BS 34 Tables of BS Whitworth, BS Fine and BS Pipe Threads*BS 35 Specification for Copper Alloy Bars for use in Automatic Machines *BS 36 Report on British Standards for Electrical Machinery*BS 37 Specification for Electricity Meters *BS 38 Report on British Standards Systems for Limit Gauges for Screw Threads*BS 42 Report on reciprocating steam engines for electrical purposes*BS 43 Specification for charcoal iron lip-welded boiler tubes*BS 45 Report on Dimensions for Sparking Plugs (for Internal Combustion Engines)*BS 47 Steel Fishplates for Bullhead and Flat Bottom Railway Rails, Specification and Sections of *BS 49 Specification for Ammetres and Voltmetres*BS 50 Third Report on Locomotives for Indian Railways (Superseding No.",
"5 and 26) *BS 53 Specification for Cold Drawn Weldless Steel Boiler Tubes for Locomotive Boilers*BS 54 Report on Screw Threads, Nuts and Bolt Heads for use in Automobile Construction*BS 56 Definitions of Yield Point and Elastic Limit*BS 57 Report on heads for Small Screws*BS 70 Report on Pneumatic Tyre Rims for automobiles, motorcycles and bicycles*BS 72 British Standardisation Rules for Electrical Machinery, *BS 73 Specification for Two-Pin Wall Plugs and Sockets (Five-, Fifteen- and Thirty-Ampere) *BS 76 Report of and Specifications for Tar and Pitch for Road Purposes *BS 77 Specification.",
"Voltages for a.c. transmission and distribution systems*BS 80 Magnetos for automobile purposes*BS 81 Specification for Instrument Transformers*BS 82 Specification for Starters for Electric Motors*BS 84 Report on Screw Threads (British Standard Fine), and their Tolerances (Superseding parts of Reports Nos.",
"20 and 33) *BS 86 Report on Dimensions of Magnetos for Aircraft Purposes *BS 153 Specification for Steel Girder Bridges*BS 308 a now deleted standard for engineering drawing conventions, having been absorbed into BS 8888.",
"*BS 317 for Hand-Shield and Side Entry Pattern Three-Pin Wall Plugs and Sockets (Two Pin and Earth Type)*BS 336 for fire hose couplings and ancillary equipment*BS 372 for Side-entry wall plugs and sockets for domestic purposes (Part 1 superseded BS 73 and Part 2 superseded BS 317)*BS 381 for colours used in identification, coding and other special purposes*BS 476 for fire resistance of building materials/elements*BS 499 Welding terms and symbols.",
"*BS 546 for Two-pole and earthing-pin plugs, socket-outlets and socket-outlet adaptors for AC (50–60 Hz) circuits up to 250V*BS 857 for safety glass for land transport*BS 970 Specification for wrought steels for mechanical and allied engineering purposes*BS 987C Camouflage Colours*BS 1011 Recommendation for welding of metallic materials*BS 1088 for marine plywood*BS 1192 for ''Construction Drawing Practice''.",
"Part 5 (BS1192-5:1998) concerns ''Guide for structuring and exchange of CAD data''.",
"*BS 1361 for cartridge fuses for a.c. circuits in domestic and similar premises*BS 1362 for cartridge fuses for BS 1363 power plugs*BS 1363 for mains power plugs and sockets*BS 1377 Methods of test for soils for civil engineering.",
"*BS 1380 Speed and Exposure Index of Photographic Negative Materials.",
"*BS 1572 Colours for Flat Finishes for Wall Decoration*BS 1881 Testing Concrete *BS 1852 Specification for marking codes for resistors and capacitors*BS 2979 Transliteration of Cyrillic and Greek characters*BS 3621 Thief resistant lock assembly.",
"Key egress.",
"*BS 3943 Specification for plastics waste traps*BS 4142 Methods for rating and assessing industrial and commercial sound*BS 4293 for residual current-operated circuit-breakers*BS 4343 for industrial electrical power connectors*BS 4573 Specification for 2-pin reversible plugs and shaver socket-outlets*BS 4960 for weighing instruments for domestic cookery*BS 5252 for colour-coordination in building construction*BS 5400 for steel, concrete and composite bridges.",
"*BS 5499 for graphical symbols and signs in building construction; including shape, colour and layout*BS 5544 for anti-bandit glazing (glazing resistant to manual attack)*BS 5750 for quality management, the ancestor of ISO 9000*BS 5837 for protection of trees during construction work*BS 5839 for fire detection and alarm systems for buildings*BS 5930 for site investigations*BS 5950 for structural steel*BS 5993 for Cricket balls*BS 6008 for preparation of a liquor of tea for use in sensory tests*BS 6312 for telephone plugs and sockets*BS 6651 code of practice for protection of structures against lightning; replaced by BS EN 62305 (IEC 62305) series.",
"*BS 6879 for British geocodes, a superset of ISO 3166-2:GB*BS 7430 code of practice for earthing*BS 7671 ''Requirements for Electrical Installations'', The IEE Wiring Regulations, produced by the IET.",
"*BS 7799 for information security, the ancestor of the ISO/IEC 27000 family of standards, including 27002 (formerly 17799)*BS 7901 for recovery vehicles and vehicle recovery equipment*BS 7909 Code of practice for temporary electrical systems for entertainment and related purposes*BS 7919 Electric cables.",
"Flexible cables rated up to 450/750 V, for use with appliances and equipment intended for industrial and similar environments*BS 7910 guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures*BS 7925 Software testing*BS 7971 Protective clothing and equipment for use in violent situations and in training*BS 8110 for structural concrete*BS 8233 Guidance on sound insulation and noise reduction in buildings*BS 8484 for the provision of lone worker device services*BS 8485 for the characterization and remediation from ground gas in affected developments*BS 8494 for detecting and measuring carbon dioxide in ambient air or extraction systems*BS 8546 Travel adaptors compatible with UK plug and socket system.",
"*BS 8888 for engineering drawing and technical product specification*BS 15000 for IT Service Management, (ITIL), now ISO/IEC 20000*BS 3G 101 for general requirements for mechanical and electromechanical aircraft indicators*BS EN 12195 Load restraining on road vehicles.",
"*BS EN 60204 Safety of machinery*BS EN ISO 4210 - Cycles.",
"Safety Requirements for Bicycles"
],
[
"PAS documents",
"BSI also publishes a series of Publicly Available Specification (PAS) documents.PAS documents are a flexible and rapid standards development model open to all organizations.",
"A PAS is a sponsored piece of work allowing organizations flexibility in the rapid creation of a standard while also allowing for a greater degree of control over the document's development.",
"A typical development time frame for a PAS is around six to nine months.",
"Once published by BSI, a PAS has all the functionality of a British Standard for the purposes of creating schemes such as management systems and product benchmarks as well as codes of practice.",
"A PAS is a living document and after two years the document will be reviewed and a decision made with the client as to whether or not this should be taken forward to become a formal standard.",
"The term PAS was originally an abbreviation for \"product approval specification\", a name which was subsequently changed to \"publicly available specification\".",
"However, according to BSI, not all PAS documents are structured as specifications and the term is now sufficiently well established not to require any further amplification.===Examples===* PAS 78: Guide to good practice in commissioning accessible websites* PAS 440: Responsible Innovation – Guide * PAS 9017: Plastics – Biodegradation of polyolefins in an open-air terrestrial environment – Specification* PAS 1881: Assuring safety for automated vehicle trials and testing – Specification * PAS 1201: Guide for describing graphene material * PAS 4444: Hydrogen fired gas appliances – Guide"
],
[
"Availability",
"Copies of British Standards are sold at the BSI Online Shop or can be accessed via subscription to British Standards Online (BSOL).",
"They can also be ordered via the publishing units of many other national standards bodies (ANSI, DIN, etc.)",
"and from several specialized suppliers of technical specifications.British Standards, including European and international adoptions, are available in many university and public libraries that subscribe to the BSOL platform.",
"Librarians and lecturers at UK-based subscribing universities have full access rights to the collection while students can copy/paste and print but not download a standard.",
"Up to 10% of the content of a standard can be copy/pasted for personal or internal use and up to 5% of the collection made available as a paper or electronic reference collection at the subscribing university.",
"Because of their reference material status standards are not available for interlibrary loan.",
"Public library users in the UK may have access to BSOL on a view-only basis if their library service subscribes to the BSOL platform.",
"Users may also be able to access the collection remotely if they have a valid library card and the library offers secure access to its resources.The BSI Knowledge Centre in Chiswick, London can be contacted directly about viewing standards in their Members’ Reading Room."
],
[
"See also",
"* Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (EU)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Building society"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A high street building society branch, in BanburyA '''building society''' is a financial institution owned by its members as a mutual organization, which offers banking and related financial services, especially savings and mortgage lending.",
"They exist in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, and formerly in Ireland and several Commonwealth countries, including South Africa as mutual banks.",
"They are similar to credit unions, but rather than promoting thrift and offering unsecured and business loans, the purpose of a building society is to provide home mortgages to members.",
"Borrowers and depositors are society members, setting policy and appointing directors on a one-member, one-vote basis.",
"Building societies often provide other retail banking services, such as current accounts, credit cards and personal loans.",
"The term \"building society\" first arose in the 19th century in Great Britain from cooperative savings groups.In the United Kingdom, building societies compete with banks for most consumer banking services, especially mortgage lending and savings accounts, and regulations permit up to half of their lending to be funded by debt to non-members, allowing societies to access wholesale bond and money markets to fund mortgages.",
"The world's largest building society is Britain's Nationwide Building Society.",
"In Australia, building societies also compete with retail banks and offer the full range of banking services to consumers."
],
[
"History in the United Kingdom",
"Building societies as an institution began in late-18th century Birmingham – a town which was undergoing rapid economic and physical expansion driven by a multiplicity of small metalworking firms, whose many highly skilled and prosperous owners readily invested in property.",
"Many of the early building societies were based in taverns or coffeehouses, which had become the focus for a network of clubs and societies for co-operation and the exchange of ideas among Birmingham's highly active citizenry as part of the movement known as the Midlands Enlightenment.",
"The first building society to be established was Ketley's Building Society, founded by Richard Ketley, the landlord of the ''Golden Cross'' inn, in 1775.Members of Ketley's society paid a monthly subscription to a central pool of funds which was used to finance the building of houses for members, which in turn acted as collateral to attract further funding to the society, enabling further construction.",
"By 1781 three more societies had been established in Birmingham, with a fourth in the nearby town of Dudley; and 19 more formed in Birmingham between 1782 and 1795.The first outside the English Midlands was established in Leeds in 1785.Most of the original societies were fully ''terminating'', where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them, First Salisbury and District Perfect Thrift Building Society, was wound up in March 1980.In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the ''permanent building society'', where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases, such as Leek Building Society.",
"The main legislative framework for the building society was the Building Societies Act 1874, with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see Coney Hall), and 1960.In their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town.",
"Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process, and other societies opted for demutualisation followed by – in the great majority of cases – eventual takeover by a listed bank.",
"Most of the existing larger building societies are the end result of the mergers of many smaller societies.All building societies in the UK are members of the Building Societies Association.",
"At the start of 2008, there were 59 building societies in the UK, with total assets exceeding £360 billion.",
"The number of societies in the UK fell by four during 2008 due to a series of mergers brought about, to a large extent, by the consequences of the financial crisis of 2007–2008.There were three further mergers in each of 2009 and 2010, a demutualisation and a merger in 2011, and four further mergers 2013–2018 which resulted in there being only one building society headquartered respectively in Scotland and Northern Ireland.",
"Since then, the only merger has been in 2023, when the Manchester society merged with the Newcastle society.===Demutualisation===The Abbey National was the first society to demutualise in July 1989.In the 1980s, changes to British banking laws allowed building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal banks.",
"The management of a number of societies still felt that they were unable to compete with the banks, and a new Building Societies Act was passed in 1986 in response to their concerns.",
"This permitted societies to 'demutualise'.",
"If more than 75% of members voted in favour, the building society would then become a limited company like any other.",
"Members' mutual rights were exchanged for shares in this new company.",
"A number of the larger societies made such proposals to their members and all were accepted.",
"Some listed on the London Stock Exchange, while others were acquired by larger financial groups.The process began with the demutualisation of the Abbey National Building Society in 1989.Then, from 1995 to late 1999, eight societies demutualised accounting for two-thirds of building societies assets as at 1994.Five of these societies became joint stock banks (plc), one merged with another and the other four were taken over by plcs (in two cases after the mutual had previously converted to a plc).As mentions, demutualisation moves succeeded immediately because neither Conservative nor Labour party UK governments created a framework which put obstacles in the way of demutualisation.",
"Political acquiescence in demutualisation was clearest in the case of the position on 'carpetbaggers', that is those who joined societies by lodging minimum amounts of £100 or so in the hope of profiting from a distribution of surplus after demutualisation.",
"The deregulating Building Societies Act 1986 contained an anti-carpetbagger provision in the form of a two-year rule.",
"This prescribed a qualifying period of two years before savers could participate in a residual claim.",
"But, before the 1989 Abbey National Building Society demutualisation, the courts found against the two-year rule after legal action brought by Abbey National itself to circumvent the intent of the legislators.",
"After this the legislation did prevent a cash distribution to members of less than two years standing, but the same result was obtained by permitting the issue of 'free' shares in the acquiring plc, saleable for cash.",
"The Thatcher Conservative government declined to introduce amending legislation to make good the defect in the 'two-year rule'.===1980s and 1990s===Building societies, like mutual life insurers, arose as people clubbed together to address a common need interest; in the case of the building societies, this was housing and members were originally both savers and borrowers.",
"But it very quickly became clear that 'outsider' savers were needed whose motive was profit through interest on deposits.",
"Thus permanent building societies quickly became mortgage banks and in such institutions there always existed a conflict of interest between borrowers and savers.",
"It was the task of the movement to reconcile that conflict of interest so as to enable savers to conclude that their interests and those of borrowers were to some extent complementary rather than conflictive.",
"Conflict of interest between savers and borrowers was never fully reconciled in the building societies but upon deregulation that reconciliation became something of a lost cause.",
"The management of building societies apparently could expend considerable time and resources (which belonged the organisation) planning their effective capture—of as much of the assets as they could.",
"If so, this is arguably insider dealing on a grand scale with the benefit of inside specialist knowledge of the business and resources of the firm not shared with outsiders like politicians and members (and, perhaps, regulators).",
"Once the opportunity to claim was presented by management the savers in particular could be relied upon to seize it.",
"There were sufficient hard-up borrowers to take the inducement offered them by management (in spite of few simple sums sufficing to demonstrate that they were probably going to end up effectively paying back the inducement).",
"Management promoting demutualisation also thereby met managerial objectives because the end of mutuality brought joint stock company (plc) style remuneration committee pay standards and share options.",
"Share options for management of converting societies appear to be a powerful factor in management calculation.",
"refers to this in the following terms:Instead of deploying their margin advantage as a defence of mutuality, around 1980 building societies began setting mortgage rates with reference to market clearing levels.",
"In sum they began behaving more like banks, seeking to maximise profit instead of the advantages of a mutual organisation.",
"Thus, according to the Bank of England's :As also observe: draws a rather more direct and cynical conclusion:Some of these managements ended up in dispute with their own members.",
"Of the first major conversion of the Abbey in 1989, observed:In the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the societies whose management wished to keep them mutual modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s.",
"The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation.",
"With the chance of a quick profit removed, the wave of demutualisations came to an end in 2000.One academic study found that demutualised societies' pricing behaviour on deposits and mortgages was more favourable to shareholders than to customers, with the remaining mutual building societies offering consistently better rates.===2000s and 2010s===The Building Societies (Funding) and Mutual Societies (Transfers) Act 2007, known as the Butterfill Act, was passed in 2007 giving building societies greater powers to merge with other companies.",
"These powers have been used by the Britannia in 2009 and Kent Reliance in 2011 leading to their demutualisation.Prior to 31 December 2010, deposits with building societies of up to £50,000 per individual, per institution, were normally protected by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS), but Nationwide and Yorkshire building societies negotiated a temporary change to the terms of the FSCS to protect members of the societies they acquired in late 2008/early 2009.The amended terms allowed former members of multiple societies which merge into one to maintain multiple entitlements to FSCS protection until 30 September 2009 (later extended to 30 December 2010), so (for example) a member with £50,000 in each of Nationwide, Cheshire and Derbyshire at the time of the respective mergers would retain £150,000 of FSCS protection for their funds in the merged Nationwide.",
"On 31 December 2010 the general FSCS limit for retail deposits was increased to £85,000 for banks and building societies and the transitional arrangements in respect of building society mergers came to an end."
],
[
"List of building societies",
"===United Kingdom=======Current====As of July 2023, there are 42 independent building societies, all of which are members of the Building Societies Association.NameGroup assets(millions)Other trading namesNumbers ofNo.",
"ofstaffProvidescurrentaccount?",
"Branches Agencies 1 Nationwide Building Society £272,354 The Mortgage Works 605 17,680 center 2 Coventry Building Society £58,867 64 15 2,824 center 3 Yorkshire Building Society £58,754 Chelsea Building Society;Accord 132 99 3,117 center 4 Skipton Building Society £33,571 82 2,506 center 5 Leeds Building Society £25,513 50 1,538 center 6 Principality Building Society £11,257 54 14 1,157 center 7 West Bromwich Building Society £5,689 37 633 center 8 Newcastle Building Society £5,312 Manchester Building Society 31 1,393 center 9 Nottingham Building Society £3,812 31 513 center 10 Cumberland Building Society £3,090 34 634 13px 11 National Counties Building Society £2,401 Family Building Society 1 196 center 12 Progressive Building Society £1,900 11 36 172 center 13 Cambridge Building Society £1,727 13 192 center 14 Monmouthshire Building Society £1,488 11 11 145 center 15 Newbury Building Society £1,401 10 180 center 16 Saffron Building Society £1,295 8 181 center 17 Leek United Building Society £1,179 12 164 center 18 Furness Building Society £1,130 9 177 center 19 Hinckley & Rugby Building Society £803 7 2 116 center 20 Darlington Building Society £751 9 113 center 21 Suffolk Building Society £747 9 1 123 center 22 Marsden Building Society £697 8 79 center 23 The Melton Building Society £622 5 88 center 24 Scottish Building Society £592 6 61 71 center 25 Market Harborough Building Society £541 5 118 center 26 Dudley Building Society £523 5 91 center 27 Tipton & Coseley Building Society £490 4 83 center 28 Hanley Economic Building Society £471 7 73 center 29 Swansea Building Society £463 4 36 center 30 Mansfield Building Society £452 4 73 center 31 Vernon Building Society £379 6 68 center 32 Bath Building Society £361 2 67 center 33 Loughborough Building Society £402 5 1 55 center 34 Teachers Building Society £352 1 39 center 35 Buckinghamshire Building Society £314 1 39 center 36 Chorley & District Building Society £311 3 50 center 37 Stafford Railway Building Society £299 1 31 center 38 Harpenden Building Society £295 4 64 center 39 Ecology Building Society £256 1 25 center 40 Beverley Building Society £206 1 22 center 41 Earl Shilton Building Society £149 2 27 center 42 Penrith Building Society £138 1 26 center====Demutualised====Ten building societies of the United Kingdom demutualised between 1989 and 2000, either becoming a bank or being acquired by a larger bank.",
"By 2008, every building society that floated on the stock market in the wave of demutualisations of the 1980s and 1990s had either been sold to a conventional bank, or been nationalised.NameFateSuccessor YearCurrent position Abbey National converted to plc Santander 1989 The new bank, also known as \"Abbey\", was acquired by Banco Santander and now rebranded as Santander.",
"Cheltenham and Gloucester taken over by Lloyds Bank 1994 Became part of Lloyds TSB, although C&G still had a branch network which became part of TSB Bank in summer 2013.National & Provincial taken over by Abbey National 1995 Business merged into Abbey National (now Santander), name no longer used.",
"Alliance & Leicester converted to plc Santander 1997 Acquired by Banco Santander, which also owns Abbey, in October 2008, and merged into Santander in 2010.Bristol and West taken over by Bank of Ireland 1997 Became a division of Bank of Ireland but its savings balances and branch network transferred to Britannia Building Society in 2005 (which in turn merged with Co-operative Financial Services).",
"Bristol & West mortgages ceased trading in January 2009.Halifax converted to plc 1997 Became part of HBOS in 2001, which itself became part of Lloyds Banking Group in 2009.Trading name still in use.",
"Northern Rock converted to plc Virgin MoneyNorthern Rock (Asset Management) 1997 Nationalised following near bankruptcy in February 2008, due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008.Most of the business bought by Virgin Money UK in January 2012, with remaining riskier mortgage business retained by the government and renamed NRAM plc (now Landmark Mortgages Limited).",
"The Woolwich converted to plc Barclays 1997 Now part of Barclays plc.",
"Woolwich brand name now only used for mortgages from Barclays with the Woolwich branch network merging with that of Barclays in 2007.Birmingham Midshires taken over by Halifax 1999 Now owned by Lloyds Banking Group.",
"The brand name is still retained, but running entirely by post and internet.",
"Bradford & Bingley converted to plc 2000 Nationalisation with sale of savings book to Abbey (now Santander).====No longer exist====The following is an incomplete list of building societies in the United Kingdom that no longer exist independently, since they either merged with or were taken over by other organisations.",
"They may still have an active presence on the high street (or online) as a trading name or as a distinct brand.",
"This is typically because brands will often build up specific reputations and attract certain clientele, and this can continue to be marketed successfully.",
"Name Fate Successor YearAbbey Road Building Society and National Building Society merged to form the Abbey National Building Society 1944Bingley Permanent Building Society and Bradford Equitable Building Society merged to form the Bradford & Bingley Building Society 1964Co-operative Permanent Building Society changed its name to Nationwide Building Society 1970Leicester Permanent Building Society and Leicester Temperance Building Society merged to form the Leicester Building Society 1974Bedfordshire Building Society and Temperance Building Society merged to form Gateway Building Society 1974Leek & Westbourne Building Society and Oldbury Britannia Building Society merged to form Britannia Building Society 1975Huddersfield & Bradford Building Society and West Yorkshire Building Society merged to form Yorkshire Building Society 1982Coventry Economic Building Society and Coventry Provident Building Society merged to form the Coventry Building Society 1983Burnley Building Society and Provincial Building Society merged to form the National & Provincial Building Society 1984London Permanent Building Society (est 1914) merged into Cheltenham and Gloucester 1984Alliance Building Society and Leicester Building Society merged to form the Alliance & Leicester Building Society 1985Waltham Abbey Building Society (1847) merged with the Cheltenham and Gloucester Building Society 1985Birmingham & Bridgwater Building Society and Midshires Building Society merged to form the Birmingham Midshires Building Society 1986Norwich Building Society and Peterborough Building Society merged to form the Norwich & Peterborough Building Society 1986Anglia Building Society and Nationwide Building Society merged to form which changed name to the Nationwide Anglia Building Society Nationwide Building Society 1987 1991Gateway Building Society and Woolwich Equitable Building Society merged to form the Woolwich Building Society 1988Wessex Building Society and Portman Building Society merged to form the Portman Wessex Building Society 1989Regency & West of England Building Society and Portman Wessex Building Society merged to form Portman Building Society 1990Hendon Building Society was taken over by Bradford & Bingley Building Society 1991Haywards Heath Building Society merged with the Yorkshire Building Society 1992Cheshunt Building Society merged with the Bristol and West Building Society 1992Heart of England Building Society merged with the Cheltenham & Gloucester Building Society 1993St.",
"Pancras Building Society merged with the Portman Building Society 1993Leeds Permanent Building Society merged with the Halifax Building Society 1995City & Metropolitan Building Society merged with the Stroud & Swindon Building Society 1996Nottingham Imperial Building Society merged with the Newcastle Building Society 2000Gainsborough Building Society merged with the Yorkshire Building Society 2001Ilkeston Permanent Building Society merged with the Derbyshire Building Society 2001Clay Cross Building Society merged with the Derbyshire Building Society 2003Padiham Building Society merged with the Bradford & Bingley Building Society 1983Staffordshire Building Society merged with the Portman Building Society 2003Lambeth Building Society merged with the Portman Building Society 2006Mercantile Building Society merged with the Leeds Building Society 2006Universal Building Society merged with the Newcastle Building Society 2006Portman Building Society merged with the Nationwide Building Society 2007Cheshire Building Society merged with the Nationwide Building Society 2008Derbyshire Building Society merged with the Nationwide Building Society 2008Barnsley Building Society merged with the Yorkshire Building Society 2008Catholic Building Society merged with the Chelsea Building Society 2008Scarborough Building Society merged with the Skipton Building Society 2009Dunfermline Building Society most assets and liabilities transferred to Nationwide Building Society 2009 Britannia Building Society acquired by The Co-operative Bank 2009Chelsea Building Society merged with the Yorkshire Building Society 2010Chesham Building Society merged with the Skipton Building Society 2010Stroud & Swindon Building Society merged with the Coventry Building Society 2010Kent Reliance Building Society acquired by OneSavings Plc to form OneSavings Bank 2011Norwich and Peterborough Building Society merged with the Yorkshire Building Society 2011 Century Building Society merged with the Scottish Building Society 2013 Shepshed Building Society merged with the Nottingham Building Society 2013 City of Derry Building Society merged with the Progressive Building Society 2014 Holmesdale Building Society merged with the Skipton Building Society 2018 Manchester Building Society merged with the Newcastle Building Society 2023=== Australia ===In Australia, building societies evolved along British lines.",
"Following the end of World War II, the terminating model was revived to fund returning servicemen's need for new houses.",
"Hundreds were created with government seed capital, whereby the capital was returned to the government and the terminating societies retained the interest accumulated.",
"Once all the seed funds were loaned, each terminating society could reapply for more seed capital to the point where they could re-lend their own funds and thus became a permanent society.",
"Terminating loans were still available and used inside the permanent businesses by staff up until the 1980s because their existence was not widely known after the early 1960s.",
"Because of strict regulations on banks, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the 1980s.",
"Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as St. George) officially attained the status of banks.",
"Recent conversions have included Heritage Bank which converted from building society to bank in 2011, Hume in 2014, while Wide Bay Building Society became Auswide Bank and IMB followed suit in 2015, and Greater Building Society became Greater Bank in 2016.Building societies converting to banks are no longer required to demutualise.A particular difference between Australian building societies and those elsewhere, is that Australian building societies are required to incorporate as limited companies.Current building societies are*Bass & Equitable Building Society (Tasmania)*Maitland Mutual Building Society (Maitland)=== Eswatini ===The Building Societies Act of 1962 allowed for the registration of building societies in Eswatini.",
"For a long time the country only had one building society.",
"A second was registered in late 2019.",
"*Swaziland Building Society: Registered in the 1960s, this is the first and oldest building society in Eswatini.",
"It has branches in almost every town and city within the Kingdom and has been known to be conservative.",
"There have been many rumours of this institution wishing to demutualise to the extent that an amendment to the Building Societies Act was passed in 2019 permitting building societies to demutualise and apply for banking licences.",
"*Status Capital Building Society: Status Capital Building Society was registered as the country's second building society and granted a licence in 2019 by the Financial Services Regulatory Authority after approval and recommendation from the Minister of Finance.=== Ireland ===The Republic of Ireland had around 40 building societies at the mid-20th century peak.",
"Many of these were very small and, as the Irish commercial banks began to originate residential mortgages, the small building societies ceased to be competitive.",
"Most merged or dissolved or, in the case of First Active plc, converted into conventional banks.",
"The last remaining building societies, EBS Building Society and Irish Nationwide Building Society, demutualised and were transferred or acquired into Bank subsidiaries in 2011 following the effects of the Irish financial crisis.Leeds Building Society Ireland and Nationwide UK (Ireland) were Irish branches of building societies based in the United Kingdom; both have since ceased all Irish operations.",
"Name Demutualised SuccessorIrish Industrial Benefit Building Society (1873–1969)Irish Industrial Building Society (1969–1975)'''Irish Nationwide Building Society''' (1975 – Feb 2011):''acquired'' Irish Mutual Building Society, 1989::''formerly'' Allied Irish Building Society(−1976):''acquired'' Garda Building Society, 1983:''acquired'' Metropolitan Building Society, 1991February 2011''deposit book'' Permanent TSB Group Holdings plc (February 2011–June 2011)''loan book'' Anglo Irish Bank (February 2011–June 2011)Irish Bank Resolution Corporation (July 2011–February 2013)Educational Building Society (1935−1991):''acquired'' The Family Building Society, 1975'''EBS Building Society''' (1991–2011):''acquired'' Midland and Western Building Society, 1994:''acquired'' Norwich Irish Building Society, 1998July 2011EBS d.a.c., subsidiary of Allied Irish BanksIrish Temperance Permanent Building Society (−1888)Irish Permanent Benefit Building Society (1888–1940)'''Irish Permanent Building Society''' (1940–1994):''acquired'' Provident Building Society, 1974:''acquired'' Cork Mutual Building Society, 1975:''acquired'' Munster & Leinster Building Society, 1978:''acquired'' Guinness & Mahon, 19941994Irish Permanent plc (1994–1999)Permanent TSB Group Holdings plc (1999–)''merged with'' TSB Bank, 2001Permanent TSB Group Holdings plcIrish Civil Services and General Building Society (1864–1867)Irish Civil Service and General (Permanent Benefit) Building Society (1867–1874)Irish Civil Service (Permanent) Building Society (1874–1969):''acquired'' City and County Permanent Benefit Building Society, 1932'''Irish Civil Service Building Society''' (1969–1984):''acquired'' O'Connell Benefit Building Society, 19831984subsidiary of Bank of Ireland:''renamed'' '''ICS Building Society''' (1986)Workingman's Benefit Building Society (−1960)'''First National Building Society''' (1960–1998):''acquired'' Grafton Savings and Building Society, 1974:''acquired'' The Guinness Permanent Building Society, 1984:''acquired'' Ireland Benefit Building Society, 1984:''acquired'' Postal Service Permanent Building Society, 1985:''acquired'' Irish Life Building Society, 19931998First Active plc (1998–2004)acquired by Ulster Bank 2004 and retired in 2009====Society closures====* Ballygall Building Society, 1977* City and Provincial Building Society, 1978* Dublin Model Building Society, 1984* Dublin Savings Building Society, 1977* Four Provinces Building Society, 1978* Independent Building Society, 1977* Irish Savings Building Society, 1984* National Provincial Building Society, 1977* Progressive Building Society, 1977* West of Ireland Building Society, 1977=== Jamaica ===In Jamaica, three building societies compete with commercial banks and credit unions for most consumer financial services:*Jamaica National Building Society*Victoria Mutual Building Society*Scotia Jamaica Building Society=== New Zealand =======Regulation====In New Zealand, building societies are registered with the Registrar of Building Societies under the Building Societies Act 1965.Registration as a building society is merely a process of establishing the entity as a corporation.",
"It is largely a formality, and easily achieved, as the capital requirement is minimal (20 members must be issued shares of not less than NZ$1,000 each, for a total minimum foundation share capital of NZ$200,000).As regards prudential supervision, a divide exists between building societies that operate in New Zealand, on the one hand, and those that (although formally registered in New Zealand) operate offshore:* Building societies that accept deposits from members of the public in New Zealand are regulated as \"non-bank deposit takers\" under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013.Such building societies must (unless they qualify for a particular exemption) comply with the prudential regulations.",
"The Reserve Bank of New Zealand monitors compliance with the prudential regulations, but does not prudentially supervise individual building societies for financial soundness.",
"Most such building societies are supervised for compliance with the terms of their debt securities by trustees appointed under securities legislation, and those trustees have various reporting requirements to the Reserve Bank.",
"* Building societies that accept deposits only from offshore customers are not regulated under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013 or New Zealand's financial markets legislation.",
"Consequently, they are not prudentially monitored by the Reserve Bank or by the Financial Markets Authority.",
"The Reserve Bank cautions on its website that it does not monitor transactions undertaken by New Zealand registered building societies operating in overseas markets.",
"The Department of Internal Affairs is ultimately responsible for all entities that do not expressly fall into other categories for anti money laundering purposes.Building societies' registration details and filed documents are available in the Register of Building Societies held at the New Zealand Companies Office.====Individual building societies====Over the years, a number of building societies were established.Some, including Countrywide Building Society and United Building Society, became banks in the 1980s and 1990s.",
"Heartland Building Society (created in 2011 through a merger of Canterbury Building Society, Southern Cross Building Society, and two other financial institutions) became Heartland Bank on 17 December 2012.Remaining building societies include:* Pacific Eagle Capital (formerly General Equity Building Society) * Heretaunga Building Society* Kiwi Deposit Building Society (in the process of dissolution since 2013)* Manawatu Permanent Building Society * Nelson Building Society* Southland Building Society, which in October 2008 became a registered bank known as SBS Bank.",
"However, it remains a building society and retains its mutual structure.",
"* Hastings Building Society merged with SBS Bank in October 2010, but with the Hastings Building Society brand continuing to operate as a building society under the name of HBS Bank.",
"In November 2015, HBS Bank brand was discontinued.",
"* Wairarapa Building Society.=== Zimbabwe ===In Zimbabwe, ''Central Africa Building Society'' (CABS) is the leading building society offering a diverse range of financial products and services that include transaction and savings accounts, mobile banking, mortgage loans, money market investments, term deposits and pay-roll loans."
],
[
"Similar organisations in other countries",
"In other countries there are mutual organisations similar to building societies:*'''Austria''': In Austria there are four co-operative banks: Allgemeine Bausparkasse (ABV), Raiffeisen-Bausparkasse, Bausparkasse Wüstenrot AG and Bausparkasse der Sparkassen (savings bank).",
"*'''Finland:''' In Finland the Mortgage Society of Finland, a permanent building society, was founded in 1860.Since 2002 mortgage loans are handled by Suomen AsuntoHypoPankki, the licensed bank owned by the society.",
"*'''Germany:''' In Germany there are 8 Bausparkassen of the Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe named ''Landesbausparkassen'' (LBS) and 12 private Bausparkassen, for example Schwäbisch Hall, Wüstenrot, Deutsche Bank Bauspar AG and so on.",
"*'''United States:''' In the United States, savings and loan associations, as well as credit unions, have a similar organisation and purpose.",
"*'''Other''': See Cooperative banking."
],
[
"Operational differences from banks",
"=== Roll numbers ===Because most building societies were not direct members of the UK clearing system, it was common for them to use a '''roll number''' to identify accounts rather than to allocate a six-digit sort-code and eight-digit account number to the BACS standards.More recently, building societies have tended to obtain sort-code and account number allocations within the clearing system, and hence the use of roll numbers has diminished.",
"When using BACS, one needs to enter roll numbers for the reference field and the building society's generic sort code and account number would be entered in the standard BACS fields."
],
[
"See also",
"*Banking in the United Kingdom*Mutual organisation*Mutualism"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Blue Steel (missile)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Avro '''Blue Steel''' was a British air-launched, rocket-propelled nuclear armed standoff missile, built to arm the V bomber force.",
"It allowed the bomber to launch the missile against its target while still outside the range of surface-to-air missiles (SAMs).",
"The missile proceeded to the target at speeds up to Mach 3, and would trigger within 100 m of the pre-defined target point.Blue Steel entered service in 1963, by which point improved SAMs with longer range had greatly eroded the advantages of the design.",
"A longer-range version, Blue Steel II, was considered, but cancelled in favour of the much longer-range GAM-87 Skybolt system from the US.",
"When development of that system was cancelled in 1962, the V-bomber fleet was considered highly vulnerable.",
"Blue Steel remained the primary British nuclear deterrent weapon until the Royal Navy started operating Polaris ballistic missiles from ''Resolution''-class submarines."
],
[
"Development",
"Avro Blue Steel nuclear missile (front) at the Midland Air MuseumAvro Blue Steel missile (side view) at the Midland Air Museum behind the wing of an Avro Vulcan bomberRear view of Blue Steel missile at RAF Cosford aerospace museum, showing the twin-chamber \"Stentor\" rocket motorBlue Steel was the result of a Ministry of Supply memorandum from 5 November 1954 that predicted that by 1960 Soviet air defences would make it impossible for V bombers to attack with nuclear gravity bombs.",
"The answer was for a rocket-powered, supersonic missile capable of carrying a large nuclear (or projected thermonuclear) warhead with a range of at least .",
"This would keep the bombers out of range of Soviet ground-based defences installed around the target area, allowing the missile to \"dash\" in at high speed.There would have to be a balance between the size of the warhead, the need for it to be carried by any of the three V-bomber types in use, and that it should be able to reach Mach 3.At the time the only strategic warhead available in the UK was the Green Bamboo, which was very large and so required a large missile fuselage to carry it.",
"The Air Staff issued this requirement for a ''stand-off bomb'' as OR.1132 in September 1954.The Ministry of Supply selected Avro out of the British manufacturers, although it had no experience in working on guided weapons other than some private venture work; Handley Page had suggested a missile, but the Elliots gyro based guidance system was inaccurate beyond .",
"Avro began work proper in 1955, with the assigned Rainbow Code name of \"Blue Steel\" which it would keep in service.",
"With Elliots working on the guidance system, Armstrong Siddeley would develop the liquid fuel engine.",
"The design period was protracted, with various development problems exacerbated by the fact that designers lacked information on the actual size and weight of the proposed boosted fission warhead Green Bamboo, or its likely thermonuclear successor derived from the Granite series.",
"The large girth of Blue Steel was determined by the implosion sphere diameter of Green Bamboo.Avro proposed that Blue Steel would evolve over time, subsequent versions increasing speed (to Mach 4.5) and range.",
"The ultimate Blue Steel would be a range weapon that could be launched by the supersonic Avro 730 under development.",
"They were told to limit themselves to the specification of OR.1132.The project was delayed by the need to develop the required stainless steel fabrication techniques; this would have been gained in building the Avro 730 but that had been cancelled by then.",
"The Elliots guidance system was plagued by accuracy problems, delaying test flights.As it turned out, neither of the originally-proposed UK-designed warheads were actually fitted, being superseded by Red Snow, an Anglicised variant of the U.S. W-28 thermonuclear warhead of 1.1 Mt yield.",
"Red Snow was smaller and lighter than the earlier warhead proposals.",
"The missile was fitted with a state-of-the-art inertial navigation unit.",
"This system allowed the missile to strike within 100 metres of its designated target.",
"In addition, the pilots of the Avro Vulcan or Handley Page Victor bombers could tie their systems into those of the missile and make use of the guidance system to help plot their own flight plan, since the unit in the missile was more advanced than that in the aircraft.Blue Steel emerged as a pilotless, winged aircraft roughly the size of the experimental Saunders-Roe SR.53 interceptor, with clipped delta wings and small canard foreplanes.",
"It was powered by a two-chamber Armstrong Siddeley Stentor Mark 101 rocket engine, burning a combination of hydrogen peroxide and kerosene.",
"The fuel was a considerable operational problem, because fuelling the missile before launch took nearly half an hour and was quite hazardous.",
"It required the fuelling site to be flooded with water, and during the trials campaigns in Australia very early morning preparations because of the heat experienced during the Australian summer.",
"Another issue was the very small ground clearance when attached to the Handley Page Victor, and Victor aircrews were especially aware of the dangers when taking off.",
"The Vulcan had a much higher ground clearance, and ultimately proved a better platform.On launch the rocket engine's first chamber developing thrust would power the missile along a predetermined course to the target at around Mach 1.5.Once close to the target, the second chamber of the engine (6,000 lbf) would accelerate the missile to Mach 3.Over the target the engine would cut out and the missile would free-fall before detonating its warhead as an air burst.To speed the trials at Woomera, the test rounds were flown there by Victors and Vulcans in Operation Blue Ranger.",
"The trials began in 1960 about the time the original requirement expected the weapon to be in service.",
"The missiles were prepared at the Weapons Research Establishment near Salisbury South Australia, and flown to be launched at the Woomera range from RAAF Edinburgh.",
"A specialist RAF unit, 4 JSTU, was established to carry out preparatory and operational tasks.Blue Steel finally entered service in February 1963, carried by Vulcans and Victors, although its limitations were already apparent.",
"The short range of the missile meant that the V bombers were still vulnerable to enemy surface-to-air missiles.",
"A replacement for Blue Steel, the Mark 2, was planned with increased range and a ramjet engine, but was cancelled in 1960 to minimise delays to the Mk.1.The UK sought to acquire the much longer-ranged United States AGM-48 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile and was greatly frustrated when that weapon was cancelled in late 1962.RAF Museum, HendonBlue Steel required up to seven hours of launch preparation, and was highly unreliable.",
"The Royal Air Force estimated in 1963 that half the missiles would fail to fire and would have to be dropped over their targets, contradicting their purpose of serving as standoff weapons.",
"Even as it deployed Blue Steel as a high-altitude weapon, that year the government decided that because of anti-aircraft missiles' increasing effectiveness, V bombers would have to convert from high-altitude to low-altitude attacks.",
"These trials were conducted in 1964 and concluded in 1965 With no effective long-range weapon the original Blue Steel served on after a crash programme of minor modifications to permit a low-level launch at , even though its usefulness in a hot war was likely limited.",
"A stop-gap weapon (WE.177B) was quickly produced to extend the life of the V-bomber force in the strategic role until the Polaris missile was deployed.",
"This WE.177 laydown weapon supplemented the remaining modified Blue Steel missiles, using a low-level penetration followed by a pop-up manoeuvre to release the weapon at .",
"One live operational round was deployed on each of forty-eight Vulcan and Victor bombers, and a further five live rounds were produced as operational spares.",
"An additional four non-nuclear rounds were produced for various RAF requirements, and there were sixteen other unspecified training rounds.Blue Steel was officially retired on 31 December 1970, with the United Kingdom's strategic nuclear capacity passing to the submarine fleet."
],
[
"Operator",
"; * Royal Air Force - (V bombers)"
],
[
"Specifications",
"* '''Length''': * '''Wingspan''': * '''Diameter''': 1.22 m (48 in) minimum* '''Launch Weight''': * '''Speed''': Mach 2.3* '''Ceiling''': * '''Maximum Range''': * '''Guidance''': Inertial* '''CEP''': ~100 metres* '''Warhead''': Red Snow thermonuclear (1.1 Mt)"
],
[
"See also",
"*AGM-28 Hound Dog*Kh-22*Rainbow Codes"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Leitch, Andy.",
"\"V-Force Arsenal: Weapons for the Valiant, Victor and Vulcan\".",
"''Air Enthusiast'' No.",
"107, September/October 2003.pp. 52–59.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Video of Blue Steel in operation* Blue Steel*https://web.archive.org/web/20040208232113/http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm*Official history: RAF Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Author: Wynne.",
"pps 201.456..",
"Publisher: HMSO, 1994.",
"*http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/uk/blue_steel.htm*https://web.archive.org/web/20061209210406/http://www.vectorsite.net/twcruz.html* ''The Vulcan Gets New Striking Power'' an AVRO advertisement for the Vulcan from ''Flight'' in February 1959, showing the (still unnamed) Blue Steel.",
"* \"Blue Steel And Its Engine\" a 1960 ''Flight'' article on the Blue Steel"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Branch Davidians"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Branch Davidians''' (or the '''General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists''') are an apocalyptic cult founded in 1955 by Benjamin Roden.",
"They regard themselves as a continuation of the General Association of Davidian Seventh-Day Adventists, established by Victor Houteff in 1935.Houteff, a Bulgarian immigrant and a Seventh-day Adventist, wrote a series of tracts titled the \"Shepherd's Rod\", which called for the reform of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.",
"After his ideas were rejected by Adventist leaders, Houteff and his followers formed the group that later became known as \"Davidians\" and some of them moved onto a tract of land outside and west of Waco, Texas, United States, where they built a community called the Mount Carmel Center, which served as the headquarters for the movement.",
"After Houteff's death in 1955, his wife Florence took control of the Davidian organization.",
"That same year, Roden (a follower of Houteff), proclaimed what he believed to be a new message from God and wrote a series of letters presenting it to Davidians.",
"He signed these letters \"The Branch\" believing that to be the new name Jesus had taken (according to biblical prophecies such as Revelation 3:12 and Zechariah 6:12-13) to reflect a new stage of his work in the heavenly sanctuary.",
"Those who accepted Roden's teachings became known as Branch Davidians Seventh Day Adventists.In 1957, Florence sold the original Mount Carmel Center and purchased 941 acres near Elk, Texas – thirteen miles northeast of Waco – naming the property New Mount Carmel Center.",
"After the failure of Florence's prophecy of apocalyptic events on or near April 22, 1959, she dissolved the Davidian Association in 1962 and sold all but 77.86 acres of the New Mount Carmel property.",
"Roden took possession of New Mount Carmel in 1962 and began his efforts to purchase the remaining 77.86 acres.",
"On February 27, 1973, New Mount Carmel was sold to \"Benjamin Roden, Lois Roden, and their son George Roden, Trustees for the General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists.\"",
"From this point on, the property was simply known as Mount Carmel.",
"Upon the death of Roden in 1978, his wife Lois became the next Davidian prophet at the compound.In 1981, a young man named Vernon Howell, later known as David Koresh, came to New Mount Carmel and studied biblical prophecy under Lois Roden.",
"By the end of 1983, Howell had gained a group of followers and they separated from Lois's organization to form a new organization by the name \"The Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association.\"",
"Meanwhile, Lois continued to operate the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association from Mt.",
"Carmel Center near Waco.",
"It is notable that Howell's group and the Branch Davidians (Lois's group) were two separate organizations with different leaders and different names operating from different locations from 1983 forward.",
"It was not until 1987, after Lois had died, that Howell filed a document claiming to be the president of the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association (even though he had been leading a competing group for several years).",
"Also in 1987, Koresh and some of his followers went to Mt.",
"Carmel center and engaged in a shootout with George Roden that eventually resulted in Koresh's group occupying the land.",
"The actions of Koresh and his followers in 1987 (taking the name and property of the Branch Davidian SDA organization) are regarded by Branch Davidians who remained loyal to Lois Roden as an act of identity theft against them.",
"Koresh's leadership of his group ended at the climax of the Waco siege of 1993, a 51-day standoff between members of the sect and federal agents, when New Mount Carmel was destroyed in a fire.",
"Four agents of the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and two residents of Mt.",
"Carmel were killed by members of the sect during the initial raid, while four sect members were killed by ATF agents on February 28, 1993.Seventy-six members of Koresh's group, many of them children, died in a fire that erupted during the siege on April 19, 1993."
],
[
"Early history",
"In 1929, Victor Houteff, a Bulgarian immigrant and a Seventh-day Adventist Sabbath School teacher from southern California, claimed that he had a new message for the entire Adventist church.",
"He presented his views in a book, ''The Shepherd's Rod: The 144,000 – A Call for Reformation''.",
"The Adventist leadership rejected Houteff's views as contrary to the church's basic teachings, and local church congregations disfellowshipped Houteff and his followers.In 1934, Houteff established his headquarters to the west of Waco, Texas, and his group became known as the Davidians.",
"In 1942, he renamed the group the General Association of Davidian Seventh-day Adventists 'Davidian' which indicated its belief in the restoration of the Davidic Kingdom of Israel.",
"Following Houteff's death in 1955, his wife Florence usurped the leadership believing herself to be a prophet.",
"Convinced that an apocalypse would occur in 1959, a date which is not found in her husband's original writings, Florence and her council gathered hundreds of their faithful followers at the Mount Carmel Center, the group's compound which was located near Waco, for the fulfillment of the prophecy which is written in Ezekiel 9.A memorial at the Mount Carmel site identifying leaders of the Adventist movement from Ellen G. White to Vernon HowellThe anticipated events did not occur, and following this disappointment, Benjamin Roden formed another group which he called the Branch Davidians and succeeded in taking control of Mount Carmel.",
"The name of this group is an allusion to the anointed 'Branch' (mentioned in Zechariah 3:8; 6:12).",
"When Benjamin Roden died in 1978, he was succeeded by his wife Lois Roden.",
"Members of the Branch Davidians were torn between allegiance to Ben's wife or to his son, George.",
"After Lois died, George assumed the right to the Presidency.",
"However, less than a year later, Vernon Howell rose to power and became the leader over those in the group who sympathized with him."
],
[
"Rise of David Koresh",
"Howell's arrival at Mount Carmel in 1981 was well received by nearly everyone at the Davidian commune.",
"He had engaged in an affair with Lois Roden while he was in his early 20s and she was in her late 60s.",
"Howell wanted to father a child with her, who, according to his understanding, would be the Chosen One.",
"When she died, George Roden inherited the positions of prophet and leader of the sect.",
"A power struggle ensued between Roden and Howell, who soon gained the loyalty of the majority of the Davidians.",
"In 1984, Howell and his followers left Mount Carmel (Roden accused Howell of starting a fire that consumed a $500,000 administration building and press), which Roden subsequently renamed \"Rodenville\".",
"Another splinter group, led by Charlie Pace, also left, and settled in Alabama.David Koresh in a 1987 mug shotAs an attempt to regain support, Roden challenged Howell to raise the dead, going so far as to exhume the corpse of a two-decades deceased Davidian in order to demonstrate his spiritual supremacy (Roden denied this, saying he had only been moving the community cemetery).",
"This illegal act gave Howell an opportunity to attempt to file charges against Roden, but he was told that he needed evidence in order to substantiate the charges.",
"On November 3, 1987, Howell and seven of his followers raided Mount Carmel, equipped with five .223 caliber semi-automatic rifles, two .22 caliber rifles, two 12-gauge shotguns and nearly 400 rounds of ammunition, in an apparent attempt to retake the compound.",
"Although Howell's group claimed that it was trying to obtain evidence of Roden's illegal activities, its members did not take a camera with them.The trial ended with the jury finding Howell's followers not guilty, but the jury members were unable to agree on a verdict for Howell himself.",
"After his followers were acquitted, Howell invited the prosecutors to Mount Carmel for ice cream.It is claimed that Howell was never authorized to name his breakaway sect the \"Branch Davidians\", and the church which bears that name continues to represent the members of the Branch church who did not follow him.=== As a spiritual leader ===Howell, who acquired the position of spiritual leader from Roden, asserted it by changing his name to David Koresh, suggesting that he had ties to the biblical King David and Cyrus the Great (Koresh is the Hebrew version of the name Cyrus).",
"He wanted to create a new lineage of world leaders.",
"This practice later served as the basis for allegations that Koresh was committing child abuse, which contributed to the siege by the ATF.Interpreting Revelation 5:2, Koresh identified himself with the Lamb mentioned therein.",
"This is traditionally believed to symbolize Jesus Christ; however, Koresh suggested that the Lamb would come before Jesus and pave the way for his Second Coming.By the time of the 1993 Waco siege, Koresh had encouraged his followers to think of themselves as \"students of the Seven Seals,\" rather than as \"Branch Davidians.\"",
"During the standoff, one of his followers publicly announced that he wanted them to thereafter be identified by the name \"Koreshians\"."
],
[
"Federal siege",
"A memorial to the four ATF agents killed in the February 28 raid on the Mount Carmel CenterOn February 28, 1993, at 4:20 am, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempted to execute a search warrant relating to alleged sexual abuse charges and illegal weapons violations.",
"The ATF attempted to breach the compound for approximately two hours until their ammunition ran low.",
"Four ATF agents (Steve Willis, Robert Williams, Todd McKeehan, and Conway Charles LeBleu) were killed and another 16 agents were wounded during the raid.",
"The five Branch Davidians killed in the 9:45 am raid were Winston Blake (British), Peter Gent (Australian), Peter Hipsman, Perry Jones, and Jaydean Wendell; two were killed by the Branch Davidians.",
"Almost six hours after the ceasefire, Michael Schroeder was shot dead by ATF agents who alleged he fired a pistol at agents as he attempted to re-enter the compound with Woodrow Kendrick and Norman Allison.",
"His wife said he was merely returning from work and had not participated in the day's earlier altercation.",
"After the raid, ATF agents established contact with Koresh and others inside of the compound.",
"The FBI took command after the deaths of federal agents, and managed to facilitate the release of 19 children (without their parents) relatively early into the negotiations.",
"The children were then interviewed by the FBI and the Texas Rangers.FBI photo of the Mount Carmel Center engulfed in flamesOn April 19, 1993, the FBI moved for a final siege of the compound using large weaponry such as .50 caliber (12.7 mm) rifles and armored combat engineering vehicles (CEV) to combat the heavily armed Branch Davidians.",
"The FBI attempted to use tear gas to flush out the Branch Davidians.",
"Officially, FBI agents were only permitted to return any incoming fire, not to actively assault the Branch Davidians.",
"When several Branch Davidians opened fire, the FBI's response was to increase the amount of gas being used.",
"Around noon, three fires broke out simultaneously in different parts of the building.",
"The government maintains that the fires were deliberately started by Branch Davidians.",
"Some Branch Davidian survivors maintain that the fires were started either accidentally or deliberately by the assault.",
"Of the 85 Branch Davidians in the compound when the final siege began, 76 died on April 19 in various ways, from falling rubble to suffocating effects of the fire, or by gunshot from fellow Branch Davidians.",
"The siege had lasted 51 days.=== Aftermath ===In all, four ATF agents were killed, 16 were wounded, and six Branch Davidians died in the initial raid on February 28.76 more died in the final assault on April 19.The events at Waco spurred criminal prosecution and civil litigation.",
"A federal grand jury indicted 12 of the surviving Branch Davidians – including Clive Doyle, Brad Branch, Ruth Riddle, and Livingstone Fagan – charging them with aiding and abetting in murder of federal officers, and unlawful possession and use of various firearms.",
"Eight Branch Davidians were convicted on firearms charges, five convicted of voluntary manslaughter, and four were acquitted of all charges.",
"As of July 2007, all Branch Davidians had been released from prison.Civil suits were brought against the United States government, federal officials, former governor of Texas Ann Richards, and members of the Texas Army National Guard.",
"The bulk of these claims were dismissed because they were insufficient as a matter of law or because the plaintiffs could advance no material evidence in support of them.",
"One case, ''Andrade v. Chojnacki'', made it to the Fifth Circuit, which upheld a previous ruling of \"take-nothing, denied\"."
],
[
"After the siege",
"A sign at the Mt Carmel Center identifying the denominationThere are several groups that claim descent from the Branch Davidians today.",
"The group that retains the original name \"Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist\" regards Lois Roden's immediate successor to have been Doug Mitchell (who joined the Branch Davidians in 1978 and led the group from 1986 until his death in 2013) and Mitchell's successor to be Trent Wilde (who has led the group since 2013).",
"This group never followed David Koresh.A Branch Davidian church at the Mount Carmel Center siteAnother group exists under the leadership of Charles Pace, called '''The Branch, The Lord Our Righteousness.'''",
"It is a legally recognized denomination with 12 members.",
"Pace, while regarding Koresh as appointed by God, says that Koresh twisted the Bible's teachings by fathering more than a dozen children with members' wives.",
"Pace believes that the Lord \"has anointed me and appointed me to be the leader\", but he says he is \"not a prophet\" but \"a teacher of righteousness\".",
"Others, once led by Clive Doyle, continue to believe Koresh was a prophet and await his resurrection, along with the followers who were killed.",
"Both of these groups are still waiting for the end of times.",
"Doyle died in June 2022."
],
[
"Relationship with Seventh-Day Adventists",
"The Seventh-day Adventist Church, the main church in the Adventist tradition, rejected Victor Houteff's teachings and revoked his membership in 1930.Houteff then went on to found the Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Church (an offshoot which is also known as the Shepherd's Rod).",
"The Branch Davidians are an offshoot of the Davidians and they are also a product of a schism which was initiated by Benjamin Roden, after Houteff's death and in light of Florence's (Houteff's wife) usurpation of power.",
"Florence believed that she was a prophet.",
"But her prediction of the demise of the Seventh Day Adventist Church, which according to her should have occurred 42 months after Houteff's death (1959) failed to materialize.",
"Likewise, Ben Roden believed that he was a prophet as well as a rightful heir to the leadership of the Davidians.",
"While they were still formally members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Branch Davidian leaders demanded a reform of the church and when their demand was met with opposition (by both the Seventh-day Adventists and the Davidians), they decided to leave that denomination and at the same time, they widely distanced themselves from the Davidians.The Seventh-day Adventist Church deprived both the Branch Davidians and the Davidians of their membership in the denomination, in spite of this fact, the Branch Davidians actively continued to \"hunt\" members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and encourage them to leave it and join their group.",
"The Seventh-day Adventists were reportedly \"apprehensive\" about the group's views because Branch Davidians claimed that they were the \"only rightful continuation of the Adventist message\", based on their belief that Victor Houteff was the divinely selected prophet and the successor of Ellen G. White.",
"Both the Davidians and the Branch Davidians claimed that Houteff was their spiritual inspiration, as the founder of the Davidians.",
"The Seventh-day Adventist Church issued warnings about the Branch Davidian sect's views to its members on a regular basis.=== Schisms within the Branch Davidian sect ===There is documented evidence (FBI negotiation transcripts, during the standoff, with Kathryn Shroeder and Steve Schneider with interjections from Koresh himself) that David Koresh and his followers did not call themselves Branch Davidians.",
"In addition, David Koresh, through forgery, stole the identity of the Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists for the purpose of obtaining the New Mount Carmel Center's property."
],
[
"See also",
"* Alamo Christian Foundation* Apocalypticism* British Israelism* Christian fundamentalism* Christian Zionism* Christianity and Judaism* Christianity and violence* Cult* Judaizers* Judeo-Christian* List of Christian denominations* List of messiah claimants* List of cults* List of people claimed to be Jesus* List of Seventh-day Adventists* Millenarianism* Philo-Semitism* Polygamy in Christianity* Polygamy in North America* Religious abuse* Religious violence* Spiritual abuse"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The BRANCH, The LORD Our Righteousness* The General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists* The Universal Publishing Association-Shepherd's Rod* The Advent Movement"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Burwash Hall"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Burwash Hall''' refers to both Burwash Dining Hall and Burwash Hall proper, the second oldest of the residence buildings at Victoria University in Toronto, Canada.",
"Construction began in 1911 and was completed in 1913.It was named after Nathanael Burwash, president of Victoria from 1887 to 1912.The building is an extravagant Neo-Gothic work with turrets, gargoyles, and battlements.",
"The architects were Messrs. Sproatt & Rolph."
],
[
"History",
"In 1910, seven years after the opening of the women's residence, Annesley Hall, the administrators of Victoria University began plans for an elaborate men's residence building on the campus.",
"The project was funded by the estate of Mr. Hart A. Massey, an alumnus from Victoria's early days in Cobourg.",
"The full cost of the project is unknown to the public, but the asset was valued at $450,000 in 1913.350x350pxFamous residents of Burwash include Vincent Massey, Lester B. Pearson, Don Harron, and Donald Sutherland."
],
[
"Architecture",
"The building is described as Collegiate Gothic, intended to include all the developments of the Tudor style.",
"Burwash Hall was designed to resemble the residences in Oxford and Cambridge, with modifications to the stair-case system and the division of houses.",
"Sproatt & Rolph avoided architecture of commercial appearance, envisioning a structure that was academic in feeling.",
"Burwash Hall was not intended to replicate Oxford buildings, but to \"prove that academic Gothic can be indigenous in Canada as well as in England, and that it can be perfectly adapted to the exigencies of Canada's climate and life\".",
"Constructed of Bedford Indiana cut stone and Georgetown rubble masonry, the residence houses and adjoined dining hall intended to prove that beauty and efficiency were not antithetical."
],
[
"Design",
"350x350pxThe building is divided between the large dining hall in the northwest and the student residence proper.",
"The residence area is divided into two sections: the Upper Houses, built in 1913, and the Lower Houses, built in 1931.To the west the Upper Houses look out on the Vic Quad and the main Victoria College building across it.",
"West of the Lower Houses is the new Lester B. Pearson Garden of Peace and International Understanding and the E.J.",
"Pratt Library beyond it.",
"From the eastern side of the building, the Upper Houses look out at Rowell Jackman Hall and the Lower Houses see the St. Michael's College residence of Elmsley.",
"The only exception is the view from Gate House Tower which looks down St. Mary's Street."
],
[
"Burwash Dining Hall",
"The dining hall is perhaps the best known part of the building to outsiders.",
"It is the University of Toronto's largest, holding some 250 students and sixteen large tables.",
"Hanging on the western wall is Queen Victoria's burial flag, given to the college soon after her death.",
"Under the flag is the high table where the professors and college administration lunch.",
"Historically, the Upper Houses each had their own table.",
"Gate sat in the southwest corner, Middle sat in the far northeast, South sat in the table to the west of Middle, while North sat to the west of the southeast corner.",
"The only lower house to have had a designated table was Caven, in the northwest corner beside the alumni table.",
"(Note that prior to the 1995 renovations, some of these houses, particularly North and Caven, 'traditionally' sat elsewhere)."
],
[
"Upper Houses",
"Adjoined to Burwash Dining Hall and completed in 1913, the upper houses were originally known as the ''Men's Residences.''",
"The four houses are: '''North House''', '''Middle House''', '''Gate House''', and '''South House'''.",
"The upper houses were gutted and renovated in 1995.Each Upper House consists of three floors.",
"The lower floor contains a common room equipped with kitchen facilities, couches and a television.",
"The upper floors each have their own kitchen and dining area.",
"All houses have a very high bathroom ratio, with many single-use washrooms and a communal washroom on each floor.",
"Upper Houses are divided between double rooms and singles, with about sixty percent of the population being in doubles.",
"Unlike the Lower Houses, the hallways of each Upper House are connected, a feature that was added in the 1995 renovations.There is typically an upper-year Residence Don for each of the Upper Houses.",
"This has been the case since the building's construction in 1913, when specific rooms were included for Dons.",
"The original location of these rooms has since changed with recent renovations.=== North House ===At the corner of Burwash Dining Hall and the Upper Houses lies North House.",
"The emblem of North House is an oil lamp, originally used to represent Victoria's Faculty of Theology, established in 1871.North has an extended hallway and larger common room than the other Upper Houses due to its position on the corner of the building.=== Middle House ===The largest of the Upper Houses due to its incorporation of two battlements which divide North and Gate House, Middle House is the centre of the Upper Houses.",
"The owl is the emblem of Middle House, sourced from the Victoria College coat of arms, and originally used to represent the Faculty of Arts.",
"The Don's room in Middle House was originally the room reserved for the Dean of Men at Victoria, fit with a fireplace and seating area.===Gate House===Gate House viewed from the Vic Quad.",
"'''Gate House''' is one of the four Upper Houses of the Burwash Hall residence.",
"Until 2007, when Victoria administration made it co-ed, Gate House was one of the last remaining all-male residence building in the University of Toronto.",
"The Gate House emblem is the Phoenix, visible in the bottom-right corner of the Victoria College insignia.Gate House, with the rest of Upper Burwash, opened in 1913 and has held students every year since then except 1995, when it was renovated.",
"As an all-male residence from 1913 to 2007 it held a number of unique traditions.",
"For 20 years Gate House hosted an annual party called Novemberfest in the Burwash dining hall.",
"The Victoria Dean of Students cancelled Novemberfest in 2003, when police discovered widespread underage drinking and over 800 people in the dining hall, in violation of the fire code.",
"Another Gate House tradition that no longer occurs is the \"stirring the chicken,\" a dinner and keg party where house members cook chicken fajitas for hundreds of guests.",
"Until 2007, Gate House held secretive first-year initiation ceremonies called Traditionals, which involved writing slogans on campus buildings in chalk, singing songs to the all-women's residence (who would then sing back to them), and leading first-years around the house blindfolded.",
"Since Novemberfest, Gate House continued to have conflict with the Administration.",
"In 2004 the Dean evicted three Gate House residents for allegedly \"hog-tying\" a first-year student.",
"In 2007 President Paul W. Gooch wrote that Gate House undertook an \"escalating series of actions\" that were \"defiant\" and \"disparaging of women\", in response to Gate members constructing a 2.5-metre snow penis and placing a cooked pig's head in an Annesley bathroom.",
"As punishment, during the fall exam period Gooch evicted two residents and relocated the remainder of Gate House to other places in the residence system, banned all current Gate House students from entering the building in 2008.Since this decision Gate House has become a co-ed residence identical to the other Upper Burwash houses.",
"Notable residents of Gate House include Lester B. Pearson, former Prime Minister of Canada, and Simon Pulsifer, who ''Time'' magazine nicknamed \"The Duke of Data\" for his contributions to Wikipedia.During its 93 years as a men's residence, Gate House developed a distinct character and reputation.",
"These antics included pranks, toga parties, streaking, caroling to other residences, hazing rituals, \"beer bashes\" and \"incessant pounding\" on the Gate House table in the dining hall.",
"Paul Gooch wrote that these traditions gave Gate House an \"ethos\" that contradicted his vision of residence life.The all-male Gate House was known as a social centre and spirited, tight-knit community.",
"According to Grayson Lee, who created the snow penis sculpture in 2007, most of its residents were \"heartbroken\" to leave.",
"Former Gate House President Dave Ruhl commented that \"the Gate House camaraderie is unique\" and that living there was \"one of the most important parts of the university experience\" for many.The Reuters news agency nicknamed Gate House \"U of T's Animal House\" because Donald Sutherland's memories of its parties are said to have influenced the script of the 1978 movie.",
"The Toronto Star described Gooch's decision to put an end to its traditions, activities and distinguishing characteristics as \"neutering Animal House.",
"\"Gate House has three floors which house 28 students, as well as a don and the Victoria College Residence Life Co-ordinator.",
"Above the gate there is a tower that rises three stories higher and has a turret-style roof.The '''first floor''' has one double room and one bathroom available to students.",
"About half of the floor is taken up by the apartment of the Residence Life Coordinator.",
"Lastly, on the first floor there is a house common room with a kitchen and two couches.",
"The '''second floor''' has three double rooms and seven single rooms.",
"It has three single washrooms and one larger communal one, as well as its own kitchen.",
"This floor is home to the residence don, who has a larger room with a private washroom.",
"The '''third floor''' is identical to the second except that in place of the don's room there are two single rooms.=== South House ===Adjoining St. Mary's Arch and Lower Houses, South House is the furthest Upper House from Burwash Dining Hall.",
"The emblem of the house is a sphinx, which was originally used to represent Victoria's Faculty of Law, established in 1860."
],
[
"Lower Houses",
"The Lower Houses, originally the ''Emmanuel College Residences,'' were intended to house theology students at Emmanuel College, whose current building was opened the same year.",
"'''Ryerson House''' (renamed to '''First House''' in 2021), '''Nelles House''', '''Caven House''', '''Bowles-Gandier House''' are now mostly home to undergraduate arts and science students.",
"One story lower than the Upper Houses, they consist of four floors in order to reach the same height.",
"All five houses are connected underground via the basement.",
"The lower houses have only been partially upgraded.",
"Before the renovations the entire building was exclusively male, but now every house is co-ed.The Lower Houses each have four floors, but are much narrower with each level having only four rooms.",
"Each level also has its own kitchen, but these are much smaller than in the Upper Houses.",
"The Lower Houses do have far larger and better fitted common rooms that are similar to the ones the Upper Houses had before the renovations.",
"The rooms in the Lower Houses are also considered more luxurious with hardwood floors and large sizes.",
"Rooms in the Lower Houses are more expensive, however.",
"Until 2003 the Lower Houses were restricted to upper year students but with the double cohort of graduates from Ontario schools many of the rooms were transformed into doubles and now hold first years.There is typically one upper-year Residence Don for First, Nelles, and Caven House, and a second upper-year Residence Don for Bowles-Gandier House.=== First House (Ryerson House) ===First House connects the Upper and Lower Houses, and was originally named after the first principal of Victoria College, Egerton Ryerson.",
"The house was renamed for the 2021–2022 school year, after an investigation into the legacy of Ryerson and his role in the Canadian residential school system.",
"The Victoria University Students' Administrative Council initially called for a renaming in February 2019, which was followed by the Victoria University Research Panel on the Legacy of Egerton Ryerson in 2020, and ultimately the Presidential Report on the Legacy of Egerton Ryerson in 2021 which resulted in the change.Although the house had been named ''Ryerson'' since 1933, all five Lower Houses were temporarily named First House, Second House, Third House, Fourth House, and Fifth House from 1931 until 1933.The Board of Regents used these placeholder names until they decided upon better alternatives.",
"In 2021, the name of Ryerson House was reverted to its original title, First House.=== Nelles House ===Named for Victoria principal, president, and chancellor Samuel S. Nelles, Nelles House echoes the position of Middle House amongst the Upper Houses.",
"Like Middle, Nelles House sits between the first and third houses in the set.",
"However, Nelles is the exact same size and shape as Ryerson and Caven House.=== Caven House ===The only Lower House to not be named after a Victoria College student or administrator, Caven House comes from presbyterian minister William Caven, the second principal of Knox College, Toronto.",
"Although he was not directly involved with the affairs of Victoria, he consulted President Nathanael Burwash and Rev.",
"Alfred Gandier about the division of Arts and Theology at Victoria.",
"After great discussion, this spawned Emmanuel College, Victoria's Faculty of Theology.",
"Since the Lower Houses were originally built for Emmanuel students, it is likely that this is the reason for naming the House after William Caven.=== Bowles-Gandier House ======= Name ====Bowles House is named after Victoria president and chancellor Richard Pinch Bowles, the first-cousin once-removed of Lester B. Pearson.Gandier House is named after Alfred Gandier, the first principal of Emmanuel College.==== Exterior Design ====Lower Burwash Hall Floor Plans (2007)The very last house in Burwash Hall has a unique style to the other three Lower Houses.",
"Rather than continuing the trend of Upper and Lower Houses in a straight line on the East side of the property, Bowles-Gandier House, colloquially \"BG\", juts out on the West side of the Southern edge of Burwash Hall.",
"Enclosing the residence structure along the property line where Victoria meets St. Michael's College, the house forms an L shape with the other three Lower Houses.==== Interior Layout ====Unlike Ryerson, Nelles, and Caven House—which are all identical in layout—Bowles-Gandier is the amalgamation of Gandier House and Bowles House, which operated independently until the 1995 renovations.The floor plan for Bowles-Gandier varies from the other Lower Houses, with a significantly larger common room and two triple-bedrooms on the main floor: each with an in-suite kitchen and bathroom.The Bowles and Gandier stairwells are connected by a hallway on the second, third, and fourth floors.",
"Each of these floors has a shared kitchen, and two bedrooms at the end of each hall with a connected bathroom, much like the other Lower Houses.",
"They also have two double-rooms in the middle of the hall, which have a connected bathroom and kitchen, meaning BG has the highest kitchen-to-student ratio in Burwash.==== Vic One Program ====Bowles-Gandier is sometimes referred to as the Vic One House, since it is mostly reserved for students in the Vic One program.",
"While not a requirement to live in BG, it has historically consisted of > 80% Vic One students."
],
[
"References",
"__FORCETOC__"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Benzodiazepine"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Benzodiazepines''' ('''BZD''', '''BDZ''', '''BZs'''), colloquially called \"'''benzos'''\", are a class of depressant drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring.",
"They are prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety disorders, insomnia, and seizures.",
"The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 and was made available in 1960 by Hoffmann–La Roche, who soon followed with diazepam (Valium) in 1963.By 1977, benzodiazepines were the most prescribed medications globally; the introduction of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), among other factors, decreased rates of prescription, but they remain frequently used worldwide.Benzodiazepines are depressants that enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the GABAA receptor, resulting in sedative, hypnotic (sleep-inducing), anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties.",
"High doses of many shorter-acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and dissociation.",
"These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, panic disorder, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures.",
"Benzodiazepines are categorized as short, intermediate, or long-acting.",
"Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia; longer-acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety.Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short-term use—about two to four weeks—although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition can occur.",
"According to the Department of Health (Victoria), long-term use can cause “impaired thinking or memory loss.",
"anxiety and depression.",
"irritability, paranoia, aggression, etc.” A minority of people have paradoxical reactions after taking benzodiazepines such as worsened agitation or panic.",
"Benzodiazepines are associated with an increased risk of suicide due to aggression, impulsivity, and negative withdrawal effects.",
"Long-term use is controversial because of concerns about decreasing effectiveness, physical dependence, benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, and an increased risk of dementia and cancer.",
"The elderly are at an increased risk of both short- and long-term adverse effects, and as a result, all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List of inappropriate medications for older adults.",
"There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy.",
"While they are not major teratogens, uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn.Taken in overdose, benzodiazepines can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness, but they are less toxic than their predecessors, the barbiturates, and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken.",
"Combined with other central nervous system (CNS) depressants such as alcohol and opioids, the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases significantly.",
"Benzodiazepines are commonly used recreationally and also often taken in combination with other addictive substances, and are controlled in most countries."
],
[
"Medical uses",
"Midazolam 1 & 5 mg/mL injections (Canada)Benzodiazepines possess psycholeptic, sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant, and amnesic actions, which are useful in a variety of indications such as alcohol dependence, seizures, anxiety disorders, panic, agitation, and insomnia.",
"Most are administered orally; however, they can also be given intravenously, intramuscularly, or rectally.",
"In general, benzodiazepines are well tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the short term for a wide range of conditions.",
"Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence, and upon discontinuation a withdrawal syndrome may occur.",
"These factors, combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor, cognitive, or memory impairments, limit their long-term applicability.",
"The effects of long-term use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits, depression, and anxiety.",
"The College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia recommends discontinuing the usage of benzodiazepines in those on opioids and those who have used them long term.",
"Benzodiazepines can have serious adverse health outcomes, and these findings support clinical and regulatory efforts to reduce usage, especially in combination with non-benzodiazepine receptor agonists.===Panic disorder===Because of their effectiveness, tolerability, and rapid onset of anxiolytic action, benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of anxiety associated with panic disorder.",
"However, there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the long-term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder.",
"The views range from those holding benzodiazepines are not effective long-term and should be reserved for treatment-resistant cases to those holding they are as effective in the long term as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).The American Psychiatric Association (APA) guidelines note that, in general, benzodiazepines are well tolerated, and their use for the initial treatment for panic disorder is strongly supported by numerous controlled trials.",
"APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another.",
"The choice of treatment between benzodiazepines, SSRIs, serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and psychotherapy should be based on the patient's history, preference, and other individual characteristics.",
"Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are likely to be the best choice of pharmacotherapy for many patients with panic disorder, but benzodiazepines are also often used, and some studies suggest that these medications are still used with greater frequency than the SSRIs.",
"One advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants, and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical.",
"However, this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence.",
"APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance use disorder.",
"The APA guidelines state that, in general, pharmacotherapy of panic disorder should be continued for at least a year, and that clinical experience supports continuing benzodiazepine treatment to prevent recurrence.",
"Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised, there is no evidence for significant dose escalation in patients using benzodiazepines long-term.",
"For many such patients, stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years.Guidelines issued by the UK-based National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), carried out a systematic review using different methodology and came to a different conclusion.",
"They questioned the accuracy of studies that were not placebo-controlled.",
"And, based on the findings of placebo-controlled studies, they do not recommend use of benzodiazepines beyond two to four weeks, as tolerance and physical dependence develop rapidly, with withdrawal symptoms including rebound anxiety occurring after six weeks or more of use.",
"Nevertheless, benzodiazepines are still prescribed for long-term treatment of anxiety disorders, although specific antidepressants and psychological therapies are recommended as the first-line treatment options with the anticonvulsant drug pregabalin indicated as a second- or third-line treatment and suitable for long-term use.",
"NICE stated that long-term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia is an unlicensed indication, does not have long-term efficacy, and is, therefore, not recommended by clinical guidelines.",
"Psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy are recommended as a first-line therapy for panic disorder; benzodiazepine use has been found to interfere with therapeutic gains from these therapies.Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally; however, very occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks.===Generalized anxiety disorder===Benzodiazepines have robust efficacy in the short-term management of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), but were not shown effective in producing long-term improvement overall.",
"According to National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), benzodiazepines can be used in the immediate management of GAD, if necessary.",
"However, they should not usually be given for longer than 2–4 weeks.",
"The only medications NICE recommends for the longer term management of GAD are antidepressants.Likewise, Canadian Psychiatric Association (CPA) recommends benzodiazepines alprazolam, bromazepam, lorazepam, and diazepam only as a second-line choice, if the treatment with two different antidepressants was unsuccessful.",
"Although they are second-line agents, benzodiazepines can be used for a limited time to relieve severe anxiety and agitation.",
"CPA guidelines note that after 4–6 weeks the effect of benzodiazepines may decrease to the level of placebo, and that benzodiazepines are less effective than antidepressants in alleviating ruminative worry, the core symptom of GAD.",
"However, in some cases, a prolonged treatment with benzodiazepines as the add-on to an antidepressant may be justified.A 2015 review found a larger effect with medications than talk therapy.",
"Medications with benefit include serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, benzodiazepines, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.===Anxiety===Benzodiazepines are sometimes used in the treatment of acute anxiety, as they bring about rapid and marked relief of symptoms in most individuals; however, they are not recommended beyond 2–4 weeks of use due to risks of tolerance and dependence and a lack of long-term effectiveness.",
"As for insomnia, they may also be used on an irregular/\"as-needed\" basis, such as in cases where said anxiety is at its worst.",
"Compared to other pharmacological treatments, benzodiazepines are twice as likely to lead to a relapse of the underlying condition upon discontinuation.",
"Psychological therapies and other pharmacological therapies are recommended for the long-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder.",
"Antidepressants have higher remission rates and are, in general, safe and effective in the short and long term.===Insomnia===Temazepam (Normison) 10 mg tabletsBenzodiazepines can be useful for short-term treatment of insomnia.",
"Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence.",
"The Committee on Safety of Medicines report recommended that where long-term use of benzodiazepines for insomnia is indicated then treatment should be intermittent wherever possible.",
"It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently and at the lowest effective dose.",
"They improve sleep-related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep, prolonging the sleep time, and, in general, reducing wakefulness.",
"However, they worsen sleep quality by increasing light sleep and decreasing deep sleep.",
"Other drawbacks of hypnotics, including benzodiazepines, are possible tolerance to their effects, rebound insomnia, and reduced slow-wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation.The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries, but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first-line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia varies between countries.",
"Longer-acting benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam and diazepam have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are, in general, not recommended.Since the release of nonbenzodiazepines, also known as z-drugs, in 1992 in response to safety concerns, individuals with insomnia and other sleep disorders have increasingly been prescribed nonbenzodiazepines (2.3% in 1993 to 13.7% of Americans in 2010), less often prescribed benzodiazepines (23.5% in 1993 to 10.8% in 2010).",
"It is not clear as to whether the new non benzodiazepine hypnotics (Z-drugs) are better than the short-acting benzodiazepines.",
"The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar.",
"According to the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, indirect comparison indicates that side-effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines.",
"Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first-line long-term treatment of insomnia.",
"However, the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z-drugs.",
"NICE review pointed out that short-acting Z-drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long-acting benzodiazepines.",
"There have been no trials comparing short-acting Z-drugs with appropriate doses of short-acting benzodiazepines.",
"Based on this, NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient's preference.Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia unless other treatments have failed.",
"When benzodiazepines are used, patients, their caretakers, and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms, including evidence that shows twice the incidence of traffic collisions among driving patients, and falls and hip fracture for older patients.===Seizures===Prolonged convulsive epileptic seizures are a medical emergency that can usually be dealt with effectively by administering fast-acting benzodiazepines, which are potent anticonvulsants.",
"In a hospital environment, intravenous clonazepam, lorazepam, and diazepam are first-line choices.",
"In the community, intravenous administration is not practical and so rectal diazepam or buccal midazolam are used, with a preference for midazolam as its administration is easier and more socially acceptable.When benzodiazepines were first introduced, they were enthusiastically adopted for treating all forms of epilepsy.",
"However, drowsiness and tolerance become problems with continued use and none are now considered first-line choices for long-term epilepsy therapy.",
"Clobazam is widely used by specialist epilepsy clinics worldwide and clonazepam is popular in the Netherlands, Belgium and France.",
"Clobazam was approved for use in the United States in 2011.In the UK, both clobazam and clonazepam are second-line choices for treating many forms of epilepsy.",
"Clobazam also has a useful role for very short-term seizure prophylaxis and in catamenial epilepsy.",
"Discontinuation after long-term use in epilepsy requires additional caution because of the risks of rebound seizures.",
"Therefore, the dose is slowly tapered over a period of up to six months or longer.===Alcohol withdrawal===Chlordiazepoxide is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for alcohol detoxification, but diazepam may be used as an alternative.",
"Both are used in the detoxification of individuals who are motivated to stop drinking, and are prescribed for a short period of time to reduce the risks of developing tolerance and dependence to the benzodiazepine medication itself.",
"The benzodiazepines with a longer half-life make detoxification more tolerable, and dangerous (and potentially lethal) alcohol withdrawal effects are less likely to occur.",
"On the other hand, short-acting benzodiazepines may lead to breakthrough seizures, and are, therefore, not recommended for detoxification in an outpatient setting.",
"Oxazepam and lorazepam are often used in patients at risk of drug accumulation, in particular, the elderly and those with cirrhosis, because they are metabolized differently from other benzodiazepines, through conjugation.Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome, in particular, for the prevention and treatment of the dangerous complication of seizures and in subduing severe delirium.",
"Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures.===Other indications===Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for a wide range of conditions:* They can sedate patients receiving mechanical ventilation or those in extreme distress.",
"Caution is exercised in this situation due to the risk of respiratory depression, and it is recommended that benzodiazepine overdose treatment facilities should be available.",
"They have also been found to increase the likelihood of later PTSD after people have been removed from ventilators.",
"*Benzodiazepines are indicated in the management of breathlessness (shortness of breath) in advanced diseases, in particular where other treatments have failed to adequately control symptoms.",
"* Benzodiazepines are effective as medication given a couple of hours before surgery to relieve anxiety.",
"They also produce amnesia, which can be useful, as patients may not remember unpleasantness from the procedure.",
"They are also used in patients with dental phobia as well as some ophthalmic procedures like refractive surgery; although such use is controversial and only recommended for those who are very anxious.",
"Midazolam is the most commonly prescribed for this use because of its strong sedative actions and fast recovery time, as well as its water solubility, which reduces pain upon injection.",
"Diazepam and lorazepam are sometimes used.",
"Lorazepam has particularly marked amnesic properties that may make it more effective when amnesia is the desired effect.",
"* Benzodiazepines are well known for their strong muscle-relaxing properties and can be useful in the treatment of muscle spasms, although tolerance often develops to their muscle relaxant effects.",
"Baclofen or tizanidine are sometimes used as an alternative to benzodiazepines.",
"Tizanidine has been found to have superior tolerability compared to diazepam and baclofen.",
"* Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by hallucinogen intoxication.",
"Benzodiazepines are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual and can, if required, be given via an intramuscular injection.",
"They can sometimes be effective in the short-term treatment of psychiatric emergencies such as acute psychosis as in schizophrenia or mania, bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of lithium or neuroleptics (antipsychotics) take effect.",
"Lorazepam is most commonly used but clonazepam is sometimes prescribed for acute psychosis or mania; their long-term use is not recommended due to risks of dependence.",
"Further research investigating the use of benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotic medications for treating acute psychosis is warranted.",
"* Clonazepam, a benzodiazepine is used to treat many forms of parasomnia.",
"Rapid eye movement behavior disorder responds well to low doses of clonazepam.",
"Restless legs syndrome can be treated using clonazepam as a third line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational.",
"* Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), although they are generally believed ineffective for this indication.",
"Effectiveness was, however, found in one small study.",
"Benzodiazepines can be considered as a treatment option in treatment resistant cases.",
"* Antipsychotics are generally a first-line treatment for delirium; however, when delirium is caused by alcohol or sedative hypnotic withdrawal, benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment.",
"* There is some evidence that low doses of benzodiazepines reduce adverse effects of electroconvulsive therapy."
],
[
"Contraindications",
"Because of their muscle relaxant action, benzodiazepines may cause respiratory depression in susceptible individuals.",
"For that reason, they are contraindicated in people with myasthenia gravis, sleep apnea, bronchitis, and COPD.",
"Caution is required when benzodiazepines are used in people with personality disorders or intellectual disability because of frequent paradoxical reactions.",
"In major depression, they may precipitate suicidal tendencies and are sometimes used for suicidal overdoses.",
"Individuals with a history of excessive alcohol use or non-medical use of opioids or barbiturates should avoid benzodiazepines, as there is a risk of life-threatening interactions with these drugs.===Pregnancy===In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has categorized benzodiazepines into either category D or X meaning potential for harm in the unborn has been demonstrated.Exposure to benzodiazepines during pregnancy has been associated with a slightly increased (from 0.06 to 0.07%) risk of cleft palate in newborns, a controversial conclusion as some studies find no association between benzodiazepines and cleft palate.",
"Their use by expectant mothers shortly before the delivery may result in a floppy infant syndrome.",
"Newborns with this condition tend to have hypotonia, hypothermia, lethargy, and breathing and feeding difficulties.",
"Cases of neonatal withdrawal syndrome have been described in infants chronically exposed to benzodiazepines in utero.",
"This syndrome may be hard to recognize, as it starts several days after delivery, for example, as late as 21 days for chlordiazepoxide.",
"The symptoms include tremors, hypertonia, hyperreflexia, hyperactivity, and vomiting and may last for up to three to six months.",
"Tapering down the dose during pregnancy may lessen its severity.",
"If used in pregnancy, those benzodiazepines with a better and longer safety record, such as diazepam or chlordiazepoxide, are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines, such as temazepam or triazolam.",
"Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child.===Elderly===The benefits of benzodiazepines are least and the risks are greatest in the elderly.",
"They are listed as a potentially inappropriate medication for older adults by the American Geriatrics Society.",
"The elderly are at an increased risk of dependence and are more sensitive to the adverse effects such as memory problems, daytime sedation, impaired motor coordination, and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls, and an increased risk of hip fractures.",
"The long-term effects of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine dependence in the elderly can resemble dementia, depression, or anxiety syndromes, and progressively worsens over time.",
"Adverse effects on cognition can be mistaken for the effects of old age.",
"The benefits of withdrawal include improved cognition, alertness, mobility, reduced risk incontinence, and a reduced risk of falls and fractures.",
"The success of gradual-tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people.",
"Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses.",
"Short to intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred in the elderly such as oxazepam and temazepam.",
"The high potency benzodiazepines alprazolam and triazolam and long-acting benzodiazepines are not recommended in the elderly due to increased adverse effects.",
"Nonbenzodiazepines such as zaleplon and zolpidem and low doses of sedating antidepressants are sometimes used as alternatives to benzodiazepines.Long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia, and reduction in prescribing levels is likely to reduce dementia risk.",
"The association of a history of benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline is unclear, with some studies reporting a lower risk of cognitive decline in former users, some finding no association and some indicating an increased risk of cognitive decline.Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms of dementia.",
"However, like antidepressants, they have little evidence of effectiveness, although antipsychotics have shown some benefit.",
"Cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines that occur frequently in the elderly can also worsen dementia."
],
[
"Adverse effects",
"The most common side-effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle-relaxing action.",
"They include drowsiness, dizziness, and decreased alertness and concentration.",
"Lack of coordination may result in falls and injuries particularly in the elderly.",
"Another result is impairment of driving skills and increased likelihood of road traffic accidents.",
"Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect.",
"Depression and disinhibition may emerge.",
"Hypotension and suppressed breathing (hypoventilation) may be encountered with intravenous use.",
"Less common side effects include nausea and changes in appetite, blurred vision, confusion, euphoria, depersonalization and nightmares.",
"Cases of liver toxicity have been described but are very rare.The long-term effects of benzodiazepine use can include cognitive impairment as well as affective and behavioural problems.",
"Feelings of turmoil, difficulty in thinking constructively, loss of sex-drive, agoraphobia and social phobia, increasing anxiety and depression, loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests, and an inability to experience or express feelings can also occur.",
"Not everyone, however, experiences problems with long-term use.",
"Additionally, an altered perception of self, environment and relationships may occur.",
"A study published in 2020 found that long-term use of prescription benzodiazepines is associated with an increase in all-cause mortality among those age 65 or younger, but not those older than 65.The study also found that all-cause mortality was increased further in cases in which benzodiazepines are co-prescribed with opioids, relative to cases in which benzodiazepines are prescribed without opioids, but again only in those age 65 or younger.Compared to other sedative-hypnotics, visits to the hospital involving benzodiazepines had a 66% greater odds of a serious adverse health outcome.",
"This included hospitalization, patient transfer, or death, and visits involving a combination of benzodiazepines and non-benzodiapine receptor agonists had almost four-times increased odds of a serious health outcome.In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.===Cognitive effects===The short-term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition, the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of memories of new material and may induce complete anterograde amnesia.",
"However, researchers hold contrary opinions regarding the effects of long-term administration.",
"One view is that many of the short-term effects continue into the long-term and may even worsen, and are not resolved after stopping benzodiazepine usage.",
"Another view maintains that cognitive deficits in chronic benzodiazepine users occur only for a short period after the dose, or that the anxiety disorder is the cause of these deficits.While the definitive studies are lacking, the former view received support from a 2004 meta-analysis of 13 small studies.",
"This meta-analysis found that long-term use of benzodiazepines was associated with moderate to large adverse effects on all areas of cognition, with visuospatial memory being the most commonly detected impairment.",
"Some of the other impairments reported were decreased IQ, visiomotor coordination, information processing, verbal learning and concentration.",
"The authors of the meta-analysis and a later reviewer noted that the applicability of this meta-analysis is limited because the subjects were taken mostly from withdrawal clinics; the coexisting drug, alcohol use, and psychiatric disorders were not defined; and several of the included studies conducted the cognitive measurements during the withdrawal period.=== Paradoxical effects ===Paradoxical reactions, such as increased seizures in epileptics, aggression, violence, impulsivity, irritability and suicidal behavior sometimes occur.",
"These reactions have been explained as consequences of disinhibition and the subsequent loss of control over socially unacceptable behavior.",
"Paradoxical reactions are rare in the general population, with an incidence rate below 1% and similar to placebo.",
"However, they occur with greater frequency in recreational abusers, individuals with borderline personality disorder, children, and patients on high-dosage regimes.",
"In these groups, impulse control problems are perhaps the most important risk factor for disinhibition; learning disabilities and neurological disorders are also significant risks.",
"Most reports of disinhibition involve high doses of high-potency benzodiazepines.",
"Paradoxical effects may also appear after chronic use of benzodiazepines.===Long-term worsening of psychiatric symptoms===While benzodiazepines may have short-term benefits for anxiety, sleep and agitation in some patients, long-term (i.e., greater than 2–4 weeks) use can result in a worsening of the very symptoms the medications are meant to treat.",
"Potential explanations include exacerbating cognitive problems that are already common in anxiety disorders, causing or worsening depression and suicidality, disrupting sleep architecture by inhibiting deep stage sleep, withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms in between doses mimicking or exacerbating underlying anxiety or sleep disorders, inhibiting the benefits of psychotherapy by inhibiting memory consolidation and reducing fear extinction, and reducing coping with trauma/stress and increasing vulnerability to future stress.",
"The latter two explanations may be why benzodiazepines are ineffective and/or potentially harmful in PTSD and phobias.",
"Anxiety, insomnia and irritability may be temporarily exacerbated during withdrawal, but psychiatric symptoms after discontinuation are usually less than even while taking benzodiazepines.",
"Functioning significantly improves within 1 year of discontinuation.===Physical dependence, withdrawal and post-withdrawal syndromes===Diazepam 2 mg and 5 mg diazepam tablets, which are commonly used in the treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal.====Tolerance====The main problem of the chronic use of benzodiazepines is the development of tolerance and dependence.",
"Tolerance manifests itself as diminished pharmacological effect and develops relatively quickly to the sedative, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant actions of benzodiazepines.",
"Tolerance to anti-anxiety effects develops more slowly with little evidence of continued effectiveness beyond four to six months of continued use.",
"In general, tolerance to the amnesic effects does not occur.",
"However, controversy exists as to tolerance to the anxiolytic effects with some evidence that benzodiazepines retain efficacy and opposing evidence from a systematic review of the literature that tolerance frequently occurs and some evidence that anxiety may worsen with long-term use.",
"The question of tolerance to the amnesic effects of benzodiazepines is, likewise, unclear.",
"Some evidence suggests that partial tolerance does develop, and that, \"memory impairment is limited to a narrow window within 90 minutes after each dose\".A major disadvantage of benzodiazepines is that tolerance to therapeutic effects develops relatively quickly while many adverse effects persist.",
"Tolerance develops to hypnotic and myorelaxant effects within days to weeks, and to anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects within weeks to months.",
"Therefore, benzodiazepines are unlikely to be effective long-term treatments for sleep and anxiety.",
"While BZD therapeutic effects disappear with tolerance, depression and impulsivity with high suicidal risk commonly persist.",
"Several studies have confirmed that long-term benzodiazepines are not significantly different from placebo for sleep or anxiety.",
"This may explain why patients commonly increase doses over time and many eventually take more than one type of benzodiazepine after the first loses effectiveness.",
"Additionally, because tolerance to benzodiazepine sedating effects develops more quickly than does tolerance to brainstem depressant effects, those taking more benzodiazepines to achieve desired effects may experience sudden respiratory depression, hypotension or death.",
"Most patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD have symptoms that persist for at least several months, making tolerance to therapeutic effects a distinct problem for them and necessitating the need for more effective long-term treatment (e.g., psychotherapy, serotonergic antidepressants).====Withdrawal symptoms and management====Chlordiazepoxide 5 mg capsules, which are sometimes used as an alternative to diazepam for benzodiazepine withdrawal.",
"Like diazepam it has a long elimination half-life and long-acting active metabolites.Discontinuation of benzodiazepines or abrupt reduction of the dose, even after a relatively short course of treatment (two to four weeks), may result in two groups of symptoms—rebound and withdrawal.",
"Rebound symptoms are the return of the symptoms for which the patient was treated but worse than before.",
"Withdrawal symptoms are the new symptoms that occur when the benzodiazepine is stopped.",
"They are the main sign of physical dependence.The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from benzodiazepines are insomnia, gastric problems, tremors, agitation, fearfulness, and muscle spasms.",
"The less frequent effects are irritability, sweating, depersonalization, derealization, hypersensitivity to stimuli, depression, suicidal behavior, psychosis, seizures, and delirium tremens.",
"Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt or over-rapid withdrawal.",
"Abrupt withdrawal can be dangerous and lead to excitotoxicity, causing damage and even death to nerve cells as a result of excessive levels of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.",
"Increased glutamatergic activity is thought to be part of a compensatory mechanism to chronic GABAergic inhibition from benzodiazepines.",
"Therefore, a gradual reduction regimen is recommended.Symptoms may also occur during a gradual dosage reduction, but are typically less severe and may persist as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome for months after cessation of benzodiazepines.",
"Approximately 10% of patients experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome, which can persist for many months or in some cases a year or longer.",
"Protracted symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub-acute level of severity.",
"Such symptoms do gradually lessen over time, eventually disappearing altogether.Benzodiazepines have a reputation with patients and doctors for causing a severe and traumatic withdrawal; however, this is in large part due to the withdrawal process being poorly managed.",
"Over-rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and increases the failure rate.",
"A slow and gradual withdrawal customised to the individual and, if indicated, psychological support is the most effective way of managing the withdrawal.",
"Opinion as to the time needed to complete withdrawal ranges from four weeks to several years.",
"A goal of less than six months has been suggested, but due to factors such as dosage and type of benzodiazepine, reasons for prescription, lifestyle, personality, environmental stresses, and amount of available support, a year or more may be needed to withdraw.Withdrawal is best managed by transferring the physically dependent patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam because it has the longest half-life of all of the benzodiazepines, is metabolised into long-acting active metabolites and is available in low-potency tablets, which can be quartered for smaller doses.",
"A further benefit is that it is available in liquid form, which allows for even smaller reductions.",
"Chlordiazepoxide, which also has a long half-life and long-acting active metabolites, can be used as an alternative.Nonbenzodiazepines are contraindicated during benzodiazepine withdrawal as they are cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and can induce dependence.",
"Alcohol is also cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and more toxic and thus caution is needed to avoid replacing one dependence with another.",
"During withdrawal, fluoroquinolone-based antibiotics are best avoided if possible; they displace benzodiazepines from their binding site and reduce GABA function and, thus, may aggravate withdrawal symptoms.",
"Antipsychotics are not recommended for benzodiazepine withdrawal (or other CNS depressant withdrawal states) especially clozapine, olanzapine or low potency phenothiazines, e.g., chlorpromazine as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects; if used extreme caution is required.Withdrawal from long term benzodiazepines is beneficial for most individuals.",
"Withdrawal of benzodiazepines from long-term users, in general, leads to improved physical and mental health particularly in the elderly; although some long term users report continued benefit from taking benzodiazepines, this may be the result of suppression of withdrawal effects.=== Controversial associations ===Beyond the well established link between benzodiazepines and psychomotor impairment resulting in motor vehicle accidents and falls leading to fracture; research in the 2000s and 2010s has raised the association between benzodiazepines (and Z-drugs) and other, as of yet unproven, adverse effects including dementia, cancer, infections, pancreatitis and respiratory disease exacerbations.==== Dementia ====A number of studies have drawn an association between long-term benzodiazepine use and neuro-degenerative disease, particularly Alzheimer's disease.",
"It has been determined that long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with increased dementia risk, even after controlling for protopathic bias.==== Infections ====Some observational studies have detected significant associations between benzodiazepines and respiratory infections such as pneumonia where others have not.",
"A large meta-analysis of pre-marketing randomized controlled trials on the pharmacologically related Z-Drugs suggest a small increase in infection risk as well.",
"An immunodeficiency effect from the action of benzodiazepines on GABA-A receptors has been postulated from animal studies.==== Cancer ====A meta-analysis of observational studies has determined an association between benzodiazepine use and cancer, though the risk across different agents and different cancers varied significantly.",
"In terms of experimental basic science evidence, an analysis of carcinogenetic and genotoxicity data for various benzodiazepines has suggested a small possibility of carcinogenesis for a small number of benzodiazepines.==== Pancreatitis ====The evidence suggesting a link between benzodiazepines (and Z-Drugs) and pancreatic inflammation is very sparse and limited to a few observational studies from Taiwan.",
"A criticism of confounding can be applied to these findings as with the other controversial associations above.",
"Further well-designed research from other populations as well as a biologically plausible mechanism is required to confirm this association."
],
[
"Overdose",
"Although benzodiazepines are much safer in overdose than their predecessors, the barbiturates, they can still cause problems in overdose.",
"Taken alone, they rarely cause severe complications in overdose; statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3.8% of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug.",
"However, combining these drugs with alcohol, opiates or tricyclic antidepressants markedly raises the toxicity.",
"The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines, and poisoning may even occur from their long-term use.",
"The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity; temazepam appears most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs.",
"The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include; drowsiness, slurred speech, nystagmus, hypotension, ataxia, coma, respiratory depression, and cardiorespiratory arrest.A reversal agent for benzodiazepines exists, flumazenil (Anexate).",
"Its use as an antidote is not routinely recommended because of the high risk of resedation and seizures.",
"In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 326 people, 4 people had serious adverse events and 61% became resedated following the use of flumazenil.",
"Numerous contraindications to its use exist.",
"It is contraindicated in people with a history of long-term use of benzodiazepines, those having ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an arrhythmia, and in those with abnormal vital signs.",
"One study found that only 10% of the people presenting with a benzodiazepine overdose are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil."
],
[
"Interactions",
"Individual benzodiazepines may have different interactions with certain drugs.",
"Depending on their metabolism pathway, benzodiazepines can be divided roughly into two groups.",
"The largest group consists of those that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes and possess significant potential for interactions with other drugs.",
"The other group comprises those that are metabolized through glucuronidation, such as lorazepam, oxazepam, and temazepam, and, in general, have few drug interactions.Many drugs, including oral contraceptives, some antibiotics, antidepressants, and antifungal agents, inhibit cytochrome enzymes in the liver.",
"They reduce the rate of elimination of the benzodiazepines that are metabolized by CYP450, leading to possibly excessive drug accumulation and increased side-effects.",
"In contrast, drugs that induce cytochrome P450 enzymes, such as St John's wort, the antibiotic rifampicin, and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin, accelerate elimination of many benzodiazepines and decrease their action.",
"Taking benzodiazepines with alcohol, opioids and other central nervous system depressants potentiates their action.",
"This often results in increased sedation, impaired motor coordination, suppressed breathing, and other adverse effects that have potential to be lethal.",
"Antacids can slow down absorption of some benzodiazepines; however, this effect is marginal and inconsistent."
],
[
"Pharmacology",
"===Pharmacodynamics===Schematic diagram of the (α1)2(β2)2(γ2) GABAA receptor complex that depicts the five-protein subunits that form the receptor, the chloride (Cl−) ion channel pore at the center, the two GABA active binding sites at the α1 and β2 interfaces and the benzodiazepine (BZD) allosteric binding site at the α1 and γ2 interface.Benzodiazepines work by increasing the effectiveness of the endogenous chemical, GABA, to decrease the excitability of neurons.",
"This reduces the communication between neurons and, therefore, has a calming effect on many of the functions of the brain.GABA controls the excitability of neurons by binding to the GABAA receptor.",
"The GABAA receptor is a protein complex located in the synapses between neurons.",
"All GABAA receptors contain an ion channel that conducts chloride ions across neuronal cell membranes and two binding sites for the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), while a subset of GABAA receptor complexes also contain a single binding site for benzodiazepines.",
"Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex does not alter binding of GABA.",
"Unlike other positive allosteric modulators that increase ligand binding, benzodiazepine binding acts as a positive allosteric modulator by increasing the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane when GABA is already bound to its receptor.",
"This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes the neuron's membrane potential.",
"As a result, the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and firing is less likely.Different GABAA receptor subtypes have varying distributions within different regions of the brain and, therefore, control distinct neuronal circuits.",
"Hence, activation of different GABAA receptor subtypes by benzodiazepines may result in distinct pharmacological actions.",
"In terms of the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines, their similarities are too great to separate them into individual categories such as anxiolytic or hypnotic.",
"For example, a hypnotic administered in low doses produces anxiety-relieving effects, whereas a benzodiazepine marketed as an anti-anxiety drug at higher doses induces sleep.The subset of GABAA receptors that also bind benzodiazepines are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors (BzR).",
"The GABAA receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits, the most common ones being two ''α''s, two ''β''s, and one ''γ'' (α2β2γ1).",
"For each subunit, many subtypes exist (α1–6, β1–3, and γ1–3).",
"GABAA receptors that are made up of different combinations of subunit subtypes have different properties, different distributions in the brain and different activities relative to pharmacological and clinical effects.",
"Benzodiazepines bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits on the GABAA receptor.",
"Binding also requires that alpha subunits contain a histidine amino acid residue, (i.e., α1, α2, α3, and α5 containing GABAA receptors).",
"For this reason, benzodiazepines show no affinity for GABAA receptors containing α4 and α6 subunits with an arginine instead of a histidine residue.",
"Once bound to the benzodiazepine receptor, the benzodiazepine ligand locks the benzodiazepine receptor into a conformation in which it has a greater affinity for the GABA neurotransmitter.",
"This increases the frequency of the opening of the associated chloride ion channel and hyperpolarizes the membrane of the associated neuron.",
"The inhibitory effect of the available GABA is potentiated, leading to sedative and anxiolytic effects.",
"For instance, those ligands with high activity at the α1 are associated with stronger hypnotic effects, whereas those with higher affinity for GABAA receptors containing α2 and/or α3 subunits have good anti-anxiety activity.GABAA receptors participate in the regulation of synaptic pruning by prompting microglial spine engulfment.",
"Benzodiazepines have been shown to upregulate microglial spine engulfment and prompt overzealous eradication of synaptic connections.",
"This mechanism may help explain the increased risk of dementia associated with long-term benzodiazepine treatment.The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with peripheral benzodiazepine receptors.",
"Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in peripheral nervous system tissues, glial cells, and to a lesser extent the central nervous system.",
"These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABAA receptors.",
"They modulate the immune system and are involved in the body response to injury.",
"Benzodiazepines also function as weak adenosine reuptake inhibitors.",
"It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action.",
"Benzodiazepines have binding sites in the periphery, however their effects on muscle tone is not mediated through these peripheral receptors.",
"The peripheral binding sites for benzodiazepines are present in immune cells and gastrointestinal tract.===Pharmacokinetics=== Benzodiazepine Half-life (range, hours) Speed of onset Alprazolam 6–15 Intermediate Chlordiazepoxide –30 Intermediate Clonazepam –60 Slow Diazepam –80 Fast Flunitrazepam –26 Fast Lorazepam –20 Intermediate Midazolam –2.5 Fast Oxazepam –10 Slow Prazepam –200 Slow Triazolam FastA benzodiazepine can be placed into one of three groups by its elimination half-life, or time it takes for the body to eliminate half of the dose.",
"Some benzodiazepines have long-acting active metabolites, such as diazepam and chlordiazepoxide, which are metabolised into desmethyldiazepam.",
"Desmethyldiazepam has a half-life of 36–200 hours, and flurazepam, with the main active metabolite of desalkylflurazepam, with a half-life of 40–250 hours.",
"These long-acting metabolites are partial agonists.",
"* Short-acting compounds have a median half-life of 1–12 hours.",
"They have few residual effects if taken before bedtime, rebound insomnia may occur upon discontinuation, and they might cause daytime withdrawal symptoms such as next day rebound anxiety with prolonged usage.",
"Examples are brotizolam, midazolam, and triazolam.",
"* Intermediate-acting compounds have a median half-life of 12–40 hours.",
"They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic.",
"Rebound insomnia, however, is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate-acting benzodiazepines than longer-acting benzodiazepines.",
"Examples are alprazolam, estazolam, flunitrazepam, clonazepam, lormetazepam, lorazepam, nitrazepam, and temazepam.",
"* Long-acting compounds have a half-life of 40–250 hours.",
"They have a risk of accumulation in the elderly and in individuals with severely impaired liver function, but they have a reduced severity of rebound effects and withdrawal.",
"Examples are diazepam, clorazepate, chlordiazepoxide, and flurazepam."
],
[
"Chemistry",
"File:Benzodiazepine3.png|thumb|right|alt=On the left is the chemical structure of the parent benzodiazepine ring system, which consists of a seven-membered ring containing two nitrogen atoms fused to a six-membered ring.",
"The two nitrogen atoms are labeled one and four.",
"On the right is the chemical structure of a pharmacologically active benzodiazepine in which alkyl, phenyl, and halogen groups attach to the one, five, and seven positions, respectively, and the carbon atom at position two is double-bonded to an exocyclic oxygen atom.",
"The ortho and para positions of the phenyl substituent are labeled two-prime and 4-prime, respectively.|'''Left''': The 1,4-benzodiazepine ring system.",
"'''Right''': 5-phenyl-1''H''-benzo''e'' 1,4diazepin-2(3''H'')-one forms the skeleton of many of the most common benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals, such as diazepam (7-chloro-1-methyl substituted).A pharmacophore model of the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor.",
"White sticks represent the carbon atoms of the benzodiazepine diazepam, while green represents carbon atoms of the nonbenzodiazepine CGS-9896.Red and blue sticks are oxygen and nitrogen atoms that are present in both structures.",
"The red spheres labeled H1 and H2/A3 are, respectively, hydrogen bond donating and accepting sites in the receptor, while L1, L2, and L3 denote lipophilic binding sites.Benzodiazepines share a similar chemical structure, and their effects in humans are mainly produced by the allosteric modification of a specific kind of neurotransmitter receptor, the GABAA receptor, which increases the overall conductance of these inhibitory channels; this results in the various therapeutic effects as well as adverse effects of benzodiazepines.",
"Other less important modes of action are also known.The term ''benzodiazepine'' is the chemical name for the heterocyclic ring system (see figure to the right), which is a fusion between the benzene and diazepine ring systems.",
"Under Hantzsch–Widman nomenclature, a diazepine is a heterocycle with two nitrogen atoms, five carbon atom and the maximum possible number of cumulative double bonds.",
"The \"benzo\" prefix indicates the benzene ring fused onto the diazepine ring.Benzodiazepine drugs are substituted 1,4-benzodiazepines, although the chemical term can refer to many other compounds that do not have useful pharmacological properties.",
"Different benzodiazepine drugs have different side groups attached to this central structure.",
"The different side groups affect the binding of the molecule to the GABAA receptor and so modulate the pharmacological properties.",
"Many of the pharmacologically active \"classical\" benzodiazepine drugs contain the 5-phenyl-1''H''-benzo''e'' 1,4diazepin-2(3''H'')-one substructure (see figure to the right).",
"Benzodiazepines have been found to mimic protein reverse turns structurally, which enable them with their biological activity in many cases.Nonbenzodiazepines also bind to the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor and possess similar pharmacological properties.",
"While the nonbenzodiazepines are by definition structurally unrelated to the benzodiazepines, both classes of drugs possess a common pharmacophore (see figure to the lower-right), which explains their binding to a common receptor site.===Types===* 2-keto compounds:::clorazepate, diazepam, flurazepam, halazepam, prazepam, and others* 3-hydroxy compounds:::lorazepam, lormetazepam, oxazepam, temazepam* 7-nitro compounds:::clonazepam, flunitrazepam, nimetazepam, nitrazepam* Triazolo compounds:::adinazolam, alprazolam, estazolam, triazolam* Imidazo compounds:::climazolam, loprazolam, midazolam* 1,5-benzodiazepines:::clobazam"
],
[
"History",
"The molecular structure of chlordiazepoxide, the first benzodiazepine.",
"It was marketed by Hoffmann–La Roche from 1960 branded as ''Librium''.The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (''Librium''), was synthesized in 1955 by Leo Sternbach while working at Hoffmann–La Roche on the development of tranquilizers.",
"The pharmacological properties of the compounds prepared initially were disappointing, and Sternbach abandoned the project.",
"Two years later, in April 1957, co-worker Earl Reeder noticed a \"nicely crystalline\" compound left over from the discontinued project while spring-cleaning in the lab.",
"This compound, later named chlordiazepoxide, had not been tested in 1955 because of Sternbach's focus on other issues.",
"Expecting pharmacology results to be negative, and hoping to publish the chemistry-related findings, researchers submitted it for a standard battery of animal tests.",
"The compound showed very strong sedative, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant effects.",
"These impressive clinical findings led to its speedy introduction throughout the world in 1960 under the brand name ''Librium''.",
"Following chlordiazepoxide, diazepam marketed by Hoffmann–La Roche under the brand name ''Valium'' in 1963, and for a while the two were the most commercially successful drugs.",
"The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the prescription of barbiturates, and by the 1970s they had largely replaced the older drugs for sedative and hypnotic uses.The new group of drugs was initially greeted with optimism by the medical profession, but gradually concerns arose; in particular, the risk of dependence became evident in the 1980s.",
"Benzodiazepines have a unique history in that they were responsible for the largest-ever class-action lawsuit against drug manufacturers in the United Kingdom, involving 14,000 patients and 1,800 law firms that alleged the manufacturers knew of the dependence potential but intentionally withheld this information from doctors.",
"At the same time, 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of dependence and withdrawal.",
"This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines.",
"The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict; legal aid had been withdrawn and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists, the expert witnesses, had a conflict of interest.",
"The court case fell through, at a cost of £30 million, and led to more cautious funding through legal aid for future cases.",
"This made future class action lawsuits less likely to succeed, due to the high cost from financing a smaller number of cases, and increasing charges for losing the case for each person involved.Although antidepressants with anxiolytic properties have been introduced, and there is increasing awareness of the adverse effects of benzodiazepines, prescriptions for short-term anxiety relief have not significantly dropped.",
"For treatment of insomnia, benzodiazepines are now less popular than nonbenzodiazepines, which include zolpidem, zaleplon and eszopiclone.",
"Nonbenzodiazepines are molecularly distinct, but nonetheless, they work on the same benzodiazepine receptors and produce similar sedative effects.Benzodiazepines have been detected in plant specimens and brain samples of animals not exposed to synthetic sources, including a human brain from the 1940s.",
"However, it is unclear whether these compounds are biosynthesized by microbes or by plants and animals themselves.",
"A microbial biosynthetic pathway has been proposed."
],
[
"Society and culture",
"===Legal status===In the United States, benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act, even when not on the market (for example, nitrazepam and bromazepam).",
"Flunitrazepam is subject to more stringent regulations in certain states and temazepam prescriptions require specially coded pads in certain states.In Canada, possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use.",
"All benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.In the United Kingdom, benzodiazepines are Class C controlled drugs, carrying the maximum penalty of 7 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine or both for possession and a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment an unlimited fine or both for supplying benzodiazepines to others.In the Netherlands, since October 1993, benzodiazepines, including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam, are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law.",
"A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines.",
"Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1, thus requiring doctors to write prescriptions in the List 1 format.In East Asia and Southeast Asia, temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted.",
"In certain countries, triazolam, flunitrazepam, flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees.",
"In Hong Kong, all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 ''Dangerous Drugs Ordinance''.",
"Previously only brotizolam, flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs.Internationally, benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs, apart from flunitrazepam, which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.===Recreational use===Xanax (alprazolam) 2 mg tri-score tabletsBenzodiazepines are considered major addictive substances.",
"Non-medical benzodiazepine use is mostly limited to individuals who use other substances, i.e., people who engage in polysubstance use.",
"On the international scene, benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs by the INCB, apart from flunitrazepam, which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.",
"Some variation in drug scheduling exists in individual countries; for example, in the United Kingdom, midazolam and temazepam are Schedule III controlled drugs.British law requires that temazepam (but ''not'' midazolam) be stored in safe custody.",
"Safe custody requirements ensures that pharmacists and doctors holding stock of temazepam must store it in securely fixed double-locked steel safety cabinets and maintain a written register, which must be bound and contain separate entries for temazepam and must be written in ink with no use of correction fluid (although a written register is not required for temazepam in the United Kingdom).",
"Disposal of expired stock must be witnessed by a designated inspector (either a local drug-enforcement police officer or official from health authority).",
"Benzodiazepine use ranges from occasional binges on large doses, to chronic and compulsive drug use of high doses.Benzodiazepines are commonly used recreationally by poly-drug users.",
"Mortality is higher among poly-drug users that also use benzodiazepines.",
"Heavy alcohol use also increases mortality among poly-drug users.",
"Polydrug use involving benzodiazepines and alcohol can result in an increased risk of blackouts, risk-taking behaviours, seizures, and overdose.",
"Dependence and tolerance, often coupled with dosage escalation, to benzodiazepines can develop rapidly among people who misuse drugs; withdrawal syndrome may appear after as little as three weeks of continuous use.",
"Long-term use has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms such as depression, anxiety (often to the point of panic attacks), and agoraphobia.",
"Benzodiazepines and, in particular, temazepam are sometimes used intravenously, which, if done incorrectly or in an unsterile manner, can lead to medical complications including abscesses, cellulitis, thrombophlebitis, arterial puncture, deep vein thrombosis, and gangrene.",
"Sharing syringes and needles for this purpose also brings up the possibility of transmission of hepatitis, HIV, and other diseases.",
"Benzodiazepines are also misused intranasally, which may have additional health consequences.",
"Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established, a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program.A 1999–2005 Australian police survey of detainees reported preliminary findings that self-reported users of benzodiazepines were less likely than non-user detainees to work full-time and more likely to receive government benefits, use methamphetamine or heroin, and be arrested or imprisoned.",
"Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for criminal purposes; they serve to incapacitate a victim in cases of drug assisted rape or robbery.Overall, anecdotal evidence suggests that temazepam may be the most psychologically habit-forming (addictive) benzodiazepine.",
"Non-medical temazepam use reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world, in particular, in Europe and Australia, and is a major addictive substance in many Southeast Asian countries.",
"This led authorities of various countries to place temazepam under a more restrictive legal status.",
"Some countries, such as Sweden, banned the drug outright.",
"Temazepam also has certain pharmacokinetic properties of absorption, distribution, elimination, and clearance that make it more apt to non-medical use compared to many other benzodiazepines."
],
[
"Veterinary use",
"Benzodiazepines are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions.",
"As in humans, they are used in the first-line management of seizures, status epilepticus, and tetanus, and as maintenance therapy in epilepsy (in particular, in cats).",
"They are widely used in small and large animals (including horses, swine, cattle and exotic and wild animals) for their anxiolytic and sedative effects, as pre-medication before surgery, for induction of anesthesia and as adjuncts to anesthesia."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* National Institute on Drug Abuse: \" NIDA for Teens: Prescription Depressant Medications\".",
"* * * * * * * Benzodiazepines – information from mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Body mass index"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Body mass index''' ('''BMI''') is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of a person.",
"The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms (kg) and height in metres (m).The BMI may be determined first by measuring its components by means of a weighing scale and a stadiometer.",
"The multiplication and division may be carried out directly, by hand or using a calculator, or indirectly using a lookup table (or chart).",
"The table displays BMI as a function of mass and height and may show other units of measurement (converted to metric units for the calculation).",
"The table may also show contour lines or colours for different BMI categories.The BMI is a convenient rule of thumb used to broadly categorize a person as based on tissue mass (muscle, fat, and bone) and height.",
"Major adult BMI classifications are ''underweight'' (under 18.5 kg/m2), ''normal weight'' (18.5 to 24.9), ''overweight'' (25 to 29.9), and ''obese'' (30 or more).",
"When used to predict an individual's health, rather than as a statistical measurement for groups, the BMI has limitations that can make it less useful than some of the alternatives, especially when applied to individuals with abdominal obesity, short stature, or high muscle mass.BMIs under 20 and over 25 have been associated with higher all-cause mortality, with the risk increasing with distance from the 20–25 range."
],
[
"History",
"Obesity and BMIAdolphe Quetelet, a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician, and sociologist, devised the basis of the BMI between 1830 and 1850 as he developed what he called \"social physics\".",
"Quetelet himself never intended for the index, then called the Quetelet Index, to be used as a means of medical assessment.",
"Instead, it was a component of his study of , or the average man.",
"Quetelet thought of the average man as a social ideal, and developed the body mass index as a means of discovering the socially ideal human person.",
"According to Lars Grue and Arvid Heiberg in the Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, Quetelet's idealization of the average man would be elaborated upon by Francis Galton a decade later in the development of Eugenics.The modern term \"body mass index\" (BMI) for the ratio of human body weight to squared height was coined in a paper published in the July 1972 edition of the ''Journal of Chronic Diseases'' by Ancel Keys and others.",
"In this paper, Keys argued that what he termed the BMI was \"if not fully satisfactory, at least as good as any other relative weight index as an indicator of relative obesity\".The interest in an index that measures body fat came with observed increasing obesity in prosperous Western societies.",
"Keys explicitly judged BMI as appropriate for ''population'' studies and inappropriate for individual evaluation.",
"Nevertheless, due to its simplicity, it has come to be widely used for preliminary diagnoses.",
"Additional metrics, such as waist circumference, can be more useful.The BMI is expressed in kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in metres.",
"If pounds and inches are used, a conversion factor of 703 (kg/m2)/(lb/in2) is applied.",
"(If pounds and feet are used, a conversion factor of 4.88 is used.)",
"When the term BMI is used informally, the units are usually omitted.",
":BMI provides a simple numeric measure of a person's ''thickness'' or ''thinness'', allowing health professionals to discuss weight problems more objectively with their patients.",
"BMI was designed to be used as a simple means of classifying average sedentary (physically inactive) populations, with an average body composition.",
"For such individuals, the BMI value recommendations are as follows: 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2 may indicate optimal weight, lower than 18.5 may indicate underweight, 25 to 29.9 may indicate overweight, and 30 or more may indicate obese.",
"Lean male athletes often have a high muscle-to-fat ratio and therefore a BMI that is misleadingly high relative to their body-fat percentage."
],
[
"Categories",
"A common use of the BMI is to assess how far an individual's body weight departs from what is normal for a person's height.",
"The weight excess or deficiency may, in part, be accounted for by body fat (adipose tissue) although other factors such as muscularity also affect BMI significantly (see discussion below and overweight).The WHO regards an adult BMI of less than 18.5 as underweight and possibly indicative of malnutrition, an eating disorder, or other health problems, while a BMI of 25 or more is considered overweight and 30 or more is considered obese.",
"In addition to the principle, international WHO BMI cut-off points (16, 17, 18.5, 25, 30, 35 and 40), four additional cut-off points for at-risk Asians were identified (23, 27.5, 32.5 and 37.5).",
"These ranges of BMI values are valid only as statistical categories.+ BMI, basic categories Category BMI (kg/m2) BMI Prime Underweight (Severe thinness) 2 on average.===International variations===These recommended distinctions along the linear scale may vary from time to time and country to country, making global, longitudinal surveys problematic.",
"People from different populations and descent have different associations between BMI, percentage of body fat, and health risks, with a higher risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease at BMIs lower than the WHO cut-off point for overweight, 25 kg/m2, although the cut-off for observed risk varies among different populations.",
"The cut-off for observed risk varies based on populations and subpopulations in Europe, Asia and Africa.====Hong Kong====The Hospital Authority of Hong Kong recommends the use of the following BMI ranges:+ BMI in Hong Kong Category BMI (kg/m2) Underweight (Unhealthy) 2) Underweight (Thin) 2) Health risk Underweight + Body Mass Index values (kg/m2) for males aged 20 and over, and selected percentiles by age: United States, 2011–2014 Age Percentile 5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th ≥ 20 (total) 20.7 22.2 23.0 24.6 27.7 31.6 34.0 36.1 39.8 20–29 19.3 20.5 21.2 22.5 25.5 30.5 33.1 35.1 39.2 30–39 21.1 22.4 23.3 24.8 27.5 31.9 35.1 36.5 39.3 40–49 21.9 23.4 24.3 25.7 28.5 31.9 34.4 36.5 40.0 50–59 21.6 22.7 23.6 25.4 28.3 32.0 34.0 35.2 40.3 60–69 21.6 22.7 23.6 25.3 28.0 32.4 35.3 36.9 41.2 70–79 21.5 23.2 23.9 25.4 27.8 30.9 33.1 34.9 38.9 ≥ 80 20.0 21.5 22.5 24.1 26.3 29.0 31.1 32.3 33.8+ Body Mass Index values (kg/m2) for females aged 20 and over, and selected percentiles by age: United States, 2011–2014 Age Percentile 5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th ≥ 20 (total) 19.6 21.0 22.0 23.6 27.7 33.2 36.5 39.3 43.3 20–29 18.6 19.8 20.7 21.9 25.6 31.8 36.0 38.9 42.0 30–39 19.8 21.1 22.0 23.3 27.6 33.1 36.6 40.0 44.7 40–49 20.0 21.5 22.5 23.7 28.1 33.4 37.0 39.6 44.5 50–59 19.9 21.5 22.2 24.5 28.6 34.4 38.3 40.7 45.2 60–69 20.0 21.7 23.0 24.5 28.9 33.4 36.1 38.7 41.8 70–79 20.5 22.1 22.9 24.6 28.3 33.4 36.5 39.1 42.9 ≥ 80 19.3 20.4 21.3 23.3 26.1 29.7 30.9 32.8 35.2"
],
[
"Consequences of elevated level in adults",
"The BMI ranges are based on the relationship between body weight and disease and death.",
"Overweight and obese individuals are at an increased risk for the following diseases:* Coronary artery disease* Dyslipidemia* Type 2 diabetes* Gallbladder disease* Hypertension* Osteoarthritis* Sleep apnea* Stroke* Infertility* At least 10 cancers, including endometrial, breast, and colon cancer* Epidural lipomatosisAmong people who have never smoked, overweight/obesity is associated with 51% increase in mortality compared with people who have always been a normal weight."
],
[
"Applications",
"===Public health===The BMI is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a vague means of estimating adiposity.",
"The duality of the BMI is that, while it is easy to use as a general calculation, it is limited as to how accurate and pertinent the data obtained from it can be.",
"Generally, the index is suitable for recognizing trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin of error.",
"The BMI has been used by the WHO as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early 1980s.This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the RDA for a group can be calculated.",
"Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, since the majority of children are sedentary.Cross-sectional studies indicated that sedentary people can decrease BMI by becoming more physically active.",
"Smaller effects are seen in prospective cohort studies which lend to support active mobility as a means to prevent a further increase in BMI.===Legislation===In France, Italy, and Spain, legislation has been introduced banning the usage of fashion show models having a BMI below 18.In Israel, a model with BMI below 18.5 is banned.",
"This is done to fight anorexia among models and people interested in fashion."
],
[
"Relationship to health",
"A study published by ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' (''JAMA'') in 2005 showed that ''overweight'' people had a death rate similar to ''normal'' weight people as defined by BMI, while ''underweight'' and ''obese'' people had a higher death rate.A study published by ''The Lancet'' in 2009 involving 900,000 adults showed that ''overweight'' and ''underweight'' people both had a mortality rate higher than ''normal'' weight people as defined by BMI.",
"The optimal BMI was found to be in the range of 22.5–25.The average BMI of athletes is 22.4 for women and 23.6 for men.High BMI is associated with type 2 diabetes only in people with high serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase.In an analysis of 40 studies involving 250,000 people, patients with coronary artery disease with ''normal'' BMIs were at higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease than people whose BMIs put them in the ''overweight'' range (BMI 25–29.9).One study found that BMI had a good general correlation with body fat percentage, and noted that obesity has overtaken smoking as the world's number one cause of death.",
"But it also notes that in the study 50% of men and 62% of women were obese according to body fat defined obesity, while only 21% of men and 31% of women were obese according to BMI, meaning that BMI was found to underestimate the number of obese subjects.A 2010 study that followed 11,000 subjects for up to eight years concluded that BMI is not the most appropriate measure for the risk of heart attack, stroke or death.",
"A better measure was found to be the waist-to-height ratio.",
"A 2011 study that followed 60,000 participants for up to 13 years found that waist–hip ratio was a better predictor of ischaemic heart disease mortality."
],
[
"Limitations",
"NCHS' NHANES 1994 data.",
"Data in the upper left and lower right quadrants suggest the limitations of BMI.The medical establishment and statistical community have both highlighted the limitations of BMI.",
"=== Racial and gender differences ===Part of the statistical limitations of the BMI scale is the result of Quetelet's original sampling methods.",
"As noted in his primary work, A Treatise on Man and the Development of His Faculties, the data from which Quetelet derived his formula was taken mostly from Scottish Highland soldiers and French Gendarmerie.",
"The BMI was always designed as a metric for European men.",
"For women, and people of non-European origin, the scale is often biased.",
"As noted by sociologist Sabrina Strings, the BMI is largely inaccurate for black people especially, disproportionately labelling them as overweight even for healthy individuals.===Scaling===The exponent in the denominator of the formula for BMI is arbitrary.",
"The BMI depends upon weight and the ''square'' of height.",
"Since mass increases to the ''third power'' of linear dimensions, taller individuals with exactly the same body shape and relative composition have a larger BMI.",
"BMI is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the height.",
"So, if all body dimensions double, and mass scales naturally with the cube of the height, then BMI doubles instead of remaining the same.",
"This results in taller people having a reported BMI that is uncharacteristically high, compared to their actual body fat levels.",
"In comparison, the Ponderal index is based on the natural scaling of mass with the third power of the height.However, many taller people are not just \"scaled up\" short people but tend to have narrower frames in proportion to their height.",
"Carl Lavie has written that \"The B.M.I.",
"tables are excellent for identifying obesity and body fat in large populations, but they are far less reliable for determining fatness in individuals.",
"\"For US adults, exponent estimates range from 1.92 to 1.96 for males and from 1.45 to 1.95 for females.===Physical characteristics===The BMI overestimates roughly 10% for a large (or tall) frame and underestimates roughly 10% for a smaller frame (short stature).",
"In other words, people with small frames would be carrying more fat than optimal, but their BMI indicates that they are ''normal''.",
"Conversely, large framed (or tall) individuals may be quite healthy, with a fairly low body fat percentage, but be classified as ''overweight'' by BMI.For example, a height/weight chart may say the ideal weight (BMI 21.5) for a man is .",
"But if that man has a slender build (small frame), he may be overweight at and should reduce by 10% to roughly (BMI 19.4).",
"In the reverse, the man with a larger frame and more solid build should increase by 10%, to roughly (BMI 23.7).",
"If one teeters on the edge of small/medium or medium/large, common sense should be used in calculating one's ideal weight.",
"However, falling into one's ideal weight range for height and build is still not as accurate in determining health risk factors as waist-to-height ratio and actual body fat percentage.Accurate frame size calculators use several measurements (wrist circumference, elbow width, neck circumference, and others) to determine what category an individual falls into for a given height.",
"The BMI also fails to take into account loss of height through ageing.",
"In this situation, BMI will increase without any corresponding increase in weight.===Muscle versus fat===Assumptions about the distribution between muscle mass and fat mass are inexact.",
"BMI generally overestimates adiposity on those with leaner body mass (e.g., athletes) and underestimates excess adiposity on those with fattier body mass.A study in June 2008 by Romero-Corral et al.",
"examined 13,601 subjects from the United States' third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) and found that BMI-defined obesity (BMI ≥ 30) was present in 21% of men and 31% of women.",
"Body fat-defined obesity was found in 50% of men and 62% of women.",
"While BMI-defined obesity showed high specificity (95% for men and 99% for women), BMI showed poor sensitivity (36% for men and 49% for women).",
"In other words, the BMI will be mostly correct when determining a person to be obese, but can err quite frequently when determining a person not to be.",
"Despite this undercounting of obesity by BMI, BMI values in the intermediate BMI range of 20–30 were found to be associated with a wide range of body fat percentages.",
"For men with a BMI of 25, about 20% have a body fat percentage below 20% and about 10% have body fat percentage above 30%.Body composition for athletes is often better calculated using measures of body fat, as determined by such techniques as skinfold measurements or underwater weighing and the limitations of manual measurement have also led to new, alternative methods to measure obesity, such as the body volume indicator.===Variation in definitions of categories===It is not clear where on the BMI scale the threshold for ''overweight'' and ''obese'' should be set.",
"Because of this, the standards have varied over the past few decades.",
"Between 1980 and 2000 the U.S. Dietary Guidelines have defined overweight at a variety of levels ranging from a BMI of 24.9 to 27.1.In 1985 the National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus conference recommended that overweight BMI be set at a BMI of 27.8 for men and 27.3 for women.In 1998, an NIH report concluded that a BMI over 25 is overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese.",
"In the 1990s the World Health Organization (WHO) decided that a BMI of 25 to 30 should be considered overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese, the standards the NIH set.",
"This became the definitive guide for determining if someone is overweight.One study found that the vast majority of people labelled 'overweight' and 'obese' according to current definitions do not in fact face any meaningful increased risk for early death.",
"In a quantitative analysis of several studies, involving more than 600,000 men and women, the lowest mortality rates were found for people with BMIs between 23 and 29; most of the 25–30 range considered 'overweight' was not associated with higher risk."
],
[
"Alternatives",
"===Corpulence index (exponent of 3)===The corpulence index uses an exponent of 3 rather than 2.The corpulence index yields valid results even for very short and very tall people, which is a problem with BMI.",
"For example, a tall person at an ideal body weight of gives a normal BMI of 20.74 and CI of 13.6, while a tall person with a weight of gives a BMI of 24.84, very close to an overweight BMI of 25, and a CI of 12.4, very close to a normal CI of 12.===New BMI (exponent of 2.5)===An exponent of 5/2 was proposed by Quetelet in the 19 century:In general, we do not err much when we assume that during development the squares of the weight at different ages are as the fifth powers of the heightThis exponent of 2.5 is used in a revised formula for Body Mass Index, proposed by Nick Trefethen, Professor of numerical analysis at the University of Oxford, which minimizes the distortions for shorter and taller individuals resulting from the use of an exponent of 2 in the traditional BMI formula::The scaling factor of 1.3 was determined to make the proposed new BMI formula align with the traditional BMI formula for adults of average height, while the exponent of 2.5 is a compromise between the exponent of 2 in the traditional formula for BMI and the exponent of 3 that would be expected for the scaling of weight (which at constant density would theoretically scale with volume, i.e., as the cube of the height) with height.",
"In Trefethen's analysis, an exponent of 2.5 was found to fit empirical data more closely with less distortion than either an exponent of 2 or 3.===BMI prime (exponent of 2, normalization factor)===BMI Prime, a modification of the BMI system, is the ratio of actual BMI to upper limit optimal BMI (currently defined at 25 kg/m2), i.e., the actual BMI expressed as a proportion of upper limit optimal.",
"BMI Prime is a dimensionless number independent of units.",
"Individuals with BMI Prime less than 0.74 are underweight; those with between 0.74 and 1.00 have optimal weight; and those at 1.00 or greater are overweight.",
"BMI Prime is useful clinically because it shows by what ratio (e.g.",
"1.36) or percentage (e.g.",
"136%, or 36% above) a person deviates from the maximum optimal BMI.For instance, a person with BMI 34 kg/m2 has a BMI Prime of 34/25 = 1.36, and is 36% over their upper mass limit.",
"In South East Asian and South Chinese populations (see § international variations), BMI Prime should be calculated using an upper limit BMI of 23 in the denominator instead of 25.BMI Prime allows easy comparison between populations whose upper-limit optimal BMI values differ.===Waist circumference===Waist circumference is a good indicator of visceral fat, which poses more health risks than fat elsewhere.",
"According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), waist circumference in excess of for men and for (non-pregnant) women is considered to imply a high risk for type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease CVD.",
"Waist circumference can be a better indicator of obesity-related disease risk than BMI.",
"For example, this is the case in populations of Asian descent and older people.",
"for men and for women has been stated to pose \"higher risk\", with the NIH figures \"even higher\".Waist-to-hip circumference ratio has also been used, but has been found to be no better than waist circumference alone, and more complicated to measure.A related indicator is waist circumference divided by height.",
"The values indicating increased risk are: greater than 0.5 for people under 40 years of age, 0.5 to 0.6 for people aged 40–50, and greater than 0.6 for people over 50 years of age.=== Surface-based body shape index ===The Surface-based Body Shape Index (SBSI) is far more rigorous and is based upon four key measurements: the body surface area (BSA), vertical trunk circumference (VTC), waist circumference (WC) and height (H).",
"Data on 11,808 subjects from the National Health and Human Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) 1999–2004, showed that SBSI outperformed BMI, waist circumference, and A Body Shape Index (ABSI), an alternative to BMI.",
": A simplified, dimensionless form of SBSI, known as SBSI*, has also been developed.",
": ===Modified body mass index===Within some medical contexts, such as familial amyloid polyneuropathy, serum albumin is factored in to produce a modified body mass index (mBMI).",
"The mBMI can be obtained by multiplying the BMI by serum albumin, in grams per litre."
],
[
"See also",
"* Allometry* Body water* History of anthropometry* List of countries by body mass index* Obesity paradox* Relative Fat Mass* Somatotype and constitutional psychology"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* U.S. National Center for Health Statistics:** **"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Behistun Inscription"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Behistun Inscription''' (also '''Bisotun''', '''Bisitun''' or '''Bisutun'''; , Old Persian: '''Bagastana''', meaning \"the place of god\") is a multilingual Achaemenid royal inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, established by Darius the Great ().",
"It was important to the decipherment of cuneiform, as it is the longest known trilingual cuneiform inscription, written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a variety of Akkadian).",
"Authored by Darius the Great sometime between his coronation as king of the Persian Empire in the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage.",
"Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the death of Cambyses II in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending in December 521 BC) to put down multiple rebellions throughout the Persian Empire.",
"The inscription states in detail that the rebellions were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed himself king during the upheaval following Cambyses II's death.",
"Darius the Great proclaimed himself victorious in all battles during the period of upheaval, attributing his success to the \"grace of Ahura Mazda\".The inscription is approximately high by wide and up a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon and Ecbatana, respectively).",
"The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 260 lines in eight columns, and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines.",
"A copy of the text in Aramaic, written during the reign of Darius II, was found in Egypt.",
"The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius I, the Great, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying supine before him.",
"The supine figure is reputed to be the pretender Gaumata.",
"Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and nine one-meter figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples.",
"A Faravahar floats above, giving its blessing to the king.",
"One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was Darius's beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and lead."
],
[
"History",
"After the fall of the Persian Empire's Achaemenid Dynasty and its successors, and the lapse of Old Persian cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten, and fanciful explanations became the norm.Route to inscription at upper right.Context of the inscription (centre) in 2010.A person is visible in the lower left; reaching the inscription requires climbing the steep cliff face in front of them, then traversing a narrow ledge.In 1598, Englishman Robert Sherley saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to Safavid Persia on behalf of Austria, and brought it to the attention of Western European scholars.",
"His party incorrectly came to the conclusion that it was Christian in origin.",
"French General Gardanne thought it showed \"Christ and his twelve apostles\", and Sir Robert Ker Porter thought it represented the Lost Tribes of Israel and Shalmaneser of Assyria.",
"In 1604, Italian explorer Pietro della Valle visited the inscription and made preliminary drawings of the monument."
],
[
"Translation efforts",
"Column 1 (DB I 1–15), sketch by Friedrich von Spiegel (1881).Behistun papyrus with an Aramaic translation of the Behistun inscription's text, known as TAD C2.1.German surveyor Carsten Niebuhr visited in around 1764 for Frederick V of Denmark, publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1778.Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by Georg Friedrich Grotefend and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script.",
"Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802, after realizing that unlike the Semitic cuneiform scripts, Old Persian text is alphabetic and each word is separated by a vertical slanted symbol.In 1835, Sir Henry Rawlinson, an officer of the British East India Company army assigned to the forces of the Shah of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest.",
"As the town of Bisotun's name was anglicized as \"Behistun\" at this time, the monument became known as the \"Behistun Inscription\".",
"Despite its relative inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff with the help of a local boy and copy the Old Persian inscription.",
"The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four meters above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later.",
"In 1847, he was able to send a full and accurate copy to Europe."
],
[
"Later research and activity",
"Close-up of the inscription.The Behistun Inscription photographed in 2019The site was visited by the American linguist A. V. Williams Jackson in 1903.Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the British Museum and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the University of Michigan, obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson.It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text was inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text.In 1938, the inscription became of interest to the Nazi German think tank Ahnenerbe, although research plans were cancelled due to the onset of World War II.The monument later suffered some damage from Allied soldiers using it for target practice in World War II, and during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.In 1999, Iranian archeologists began the documentation and assessment of damages to the site incurred during the 20th century.",
"Malieh Mehdiabadi, who was project manager for the effort, described a photogrammetric process by which two-dimensional photos were taken of the inscriptions using two cameras and later transmuted into 3-D images.In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservation works.",
"The site became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006.In 2012, the Bisotun Cultural Heritage Center organized an international effort to re-examine the inscription."
],
[
"Content of the inscription",
"Lineage of Darius the Great according to the Behistun inscription.===Lineage===In the first section of the inscription, Darius the Great declares his ancestry and lineage:===Territories===Achaemenid empire at its greatest extentDarius also lists the territories under his rule:===Conflicts and revolts===Later in the inscription, Darius provides an eye-witness account of battles he successfully fought over a one-year period to put down rebellions which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great, and his son Cambyses II:Behistun Relief, Assina.jpg|Behistun Relief Nidintu-Bêl.jpg|Behistun Relief, Tritantaechmes.jpg|Relief of Tritantaechmes: \"This is Tritantaechmes.",
"He lied, saying ''\"I am king of Sagartia, from the family of Cyaxares.",
"\"''\"Behistun relief Arakha.jpg|Relief of Arakha: \"This is Arakha.",
"He lied, saying: ''\"I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus.",
"I am king in Babylon.",
"\"''\"Behistun relief Frada.jpg|Relief of Frâda: \"This is Frâda.",
"He lied, saying ''\"I am king of Margiana.",
"\"''\"Behistun relief Skunkha.jpg|Behistun relief of Skunkha.",
"Label: \"This is Skunkha the Sacan.\""
],
[
"Other historical monuments in the Behistun complex",
"The site covers an area of 116 hectares.",
"Archeological evidence indicates that this region became a human shelter 40,000 years ago.",
"There are 18 historical monuments other than the inscription of Darius the Great in the Behistun complex that have been registered in the Iranian national list of historical sites.",
"Some of them are:* Hunters' cave* Farhād Tarāsh* Median fortress* Parthian town* Statue of Hercules in Behistun* Parthian site of worship* Behistun Palace (said to be Palace of Khosrau II)* Ilkhanid caravanserai* Median temple* Bas relief of Mithridates II of Parthia* Bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia* Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowment* Safavid caravanserai* Vologases's relief * Carved Sassanian stones* Royal RoadImage:Seleucid statue of Hercules 2.jpg|Statue of Herakles in Behistun complexFile:Heracles Behistun 4000762965 10dbfce20a.jpg|Herakles at Behistun, sculpted for a Seleucis Governor in 148 BC.Image:Godarz.jpg|Bas relief of Mithridates II of Parthia and bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia and Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowmentFile:Behistun, Parthian relief of Gotarzes II.jpg|Damaged equestrian relief of Gotarzes II at BehistunFile:نقش برجسته بلاش 1.JPG|Vologases's relief in Behistun"
],
[
"Similar reliefs and inspiration",
"The Anubanini rock relief, dated to 2300 BC, and made by the pre-Iranian Lullubi ruler Anubanini, is very similar in content to the Behistun reliefs (woodprint).The Anubanini rock relief, also called Sarpol-i Zohab, of the Lullubi king Anubanini, dated to , and which is located not far from the Behistun reliefs at Sarpol-e Zahab, is very similar to the reliefs at Behistun.",
"The attitude of the ruler, the trampling of an enemy, the lines of prisoners are all very similar, to such extent that it was said that the sculptors of the Behistun Inscription had probably seen the Anubanini relief beforehand and were inspired by it.",
"The Lullubian reliefs were the model for the Behistun reliefs of Darius the Great.The inscriptional tradition of the Achaemenids, starting especially with Darius I, is thought to have derived from the traditions of Elam, Lullubi, the Babylonians and the Assyrians."
],
[
"See also",
"* Behistun palace* Darius I of Persia* Achaemenid empire* Taq-e Bostan (Rock reliefs of various Sassanid kings)* Pasargadae (Tomb of Pasargadae Cyrus the Great)* Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht* Naqsh-e Rajab* Cities of the Ancient Near East* Gaumata (False Smerdis)* Anubanini rock relief* List of colossal sculptures in situ* World Heritage Sites by country"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"*Adkins, Lesley, ''Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.",
"*Blakesley, J. W. '' An Attempt at an Outline of the Early Medo-Persian History, founded on the Rock-Inscriptions of Behistun taken in combination with the Accounts of Herodotus and Ctesias''.",
"(Trinity College, Cambridge,) in the ''Proceedings of the Philological Society''.",
"*Rawlinson, H.C., ''Archaeologia'', 1853, vol.",
"xxxiv, p. 74.",
"*Thompson, R. Campbell.",
"\"The Rock of Behistun\".",
"''Wonders of the Past''.",
"Edited by Sir J.",
"A. Hammerton.",
"Vol.",
"II.",
"New York: Wise and Co., 1937.(pp.",
"760–767) *Cameron, George G. \"Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock\".",
"''National Geographic Magazine''.",
"Vol.",
"XCVIII, Num.",
"6, December 1950.(pp.",
"825–844)*Rubio, Gonzalo.",
"\"Writing in another tongue: Alloglottography in the Ancient Near East\".",
"In ''Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures'' (ed.",
"Seth Sanders.",
"2nd printing with postscripts and corrections.",
"Oriental Institute Seminars, 2.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 33–70.",
"*Louis H. Gray, Notes on the Old Persian Inscriptions of Behistun, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol.",
"23, pp.",
"56–64, 1902*A. T. Olmstead, Darius and His Behistun Inscription, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol.",
"55, no.",
"4, pp.",
"392–416, 1938*Paul J. Kosmin, A New Hypothesis: The Behistun Inscription as Imperial Calendar, Iran - Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, August 2018* Saber Amiri Parian, A New Edition of the Elamite Version of the Behistun Inscription (I), Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 2017:003"
],
[
"External links",
"*** The Behistun Inscription , livius.org article by Jona Lendering, including Persian text (in cuneiform and transliteration), King and Thompson's English translation, and additional materials*** Tolman's English translation of the inscription text* Brief description of Bisotun from UNESCO* \"Bisotun receives its World Heritage certificate\", Cultural Heritage News Agency, Tehran, July 3, 2008* Other monuments of Behistun * Rüdiger Schmitt, \"Bisotun i\", Encyclopaedia Iranica *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Barry Goldwater"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Barry Morris Goldwater''' (January 2, 1909 – May 29, 1998) was an American politician and major general in the Air Force Reserve who served as a United States senator from 1953 to 1965 and 1969 to 1987, and was the Republican Party's nominee for president in 1964.Goldwater was born in Phoenix, Arizona, where he helped manage his family's department store.",
"During World War II, he flew aircraft between the U.S. and India.",
"After the war, Goldwater served in the Phoenix City Council.",
"In 1952, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he rejected the legacy of the New Deal and, along with the conservative coalition, fought against the New Deal coalition.",
"Goldwater also challenged his party's moderate to liberal wing on policy issues.",
"He supported the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution but opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, disagreeing with Title II and Title VII.",
"In the 1964 U.S. presidential election, Goldwater mobilized a large conservative constituency to win the Republican nomination, but then lost the general election to incumbent Democratic president Lyndon B. Johnson in a landslide.Goldwater returned to the Senate in 1969 and specialized in defense and foreign policy.",
"He successfully urged president Richard Nixon to resign in 1974 when evidence of a cover-up in the Watergate scandal became overwhelming and impeachment was imminent.",
"In 1986, he oversaw passage of the Goldwater–Nichols Act, which strengthened civilian authority in the U.S. Department of Defense.",
"Near the end of his career, Goldwater's views on social and cultural issues grew increasingly libertarian.After leaving the Senate, Goldwater became supportive of homosexuals serving openly in the military, environmental protection, gay rights, abortion rights, adoption rights for same-sex couples, and the legalization of medicinal marijuana.",
"Many political pundits and historians believe he laid the foundation for the conservative revolution to follow as the grassroots organization and conservative takeover of the Republican Party began a long-term realignment in American politics, which helped to bring about the presidency of Ronald Reagan in the 1980s.",
"He also had a substantial impact on the American libertarian movement."
],
[
"Early life and family background",
"Goldwater was born in Phoenix in what was then the Arizona Territory, the son of Baron M. Goldwater and his wife, Hattie Josephine \"JoJo\" Williams.",
"His father's family founded Goldwater's Department Store, a leading upscale department store in Phoenix.",
"Goldwater's paternal grandfather, Michel Goldwasser, a Polish Jew, was born in 1821 in Konin, then part of Congress Poland.",
"He emigrated to London following the Revolutions of 1848.Soon after arriving in London, Michel anglicized his name to Michael Goldwater.",
"Michel married Sarah Nathan, a member of an English-Jewish family, in the Great Synagogue of London.The Goldwaters later emigrated to the United States, first arriving in San Francisco, California before finally settling in the Arizona Territory, where Michael Goldwater opened a small department store that was later taken over and expanded by his three sons, Henry, Baron and Morris.",
"Morris Goldwater (1852–1939) was an Arizona territorial and state legislator, mayor of Prescott, Arizona, delegate to the Arizona Constitutional Convention and later President of the Arizona State Senate.Goldwater's father was Jewish, but Goldwater was raised in his mother's Episcopalian faith.",
"Hattie Williams came from an established New England family that included the theologian Roger Williams of Rhode Island.",
"Goldwater's parents were married in an Episcopal church in Phoenix; for his entire life, Goldwater was an Episcopalian, though on rare occasions he referred to himself as Jewish.",
"While he did not often attend church, he stated that \"If a man acts in a religious way, an ethical way, then he's really a religious man—and it doesn't have a lot to do with how often he gets inside a church.\"",
"His first cousin was Julius Goldwater, a convert to Buddhism and Jodo Shinshu priest who assisted interned Japanese Americans during World War II.After he did poorly as a freshman in high school, Goldwater's parents sent him to Staunton Military Academy in Virginia where he played varsity football, basketball, track and swimming, was senior class treasurer and attained the rank of captain.",
"He graduated from the academy in 1928 and enrolled at the University of Arizona.",
"but dropped out after one year.",
"Barry Goldwater is the most recent non-college graduate to be the nominee of a major political party in a presidential election.",
"Goldwater entered the family's business around the time of his father's death in 1930.Six years later, he took over the department store, though he was not particularly enthused about running the business."
],
[
"Military career",
"Major General Barry M. Goldwater in his United States Air Force uniformAfter America's entry into World War II, Goldwater received a reserve commission in the United States Army Air Force.",
"Goldwater trained as a pilot and was assigned to the Ferry Command, a newly formed unit that flew aircraft and supplies to war zones worldwide.",
"He spent most of the war flying between the U.S. and India, via the Azores and North Africa or South America, Nigeria, and Central Africa.",
"Goldwater also flew \"the hump\", one of the most dangerous routes for supply planes during WWII.",
"The route required aircraft to fly directly over the Himalayas in order to deliver desperately needed supplies to the Republic of China.Following World War II, Goldwater was a leading proponent of creating the United States Air Force Academy, and later served on the academy's Board of Visitors.",
"The visitor center at the academy is now named in his honor.",
"Goldwater remained in the Army Air Reserve after the war and in 1946, at the rank of Colonel, Goldwater founded the Arizona Air National Guard.",
"Goldwater ordered the Arizona Air National Guard desegregated, two years before the rest of the U.S. military.",
"In the early 1960s, while a senator, he commanded the 9999th Air Reserve Squadron as a major general.",
"Goldwater was instrumental in pushing the Pentagon to support the desegregation of the armed services.Goldwater remained in the Arizona Air National Guard until 1967, retiring as a Command Pilot with the rank of major general.As a U.S.",
"Senator, Goldwater had a sign in his office that referenced his military career and mindset: \"There are old pilots and there are bold pilots, but there are no old, bold pilots.\""
],
[
"Early political career",
"In a heavily Democratic state, Goldwater became a conservative Republican and a friend of Herbert Hoover.",
"He was outspoken against New Deal liberalism, especially its close ties to labor unions.",
"A pilot, amateur radio operator, outdoorsman and photographer, he criss-crossed Arizona and developed a deep interest in both the natural and the human history of the state.",
"He entered Phoenix politics in 1949, when he was elected to the City Council as part of a nonpartisan team of candidates pledged to clean up widespread prostitution and gambling.",
"The team won every mayoral and council election for the next two decades.",
"Goldwater rebuilt the weak Republican party and was instrumental in electing Howard Pyle as Governor in 1950."
],
[
"Local support for civil rights",
"Barry Goldwater was a moderate supporter of racial equality.",
"Goldwater integrated his family's business upon taking over control in the 1930s.",
"A lifetime member of the NAACP, Goldwater helped found the group's Arizona chapter.",
"Goldwater saw to it that the Arizona Air National Guard was racially integrated from its inception in 1946, two years before President Truman ordered the military as a whole be integrated (a process that was not completed until 1954).",
"Goldwater worked with Phoenix civil rights leaders to successfully integrate public schools a year prior to ''Brown v. Board of Education''.",
"Despite this support of Civil Rights, Goldwater remained in objection to some major federal Civil Rights legislation.",
"Civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. remarked of him \"while not himself a racist, Mr. Goldwater articulates a philosophy which gives aid and comfort to the racists.",
"\"Goldwater was an early member and largely unrecognized supporter of the National Urban League Phoenix chapter, going so far as to cover the group's early operating deficits with his personal funds.",
"Though the NAACP denounced Goldwater in the harshest of terms when he ran for president, the Urban League conferred on Goldwater the 1991 Humanitarian Award \"for 50 years of loyal service to the Phoenix Urban League.\"",
"In response to League members who objected, citing Goldwater's vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the League president pointed out that Goldwater had saved the League more than once, saying he preferred to judge a person \"on the basis of his daily actions rather than on his voting record.\""
],
[
"Senator",
"Goldwater's 1952 campaign portraitRunning as a Republican, Goldwater won a narrow upset victory seat in the 1952 Arizona Senate election against veteran Democrat and Senate Majority Leader Ernest McFarland.",
"He won largely by defeating McFarland in his native Maricopa County by 12,600 votes, almost double the overall margin of 6,725 votes.Goldwater defeated McFarland by a larger margin when he ran again in 1958.Following his strong re-election showing, he became the first Arizona Republican to win a second term in the U.S. Senate.",
"Goldwater's victory was all the more remarkable since it came in a year Democrats gained 13 seats in the Senate.During his Senate career, Goldwater was regarded as the \"Grand Old Man of the Republican Party and one of the nation's most respected exponents of conservatism\".===Criticism of the Eisenhower administration===Goldwater was outspoken about the Eisenhower administration, calling some of the policies of the Eisenhower administration too liberal for a Republican president.",
"\"Democrats delighted in pointing out that the junior senator was so headstrong that he had gone out his way to criticize the president of his own party.\"",
"There was a Democratic majority in Congress for most of Eisenhower's career and Goldwater felt that President Dwight Eisenhower was compromising too much with Democrats in order to get legislation passed.",
"Early on in his career as a senator for Arizona, he criticized the $71.8 billion budget that President Eisenhower sent to Congress, stating \"Now, however, I am not so sure.",
"A $71.8 billion budget not only shocks me, but it weakens my faith.\"",
"Goldwater opposed Eisenhower's pick of Earl Warren for Chief Justice of the United States.",
"\"The day that Eisenhower appointed Governor Earl Warren of California as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Goldwater did not hesitate to express his misgivings.\"",
"However, Goldwater was present in the United States Senate on March 1, 1954, when Warren was unanimously confirmed, voted in favor of Eisenhower's nomination of John Marshall Harlan II on March 16, 1955, was present for the unanimous nominations of William J. Brennan Jr. and Charles Evans Whittaker on March 19, 1957, and voted in favor of the nomination of Potter Stewart on May 5, 1959.===Stance on civil rights===In his first year in the Senate, Goldwater was responsible for the desegregation of the Senate cafeteria after he insisted that his black legislative assistant, Katherine Maxwell, be served along with every other Senate employee.Goldwater and the Eisenhower administration supported the integration of schools in the South, but Goldwater felt the states should choose how they wanted to integrate and should not be forced by the federal government.",
"\"Goldwater criticized the use of federal troops.",
"He accused the Eisenhower administration of violating the Constitution by assuming powers reserved by the states.",
"While he agreed that under the law, every state should have integrated its schools, each state should integrate in its own way.\"",
"There were high-ranking government officials following Goldwater's critical stance on the Eisenhower administration, even an Army General.",
"\"Fulbright's startling revelation that military personnel were being indoctrinated with the idea that the policies of the Commander in Chief were treasonous dovetailed with the return to the news of the strange case of General Edwin Walker.",
"\"In his 1960 book ''The Conscience of a Conservative'', Goldwater stated that he supported the stated objectives of the Supreme Court's decision in ''Brown v. Board of Education'', but argued that the federal government had no role in ordering states to desegregate public schools.",
"He wrote:\"I believe that it ''is'' both wise and just for negro children to attend the same schools as whites, and that to deny them this opportunity carries with it strong implications of inferiority.",
"I am not prepared, however, to impose that judgement of mine on the people of Mississippi or South Carolina, or to tell them what methods should be adopted and what pace should be kept in striving toward that goal.",
"That is their business, not mine.",
"I believe that the problem of race relations, like all social and cultural problems, is best handled by the people directly concerned.",
"Social and cultural change, however desirable, should not be effected by the engines of national power.",
"\"Goldwater voted in favor of both the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, but did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1960 because he was absent from the chamber while Senate Minority Whip Thomas Kuchel (R–CA) announced that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present.",
"While he did vote in favor of it while in committee, Goldwater reluctantly voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 when it came to the floor.",
"Later, Goldwater would state that he was mostly in support of the bill, but he disagreed with Titles II and VII, which both dealt with employment, making him imply that the law would end in the government dictating hiring and firing policy for millions of Americans.",
"Congressional Republicans overwhelmingly supported the bill, with Goldwater being joined by only 5 other Republican senators in voting against it.",
"It is likely that Goldwater significantly underestimated the effect this would have, as his vote against the bill hurt him with voters across the country, including from his own party.",
"In the 1990s, Goldwater would call his vote on the Civil Rights Act, \"one of his greatest regrets.\"",
"Goldwater was absent from the Senate during President John F. Kennedy's nomination of Byron White to Supreme Court on April 11, 1962, but was present when Arthur Goldberg was unanimously confirmed."
],
[
"1964 presidential election",
"Goldwater's maverick and direct style had made him extremely popular with the Republican Party's suburban conservative voters, based in the South and the senator's native West.",
"Following the success of ''Conscience of a Conservative'', Goldwater became the frontrunner for the GOP Presidential nomination to run against his close friend John F. Kennedy.",
"Despite their disagreements on politics, Goldwater and Kennedy had grown to become close friends during the eight years they served alongside each other in the Senate.",
"With Goldwater the clear GOP frontrunner, he and Kennedy began planning to campaign together, holding Lincoln-Douglas style debates across the country and avoiding a race defined by the kind of negative attacks that were increasingly coming to define American politics.=== Republican primary===Republican primaries results by stateIn South Dakota and Florida, Goldwater finished second to \"unpledged delegates\", but he finished before all other candidatesGoldwater was grief-stricken by the assassination of Kennedy and was greatly disappointed that his opponent in 1964 would not be Kennedy but instead his vice president, former Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas.",
"Goldwater disliked Johnson, later telling columnist John Kolbe that Johnson had \"used every dirty trick in the bag.",
"\"At the time of Goldwater's presidential candidacy, the Republican Party was split between its conservative wing (based in the West and South) and moderate/liberal wing, sometimes called Rockefeller Republicans (based in the Northeast and Midwest).",
"Goldwater alarmed even some of his fellow partisans with his brand of staunch fiscal conservatism and militant anti-communism.",
"He was viewed by many moderate and liberal Republicans as being too far on the right wing of the political spectrum to appeal to the mainstream majority necessary to win a national election.",
"As a result, moderate and liberal Republicans recruited a series of opponents, including New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton, to challenge him.",
"Goldwater received solid backing from most of the few Southern Republicans then in politics.",
"A young Birmingham lawyer, John Grenier, secured commitments from 271 of 279 Southern convention delegates to back Goldwater.",
"Grenier would serve as executive director of the national GOP during the Goldwater campaign, the number two position to party chairman Dean Burch of Arizona.",
"Goldwater fought and won a multi-candidate race for the Republican Party's presidential nomination.===1964 Republican National Convention===Eisenhower gave his support to Goldwater when he told reporters, \"I personally believe that Goldwater is not an extremist as some people have made him, but in any event we're all Republicans.\"",
"His nomination was staunchly opposed by the so-called Liberal Republicans, who thought Goldwater's demand for active measures to defeat the Soviet Union would foment a nuclear war.",
"In addition to Rockefeller, prominent Republican office-holders refused to endorse Goldwater's candidacy, including both Republican Senators from New York Kenneth B. Keating and Jacob Javits, Pennsylvania governor William Scranton, Michigan governor George Romney and Congressman John V. Lindsay (NY-17).",
"Rockefeller Republican Jackie Robinson walked out of the convention in disgust over Goldwater's nomination.",
"Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., who was Richard Nixon's running mate in 1960, also opposed Goldwater, calling his proposal of realigning the Democrat and Republican parties into two Liberal and Conservative parties \"totally abhorrent\" and thought that no one in their right mind should oppose the federal government in having a role in the future of America.In the face of such opposition, Goldwater delivered a well-received acceptance speech.",
"According to the author Lee Edwards: \"Goldwater devoted more care to it than to any other speech in his political career.",
"And with good reason: he would deliver it to the largest and most attentive audience of his life.\"",
"Journalist John Adams commented: \"his acceptance speech was bold, reflecting his conservative views, but not irrational.",
"Rather than shrinking from those critics who accuse him of extremism, Goldwater challenged them head-on\" in his acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican Convention.",
"In his own words:His paraphrase of Cicero was included at the suggestion of Harry V. Jaffa, though the speech was primarily written by Karl Hess.",
"Because of President Johnson's popularity, Goldwater refrained from attacking the president directly.",
"He did not mention Johnson by name at all in his convention speech.Although raised as an Episcopalian, Goldwater was the first candidate of Jewish descent, through his father, to be nominated for president by a major American party.===General election campaign===President Lyndon B. Johnson with Senator Goldwater, January 16, 1964After securing the Republican presidential nomination, Goldwater chose his political ally, RNC Chairman William E. Miller to be his running mate.",
"Goldwater joked he chose Miller because \"he drives Johnson nuts\".",
"In choosing Miller, Goldwater opted for a running mate who was ideologically aligned with his own conservative wing of the Republican party.",
"Miller balanced the ticket in other ways, being a practicing Catholic from the East Coast.",
"Miller had low name recognition but was popular in the Republican party and viewed as a skilled political strategist.Former U.S.",
"Senator Prescott Bush, a moderate Republican from Connecticut, was a friend of Goldwater and supported him in the general election campaign.Future Chief Justice of the United States and fellow Arizonan William H. Rehnquist also first came to the attention of national Republicans through his work as a legal adviser to Goldwater's presidential campaign.",
"Rehnquist had begun his law practice in 1953 in the firm of Denison Kitchel of Phoenix, Goldwater's national campaign manager and friend of nearly three decades.Goldwater's advocacy of active interventionism to prevent the spread of communism and defend American values and allies led to effective counterattacks from Lyndon B. Johnson and his supporters, who said that Goldwater's militancy would have dire consequences, possibly even nuclear war.",
"In a May 1964 speech, Goldwater suggested that nuclear weapons should be treated more like conventional weapons and used in Vietnam, specifically that they should have been used at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 to defoliate trees.",
"Regarding Vietnam, Goldwater charged that Johnson's policy was devoid of \"goal, course, or purpose,\" leaving \"only sudden death in the jungles and the slow strangulation of freedom\".",
"Goldwater's rhetoric on nuclear war was viewed by many as quite uncompromising, a view buttressed by off-hand comments such as, \"Let's lob one into the men's room at the Kremlin.\"",
"He also advocated that field commanders in Vietnam and Europe should be given the authority to use tactical nuclear weapons (which he called \"small conventional nuclear weapons\") without presidential confirmation.1964 presidential campaign bumper sticker representing the Goldwater surname as Au = gold and H2O = waterGoldwater countered the Johnson attacks by criticizing the administration for its perceived ethical lapses, and stating in a commercial that \"we, as a nation, are not far from the kind of moral decay that has brought on the fall of other nations and people....",
"I say it is time to put conscience back in government.",
"And by good example, put it back in all walks of American life.\"",
"Goldwater campaign commercials included statements of support by actor Raymond Massey and moderate Republican senator Margaret Chase Smith.Before the 1964 election, ''Fact'' magazine, published by Ralph Ginzburg, ran a special issue titled, \"The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater\".",
"The two main articles contended that Goldwater was mentally unfit to be president.",
"The magazine supported this claim with the results of a poll of board-certified psychiatrists.",
"''Fact'' had mailed questionnaires to 12,356 psychiatrists, receiving responses from 2,417, of whom 1,189 said Goldwater was mentally incapable of holding the office of president.",
"Most of the other respondents declined to diagnose Goldwater because they had not clinically interviewed him but said that, although not psychologically unfit to preside, Goldwater would be negligent in the role.After the election, Goldwater sued the publisher, the editor and the magazine for libel in ''Goldwater v. Ginzburg''.",
"\"Although the jury awarded Goldwater only $1.00 in compensatory damages against all three defendants, it went on to award him punitive damages of $25,000 against Ginzburg and $50,000 against ''Fact'' magazine, Inc.\" According to Warren Boroson, then-managing editor of ''Fact'' and later a financial columnist, the main biography of Goldwater in the magazine was written by David Bar-Illan, the Israeli pianist.====Political advertising====\"Daisy\" advertisementA Democratic campaign advertisement known as Daisy showed a young girl counting daisy petals, from one to ten.",
"Immediately following this scene, a voiceover counted down from ten to one.",
"The child's face was shown as a still photograph followed by images of nuclear explosions and mushroom clouds.",
"The campaign advertisement ended with a plea to vote for Johnson, implying that Goldwater (though not mentioned by name) would provoke a nuclear war if elected.",
"The advertisement, which featured only a few spoken words and relied on imagery for its emotional impact, was one of the most provocative in American political campaign history, and many analysts credit it as being the birth of the modern style of \"negative political ads\" on television.",
"The ad aired only once and was immediately pulled, but it was then shown many times by local television stations covering the controversy.Goldwater did not have ties to the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), but he was publicly endorsed by members of the organization.",
"Lyndon B. Johnson exploited this association during the elections, but Goldwater barred the KKK from supporting him and denounced them.Throughout the presidential campaign, Goldwater refused to appeal to racial tensions or backlash against civil rights.",
"After the outbreak of the Harlem riot of 1964, Goldwater privately gathered news reporters on his campaign plane and said that if anyone attempted to sow racial violence on his political behalf, he would withdraw from the presidential raceeven if it was the day before the election.Past comments came back to haunt Goldwater throughout the campaign.",
"He had once called the Eisenhower administration \"a dime-store New Deal\", and the former president never fully forgave him.",
"However, Eisenhower did film a television commercial with Goldwater.",
"Eisenhower qualified his voting for Goldwater in November by remarking that he had voted not specifically for Goldwater, but for the Republican Party.",
"In December 1961, Goldwater had told a news conference that \"sometimes I think this country would be better off if we could just saw off the Eastern Seaboard and let it float out to sea.\"",
"That comment boomeranged on him during the campaign in the form of a Johnson television commercial, as did remarks about making Social Security voluntary, and statements in Tennessee about selling the Tennessee Valley Authority, a large local New Deal employer.The Goldwater campaign spotlighted Ronald Reagan, who appeared in a campaign ad.",
"In turn, Reagan gave a stirring, nationally televised speech, \"A Time for Choosing\", in support of Goldwater.===Results===Electoral College results by stateGoldwater only won his home state of Arizona and five states in the Deep South.",
"The Southern states, traditionally Democratic up to that time, voted Republican primarily as a statement of opposition to the Civil Rights Act, which had been signed into law by Johnson earlier that year.",
"Despite Johnson's support for the Civil Rights Act, the bill received split support from Congressional Democrats due to southerner opposition.",
"In contrast, Congressional Republicans overwhelmingly supported the bill, with Goldwater being joined by only 5 other Republican senators in voting against it.In the end, Goldwater received 38% of the popular vote and carried just six states: Arizona (with 51% of the popular vote) and the core states of the Deep South: Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina.",
"In carrying Georgia by a margin of 54–45%, Goldwater became the first Republican nominee to win the state.Goldwater's poor showing pulled down many supporters.",
"Of the 57 Republican Congressmen who endorsed Goldwater before the convention, 20 were defeated for reelection, along with many promising young Republicans.",
"In contrast, Republican Congressman John Lindsay (NY-17), who refused to endorse Goldwater, was handily re-elected in a district where Democrats held a 10% overall advantage.",
"On the other hand, the defeat of so many older politicians created openings for young conservatives to move up the ladder.",
"While the loss of moderate Republicans was temporary—they were back by 1966—Goldwater also permanently pulled many conservative Southerners and whites out of the New Deal Coalition.According to Steve Kornacki of ''Salon'', \"Goldwater broke through and won five Southern states—the best showing in the region for a GOP candidate since Reconstruction.",
"In Mississippi—where Franklin D. Roosevelt had won nearly 100 percent of the vote 28 years earlier—Goldwater claimed a staggering 87 percent.\"",
"It has frequently been argued that Goldwater's strong performance in Southern states previously regarded as Democratic strongholds foreshadowed a larger shift in electoral trends in the coming decades that would make the South a Republican bastion (an end to the \"Solid South\")—first in presidential politics and eventually at the congressional and state levels, as well.",
"Also, Goldwater's uncompromising promotion of freedom was the start of a continuing shift in American politics from liberalism to a conservative economic philosophy."
],
[
"Return to the Senate",
"Goldwater meets with President Ronald Reagan in the oval office, 1984Goldwater remained popular in Arizona, and in the 1968 Senate election he was elected to the seat of retiring Senator Carl Hayden.",
"He was reelected in 1974 and 1980.Throughout the late 1970s, as the conservative wing under Ronald Reagan gained control of the Republican Party, Goldwater concentrated on his Senate duties, especially in military affairs.",
"Goldwater purportedly did not like Richard Nixon on either a political or personal level, later calling the California Republican \"the most dishonest individual I have ever met in my life\".",
"Accordingly, he played little part in Nixon's election or administration, but he helped force Nixon's resignation in 1974.At the height of the Watergate scandal, Goldwater met with Nixon at the White House and urged him to resign.",
"At the time, Nixon's impeachment by the House of Representatives was imminent and Goldwater warned him that fewer than 10 Republican senators would vote against conviction.Despite being a difficult year for Republicans candidates, the 1974 election saw Goldwater easily reelected over his Democratic opponent, Jonathan Marshall, the publisher of ''The Scottsdale Progress''.At the 1976 Republican National Convention, Goldwater helped block Nelson Rockefeller's renomination as vice president.",
"When Reagan challenged Gerald Ford for the presidential nomination in 1976, Goldwater endorsed the incumbent Ford, looking for consensus rather than conservative idealism.",
"As one historian notes, \"The Arizonan had lost much of his zest for battle.",
"\"In 1979, when President Carter normalized relations with Communist China, Goldwater and some other Senators sued him in the Supreme Court, arguing that the President could not terminate the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China (Taiwan) without the approval of Congress.",
"The case, ''Goldwater v. Carter'' (444 U.S. 996), was dismissed by the court as a political question.On June 9, 1969, Goldwater was absent during President Nixon's nomination of Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice of the United States while Senate Minority Whip Hugh Scott announced that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present.",
"Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's failed Supreme Court nomination of Clement Haynsworth on November 21, 1969, and a few months later, Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's failed Supreme Court nomination of Harrold Carswell on April 8, 1970.The following month, Goldwater was absent when Nixon nominee Harry Blackmun was confirmed on May 12, 1970, while Senate Minority Whip Robert P. Griffin announced that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present.",
"On December 6, 1971, Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's nomination of Lewis F. Powell Jr., and on December 10, Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's nomination of William Rehnquist as Associate Justice.",
"On December 17, 1975, Goldwater voted in favor of President Gerald Ford's nomination of John Paul Stevens to the Supreme Court.===Final campaign and Senate term===With his fourth Senate term due to end in January 1981, Goldwater seriously considered retiring from the Senate in 1980 before deciding to run for one final term.",
"It was a surprisingly tough campaign for re-election.",
"Goldwater was viewed by some as out of touch and vulnerable for several reasons, chiefly because he had planned to retire in 1981 and he had not visited many areas of Arizona outside of Phoenix and Tucson.",
"Additionally, his Democrat challenger, Bill Schulz, proved to be a formidable opponent.",
"A former Republican and a wealthy real estate developer, Schulz's campaign slogan was \"Energy for the Eighties.\"",
"Arizona's changing population also hurt Goldwater.",
"The state's population had greatly increased, and a large portion of the electorate had not lived in the state at the time Goldwater was previously elected, meaning unlike most incumbents, many voters were less familiar with Goldwater's actual beliefs.",
"Goldwater spent most of the campaign on the defensive.",
"Although he was eventually declared as the winning candidate in the general election by a very narrow margin, receiving 49.5% of the vote to Schulz's 48.4%, early returns on election night indicated that Schulz would win.",
"The counting of votes continued through the night and into the next morning.",
"At around daybreak, Goldwater learned that he had been reelected thanks to absentee ballots, which were among the last to be counted.Goldwater's close victory in 1980 came despite Reagan's 61% landslide over Jimmy Carter in Arizona.",
"Despite Goldwater's struggles, in 1980, Republicans were able to pick up 12 senate seats, regaining control of the chamber for the first time since 1955, when Goldwater was in his first term.",
"Goldwater was now in the most powerful position he had ever been in the Senate.",
"In October 1983, Goldwater voted against the legislation establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday.On September 21, 1981, Goldwater voted in favor of Reagan's Supreme Court nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor.",
"Goldwater was absent during the nominations of William Rehnquist as Chief Justice of the United States and Antonin Scalia as Associate Justice on September 17, 1986.After the new Senate convened in January 1981, Goldwater became chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee.",
"In this role he clashed with the Reagan administration in April 1984 when he discovered that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had been mining the waters of Nicaragua since February, something that he had first denied when the matter was raised.",
"In a note to the CIA director William Casey, Goldwater denounced what he called an \"act of war\", saying that \"this is no way to run a railroad\" as he stated crossly that only Congress had the power to declare war and accused the CIA of illegally mining Nicaraguan waters without the permission of Congress.",
"Goldwater concluded, \"The President has asked us to back his foreign policy.",
"Bill, how can we back his foreign policy when we don't know what the hell he is doing?",
"Lebanon, yes, we all knew that he sent troops over there.",
"But mine the harbors in Nicaragua?",
"This is an act violating international law.",
"It is an act of war.",
"For the life of me, I don't see how we are going to explain it.\"",
"Goldwater felt compelled to issue an apology on the floor of the Senate because the Senate Intelligence Committee had failed in its duties to oversee the CIA as he stated, saying, \"I am forced to apologize for the members of my committee because I did not know the facts on this case.",
"And I apologize to all the members of the Senate for the same reason\".",
"Goldwater subsequently voted for a Congressional resolution condemning the mining.In his 1980 Senate reelection campaign, Goldwater won support from religious conservatives but in his final term voted consistently to uphold legal abortion and in 1981 gave a speech on how he was angry about the bullying of American politicians by religious organizations and would \"fight them every step of the way\".He introduced the 1984 Cable Franchise Policy and Communications Act, which allowed local governments to require the transmission of public, educational, and government access (PEG) channels, barred cable operators from exercising editorial control over the content of programs carried on PEG channels and absolved them from liability for their content.",
"On May 12, 1986, Goldwater was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan.President Ronald Reagan and Senator Goldwater award retired General Jimmy Doolittle, USAFR, with a fourth star, April 10, 1985In response to Moral Majority founder Jerry Falwell's opposition to the nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor to the Supreme Court, of which Falwell had said, \"Every good Christian should be concerned\", Goldwater retorted, \"Every good Christian ought to kick Falwell right in the ass.\"",
"According to John Dean, Goldwater actually suggested that good Christians ought to kick Falwell in the \"nuts\", but the news media \"changed the anatomical reference\".",
"Goldwater also had harsh words for his one-time political protégé, President Reagan, particularly after the Iran–Contra Affair became public in 1986.Journalist Robert MacNeil, a friend of Goldwater's from the 1964 presidential campaign, recalled interviewing him in his office shortly afterward.",
"\"He was sitting in his office with his hands on his cane... and he said to me, 'Well, aren't you going to ask me about the Iran arms sales?'",
"It had just been announced that the Reagan administration had sold arms to Iran.",
"And I said, 'Well, if I asked you, what would you say?'",
"He said, 'I'd say it's the god-damned stupidest foreign policy blunder this country's ever made!",
"Aside from the Iran–Contra scandal, Goldwater thought nonetheless that Reagan was a good president.===Retirement===Goldwater said later that the close result in 1980 convinced him not to run again.",
"He retired in 1987, serving as Chair of the Senate Intelligence and Armed Services Committees in his final term.",
"Despite his reputation as a firebrand in the 1960s, by the end of his career, he was considered a stabilizing influence in the Senate, one of the most respected members of either major party.",
"Although Goldwater remained staunchly anti-communist and \"hawkish\" on military issues, he was a key supporter of the fight for ratification of the Panama Canal Treaty in the 1970s, which would give control of the canal zone to the Republic of Panama.",
"His most important legislative achievement may have been the Goldwater–Nichols Act, which reorganized the U.S. military's senior-command structure."
],
[
"Policies",
"Goldwater became most associated with anti-union work and anti-communism; he was a supporter of the conservative coalition in Congress.",
"His work on labor issues led to Congress passing major anti-labor reforms in 1957, and subsequently a campaign by the AFL–CIO to challenge his 1958 reelection bid.",
"He voted against the censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, who had been making unfound claims about communists infiltrating the U.S. State Department during the Red Scare, but never actually accused any individual of being a communist or Soviet agent.",
"Goldwater emphasized his strong opposition to the worldwide spread of communism in his 1960 book ''The Conscience of a Conservative''.",
"The book became an important reference text in conservative political circles.Informal press conference August 7, 1974 (one day before Nixon announced his resignation) following a meeting between Goldwater, Senate Minority Leader Scott, House Minority Leader Rhodes and the President to discuss the Watergate scandal and impeachment processIn 1964, Goldwater ran a conservative campaign that emphasized states' rights.",
"Goldwater's 1964 campaign was a magnet for conservatives since he opposed interference by the federal government in state affairs.",
"Goldwater voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, but did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1960 because he was absent from the chamber, with Senate Minority Whip Thomas Kuchel (R–CA) announcing that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present.",
"Though Goldwater had supported the original Senate version of the bill, Goldwater voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1964.His public stance was based on his view that Article II and Article VII of the Act interfered with the rights of private persons to do or not to do business with whomever they chose and believed that the private employment provisions of the Act would lead to racial quotas.",
"In the segregated city of Phoenix in the 1950s, he had quietly supported civil rights for blacks, but would not let his name be used.All this appealed to white Southern Democrats, and Goldwater was the first Republican to win the electoral votes of all of the Deep South states (South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana) since Reconstruction.",
"However, Goldwater's vote on the Civil Rights Act proved devastating to his campaign everywhere outside the South (besides Dixie, Goldwater won only in Arizona, his home state), contributing to his landslide defeat in 1964.While Goldwater had been depicted by his opponents in the Republican primaries as a representative of a conservative philosophy that was extreme and alien, his voting records show that his positions were in generally aligned with those of other Republicans in the Congress.Goldwater fought in 1971 to stop U.S. funding of the United Nations after the People's Republic of China was admitted to the organization.",
"He said:===Goldwater and the revival of American conservatism===Although Goldwater was not as important in the American conservative movement as Ronald Reagan after 1965, he shaped and redefined the movement from the late 1950s to 1964.Arizona Senator John McCain, who succeeded Goldwater in the Senate in 1987, said of Goldwater's legacy, \"He transformed the Republican Party from an Eastern elitist organization to the breeding ground for the election of Ronald Reagan.\"",
"Columnist George Will remarked that Reagan's victory in the 1980 presidential election was the metaphoric culmination of 16 years of counting the votes for Goldwater from the 1964 presidential race.The Republican Party recovered from the 1964 election debacle, acquiring 47 seats in the House of Representatives in the 1966 mid-term election.",
"In January 1969, after Goldwater had been re-elected to the Senate, he wrote an article in the ''National Review'' \"affirming that he was not against liberals, that liberals are needed as a counterweight to conservatism, and that he had in mind a fine liberal like Max Lerner.",
"\"Goldwater was a strong supporter of environmental protection.",
"He explained his position in 1969:"
],
[
"Later life",
"Signing autographs at the Fiesta Bowl parade in 1983By the 1980s, with Ronald Reagan as president and the growing involvement of the religious right in conservative politics, Goldwater's libertarian views on personal issues were revealed; he believed that they were an integral part of true conservatism.",
"Goldwater viewed abortion as a matter of personal choice and as such supported abortion rights.",
"As a passionate defender of personal liberty, he saw the religious right's views as an encroachment on personal privacy and individual liberties.",
"Although he voted against making Martin Luther King's birthday a national holiday in his last term as senator, Goldwater later expressed support for it.In 1987, he received the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution.",
"In 1988, Princeton University's American Whig-Cliosophic Society awarded Goldwater the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service in recognition of his career.After his retirement in 1987, Goldwater described Arizona Governor Evan Mecham as \"hardheaded\" and called on him to resign, and two years later stated that the Republican party had been taken over by a \"bunch of kooks\".During the 1988 presidential campaign, he told vice-presidential nominee Dan Quayle at a campaign event in Arizona, \"I want you to go back and tell George Bush to start talking about the issues.",
"\"Some of Goldwater's statements in the 1990s alienated many social conservatives.",
"He endorsed Democrat Karan English in an Arizona congressional race, urged Republicans to lay off Bill Clinton over the Whitewater scandal, and criticized the military's ban on homosexuals, saying, \"Everyone knows that gays have served honorably in the military since at least the time of Julius Caesar\", and, \"You don't need to be 'straight' to fight and die for your country.",
"You just need to shoot straight.\"",
"A few years before his death, he addressed establishment Republicans by saying, \"Do not associate my name with anything you do.",
"You are extremists, and you've hurt the Republican party much more than the Democrats have.",
"\"In a 1994 interview with ''The Washington Post'', Goldwater said:Also in 1994, he repeated his concerns about religious groups attempting to gain control of the Republican party, saying,In 1996, he told Bob Dole, whose own presidential campaign received lukewarm support from conservative Republicans, \"We're the new liberals of the Republican party.",
"Can you imagine that?\"",
"In that same year, with Senator Dennis DeConcini, Goldwater endorsed an Arizona initiative to legalize medical marijuana against the countervailing opinion of social conservatives."
],
[
"Personal life",
"In 1934, Goldwater married Margaret \"Peggy\" Johnson, daughter of a prominent industrialist from Muncie, Indiana.",
"The couple had four children: Joanne (born January 18, 1936), Barry (born July 15, 1938), Michael (born March 15, 1940), and Peggy (born July 27, 1944).",
"Goldwater became a widower in 1985 and, in 1992, he married Susan Wechsler, a nurse 32 years his junior.",
"Goldwater's son Barry Goldwater Jr. served as a Republican Congressman, representing California from 1969 to 1983.Goldwater's grandson, Ty Ross, is an interior designer and former Zoli model.",
"Ross, who is openly gay and HIV positive, has been credited as inspiring the elder Goldwater \"to become an octogenarian proponent of gay civil rights\".Goldwater ran track and cross country in high school, where he specialized in the 880 yard run.",
"His parents strongly encouraged him to compete in these sports, to his dismay.",
"In 1940, he became one of the first people to run the Colorado River recreationally through the Grand Canyon, participating as an oarsman on Norman Nevills' second commercial river trip.",
"Goldwater joined them in Green River, Utah, and rowed his own boat down to Lake Mead.",
"In 1970, the Arizona Historical Foundation published the daily journal Goldwater had maintained on the Grand Canyon journey, including his photographs, in a 209-page volume titled ''Delightful Journey''.In 1963, he joined the Arizona Society of the Sons of the American Revolution.",
"He was also a lifetime member of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, the American Legion, and Sigma Chi fraternity.",
"He belonged to both the York Rite and Scottish Rite of Freemasonry and was awarded the 33rd degree in the Scottish Rite.===Hobbies and interests=======Amateur radio====Goldwater was an avid amateur radio operator from the early 1920s onwards, with the call signs 6BPI, K3UIG and K7UGA.",
"The last is now used by an Arizona club honoring him as a commemorative call.",
"During the Vietnam War he was a Military Affiliate Radio System (MARS) operator.Goldwater was a spokesman for amateur radio and its enthusiasts.",
"Beginning in 1969, and for the rest of his life, he appeared in many educational and promotional films (and later videos) about the hobby that were produced for the American Radio Relay League (the United States national society representing the interests of radio amateurs) by such producers as Dave Bell (W6AQ), ARRL Southwest Director John R. Griggs (W6KW), Alan Kaul (W6RCL), Forrest Oden (N6ENV), and Roy Neal (K6DUE).",
"His first appearance was in Dave Bell's ''The World of Amateur Radio'' where Goldwater discussed the history of the hobby and demonstrated a live contact with Antarctica.",
"His last on-screen appearance dealing with \"ham radio\" was in 1994, explaining a then-upcoming, Earth-orbiting ham radio relay satellite.Electronics was a hobby for Goldwater beyond amateur radio.",
"He enjoyed assembling Heathkits, completing more than 100 and often visiting their maker in Benton Harbor, Michigan, to buy more, before the company exited the kit business in 1992.====Kachina dolls====Most of the kachina dolls at the Heard Museum were donated by GoldwaterIn 1916, Goldwater visited the Hopi reservation with Phoenix architect John Rinker Kibby and obtained his first kachina doll.",
"Eventually his doll collection included 437 items and was presented in 1969 to the Heard Museum in Phoenix.====Photography====Goldwater was an amateur photographer and, in his estate, left some 15,000 of his images to three Arizona institutions.",
"He was keen on candid photography.",
"He became interested in the hobby after receiving a camera as a gift from his wife on their first Christmas together.",
"He was known to use a 4×5 Graflex, Rolleiflex, 16 mm Bell and Howell motion picture camera, and 35 mm Nikkormat FT.",
"He was a member of the Royal Photographic Society from 1941, becoming a Life Member in 1948.For decades, he contributed photographs of his home state to ''Arizona Highways'' and was known for his Western landscapes and pictures of native Americans in the United States.",
"Three books with his photographs are ''People and Places'', from 1967; ''Barry Goldwater and the Southwest'', from 1976; and ''Delightful Journey'', first published in 1940 and reprinted in 1970.Ansel Adams wrote a foreword to the 1976 book.Goldwater's photography interests occasionally crossed over with his political career.",
"John F. Kennedy, as president, was known to invite former congressional colleagues to the White House for a drink.",
"On one occasion, Goldwater brought his camera and photographed President Kennedy.",
"When Kennedy received the photo, he returned it to Goldwater, with the inscription: \"For Barry Goldwater—Whom I urge to follow the career for which he has shown such talent—photography!—from his friend—John Kennedy.\"",
"This quip became a classic of American political humor after it was relayed by humorist Bennett Cerf.",
"The photo itself was prized by Goldwater for the rest of his life and sold for $17,925 in a 2010 Heritage auction.Son Michael Prescott Goldwater formed the Goldwater Family Foundation with the goal of making his father's photography available via the internet.",
"(''Barry Goldwater Photographs'') was launched in September 2006 to coincide with the HBO documentary ''Mr.",
"Conservative'', produced by granddaughter CC Goldwater.====UFOs====On March 28, 1975, Goldwater wrote to Shlomo Arnon: \"The subject of UFOs has interested me for some long time.",
"About ten or twelve years ago I made an effort to find out what was in the building at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base where the information has been stored that has been collected by the Air Force, and I was understandably denied this request.",
"It is still classified above Top Secret.\"",
"Goldwater further wrote that there were rumors the evidence would be released, and that he was \"just as anxious to see this material as you are, and I hope we will not have to wait much longer\".",
"The April 25, 1988, issue of ''The New Yorker'' carried an interview with Goldwater in which he recounted efforts to gain access to the room.",
"He did so again in a 1994 ''Larry King Live'' interview, saying:===Death===The ''Goldwater Crypt''#64Goldwater's public appearances ended in late 1996 after he had a massive stroke.",
"Family members disclosed he was in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease.",
"He died on May 29, 1998, at the age of 89, at his long-time home in Paradise Valley, Arizona, of complications from the stroke.",
"His funeral was co-officiated by both a Christian minister and a rabbi.",
"His ashes were buried at the Episcopal Christ Church of the Ascension in Paradise Valley, Arizona.",
"A memorial statue set in a small park has been erected to honor the memory of Goldwater in that town, near his former home and current resting place."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===Buildings and monuments===Barry Goldwater statue in National Statuary Hall in Washington, D.C.Among the buildings and monuments named after Barry Goldwater are the Barry M. Goldwater Terminal at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, Goldwater Memorial Park in Paradise Valley, Arizona, the Barry Goldwater Air Force Academy Visitor Center at the United States Air Force Academy, and Barry Goldwater High School in northern Phoenix.",
"In 2010, former Arizona Attorney General Grant Woods, himself a Goldwater scholar and supporter, founded the Goldwater Women's Tennis Classic Tournament to be held annually at the Phoenix Country Club in Phoenix.",
"On February 11, 2015, a statue of Goldwater by Deborah Copenhaver Fellows was unveiled by U.S. House and Senate leaders at a dedication ceremony in National Statuary Hall of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Barry Goldwater Peak is the highest peak in the White Tank Mountains.===Goldwater Scholarship===The Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program was established by Congress in 1986.Its goal is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue careers in these fields.The Scholarship is widely considered the most prestigious award in the U.S. conferred upon undergraduates studying the sciences.",
"It is awarded to about 300 students (college sophomores and juniors) nationwide in the amount of $7,500 per academic year (for their senior year, or junior and senior years).",
"It honors Goldwater's keen interest in science and technology.===Documentary===Goldwater's granddaughter, CC Goldwater, has co-produced with longtime friend and independent film producer Tani L. Cohen a documentary on Goldwater's life, ''Mr.",
"Conservative: Goldwater on Goldwater'', first shown on HBO on September 18, 2006.===In popular culture===In his song \"I Shall Be Free No.",
"10\", Bob Dylan refers to Goldwater: \"I'm liberal to a degree, I want everybody to be free.",
"But if you think I'll let Barry Goldwater move in next door and marry my daughter, you must think I'm crazy.\"",
"In the 1965 film ''The Bedford Incident'', the actor Richard Widmark playing the film's antagonist, Captain Eric Finlander of the fictional destroyer USS ''Bedford'', modelled his character's mannerisms and rhetorical style after Goldwater."
],
[
"Military awards",
"* Command Pilot Badge* Service Pilot Badge (former U.S. Army Air Forces rating)* Legion of Merit* Air Medal* Army Commendation Medal* American Defense Service Medal* American Campaign Medal* European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal* Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal with campaign star* World War II Victory Medal* Armed Forces Reserve Medal with three bronze hourglasses"
],
[
"Other awards",
"* Presidential Medal of Freedom (1986)* American Legion Distinguished Service Medal* Marconi Gold Medal, Veteran Wireless Operators Association (1968)* Marconi Medal of Achievement (1968)* Bob Hope Five Star Civilian Award (1976)* Good Citizenship Award, Daughters of the American Revolution* 33rd Degree Mason* The Douglas MacArthur Memorial Award* Top Gun Award, Luke Air Force Base* Order of Fifinella Award – Champion of the Women Air Force Service Pilots (WASP) (1978)* Thomas D. White National Defense Award 1978* Conservative Digest Award (1980)* Senator John Warner Award for Public Service in the field of Nuclear Disarmament (1983)* Alexander M. Haig, Jr. Memorial Award (1983)* National Congress of American Indians Congressional Award (1985)* Space Pioneer Award, Sixth Space Development Conference (1987)* James Madison Award, American Whig-Cliosophic Society (1988)* National Aviation Hall of Fame (1982)"
],
[
"Books",
"* ''The Conscience of a Conservative'' (1960)* ''Why Not Victory?",
"A Fresh Look at American Policy'' (1963)* ''Where I Stand'' (1964)* ''Conscience of a Majority'' (1971)* ''The Coming Breakpoint'' (1976)* ''Arizona'' (1977)* ''With No Apologies: The Personal and Political Memoirs of Senator Barry M. Goldwater'' (1980)* ''Goldwater'' (1988)"
],
[
"Relatives",
"Goldwater's son Barry Goldwater Jr. served as a Congressman from California from 1969 to 1983.He was the first Congressman to serve while having a father in the Senate.",
"Goldwater's uncle Morris Goldwater served in the Arizona territorial and state legislatures and as mayor of Prescott, Arizona.",
"Goldwater's nephew Don Goldwater sought the Republican nomination for governor of Arizona in 2006, but he was defeated by Len Munsil."
],
[
"See also",
"* Electoral history of Barry Goldwater* Goldwater Institute* Goldwater rule"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Primary ===* * Goldwater, Barry M. with Jack Casserly.",
"''Goldwater'' (Doubleday, 1988), autobiography.",
"* * by Goldwater's speechwriter* Shadegg, Stephen.",
"''What Happened to Goldwater?",
"The Inside Story of the 1964 Republican Campaign'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).",
"* White, F. Clifton.",
"''Suite 3505: The Story of the Draft Goldwater Movement'' (Arlington House, 1967).=== Secondary ===* Annunziata, Frank.",
"\"The Revolt Against the Welfare State: Goldwater Conservatism and the Election of 1964.\"",
"''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 10.2 (1980): 254–265.online* * * Conley, Brian M. ''The Rise of the Republican Right: From Goldwater to Reagan'' (Routledge, 2019).",
"* Conley, Brian M. \"The Politics of Party Renewal: The 'Service Party' and the Origins of the Post-Goldwater Republican Right.\"",
"''Studies in American Political Development'' 27.1 (2013): 51+ online.",
"* Crespi, Irving.",
"\"The Structural Basis for Right-Wing Conservatism: The Goldwater Case,\" ''Public Opinion Quarterly'' 29#4 (Winter, 1965–66): 523–543.",
"* Cunningham, Sean P. \"Man of the West: Goldwater's Reflection in the Oasis of Frontier Conservatism.\"",
"''Journal of Arizona History'' 61.1 (2020): 79–88.",
"* * * * , the standard scholarly biography* * Jurdem, Laurence R. \"'The Media Were Not Completely Fair to You': Foreign Policy, the Press and the 1964 Goldwater Campaign.\"",
"''Journal of Arizona History'' 61.1 (2020): 161–180.",
"* Mann, Robert.",
"''Daisy Petals and Mushroom Clouds: LBJ, Barry Goldwater and the Ad That Changed American Politics'' (Louisiana State UP, 2011).",
"* * Middendorf, J. William.",
"''A Glorious Disaster: Barry Goldwater's Presidential Campaign and the Origins of the Conservative Movement'' (Basic Books, 2006).",
"* * Schuparra, Kurt.",
"\"Barry Goldwater and Southern California Conservatism: Ideology, Image and Myth in the 1964 California Republican Presidential Primary.\"",
"''Southern California Quarterly'' 74.3 (1992): 277–298.online* Shepard, Christopher.",
"\"A True Jeffersonian: The Western Conservative Principles of Barry Goldwater and His Vote Against the Civil Rights Act of 1964.\"",
"''Journal of the West''.",
"49, no.",
"1, (2010): 34–40* Shermer, Elizabeth Tandy (ed.)",
"(2013).",
"''Barry Goldwater and the Remaking of the American Political Landscape.''",
"Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013.",
"* Smith, Dean (1986).",
"''The Goldwaters of Arizona'', includes brief coverage of the parents.",
"* Taylor, Andrew.",
"\"Barry Goldwater: insurgent conservatism as constitutive rhetoric.\"",
"''Journal of Political Ideologies'' 21, no.",
"3 (2016): 242–260.online* Taylor, Andrew (2018).",
"\"The Oratory of Barry Goldwater.\"",
"in ''Republican Orators from Eisenhower to Trump''.",
"Palgrave Macmillan.",
"41–66.",
"* Thorburn, Wayne.",
"\"Barry's Boys and Goldwater Girls: Barry Goldwater and the Mobilization of Young Conservatives in the Early 1960s.\"",
"''Journal of Arizona History'' 61.1 (2020): 89–107.excerpt* Tønnessen, Alf Tomas.",
"\"Goldwater, Bush, Ryan and the Failed Attempts by Conservative Republicans to Reform Federal Entitlement Programs.\"",
"''American Studies in Scandinavia'' 47.2 (2015): 47–62 online.",
"* * Young, Nancy Beck (2019).",
"''Two Suns of the Southwest: Lyndon Johnson, Barry Goldwater, and the 1964 Battle between Liberalism and Conservatism''.",
"UP of Kansas.",
"online"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Flynn, John T. ''Goldwater Either/or: A Self-portrait Based Upon His Own Words.''",
"Public Affairs Press, 1949.",
"* online"
],
[
"External links",
"* * ** \"Barry Goldwater, Presidential Contender\" from C-SPAN's ''The Contenders''* The Goldwater Institute* Speech delivered by Barry Goldwater to the Comstock Club of Sacramento, California on June 22, 1966"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Baralong incidents"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''''Baralong''''' '''incidents''' were two incidents during the First World War in August and September 1915, involving the Royal Navy Q-ship and two German U-boats.",
"''Baralong'' sank , which had been preparing to attack a nearby merchant ship, the ''Nicosian''.",
"About a dozen of the crewmen managed to escape from the sinking submarine and Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, commanding officer of ''Baralong'', ordered the survivors to be executed after they boarded the ''Nicosian''.",
"All the survivors of ''U-27''s sinking, including several who had reached the ''Nicosian'', were shot by ''Baralong''s crew.",
"Later, ''Baralong'' under command of Andrew Wilmot-Smith sank in an incident which has also been described as a British war crime."
],
[
"First incident",
"===Action of 19 August 1915===After the sinking of by a German submarine in May 1915, Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert, commanding officer of ''Baralong'', was visited by two officers of the Admiralty's Secret Service branch at the naval base at Queenstown, Ireland.",
"He was told, \"This ''Lusitania'' business is shocking.",
"Unofficially, we are telling you... take no prisoners from U-boats.",
"\"Interviews with his subordinate officers have established Herbert's undisciplined manner of commanding his ship.",
"Herbert allowed his men to engage in drunken binges during shore leave.",
"During one such incident, at Dartmouth, several members of ''Baralong''s crew were arrested after destroying a local pub.",
"Herbert paid their bail, then left port with the bailed crewmen aboard.",
"Beginning in April 1915, Herbert ordered his subordinates to cease calling him \"Sir\", and to address him only by the pseudonym \"Captain William McBride\".Throughout the summer of 1915, ''Baralong'' continued routine patrol duties in the Irish Sea without encountering the enemy.On 19 August 1915, sank the White Star Liner with the loss of 44 lives – this included three Americans and resulted in a diplomatic incident between Germany and the United States.",
"HMS ''Baralong'' had been about from the scene, and had received a distress call from the ship.",
"''Baralong''s crew was infuriated by the attack and by their inability to locate survivors.Meanwhile, about south of Queenstown, , commanded by ''Kapitänleutnant'' Bernd Wegener, stopped the British steamer ''Nicosian'' in accordance with the cruiser rules specified by the London Declaration.",
"A boarding party of six men from ''U-27'' discovered that ''Nicosian'' was carrying munitions and 250 American mules earmarked for the British Army in France.",
"The Germans allowed the freighter's crew and passengers to board lifeboats, and prepared to sink the freighter with the U-boat's deck gun.",
"''U-27'' was lying off ''Nicosian''s port quarter and firing into it when ''Baralong'' appeared on the scene, flying the ensign of the United States as a false flag.",
"When she was half a mile away, ''Baralong'' ran up a signal flag indicating that she was going to rescue ''Nicosian''s crew.",
"Wegener acknowledged the signal, then ordered his men to cease firing, and took ''U-27'' along the port side of ''Nicosian'' to intercept ''Baralong''.",
"As the submarine disappeared behind the steamship, Herbert steered ''Baralong'' on a parallel course along ''Nicosian''s starboard side.The action of 19 August 1915.Before ''U-27'' came round ''Nicosian''s bow, ''Baralong'' hauled down the American flag, hoisted the Royal Navy's White Ensign, and unmasked her guns.",
"As ''U-27'' came into view from behind ''Nicosian'', ''Baralong'' began shooting with its three 12-pounder guns at a range of , firing 34 rounds for only a single shot from the submarine.",
"''U-27'' rolled over and began to sink.According to Tony Bridgland;Herbert screamed, \"Cease fire!\"",
"But his men's blood was up.",
"They were avenging the ''Arabic'' and the ''Lusitania''.",
"For them this was no time to cease firing, even as the survivors of the crew appeared on the outer casing, struggling out of their clothes to swim away from her.",
"There was a mighty hiss of compressed air from her tanks and the ''U-27'' vanished from sight in a vortex of giant rumbling bubbles, leaving a pall of smoke over the spot where she had been.",
"It had taken only a few minutes to fire the thirty-four shells into her.Meanwhile, ''Nicosian''s crew were cheering from the lifeboats.",
"Captain Manning was heard to yell, \"If any of those bastard Huns come up, lads, hit 'em with an oar!",
"\"Twelve men survived the sinking of the submarine: the crews of her two deck guns and those who had been on the conning tower.",
"They swam to ''Nicosian'' and attempted to join the six-man boarding party by climbing up its hanging lifeboat falls and pilot ladder.",
"Despite his recent orders to take no prisoners from U-boats, Herbert claimed in his report to the Admiralty to have been worried that the German survivors might try to scuttle the steamer as an explanation for why he ordered his men to open fire with small arms, killing all in the water.",
"Wegener is described by some accounts as being shot while trying to swim to the ''Baralong''.Herbert then sent ''Baralong''s 12 Royal Marines, commanded by a Corporal Collins, to find the surviving German sailors aboard ''Nicosian''.",
"As they departed, Herbert ordered Collins, \"Take no prisoners.\"",
"The Germans were discovered in the engine room and shot on sight.",
"According to Sub-Lieutenant Gordon Charles Steele: \"Wegener ran to a cabin on the upper deck – I later found out it was Manning's bathroom.",
"The marines broke down the door with the butts of their rifles, but Wegener squeezed through a scuttle and dropped into the sea.",
"He still had his life-jacket on and put up his arms in surrender.",
"Corporal Collins, however, took aim and shot him through the head.\"",
"Corporal Collins later recalled that, after Wegener's death, Herbert threw a revolver in the dead German captain's face and screamed, \"What about the ''Lusitania'', you bastard!\"",
"An alternative allegation by the Admiralty is that the Germans who boarded ''Nicosian'' were killed by the freighter's engine room staff; this report apparently came from the officer commanding the muleteers.===Aftermath===In Herbert's report to the Admiralty, he stated he feared the survivors from the U-boat's crew would board the freighter and scuttle it, so he ordered the Royal Marines on his ship to shoot the survivors.",
"If they had scuttled the freighter, it could have been considered as negligence on the part of Herbert.",
"Moments before ''Baralong'' began its attack, the submarine was firing on the freighter.",
"It is not known if the escaping sailors actually intended to scuttle the freighter.The Admiralty, upon receiving Herbert's report, immediately ordered its suppression, but the strict censorship imposed on the event failed when Americans who had witnessed the incident from ''Nicosian''s lifeboats spoke to newspaper reporters after their return to the United States.===German memorandum===The German government delivered a memorandum on the incident via the American ambassador in Berlin, who received it on 6 December 1915.In it, they cited six US citizens as witnesses, stating they had made sworn depositions regarding the incident before notaries public in the USA.The statements said that five survivors from ''U-27'' managed to board ''Nicosian'', while the rest were shot and killed on Herbert's orders while clinging to the merchant vessel's lifeboat falls.",
"It was further stated that when Herbert ordered his Marines to board ''Nicosian'', he gave the order \"take no prisoners\".",
"Four German sailors were found in ''Nicosian''s engine room and propeller shaft tunnel, and were killed.",
"According to the witness statements, ''U-27''s commander was shot while swimming towards ''Baralong''.The memorandum demanded that the captain and crew of ''Baralong'' be tried for the murder of unarmed German sailors, threatening to \"take the serious decision of retribution for an unpunished crime\".",
"Sir Edward Grey replied through the American ambassador that the incident could be grouped together with the Germans' sinking of SS ''Arabic'', their attack on a stranded British submarine on the neutral Danish coast, and their attack on the steamship ''Ruel'', and suggested that they be placed before a tribunal composed of US Navy officers.===German reaction===A debate took place in the ''Reichstag'' on 15 January 1916, where the incident was described as a \"cowardly murder\" and Grey's note as being \"full of insolence and arrogance\".",
"It was announced that reprisals had been decided, but not what they would be.Meanwhile, the Military Bureau for the Investigation of Violations of the Laws of War () added ''Baralong''s commanding officer, whose name was known only as \"Captain William McBride\", to the Prussian Ministry of War's \"Black List of Englishmen who are Guilty of Violations of the Laws of War vis-à-vis Members of the German Armed Forces\".HMS ''Baralong''s actions caused the ''Kaiserliche Marine'' to cease conforming to the Prize Rules and to practise unrestricted submarine warfare.",
"During the Second World War, it was cited as a reason for the ''Kriegsmarine'' to do the same.",
"A German medal was issued commemorating the event.As a precaution to protect the ships against any reprisals against their crews, HMS ''Baralong'' was renamed HMS ''Wyandra'' and transferred to the Mediterranean.",
"''Baralong''s name was deleted from Lloyd's Register.",
"In 1916 ''Wyandra'' returned to the Ellerman & Bucknall Line under the name ''Manica''.",
"''Nicosian'' was renamed ''Nevisian'', and the crew was issued new Discharge Books, with the voyage omitted.",
"''Baralong''s crew were later awarded £185 prize bounty for sinking ''U-27''."
],
[
"Second incident",
"===Action of 24 September 1915===On 24 September 1915, ''Baralong'' sank the U-boat , for which its commanding officer at the time, Lieutenant-Commander Andrew Wilmot-Smith was awarded the DSO, the engineer J. M. Dowie the DSC, and two of the crew received a DSM.",
"A bounty of £1,000 was also awarded.",
"Wilmot-Smith, was later awarded £170 prize bounty by the Prize Court.",
"''U-41'' was in the process of sinking SS ''Urbino'' with gunfire when ''Baralong'', which had set out from Falmouth the day before, arrived on the scene, flying an American flag.",
"''Baralong'' followed U-41's instructions while at the same time manoevring to 700 yards and an angle where her guns could fire.",
"''Baralong'' opened fire with starboard and rear guns, marines aiding with rifle fire.",
"The conning tower was struck killing the captain and six crew, and other shots struck the hull.",
"U-41 began to list then dived.",
"It abruptly resurfaced and only two crew escaped (a wounded ''Leutnant'' and the helmsman) from a hatch before it sank again.",
"The two crew and the crew of the ''Urbino'' were picked up by ''Baralong'' before it returned to Falmouth the following morning.When ''U-41'' surfaced near ''Baralong'', the latter allegedly opened fire while continuing to fly the American flag, and sank the U-boat.===Aftermath of the second incident===Unlike the neutral Americans in the first incident, the only witnesses to the second attack were the German and British sailors present.",
"''Oberleutnant zur See'' Iwan Crompton, after returning to Germany from a prisoner-of-war camp, reported that ''Baralong'' had run down the lifeboat he was in; he leapt clear and was soon afterward taken aboard ''Baralong''.",
"The British crew denied that they had run down the lifeboat.",
"Crompton later published an account of ''U-41''s exploits in 1917, ''U-41: der zweite Baralong-Fall'', which termed the sinking of ''U-41'' a \"second Baralong case\".The event was also commemorated by a propaganda medal designed by the German engraver Karl Goetz.",
"This was one of many medals that were popular in Germany from about 1910 to 1940."
],
[
"See also",
"* Unrestricted submarine warfare* Merchant raiders* Commerce raiding* Tonnage war* HMS E13"
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * ===General references===*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Banda"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Banda''' may refer to:"
],
[
"People",
"*Banda (surname)*Banda Prakash (born 1954), Indian politician*Banda Kanakalingeshwara Rao (1907–1968), Indian actor*Banda Karthika Reddy (born 1977), Indian politician*Banda Singh Bahadur (1670–1716), Sikh warrior"
],
[
"Places",
"=== Argentina ===* Banda Department, a part of Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina=== Canada ===*Banda, Ontario, a settlement in Ontario=== Ghana ===* Banda Ahenkro, a town in Banda District* Banda District, Ghana, a district in the Bono Region* Banda (Ghana parliament constituency), a constituency in the Bono Region=== India ===*Banda, East Godavari district, a village in Andhra Pradesh, India*Banda, Maharashtra, a small town in Maharashtra*Banda, Uttar Pradesh, a city and district headquarters of Banda District, Uttar Pradesh*Banda District, India, a district in Uttar Pradesh*Banda (Lok Sabha constituency), Uttar Pradesh*Banda (Assembly constituency), a constituency of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly*Banda (Vidhan Sabha constituency), Madhya Pradesh* Banda, Madhya Pradesh, Town and Tehsil in Madhya Pradesh=== Indonesia ===*Banda Islands, a group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea*Banda Sea, the sea of the South Moluccas, a part of the Pacific Ocean=== Uganda ===*Banda, Uganda, a hill and the neighbourhood on that hill, located in Nakawa Division, within the city of Kampala"
],
[
"Music",
"*\"A Banda (Ah Bahn-da)\", a composition by Chico Buarque *Banda music, a form of Mexican music*Banda (opera), a musical ensemble which is used in addition to the main opera orchestra and plays the music which is actually heard by the characters in the opera"
],
[
"Other uses",
"*Banda people, an ethnic group of the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Sudan*Banda languages, a family of Ubangian languages of Central Africa*Banda language (Maluku), an Austronesian language of the Kei Islands, Indonesia*Banda machine, a brand of spirit duplicator - a type of low-volume document copying machine*Banda (state), a former princely state in India*Banda, a large smoked fish in Chad*Banda, a caste of adivasis in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand*Banda Deul, an 11th-century temple in Purulia district, West Bengal, India"
],
[
"See also",
"* Bandar (disambiguation)* Bande (disambiguation)* Bandha (disambiguation)* La Banda (disambiguation)* ''Bandaa'', a 2023 Indian film*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bladder (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''bladder''' (or urinary bladder) is an organ that collects urine for excretion in animals.",
"'''Bladder''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Biology",
"* Artificial urinary bladder, in humans* Gallbladder, which stores bile for digestion* Pig bladder, urinary bladder of a domestic pig, with many human uses* Swim bladder, in bony fishes, an internal organ that helps to control buoyancy (homologous to lungs)* Urinary bladder (Chinese medicine)"
],
[
"Technology",
"* Air bladder effect, a special effect used in filmmaking* Fuel bladder, which stores fuels or other industrial liquids* Hydration system, sometimes known as a bladder* Pneumatic bladder, an old technology with many industrial applications* Waterskin, a traditional container for transporting water"
],
[
"Geography",
"* Bladder Lake, a lake in Minnesota"
],
[
"See also",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Bob Young (businessman)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Robert Young''' (born 1953/1954) is a businessman who is best known for founding Red Hat Inc., the open source software company.",
"He owns the franchises for Forge FC of the Canadian Premier League as well as the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League for which he serves as self-styled Caretaker of the team."
],
[
"Early life",
"He was born in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.",
"He attended Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario.",
"He received a Bachelor of Arts from Victoria College at the University of Toronto."
],
[
"Career",
"Prior to Red Hat, Young built a couple of computer rental and leasing businesses, including founding Vernon Computer Rentals in 1984.Descendants of Vernon are still operating under that name.",
"After leaving Vernon, Young founded the ACC Corp Inc. in 1993.Marc Ewing and Young co-founded open-source software company Red Hat.",
"Red Hat was a member of the S&P 500 Index before being purchased by IBM on July 9, 2019.Marc Ewing and Young's partnership started in 1994 when ACC acquired the Red Hat trademarks from Ewing.",
"In early 1995, ACC changed its name to Red Hat Software, which has subsequently been shortened to simply Red Hat, Inc. Young served as Red Hat's CEO until 1999.In 2002, Young founded Lulu.com, a print-on-demand, self-publishing company, and served as CEO.",
"In 2006, Young established the Lulu Blooker Prize, a book prize for books that began as blogs.",
"He launched the prize partly as a means to promote Lulu.Young served as CEO of PrecisionHawk, a commercial drone technology company, from 2015 to 2017.Prior to being named PrecisionHawk's CEO in 2015, he was an early investor in the company.",
"He continues to serve on its board as chairman.Young also co-founded ''Linux Journal'' in 1994, and in 2003, he purchased the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League.",
"In 2022, he sold minority stakes in the Tiger-Cats to Jim Lawson, team President Scott Mitchell, and American steel manufacturer Stelco.Young focuses his philanthropic efforts on access to information and advancement of knowledge.",
"In 1999, he co-founded The Center for the Public Domain.",
"Young has supported the Creative Commons, Public Knowledge.org, the Dictionary of Old English, Loran Scholarship Foundation, ibiblio.org, and the NCSU eGames, among others."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Babylon 5"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Babylon 5''''' is an American space opera television series created by writer and producer J. Michael Straczynski, under the Babylonian Productions label, in association with Straczynski's Synthetic Worlds Ltd. and Warner Bros.",
"Domestic Television.",
"After the successful airing of a test pilot movie on February 22, 1993, ''Babylon 5: The Gathering'', Warner Bros. commissioned the series for production in May 1993 as part of its Prime Time Entertainment Network (PTEN).",
"The show premiered in the US on January 26, 1994, and ran for five 22-episode seasons.The series follows the human military staff and alien diplomats stationed on a space station, ''Babylon 5'', built in the aftermath of several major inter-species wars as a neutral ground for galactic diplomacy and trade.",
"Major plotlines included intra-race intrigue and upheaval, inter-race wars and their aftermaths, and embroilment in a millennial cyclic conflict between ancient races.",
"The human characters, in particular, become pivotal to the resistance against Earth's descent into totalitarianism.Many episodes focused on the effect of wider events on individual characters, with episodes containing themes such as personal change, loss, oppression, corruption and redemption.Unusual at the time of its airing, ''Babylon 5'' was conceived as a \"novel for television\" with a pre-planned five-year story arc, each episode envisioned as a \"chapter\".",
"Whereas contemporaneous television shows tended to maintain the overall status quo, confining conflicts to individual episodes, ''Babylon 5'' featured story arcs which spanned multiple episodes and even seasons, effecting permanent changes to the series universe.",
"Tie-in novels, comic books, and short stories were also developed to play a significant canonical part in the overall story.Straczynski announced plans for a reboot of the series in September 2021 in conjunction with Warner Bros. Television.",
"An animated feature-length, direct-to-video film, ''Babylon 5: The Road Home'', was released in August 2023."
],
[
"Setting",
"The main ''Babylon 5'' story arc occurs between the years 2257 and 2262.The show depicts a future where Earth has a unified Earth government and has gained the technology for faster-than-light travel using 'jump gates', a kind of wormhole technology allowing transport through the alternate dimension of hyperspace.",
"The Colonies within the Solar System and beyond make up the Earth Alliance, which has established contact with other spacefaring species.",
"Ten years before the series is set, Earth barely escaped destruction by the technologically superior Minbari, who sought revenge after an Earth starship unwittingly killed their leader during first contact, only for them to unexpectedly surrender on the brink of victory.",
"Earth has since established peaceful relationships with them and the Earth Alliance has become a significant and generally respected power within the galactic community.Among the other species are the imperialist Centauri; the Narn, who only recently gained independence from the Centauri empire; and the mysterious, powerful Vorlons.",
"Several dozen less powerful species from the League of Non-Aligned Worlds also have diplomatic contact with the major races, including the Drazi, Brakiri, Vree, Markab, and pak'ma'ra.",
"An ancient and secretive race, the Shadows, unknown to humans but documented in many other races' religious texts, malevolently influence events to bring chaos and war among the known species.",
"Among the chaos the Shadows cause is a Centauri descent into irredentism and Earth sliding into totalitarianism under President Morgan Clark.The ''Babylon 5'' space station is located in the Epsilon Eridani system, at the fifth Lagrangian point of the fictional planet Epsilon III and its moon.",
"It is an O'Neill cylinder long and in diameter.",
"The station is the last of its line; the first three stations were all destroyed during construction, while ''Babylon 4'' was completed but mysteriously vanished shortly after being made operational.",
"It contains living areas which accommodate various alien species, providing differing atmospheres and gravities.",
"Human visitors to the alien sectors are shown using breathing equipment and other measures to tolerate the conditions."
],
[
"Cast",
"=== Regular cast ===''Babylon 5'' featured an ensemble cast which changed over the course of the show's run:* Michael O'Hare as Commander (later Ambassador) Jeffrey Sinclair (season 1; guest seasons 2–3): The first commander of ''Babylon 5'', later appointed Earth's ambassador to Minbar.",
"* Bruce Boxleitner as Captain (later President) John Sheridan (seasons 2–5): Sinclair's replacement on ''Babylon 5'' after his reassignment and a central figure of several prophecies within the Shadow war.",
"Becomes president of the newly formed Interstellar Alliance in season 5.",
"* Claudia Christian as Lt.",
"Commander (later promoted to Commander) Susan Ivanova (seasons 1–4, guest season 5): Second in command of ''Babylon 5''.",
"* Jerry Doyle as Michael Garibaldi: ''Babylon 5''s Chief of Security for seasons 1-4; leads the covert intelligence arm of the Interstellar Alliance in season 5.",
"* Mira Furlan as Delenn: The Minbari ambassador to ''Babylon 5''.",
"Born Minbari, she uses a special artifact at the start of the second season to become a Minbari-human hybrid, and later marries Captain Sheridan.",
"* Richard Biggs as Doctor Stephen Franklin: ''Babylon 5''s chief medical officer.",
"* Andrea Thompson as Talia Winters (season 1–2): A commercial Psi-Corps telepath who works aboard the station.",
"* Stephen Furst as Vir Cotto: Diplomatic aide to Centauri Ambassador Londo Mollari.",
"* Bill Mumy as Lennier: Diplomatic aide to Minbari Ambassador Delenn.",
"* Tracy Scoggins as Captain Elizabeth Lochley (season 5): ''Babylon 5''s station commander following Ivanova's departure and Sheridan's resignation.",
"* Jason Carter as Marcus Cole (seasons 3–4): A Ranger, one of a group of covert agents who fight against the Shadows.",
"* Caitlin Brown (season 1, guest season 5) and Mary Kay Adams (season 2) as Na'Toth: Diplomatic aide to Narn Ambassador G'Kar.",
"* Robert Rusler as Warren Keffer (season 2): Commander of the Zeta Wing, one of ''Babylon 5''s small fighter wings.",
"* Jeff Conaway as Zack Allan (guest season 2, main seasons 3–5): A sergeant in the ''Babylon 5'' security force, replaces Garibaldi as Chief of Security by season 5.",
"* Patricia Tallman as Lyta Alexander (original TV movie, guest seasons 2–3, main seasons 4–5): A commercial Psi-Corps telepath who takes over for Talia when she leaves the station.",
"* Andreas Katsulas as G'Kar: The Narn ambassador to ''Babylon 5.",
"''* Peter Jurasik as Londo Mollari: The Centauri ambassador to ''Babylon 5.",
"''=== Recurring guests ===* Wayne Alexander as Lorien: An alien of unknown origin that comes to Sheridan's aid after a critical moment in the Shadow War* Ardwight Chamberlain (voice) /Jeffery Willerth (in the encounter-suit) as Kosh Naranek, the Vorlon ambassador to ''Babylon 5''* Tim Choate as Zathras, an alien of unknown origins that is central to the disappearance of ''Babylon 4''* Joshua Cox as Lt. David Corwin, a technician in ''Babylon 5''s Command and Control center* David L. Crowley as Ofc.",
"Lou Welch, a member of the ''Babylon 5'' security staff* Robin Atkin Downes as Byron, a rogue telepath* William Forward as Lord Antono Refa, a colleague of Ambassador Mollari who has his own designs on the Centauri throne.",
"* Robert Foxworth as General William Hague, the officer overseeing military operations related to ''Babylon 5''* Denise Gentile as Lise Hampton, a former romantic interest for Michael Garibaldi during his time on the Mars colony* Melissa Gilbert as Anna Sheridan, Captain Sheridan's wife.",
"The first appearance of Anna Sheridan was portrayed by Beth Toussaint in a recorded message.",
"* Lenore Kasdorf as a reporter for the Interstellar News (ISN) network* Walter Koenig as Alfred Bester, a senior officer of Psi-Corps* Wortham Krimmer as Centauri Emperor Cartagia* Damian London as Regent Virini, a member of the Centauri court under Emperor Cartagia* Leigh McCloskey as Thomas* Marjorie Monaghan as Number One / Tessa Holloran, the leader of the Mars resistance* Julia Nickson-Soul as Catherine Sakai, a commercial explorer and Commander Sinclair's love interest* Jim Norton as Ombuds Wellington, a judge aboard ''Babylon 5''* John Schuck as Draal (younger), Delenn's teacher and friend from Minbar that becomes part of the Great Machine buried within Epsilon III* Louis Turenne as Brother Theo, the leader of a group of Roman Catholic monks living aboard ''Babylon 5''.",
"* John Vickery as Neroon, a member of the Minbari warrior caste that replaced Delenn on the Grey Council following her transformation* Ed Wasser as Morden, a human agent working for the Shadows* Efrem Zimbalist Jr. as William Edgars, a business leader based on the Mars colonyIn addition, several other actors filled more than one minor role on the series.",
"Kim Strauss played the Drazi Ambassador in four episodes, as well as nine other characters in ten more episodes.",
"Some actors had difficulty dealing with the application of prosthetics required to play some of the alien characters.",
"The producers therefore used the same group of people (as many as 12) in various mid-level speaking roles, taking full head and body casts from each.",
"The group came to be unofficially known by the production as the \"Babylon 5 Alien Rep Group.\""
],
[
"Synopsis",
"The five seasons of the series each correspond to one fictional sequential year in the period 2258–2262.Each season shares its title with an episode that is central to that season's plot.=== Pilot film (1993) ===In the pilot film, ''Babylon 5: The Gathering'', the Vorlon ambassador Kosh is nearly killed by an assassin shortly after arriving at the station.",
"Jeffrey Sinclair, the commander of ''Babylon 5'', is named as the prime suspect, but is proven to have been framed.=== Season 1: Signs and Portents (1994) ===Commander Sinclair, a hero of the Minbari war, is troubled by his inability to remember events of the war's last day.",
"Though supported by Minbari ambassador Delenn, who is secretly a member of the Minbari ruling Grey Council, other Minbari remain distrustful of him.",
"The Narn ambassador G'Kar continually presses for concessions from their former overlords the Centauri Republic.",
"Centauri ambassador Londo Mollari finds a new ally in the enigmatic Mr. Morden to strike back at the Narn.",
"Meanwhile, xenophobic groups on Earth challenge humanity's tolerance of aliens.",
"This tension culminates in the assassination of Earth's President Santiago, who favored such contact.=== Season 2: The Coming of Shadows (1994–1995) ===Sinclair is transferred to be ambassador to Minbar, and General Hague assigns captain John Sheridan command of the station.",
"Hague and Sheridan believe now-president Clark conspired in Santiago's death but have no proof.",
"Clark gradually moves Earth in an isolationist direction and takes steps to install a totalitarian government.",
"When the aging Centauri Emperor Turhan dies, Mollari and his ally Lord Refa install Turhan's unstable nephew Cartagia as emperor and force a war against the Narn.",
"Aided by Mr. Morden's \"associates\" the Shadows, the Centauri decimate the Narn.",
"The war ends with a planetary bombardment of the Narn homeworld, followed by the enslavement of the surviving Narns.",
"Delenn and Vorlon ambassador Kosh request Sheridan's help to fight against their ancient foe, the Shadows.=== Season 3: Point of No Return (1995–1996) ===Sheridan and Delenn establish a \"conspiracy of light\" to fight the influence of the Shadows.",
"When Clark declares martial law, Sheridan declares ''Babylon 5'' independence from the Earth government.",
"Mollari realizes his deal with Mr. Morden has become dangerous but is unable to end it.",
"As the Shadows cause conflict and chaos throughout the galaxy, Sheridan confronts Kosh and successfully convinces the Vorlons to provide military assistance.",
"In retaliation for Vorlon intervention, the Shadows assassinate Kosh.",
"Sinclair travels back in time a thousand years to aid the Minbari in the previous Shadow War, becoming the legendary Minbari religious leader Valen.",
"Sheridan discovers vulnerabilities in the Shadow vessels and learns to predict their objectives, leading to the first major military defeat of the Shadows.",
"Despite Kosh's warnings, Sheridan confronts the Shadows on their homeworld Z'ha'dum.",
"He crashes a spacecraft packed with nuclear weapons into the planet, seemingly dying in the explosion.=== Season 4: No Surrender, No Retreat (1996–1997) ===Sheridan is rescued from Z'ha'dum by the mysterious Lorien.",
"With the Shadows in retreat, the Vorlons begin destroying any planet allied with or influenced by the Shadows.",
"Mollari overthrows the mad emperor Cartagia with the aid of G'Kar in exchange for the liberation of the Narn from Centauri rule.",
"Mollari betrays the Shadows in order to save the Centauri homeworld from the Vorlons.",
"Sheridan realizes the Vorlons and Shadows have used the younger races in a proxy war, and convinces both sides to permanently end their conflict and to leave the younger races alone in peace.",
"Sheridan next refocuses on returning democracy to Earth.",
"He forges a new Interstellar Alliance along with the Minbari, Centauri, and Narn governments.",
"With their help, Sheridan is able to win the Earth civil war and forces President Clark out of office.",
"Sheridan is forced to resign from the Earth military, but is named president of the Interstellar Alliance.=== Season 5: The Wheel of Fire (1998) ===An ex-lover of Sheridan's, Elizabeth Lochley, is assigned to command the station.",
"A group of rogue human telepaths take sanctuary on the station, seeking Sheridan's aid to escape the control of Psi Corps, the autocratic Earth agency that oversees telepaths.",
"The Interstellar Alliance refuses to grant them a planet of their own, and they are eventually expelled from the station.",
"Meanwhile, the Drakh, former supporters of the Shadows, seek revenge for the Shadows' defeat.",
"They infiltrate the Centauri government and orchestrate attacks against other Alliance members.",
"Mollari attempts to purge the alien manipulation of his government but is too late.",
"After a devastating attack by Alliance forces on Centauri Prime, Mollari is installed as emperor, but under Drakh control.",
"He then withdraws the Centauri from the Interstellar Alliance.",
"Twenty years later, Sheridan has a last reunion with his friends before leaving to join Lorien and the older races \"beyond the rim\".=== Spin-offs and television movies ===The original show spawned a multimedia franchise of spin-offs consisting of a miniseries, five television movies, twenty-two novels, two tabletop games (an RPG and a wargame), and various other media such as technical books, comics, and trading cards."
],
[
"Production",
"=== Origin ===Having worked on a number of television science fiction shows which had regularly gone over budget, Straczynski concluded that a lack of long-term planning was to blame, and set about looking at ways in which a series could be done responsibly.",
"Taking note of the lessons of mainstream television, which brought stories to a centralized location such as a hospital, police station, or law office, he decided that instead of \"going in search of new worlds, building them anew each week\", a fixed space station setting would keep costs at a reasonable level.",
"A fan of sagas such as the ''Foundation'' series, ''Childhood's End'', ''The Lord of the Rings'', ''Dune'' and the ''Lensman'' series, Straczynski wondered why no one had done a television series with the same epic sweep, and concurrently with the first idea started developing the concept for a vastly ambitious epic covering massive battles and other universe-changing events.",
"Realizing that both the fixed-locale series and the epic could be done in a single series, he began to sketch the initial outline of what would become ''Babylon 5''.Straczynski set five goals for ''Babylon 5''.",
"He said that the show \"would have to be good science fiction\".",
"It would also have to be good television, \"and rarely are SF shows both good SF *and* good TV; there're generally one or the other.\"",
"It would have to do for science fiction television what ''Hill Street Blues'' had done for police dramas, by taking an adult approach to the subject.",
"It would have to be reasonably budgeted, and \"it would have to look unlike anything ever seen before on TV, presenting individual stories against a much broader canvas.\"",
"He further stressed that his approach was \"to take science fiction seriously, to build characters for grown-ups, to incorporate real science but keep the characters at the center of the story.\"",
"Some of the staples of television science fiction were also out of the question (the show would have \"no kids or cute robots\").",
"The idea was not to present a perfect utopian future, but one with greed and homelessness; one where characters grow, develop, live, and die; one where not everything was the same at the end of the day's events.",
"Citing Mark Twain as an influence, Straczynski said he wanted the show to be a mirror to the real world and to covertly teach.Following production on ''Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future'', Straczynski approached John Copeland and Doug Netter, who had also been involved with ''Captain Power'' and showed him the bible and pilot script for his show, and both were impressed with his ideas.",
"They were able to secure an order for the pilot from Warner Bros. who were looking at the time to get programming for a planned broadcast network.",
"Warner Bros. had remained skeptical about the show even after greenlighting the pilot.",
"According to Straczynski, Warner Bros. had three main concerns: that American attention spans were too short for a series-long narrative to work, that it would be difficult to sell the show into syndication as the syndicate networks would air the episodes out of order, and that no other science-fiction television show outside of ''Star Trek'' had gone more than three seasons before being canceled.",
"Straczynski had proved out that the syndication fear was incorrect, since syndicate stations told him they show their shows in episode order to track broadcasts for royalties; however, he could not assure Warner Bros. about the attention span or premature cancellation concerns, but still set out to show Warner Bros. they were wrong.=== Writing ===Straczynski wrote 92 of the 110 episodes of ''Babylon 5'', including all 44 episodes in the third and fourth seasons, a feat never before accomplished in American television.",
"Other writers to have contributed scripts to the show include Peter David, Neil Gaiman, Kathryn M. Drennan, Lawrence G. DiTillio, D. C. Fontana, and David Gerrold.",
"Harlan Ellison, a creative consultant on the show, received story credits for two episodes.",
"Each writer was informed of the overarching storyline, enabling the show to be produced consistently under-budget.",
"The rules of production were strict; scripts were written six episodes in advance, and changes could not be made once production had started.With not all cast members being hired for every episode of a season, the five-year plot length caused some planning difficulties.",
"If a critical scene involving an actor not hired for every episode had to be moved, that actor had to be paid for work on an extra episode.",
"It was sometimes necessary to adjust the plotline to accommodate external influences, an example being the \"trap door\" that was written for every character: in the event of that actor's unexpected departure from the series, the character could be written out with minimal impact on the storyline.",
"Straczynski stated, \"As a writer, doing a long-term story, it'd be dangerous and short-sighted for me to construct the story without trap doors for every single character.",
"... That was one of the big risks going into a long-term storyline which I considered long in advance;...\" This device was eventually used to facilitate the departures of Claudia Christian and Andrea Thompson from the series.Straczynski purposely went light on elements of the five-year narrative during the first season as he felt the audience would not be ready for the full narrative at that time, but he still managed to drop in some scenes that would be critical to the future narrative.",
"This also made it challenging for the actors to understand their motivations without knowing where their characters were going; Straczynski said \"I didn't want to tell them too much, because that risks having them play the result, rather than the process.\"",
"He recalled that Peter Jurasik had asked him about the context of Londo's premonition, shown partially in \"Midnight on the Firing Line\", of himself and G'Kar choking each other to death, but Straczynski had to be coy about it.",
"The full death scene was shown in context in \"War Without End - Part 2\" near the end of the third season.During production of the fourth season, the Prime Time Entertainment Network, which Warner Bros. opted to use for ''Babylon 5'', was shut down, leaving the planned fifth season in doubt.",
"Unwilling to short-change fans of the show, Straczynski began preparing modifications to the fourth season that would allow him to conclude his overall arc should a fifth season not be greenlit, which ultimately became the direction the fourth season took.",
"Straczynski identified three primary narrative threads which would require resolution: the Shadow war, Earth's slide into a dictatorship, and a series of sub-threads which branched off from those.",
"Estimating they would still take around 27 episodes to resolve without having the season feel rushed, the solution came when the TNT network commissioned two ''Babylon 5'' television films.",
"Several hours of material was thus able to be moved into the films, including a three-episode arc which would deal with the background to the Earth–Minbari War, and a sub-thread which would have set up the sequel series, ''Crusade''.",
"Further standalone episodes and plot-threads were dropped from season four, which could be inserted into ''Crusade'', or the fifth season, were it to be given the greenlight.",
"The intended series finale, \"Sleeping in Light\", was filmed during season four as a precaution against cancellation.",
"When word came that TNT had picked up ''Babylon 5'', this was moved to the end of season five and replaced with a newly filmed season four finale, \"The Deconstruction of Falling Stars\".=== Costume ===Ann Bruice Aling was costume designer for the show, after production designer John Iacovelli suggested her for the position, having previously worked with her on a number of film and theatrical productions.With the variety of costumes required she compared ''Babylon 5'' to \"eclectic theatre\", with fewer rules about period, line, shape and textures having to be adhered to.",
"Preferring natural materials whenever possible, such as ostrich leather in the Narn body armor, Bruice combined and layered fabrics as diverse as rayon and silk with brocades from the 1930s and '40s to give the clothing the appearance of having evolved within different cultures.With an interest in costume history, she initially worked closely with Straczynski to get a sense of the historical perspective of the major alien races, \"so I knew if they were a peaceful people or a warring people, cold climate etc.",
"and then I would interpret what kind of sensibility that called for.\"",
"Collaborating with other departments to establish co-ordinated visual themes for each race, a broad palette of colors was developed with Iacovelli, which he referred to as \"spicy brights\".",
"These warm shades of gray and secondary colors, such as certain blues for the Minbari, would often be included when designing both the costumes and relevant sets.",
"As the main characters evolved, Bruice referred back to Straczynski and producer John Copeland who she viewed as \"surprisingly more accessible to me as advisors than other producers and directors\", so the costumes could reflect these changes.",
"Ambassador Londo Mollari's purple coat became dark blue and more tailored while his waistcoats became less patterned and brightly colored as Bruice felt \"Londo has evolved in my mind from a buffoonish character to one who has become more serious and darker.",
"\"Normally there were three changes of costume for the primary actors; one for on set, one for the stunt double and one on standby in case of \"coffee spills\".",
"For human civilians, garments were generally purchased off-the-rack and altered in various ways, such as removing lapels from jackets and shirts while rearranging closures, to suggest future fashions.",
"For some of the main female characters a more couture approach was taken, as in the suits worn by Talia Winters, which Bruice described as being designed and fitted to within \"an inch of their life\".",
"Costumes for the destitute residents of downbelow would be distressed through a combination of bleaching, sanding, dipping in dye baths and having stage blood added.Like many of the crew on the show, members of the costume department made onscreen cameos.",
"During the season 4 episode \"Atonement\", the tailors and costume supervisor appeared as the Minbari women fitting Zack Allan for his new uniform as the recently promoted head of security.",
"His complaints, and the subsequent stabbing of him with a needle by costume supervisor Kim Holly, was a light-hearted reference to the previous security uniforms, a design carried over from the pilot movie, which was difficult to work with and wear due to the combination of leather and wool.=== Prosthetic makeup and animatronics ===While the original pilot film featured some aliens which were puppets and animatronics, the decision was made early on in the show's production to portray most alien species as humanoid in appearance.",
"Barring isolated appearances, fully computer-generated aliens were discounted as an idea due to the \"massive rendering power\" required.",
"Long-term use of puppets and animatronics was also discounted, as Straczynski believed they would not be able to convey \"real emotion\" without an actor inside.=== Visuals ===In anticipation of the emerging HDTV standard, rather than the usual 4:3 format, the series was shot in 16:9, with the image cropped to 4:3 for initial television transmissions.",
"It was one of the first television shows to use computer technology in creating visual effects, rather than models and miniatures, primarily out of budgetary concerns; Straczynski estimated that each of their episodes cost to make, compared to the cost of each episode of ''Star Trek: The Next Generation''.",
"The visual effects were achieved using Amiga-based Video Toasters at first, and later Pentium, Macintosh, and Alpha-based systems using LightWave 3D.",
"The effects sequences were designed to simulate Newtonian physics, with particular emphasis on the effects of inertia on the motion of spacecraft.Foundation Imaging provided the special effects for the pilot film (for which it won an Emmy) and the first three seasons of the show, led by Ron Thornton.",
"After co-executive producer Douglas Netter and producer John Copeland approached Straczynski with the idea of producing the effects in-house, Straczynski agreed to replace Foundation, for season 4 and 5, once a new team had been established by Netter Digital, and an equal level of quality was assured, by using similar technology and a number of former Foundation employees.",
"The Emmy-winning alien make-up was provided by Optic Nerve Studios.=== Music and scoring ===Christopher Franke composed and scored the musical soundtrack for all five years of the show when Stewart Copeland, who worked on the original telefilm, was unable to return for the first season due to recording and touring commitments.Initially concerned composing for an episodic television show could become \"annoying because of the repetition\", Franke found the evolving characters and story of ''Babylon 5'' afforded him the opportunity to continually take new directions.",
"Given creative freedom by the producers, Franke also orchestrated and mixed all the music, which one reviewer described as having \"added another dimension of mystery, suspense, and excitement to the show, with an easily distinguishable character that separates 'Babylon 5 from other sci-fi television entries of the era.",
"\"With his recording studio in the same building as his home located in the Hollywood Hills, Franke would attend creative meetings before scoring the on average 25 minutes of music for each episode.",
"Using the \"acoustic dirt produced by live instruments and the ability to play so well between two semitones\" and the \"frequency range, dynamics and control\" provided by synthesizers, he described his approach \"as experimental friendly as possible without leaving the happy marriage between the orchestral and electronic sounds\".Using Cubase software through an electronic keyboard, or for more complex pieces a light pen and graphics tablet, he would begin by developing the melodic content round which the ambient components and transitions were added.",
"Using playbacks with digital samples of the appropriate instruments, such as a group of violins, he would decide which tracks to produce electronically or record acoustically.Scores for the acoustic tracks were emailed to his Berlin scoring stage, and would require from four musicians to the full orchestra, with a maximum of 24 present at any one time.",
"One of three conductors would also be required for any score that involved more than six musicians.",
"Franke would direct recording sessions via six fiber optic digital telephone lines to transmit and receive video, music and the SMPTE timecode.",
"The final edit and mixing of the tracks would take place in his Los Angeles studio.A total of 24 episode and three television film soundtracks were released under Franke's record label, Sonic Images Records, between 1995 and 2001.These contain the musical scores in the same chronological order as they played in the corresponding episodes, or television films.",
"Three compilation albums were also produced, containing extensively re-orchestrated and remixed musical passages taken from throughout the series to create more elaborate suites.",
"In 2007 his soundtrack for The Lost Tales was released under the Varèse Sarabande record label.",
"'''Music CD Releases''' Episodic Soundtracks Tracks Running Time Release Date Catalog No.",
"Severed Dreams 5 33:15 September 16, 1997 SID-0310 A Late Delivery From Avalon 6 26:37 September 16, 1997 SID-0312 Walkabout 6 28:58 September 16, 1997 SID-0318 Shadow Dancing 6 33:50 September 16, 1997 SID-0321 Z'Ha'Dum 6 36:23 September 16, 1997 SID-0322 The Fall of Night 6 22:45 April 14, 1998 SID-0222 Interludes and Examinations 6 30:14 April 14, 1998 SID-0315 Into The Fire 6 35:05 April 14, 1998 SID-0406 No Surrender, No Retreat 6 30:53 April 14, 1998 SID-0415 The Face of the Enemy 6 32:20 April 14, 1998 SID-0417 The Ragged Edge 6 22:42 April 14, 1998 SID-0513 Chrysalis 6 24:51 August 11, 1998 SID-0112 The Coming of Shadows 6 26:00 August 11, 1998 SID-0209 War Without End, Part 1 6 32:04 August 11, 1998 SID-0316 War Without End, Part 2 6 32:41 August 11, 1998 SID-0317 Whatever Happened To Mr. Garibaldi 6 28:41 August 11, 1998 SID-0402 The Long Night 6 24:32 August 11, 1998 SID-0405 Lines of Communication 6 31:44 August 11, 1998 SID-0411 Endgame 6 35:25 August 11, 1998 SID-0420 Falling Toward Apotheosis 6 23:03 February 16, 1999 SID-0404 Darkness Ascending 6 32:41 February 16, 1999 SID-0516 Objects at Rest 6 27:52 February 16, 1999 SID-0522 Sleeping in Light 6 24:40 February 16, 1999 SID-0523 And The Rock Cried Out, No Hiding Place 6 27:59 January 9, 2001 SID-0320'''Movie Soundtracks''' In The Beginning 6 57:12 August 11, 1998 SID-8812 Thirdspace 5 59:22 January 12, 1999 SID-8900 The River of Souls 6 49:55 May 18, 1999 SID-8907 The Lost Tales (released by Varèse Sarabande) 28 39:39 July 24, 2007 VSD-6829'''Extended Compilations''' Babylon 5 Vol.1 – Babylon 5 Suites 6 58:03 April 11, 1995 SID-6502 Babylon 5 Vol.2 – Messages from Earth 6 57:03 February 11, 1997 SID-6602 The Best of Babylon 5 6 50:02 January 9, 2001 SID-8931=== Broadcast history ===Warner Bros. slotted the show to premiere on its nascent Prime Time Entertainment Network (PTEN).",
"As original content from another studio, it was somewhat anomalous in a stable of syndicated content from Warner Bros. and the cause of some friction between Straczynski's company and Warner Bros.The pilot film, ''The Gathering'', premiered on February 22, 1993, with strong viewing figures, achieving a 9.7 in the Nielsen national syndication rankings.",
"The regular series initially aired from January 26, 1994 through November 25, 1998, first on PTEN, then in first-run syndication, debuting with a 6.8 rating/10 share.",
"Figures dipped in its second week, and while it posted a solid 5.0 rating/8 share, with an increase in several major markets, ratings for the first season continued to fall, to a low of 3.4 during reruns.",
"Ratings remained low-to-middling throughout the first four seasons, but ''Babylon 5'' scored well with the demographics required to attract the leading national sponsors and saved up to $300,000 per episode by shooting off the studio lot, therefore remaining profitable.",
"The fifth season, which aired on cable network TNT, had ratings about 1.0% lower than seasons two through four.In the United Kingdom, the show aired every week on Channel 4 without a break, with the result that the last four or five episodes of the early seasons screened in the UK before the US.",
"''Babylon 5'' was one of the better-rated US television shows on Channel 4, and achieved high audience Appreciation Indexes, with the season 4 episode \"Endgame\" achieving the rare feat of beating the prime-time soap operas for first position.Straczynski stated that PTEN only required the show to be profitable for the network to remain in production, and said that while this was the case for its first four seasons, on paper it was always losing money; he also remarked in a 2019 interview that in terms of contractual profit definition the show remained about in the red on paper, and stated that he had therefore never made any profits on ''Babylon 5''.",
"The entire series cost an estimated $90 million for 110 episodes.",
"''Babylon 5'' successfully completed its five-year story arc on November 25, 1998, after five seasons and 109 aired episodes, when TNT aired the 110th (epilogue) episode \"Sleeping in Light,\" which had been filmed as the Season 4 finale, when ''Babylon 5'' was under threat of ending production at that point.",
"After a fifth season was assured, a new Season 4 finale was used so that \"Sleeping in Light\" could remain as the series finale.=== Remastered version ===In November 2020 a remastered version of the show in 4:3 format was released to the iTunes Store and Amazon Prime Video.",
"This version uses the original negatives for filmed elements, and algorithmically upscales the digitally created elements to HD resolution with fewer visual artifacts, for a more visually consistent presentation.",
"In January 2021, it was made available for streaming on HBO Max.In February 2023, HBO's license expired and streaming rights were acquired by the free streaming service Tubi."
],
[
"Themes",
"Throughout its run, ''Babylon 5'' found ways to portray themes relevant to modern and historical social issues.",
"It marked several firsts in television science fiction, including the exploration of the political and social landscapes of the first human colonies, their interactions with Earth, and the underlying tensions.",
"''Babylon 5'' was also one of the first television science fiction shows to denotatively refer to a same-sex relationship.",
"In the show, sexual orientation is as much of an issue as \"being left-handed or right-handed\".",
"Unrequited love is explored as a source of pain for the characters, though not all the relationships end unhappily.=== Order vs. chaos; authoritarianism vs. free will ===The clash between order and chaos, and the people caught in between, plays an important role in ''Babylon 5''.",
"The conflict between two unimaginably powerful older races, the Vorlons and the Shadows, is represented as a battle between competing ideologies, each seeking to turn the humans and the other younger races to their beliefs.",
"The Vorlons represent an authoritarian philosophy of unquestioning obedience.",
"Vorlon characters frequently ask, \"who are you?\"",
"focusing on identity as a catalyst for shaping personal goals; the intention is not to solicit a correct answer, but to \"tear down the artifices we construct around ourselves until we're left facing ourselves, not our roles.\"",
"The Shadows represent another authoritarian philosophy cloaked in a disguise of evolution through fire, of fomenting conflict in order to promote evolutionary progress.",
"Characters affiliated with the Shadows repeatedly ask, \"what do you want?\"",
"emphasising personal desire and ambition, using it to shape identity, encouraging conflict between groups who choose to serve their own glory or profit.",
"The representation of order and chaos was informed by the Babylonian myth that the universe was born in the conflict between both.",
"The climax of this conflict comes with the younger races' exposing of the Vorlons' and the Shadows' \"true faces\" and the rejection of both philosophies, heralding the dawn of a new age without their interference.The notion that the war was about \"killing your parents\" is echoed in the portrayal of the civil war between the human colonies and Earth.",
"Deliberately dealing in historical and political metaphor, with particular emphasis upon McCarthyism and the HUAC, the Earth Alliance becomes increasingly authoritarian, eventually sliding into a dictatorship.",
"The show examines the impositions on civil liberties under the pretext of greater defense against outside threats which aid its rise, and the self-delusion of a populace which believes its moral superiority will never allow a dictatorship to come to power, until it is too late.",
"The successful rebellion led by the Babylon 5 station results in the restoration of a democratic government and true autonomy for Mars and the colonies.=== War and peace ===The ''Babylon 5'' universe portrays numerous armed conflicts on an interstellar scale, including the Dilgar war, Narn-Centauri conflict, Minbari civil war, Drakh War, Interstellar Alliance-Centauri war, and the Great Burn.",
"The story begins in the aftermath of a war which brought the human race to the brink of extinction, caused by a misunderstanding during a first contact with the Minbari.",
"Babylon 5 is built to foster peace through diplomacy, described as the \"last, best hope for peace\" in the opening credits monologue during its first three seasons.",
"Wars between separate alien civilizations are featured.",
"The conflict between the Narn and the Centauri is followed from its beginnings as a minor territorial dispute amplified by historical animosity, through to its end, in which weapons of mass destruction are employed to subjugate and enslave a planet.",
"The war is an attempt to portray a more sobering kind of conflict than usually seen on science fiction television.",
"Informed by the events of the first Gulf War, the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Soviet invasion of Prague, the intent was to recreate these moments when \"the world held its breath\" and the emotional core of the conflict was the disbelief that the situation could have occurred at all, and the desperation to find a way to bring it to an end.",
"By the start of the third season, the opening monolog had changed to say that the hope for peace had \"failed\" and the Babylon 5 station had become the \"last, best hope for victory\", indicating that while peace is ostensibly a laudable goal, it can also mean a capitulation to an enemy intent on committing horrendous acts and that \"peace is a byproduct of victory against those who do not want peace.",
"\"The Shadow War also features prominently in the show, wherein the Shadows work to instigate conflict between other races to promote technological and cultural advancement, opposed by the Vorlons who are attempting to impose their own authoritarian philosophy of obedience.",
"The gradual discovery of the scheme and the rebellion against it underpin the first three seasons, but also as a wider metaphor for competing forces of order and chaos.",
"In that respect, Straczynski stated he presented Earth's descent into a dictatorship as its own \"shadow war\".",
"In ending the Shadow War before the conclusion of the series, the show was able to more fully explore its aftermath, and it is this \"war at home\" which forms the bulk of the remaining two seasons.",
"The struggle for independence between Mars and Earth culminates with a civil war between the human colonies (led by the Babylon 5 station) and the home planet.",
"Choosing Mars as both the spark for the civil war, and the staging ground for its dramatic conclusion, enabled the viewer to understand the conflict more fully than had it involved an anonymous colony orbiting a distant star.",
"The conflict, and the reasons behind it, were informed by Nazism, McCarthyism and the breakup of Yugoslavia, and the destruction of the state also served as partial inspiration for the Minbari civil war.The post-war landscape has its roots in the Reconstruction.",
"The attempt to resolve the issues of the American Civil War after the conflict had ended, and this struggle for survival in a changed world was also informed by works such as ''Alas, Babylon'', a novel dealing with the after-effects of a nuclear war on a small American town.",
"The show expresses that the end of these wars is not an end to war itself.",
"Events shown hundreds of years into the show's future tell of wars which will once again bring the human race to the edge of annihilation, demonstrating that humanity will not change, and the best that can be hoped for after it falls is that it climbs a little higher each time, until it can one day \"take its place among the stars, teaching those who follow.",
"\"=== Religion ===Many of Earth's contemporary religions are shown to still exist, with the main human characters often having religious convictions.",
"Among those specifically identified are the Roman Catholic branch of Christianity (including the Jesuits), Judaism, and the fictional Foundationism (which developed after first contact with alien races).",
"Alien beliefs in the show range from the Centauri's Bacchanalian-influenced religions, of which there are up to seventy different denominations, to the more pantheistic as with the Narn and Minbari religions.",
"In the show's third season, a community of Cistercian monks takes up residence on the Babylon 5 station, in order to learn what other races call God, and to come to a better understanding of the different religions through study at close quarters.References to both human and alien religion is often subtle and brief, but can also form the main theme of an episode.",
"The first season episode \"The Parliament of Dreams\" is a conventional \"showcase\" for religion, in which each species on the Babylon 5 station has an opportunity to demonstrate its beliefs (humanity's are presented as being numerous and varied), while \"Passing Through Gethsemane\" focuses on a specific position of Roman Catholic beliefs, as well as concepts of justice, vengeance, and biblical forgiveness.",
"Other treatments have been more contentious, such as the David Gerrold-scripted \"Believers\", in which alien parents would rather see their son die than undergo a life-saving operation because their religious beliefs forbid it.When religion is an integral part of an episode, various characters express differing view points.",
"In the episode \"Soul Hunter\", where the concept of an immortal soul is touched upon, and whether after death it is destroyed, reincarnated, or simply does not exist.",
"The character arguing the latter, Doctor Stephen Franklin, often appears in the more spiritual storylines as his scientific rationality is used to create dramatic conflict.",
"Undercurrents of religions such as Buddhism have been viewed by some in various episode scripts, and while identifying himself as an atheist, Straczynski believes that passages of dialog can take on distinct meanings to viewers of differing faiths, and that the show ultimately expresses ideas which cross religious boundaries.=== Addiction ===Substance abuse and its impact on human personalities also features in the ''Babylon 5'' storyline.",
"Garibaldi is a relapsing-remitting alcoholic, who practices complete abstinence throughout most of the series until the middle of season five, only recovering at the end of the season.",
"Zack Allan, his eventual replacement as chief of security, was given a second chance by Garibaldi after overcoming his own addiction to an unspecified drug.",
"Dr. Stephen Franklin develops an addiction to injectable stimulant drugs while trying to cope with the chronic stress and work overload in Medlab, and takes a leave of absence from his position to recover.",
"Executive Officer Susan Ivanova mentions that her father became an alcoholic after her mother's suicide.",
"Captain Elizabeth Lochley tells Garibaldi that her father was an alcoholic, and that she is a recovering alcoholic herself."
],
[
"Influences",
"''Babylon 5'' draws upon a number of cultural, historical, political and religious influences to inform and illustrate its characters and storylines.",
"Straczynski has stated that there was no intent to wholly represent any particular period of history or preceding work of fiction, but has acknowledged their influence on the series, inasmuch as it uses similar well established storytelling structures, such as the hero's journey.There are a number of specific literary references.",
"Several episodes take their titles from Shakespearean monologs, and at least one character quotes Shakespeare directly.",
"The Psi-Cop Alfred Bester was named after the science fiction author of the same name, as his work influenced the autocratic Psi Corps organization the character represents.There are a number of references to the legend of King Arthur, with ships named ''Excalibur'' appearing in the main series and the ''Crusade'' spin-off, and a character in \"A Late Delivery from Avalon\" claiming to possess the sword itself.",
"Straczynski links the incident which sparked the Earth-Minbari war, in which actions are misinterpreted during a tense situation, to a sequence in ''Le Morte d'Arthur'', in which a standoff between two armies turns violent when innocent actions are misinterpreted as hostile.The series also references contemporary and ancient history.",
"The Centauri are in part modeled on the Roman empire.",
"Emperor Cartagia believes himself to be a god, a deliberate reference to Caligula.",
"His eventual assassination leads to the ascension of Londo and eventually Vir, both unlikely candidates for the throne, similar to Claudius' improbable ascension after Caligula was assassinated.",
"The series also references the novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves when Cartagia jokes that he has cured a man of his cough after having him beheaded, something also done by Caligula.",
"In the episode \"In the Shadow of Z'ha'dhum,\" Sheridan ponders Winston Churchill's Coventry dilemma, of whether or not to act on covertly gathered intelligence during a war.",
"Lives would be saved, but at the risk of revealing to the enemy that their intentions are known, which may be far more damaging in the long term.",
"The swearing in of Vice President Morgan Clark invokes the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, being deliberately staged to mirror the scene aboard Air Force One when Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as President.Although Straczynski is a professed atheist, ''Babylon 5'' refers to the Christian faith in a number of places.",
"Several episodes have titles which refer to the Christian faith, such as \"Passing Through Gethsemane\", \"A Voice in the Wilderness,\" and \"And the Rock Cried Out, No Hiding Place,\" the latter being a line from the gospel song \"There's no Hiding Place Down Here.\"",
"The monks led by Brother Theo who, in the episode \"Convictions,\" take up residence on Babylon 5, belong to the Dominican Order, a Roman Catholic mendicant Order."
],
[
"Use of the Internet",
"The show employed Internet marketing to create a buzz among online readers far in advance of the airing of the pilot episode, with Straczynski participating in online communities on USENET (in the rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated newsgroup), and the GEnie and CompuServe systems before the Web came together as it exists today.",
"The station's location, in \"grid epsilon\" at coordinates of 470/18/22, was a reference to GEnie (\"grid epsilon\" = \"GE\") and the original forum's address on the system's bulletin boards (page 470, category 18, topic 22).Also during this time, Warner Bros. executive Jim Moloshok created and distributed electronic trading cards to help advertise the series.",
"In 1995, Warner Bros. started the Official ''Babylon 5'' Website on the now defunct Pathfinder portal.",
"In September 1995, they hired series fan Troy Rutter to take over the site and move it to its own domain name, and to oversee the ''Keyword B5'' area on America Online."
],
[
"Reception",
"In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide ranked ''Babylon 5'' #13 and #16 on its list of the top cult shows ever.=== Awards ===Awards presented to ''Babylon 5'' include:* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Individual Achievement in Special Visual Effects'', 1993 (''The Gathering'')* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Individual Achievement in Hairstyling for a Series '', 1994 (episode, \"The Parliament of Dreams\")* Hugo Award: ''Best Dramatic Presentation'', 1996 (episode, \"The Coming of Shadows\")* Hugo Award: ''Best Dramatic Presentation'', 1997 (episode, \"Severed Dreams\")* Saturn Award: ''Best Syndicated/Cable Television Series'', 1998* Space Frontier Foundation Award: ''Vision of the Future'', 1994* Space Frontier Foundation Award: ''Vision of the Future'', 1996* E Pluribus Unum Award: (Presented By American Cinema Association), 1997* Nebula Award Outstanding Dramatic Presentation, 1998.Nominated Awards include:* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Individual Achievement in Makeup for a Series'', 1995 (episode, \"Acts of Sacrifice\")* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Individual Achievement in Hairstyling for a Series'', 1995 (episode, \"The Geometry of Shadows\")* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series'', 1995 (episode, \"The Geometry Of Shadows\")* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Cinematography for a Series'', 1996* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Makeup for a Series'', 1997 (episode, \"The Summoning\")* Emmy Award: ''Outstanding Makeup for a Series'', 1998 (television movie, ''In The Beginning'')=== ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'' and Paramount plagiarism controversy ===Straczynski indicated that Paramount Television was aware of his concept as early as 1989, when he attempted to sell the show to the studio, and provided them with the series bible, pilot script, artwork, lengthy character background histories, and plot synopses for 22 \"or so planned episodes taken from the overall course of the planned series\".Paramount declined to produce ''Babylon 5'', but later announced ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'' was in development, two months after Warner Bros. announced its plans for ''Babylon 5''.",
"Unlike previous ''Star Trek'' shows, ''Deep Space Nine'' was based on a space station, and had themes similar to those of ''Babylon 5'', which drew some to compare it with ''Babylon 5''.",
"Straczynski stated that, even though he was confident that ''Deep Space Nine'' producer/creators Rick Berman and Michael Piller had not seen this material, he suspected that Paramount executives used his bible and scripts to steer development of ''Deep Space Nine''.",
"Straczynski and Warner did not file suit against Paramount, largely because he believed it would negatively affect both TV series.",
"He argued the same when confronted by claims that the lack of legal action was proof that his allegation was unfounded.",
"According to a 2017 interview with Patricia Tallman, there was a legal case and an out-of-court settlement with Paramount.===Influence and legacy===Generally viewed as having \"launched the new era of television CGI visual effects\", ''Babylon 5'' received multiple awards during its initial run, including two consecutive Hugo Awards for best dramatic presentation, and continues to regularly feature prominently in various polls and listings highlighting top-rated science fiction series.",
"''Babylon 5'' has been praised for its depth and complexity against a backdrop of contemporary shows which largely lacked long-term consequences, with plots typically being resolved in the course of a single episode, occasionally two.",
"Straczynski was deeply involved in scriptwriting, writing 92 of 110 teleplays, a greater proportion than some of his contemporaries.",
"Reviewers rated the quality of writing on a widely varying scale, identifying both eloquent soliloquies and dialogue that felt \"stilted and theatrical.",
"\"Straczynski has claimed that the multi-year story arc, now a feature of most mainstream televised drama, is the lasting legacy of the series.",
"He stated that both Ronald D. Moore and Damon Lindelof used the 5-year narrative structure of ''Babylon 5'' as blueprints for their respective shows, ''Battlestar Galactica'' and ''Lost''.",
"He also claims ''Babylon 5'' was the first series to be shot in the 16:9 aspect ratio, and to use 5.1 channel sound mixes.",
"It was an early example of widespread use of CGI rather than models for space scenes, which allowed for more freedom and larger scale in creating said scenes.",
"While praised at the time, due to budgetary and mastering issues these sequences are considered to have aged poorly.A recurring theme among reviewers is that the series was more than the sum of its parts: while variously criticizing the writing, directing, acting and effects, particularly by comparison to current television productions, reviewers praised the consistency of plotting over the series' run, transcending the quality of its individual elements.",
"Many retrospectives, while criticizing virtually every individual aspect of the production, have praised the series as a whole for its narrative cohesion and contribution to serialized television.",
"Producer John Copeland said: \"You're not really tuning in to watch the visual effects,\" instead, people are watching a two-decades-old show because \"the storytelling does hold up\" and \"you wanna spend more time with the characters.",
"\"DC began publishing ''Babylon 5'' comics in 1994, with stories (initially written by Straczynski) that closely tied in with events depicted in the show, with events in the comics eventually being referenced onscreen in the actual television series.",
"The franchise continued to expand into short stories, RPGs, and novels, with the Technomage trilogy of books being the last to be published in 2001, shortly after the spin-off television series, ''Crusade'', was canceled.",
"Excepting movie rights, which are retained by Straczynski, all production rights for the franchise are owned by Warner Bros."
],
[
"Media franchise",
"In November 1994, DC began publishing monthly ''Babylon 5'' comics.",
"A number of short stories and novels were also produced between 1995 and 2001.Additional books were published by the gaming companies Chameleon Eclectic and Mongoose Publishing, to support their desk-top strategy and role-playing games.Three TV films were released by Turner Network Television (TNT) in 1998, after funding a fifth season of ''Babylon 5'', following the demise of the Prime Time Entertainment Network the previous year.",
"In addition to ''In the Beginning'', ''Thirdspace'', and ''The River of Souls'', they released a re-edited special edition of the original 1993 tv film, ''The Gathering''.",
"In 1999, a fifth tv film was also produced, ''A Call to Arms'', which acted as a pilot movie for the spin-off series ''Crusade'', which TNT canceled after 13 episodes had been filmed.Dell Publishing started publication of a series of ''Babylon 5'' novels in 1995, which were ostensibly considered canon within the TV series' continuity, nominally supervised by Straczynski, with later novels in the line being more directly based upon Straczynski's own notes and story outlines.",
"In 1997, Del Rey obtained the publication license from Warner Bros., and proceeded to release a number of original trilogies directly scenarized by Straczynski, as well as novelizations of three of the TNT telefilms (''In the Beginning, Thirdspace'', and ''A Call to Arms'').",
"All of the Del Rey novels are considered completely canonical within the filmic ''Babylon 5'' universe.In 2000, the Sci-Fi Channel purchased the rights to rerun the ''Babylon 5'' series, and premiered a new telefilm, ''The Legend of the Rangers'' in 2002, which failed to be picked up as a series.",
"In 2007, the first in a planned anthology of straight-to-DVD short stories entitled ''The Lost Tales'', was released by Warner Home Video, but no others were produced, due to funding issues.Straczynski announced a ''Babylon 5'' film at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con, but stated in 2016 that it had been delayed while he completed other productions.",
"In 2018 Straczynski stated that although he possesses the movie rights, he believed that neither a film nor television series revival would happen while Warner Bros. retained the intellectual property for the TV series, believing that Warner Bros would insist on handling production, and that other studios would be hesitant to produce a film without also having the rights to the TV series.===Reboot===A reboot of ''Babylon 5'' was announced in September 2021.It was to be produced by Straczynski through Studio JMS, and developed by Warner Bros. Television for The CW, before Warner took back the rights in 2023.===Direct-to-video animated film===Straczynski revealed in May 2023 that he had been working in secret with Warner Bros.",
"Animation to produce ''Babylon 5: The Road Home'', a full-length animated film.",
"Most of the main surviving cast members voice their characters in the film, including Boxleitner, Christian, Jurasik, Mumy, Scoggins and Tallman.",
"Other voice actors, replacing roles of those that had died, include Paul Guyet as Zathras and Jeffery Sinclair, Anthony Hansen as Michael Garibaldi, Mara Junot as Reporter and Computer Voice, Phil LaMarr as Dr. Stephen Franklin, Piotr Michael as David Sheridan, Andrew Morgado as G'Kar, and Rebecca Riedy as Delenn.",
"The film premiered at Comic-Con in July 2023, and was made available on streaming services and physical media on August 15, 2023."
],
[
"Home media",
"In July 1995, Warner Home Video began distributing ''Babylon 5'' VHS video tapes under its Beyond Vision label in the UK.",
"Beginning with the original telefilm, ''The Gathering'', these were PAL tapes, showing video in the same 4:3 aspect ratio as the initial television broadcasts.",
"By the release of Season 2, tapes included closed captioning of dialogue and Dolby Surround sound.",
"Columbia House began distributing NTSC tapes, via mail order in 1997, followed by repackaged collector's editions and three-tape boxed sets in 1999, by which time the original pilot telefilm had been replaced by the re-edited TNT special edition.",
"Additional movie and complete season boxed-sets were also released by Warner Bros. until 2000.Image Entertainment released ''Babylon 5'' laserdiscs between December 1998 and September 1999.Produced on double-sided 12-inch Pioneer discs, each contained two episodes displayed in the 4:3 broadcast aspect-ratio, with Dolby Surround audio and closed captioning for the dialogue.",
"Starting with two TNT telefilms, ''In the Beginning'' and the re-edited special edition of ''The Gathering'', Seasons 1 and 5 were released simultaneously over a six-month period.",
"Seasons 2 and 4 followed, but with the decision to halt production due to a drop in sales, precipitated by rumors of a pending DVD release, only the first twelve episodes of Season 2 and the first six episodes of Season 4 were ultimately released.",
"''Laserdiscs (Image Entertainment)'' '''Volume / Title''' Release Date Vol.",
"1.01 The Gathering Vol.",
"1.02 Midnight On Firing Line / Soul Hunter Vol.",
"1.03 Born to the Purple / Infection Vol.",
"1.04 Parliament of Dreams / Mind War Vol.",
"1.05 The War Prayer / The Sky Full of Stars Vol.",
"1.06 Deathwalker / Believers Vol.",
"1.07 Survivors / By Any Means Necessary Vol.",
"1.08 Signs & Portents / TKO Vol.",
"1.09 Grail / Eyes Vol.",
"1.10 Legacies / Voice in the Wilderness #1 Vol.",
"1.11 Voice in Wilderness #2 / Babylon Squared Vol.",
"1.12 The Quality of Mercy / Chrysalis Vol.",
"2.00 Points of Departure / Revelations Vol.",
"2.01 The Geometry of Shadows / A Distant Star Vol.",
"2.02 The Long Dark / Spider in the Web ''Due to a numbering issue, no Vol.",
"2.03 exists.''",
"Vol.",
"2.04 A Race Through Dark Places / Soul Mates Vol.",
"2.05 The Coming of Shadows / Gropos Vol.",
"2.06 All Alone in the Night / Acts of Sacrifice ''Season 2 episodes 13 through 22 were never released on laserdisc.''",
"''Season 3 was never released on laserdisc.''",
"Vol.",
"4.01 Hour of the Wolf / Whatever Happened To Mr Garibaldi?",
"Vol.",
"4.02 The Summoning / Falling Toward Apotheosis Vol.",
"4.03 The Long Night / Into the Fire ''Season 4 episodes 7 through 22 were never released on laserdisc.''",
"Vol.",
"5.01 In the Beginning Vol.",
"5.02 No Compromises / Long Night Londo Mollari Vol.",
"5.03 Paragon of Animals / View from Gallery Vol.",
"5.04 Learning Curve / Strange Relations Vol.",
"5.05 Secrets of Soul / Kingdom of the Blind Vol.",
"5.06 A Tragedy of Telepaths / Day of the Dead Vol.",
"5.07 Phoenix Rising / The Ragged Edge Vol.",
"5.08 Corps Is Mother / Meditations On Abyss Vol.",
"5.09 Darkness Ascending / And All My Dreams Vol.",
"5.10 Movements of Fire / Fall Centauri Prime Vol.",
"5.11 Wheel of Fire/Objects in Motion Vol.",
"5.12 Objects at Rest / Sleeping in Light In November 2001, Warner Home Video began distributing ''Babylon 5'' DVDs with a two-movie set containing the re-edited TNT special edition of ''The Gathering'' and ''In The Beginning''.",
"The telefilms were later individually released in region 2 in April 2002, though some markets received the original version of ''The Gathering'' in identical packaging.DVD boxed sets of the individual seasons, each containing six discs, began being released in October 2002.Each included a printed booklet containing episode summaries, with each disc containing audio options for German, French, and English, plus subtitles in a wider range of languages, including Arabic and Dutch.",
"Video was digitally remastered from higher resolution PAL broadcast masters and displayed in anamorphic widescreen with remastered and remixed Dolby Digital 5.1 sound.",
"Disc 1 of each set contained an introduction to the season by Straczynski, while disc 6 included featurettes containing interviews with various production staff, as well as information on the fictional universe, and a gag reel.",
"Three episodes in each season also contained commentary from either Straczynski, members of the main cast, and/or the episode director.Since its initial release, a number of repackaged DVD boxed sets have been produced for various regional markets.",
"With slightly altered cover art, they included no additional content, but the discs were more securely stored in slimline cases, rather than the early \"book\" format, with hard plastic pages used during the original release of the first three seasons.",
"'''Initial DVD release''' '''Episode box sets''' Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 Babylon 5: The Complete First Season November 5, 2002 October 28, 2002 November 27, 2002 Babylon 5: The Complete Second Season April 29, 2003 May 26, 2003 July 9, 2003 Babylon 5: The Complete Third Season August 12, 2003 November 10, 2003 December 19, 2003 Babylon 5: The Complete Fourth Season January 6, 2004 April 19, 2004 August 19, 2004 Babylon 5: The Complete Fifth Season April 13, 2004 Jan 2005 December 16, 2004 Babylon 5: The Complete Television Series August 17, 2004 N/A N/A Babylon 5: The Complete Universe (inc. all movies and Crusade episodes) N/A October 24, 2005 N/A'''Movie releases and box sets''' Babylon 5: The Gathering / In the Beginning December 4, 2001 N/A November 21, 2001 Babylon 5: The Gathering N/A April 8, 2002 N/A Babylon 5: In the Beginning N/A April 8, 2002 N/A Babylon 5: The Movie Collection August 17, 2004 N/A March 2, 2005 Babylon 5: Movie Box Set N/A February 21, 2005 N/A Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers March 14, 2006 October 24, 2005 November 16, 2005 Babylon 5: The Lost Tales July 31, 2007 September 3, 2007 January 2, 2008On July 19, 2023, Warner announced that Babylon 5 would be released on Blu-ray on December 5, 2023, for the show’s 30th anniversary.=== Mastering problems ===While the series was in pre-production, studios were looking at ways for their existing shows to make the transition from the standard 4:3 aspect ratio to the widescreen formats that would accompany the next generation of televisions.",
"After visiting Warner Bros., which was stretching the horizontal interval for an episode of ''Lois & Clark'', producer John Copeland convinced them to allow ''Babylon 5'' to be shot on Super 35mm film stock.",
"\"The idea being that we would telecine to 4:3 for the original broadcast of the series.",
"But what it also gave us was a negative that had been shot for the new 16×9 widescreen-format televisions that we knew were on the horizon.",
"\"Though the CG scenes, and those containing live action combined with digital elements, could have been created in a suitable widescreen format, a cost-saving decision was taken to produce them in the 4:3 aspect ratio.",
"When those images were prepared for widescreen release, the top and bottom of the images were simply cropped, and the remaining image 'blown up' to match the dimensions of the live action footage, noticeably reducing the image quality.",
"The scenes containing live action ready to be composited with matte paintings, CG animation, etc., were delivered on tape already telecined to the 4:3 aspect-ratio, and contained a high level of grain, which resulted in further image noise being present when enlarged and stretched for widescreen.For the purely live-action scenes, rather than using the film negatives, according to Copeland, \"Warners had even forgotten that they had those.",
"They used PAL versions and converted them to NTSC for the US market.",
"They actually didn't go back and retransfer the shows.\"",
"With the resulting aliasing, and the progressive scan transfer of the video to DVD, this has created a number of visual flaws throughout the widescreen release.",
"In particular, quality has been noted to drop significantly in composite shots.In 2020 a new remastered version was created (as detailed above) which restored the original picture quality and repaired the damage to the CGI scenes, although this also involved reverting to the original 4:3 aspect ratio.",
"The negatives were scanned at ultra HD quality and then down converted to HD and upscaling programs were used to enhance the CGI to HD at the same time."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''Babylon 5's'' use of the Internet* rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated* The Be Five* The Lurker's Guide to ''Babylon 5''* Babylon 5 (franchise)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* ''Babylon 5'' official site.",
"Archived from the original on June 6, 2007.",
"* ''Babylon 5'' official site (Syfy).",
"Archived from the original on February 8, 2002.",
"* * * * The Lurker's Guide to ''Babylon 5'': ''Babylon 5'' reference and episode guide* The ''Babylon 5 Scrolls'': Collection of interviews, concept art and screen used 3D models from FX artists who created ''Babylon 5''* Early ''Babylon 5'' Designs: Information from the original 1991 promotional flyer, with different character names and Peter Ledger's artwork"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"BeOS"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''BeOS''' is a discontinued operating system for personal computers that was developed by Be Inc.",
"It was conceived for the company's BeBox personal computer which was released in 1995.BeOS was designed for multitasking, multithreading, and a graphical user interface.",
"The OS was later sold to OEMs, retail, and directly to users; its last version was released as freeware.Early BeOS releases are for PowerPC.",
"It was ported to Macintosh and then x86.Be was ultimately unable to achieve a significant market share and ended development with dwindling finances, so Palm acquired the BeOS assets in 2001.Enthusiasts have since created derivate operating systems including Haiku, which retains BeOS 5 compatibility."
],
[
"Development",
"BeOS is the product of former Apple Computer's Jean-Louis Gassée, with the underlying philosophy of building a \"media OS\" capable of up-and-coming digital media and multi-processors.",
"Development began in the early 1990s, initially designed to run on AT&T Hobbit-based hardware before being modified to run on PowerPC-based processors: first Be's own BeBox system, and later Apple Computer's PowerPC Reference Platform and Common Hardware Reference Platform, with the hope that Apple would purchase or license BeOS as a replacement for its aging Mac OS.The first version of BeOS shipped with the BeBox to a limited number of developers in October 1995.It supports analog and digital audio and MIDI streams, multiple video sources, and 3D computation.",
"Developer Release 6 (DR6) is the first officially available version.The BeOS Developer Release 7 (DR7) was released in April 1996.This includes full 32-bit color graphics, \"workspaces\" (virtual desktops), an FTP file server, and a web server.DR8 was released in September 1996 with a new browser with MPEG and QuickTime video formats.",
"It supports OpenGL, remote access, and Power Macintosh.In 1996, Apple Computer CEO Gil Amelio started negotiations to buy Be Inc., but stalled when Be CEO Jean-Louis Gassée wanted $300 million and Apple offered $125 million.",
"Apple's board of directors preferred NeXTSTEP and purchased Steve Jobs's NeXT instead.The final developer's release introduced a 64-bit file system.",
"BeOS Preview Release (PR1), the first for the general public, was released in mid 1997.It supports AppleTalk, PostScript printing, and Unicode.",
"The price for the Full Pack was $49.95.Later that year, Preview Release 2 shipped with support for Macintosh's Hierarchical File System (HFS), support for 512MB RAM, and improvements to the user interface.Release 3 (R3) shipped in March 1998 (initially $69.95, later $99.95), as the first to be ported to the Intel x86 platform in addition to PowerPC, and the first commercially available version of BeOS.",
"The adoption of x86 was partly due to Apple's moves, with Steve Jobs stopping the Macintosh clone market, and Be's mounting debt.BeOS Release 4 has a claimed performance improvement of up to 30 percent.",
"Keyboard shortcuts were changed to mimic those of Windows However it still lacks Novell NetWare support.",
"It also brought additional drivers and support for the most common SCSI controllers on the x86 platform - from Adaptec and Symbios Logic.",
"The bootloader switched from LILO to Be's own bootman.In 2000, BeOS Release 5 (R5) was released.",
"This is split between a Pro Edition, and a free version known as Personal Edition (BeOS PE) which was released for free online and by CD-ROM.",
"BeOS PE can be booted from within Windows or Linux, and was intended as a consumer and developer preview.",
"Also with R5, Be open sourced elements of the user interface.",
"Be CEO Gassée said in 2001 that he was open to the idea of releasing the entire operating system's source code, but this never materialized.Release 5 raised BeOS's popularity but it remained commercially unsuccessful, and BeOS eventually halted following the introduction of a stripped-down version for Internet appliances, BeIA, which became the company's business focus in place of BeOS.",
"R5 is the final official release of BeOS as Be Inc. became defunct in 2001 following its sale to Palm Inc. A BeOS R5.1 \"Dano\", which was under development before Be's sale to Palm and includes the BeOS Networking Environment (BONE) networking stack, was leaked to the public shortly after the company's close.=== Version history table ===ReleaseDateHardware''Developer Release 4''PrototypeAT&T HobbitDeveloper Release 5October 1995PowerPCDeveloper Release 6January 1996Developer Release 7April 1996Developer Release 8September 1996Developer Release 9(Advanced Access Preview Release)May 1997Preview Release 1June 1997Preview Release 2October 1997'''Release 3'''March 1998PowerPC and Intel x86R3.1June 1998R3.2July 1998'''Release 4'''November 4, 1998R4.5 (\"Genki\")June 1999'''Release 5''' (\"Maui\")Personal Edition/Pro EditionMarch 2000''R5.1 (\"Dano\")''LeakedIntel x86"
],
[
"Hardware support and licensees",
"After the discontinuation of the BeBox in January 1997, Power Computing began bundling BeOS (on a CD-ROM for optional installation) with its line of PowerPC-based Macintosh clones.",
"These systems can dual boot either Mac OS or BeOS, with a start-up screen offering the choice.",
"Motorola also announced in February 1997 that it would bundle BeOS with their Macintosh clones, the Motorola StarMax, along with MacOS.",
"DayStar Digital was another licensee.BeOS is compatible with many Macintosh models except PowerBook.With BeOS Release 3 on the x86 platform, the operating system is compatible with most computers that run Windows.",
"Hitachi is the first major x86 OEM to ship BeOS, selling the Hitachi Flora Prius line in Japan, and Fujitsu released the Silverline computers in Germany and the Nordic countries.",
"Be was unable to attract further manufacturers due to their Microsoft contracts.",
"Be closed in 2002, and sued Microsoft, claiming that Hitachi had been dissuaded from selling PCs loaded with BeOS.",
"The case was eventually settled out of court for $23.25 million with no admission of liability on Microsoft's part."
],
[
"Architecture",
"The BeOS architectureBeOS was developed as an original product, with a proprietary kernel, symmetric multiprocessing, preemptive multitasking, and pervasive multithreading.",
"It runs in protected memory mode, with a C++ application framework based on shared libraries and modular code.",
"Be initially offered CodeWarrior for application development, and later EGCS.Its API is object oriented.",
"The user interface was largely multithreaded: each window ran in its own thread, relying heavily on sending messages to communicate between threads; and these concepts are reflected into the API.BeOS uses modern hardware facilities such as modular I/O bandwidth, a multithreaded graphics engine (with the OpenGL library), and a 64-bit journaling file system named BFS supporting files up to one terabyte each.",
"BeOS has partial POSIX compatibility and a command-line interface through Bash, although internally it is not a Unix-derived operating system.",
"Many Unix applications were ported to the BeOS command-line interface.BeOS uses Unicode as the default GUI encoding, and support for input methods such as bidirectional text input was never realized."
],
[
"Applications",
"BeOS is bundled with a unique web browser named NetPositive, the BeMail email client, and the BePoor web server.",
"Be operated the marketplace site BeDepot for the purchase and downloading of software including third party, and a website named BeWare listing apps for the platform.",
"Some third party BeOS apps include the Gobe Productive office suite, the Mozilla project, and multimedia apps like Cinema 4D.",
"''Quake'' and ''Quake II'' were officially ported, and ''SimCity 3000'' was in development."
],
[
"Reception",
"Be did not disclose the number of BeOS users, but it was estimated to be running on between 50,000 and 100,000 computers in 1999, and Release 5 reportedly had over one million downloads.",
"For a time it was viewed as a viable competitor to Mac OS and Windows, but its status as the \"alternative operating system\" was quickly surpassed by Linux by 1998.Reception of the operating system was largely positive citing its true and \"reliable\" multitasking and support for multiple processors.",
"Though its market penetration was low, it gained a niche multimedia userbase and acceptance by the audio community.",
"Consequently it was styled as a \"media OS\" due to its well-regarded ability to handle audio and video.",
"BeOS received significant interest in Japan, and was also appealing to Amiga developers and users, who were looking for a newer platform.BeOS and its successors have been used in media appliances, such as the Edirol DV-7 video editors from Roland Corporation, which run on a modified BeOS and the Tunetracker Radio Automation software that used to run it on BeOS and Zeta, and it was also sold as a \"Station-in-a-Box\" with the Zeta operating system included.",
"In 2015, Tunetracker released a Haiku distribution bundled with its broadcasting software."
],
[
"Legacy",
"The Tascam SX-1 digital audio recorder runs a heavily modified version of BeOS that will only launch the recording interface software.",
"The RADAR 24, RADAR V and RADAR 6, hard disk-based, 24-track professional audio recorders from iZ Technology Corporation were based on BeOS 5.Magicbox, a manufacturer of signage and broadcast display machines, uses BeOS to power their Aavelin product line.",
"Final Scratch, a 12-inch vinyl timecode record-driven DJ software and hardware system, was first developed on BeOS.",
"The \"ProFS\" version was sold to a few dozen DJs prior to the 1.0 release, which ran on a Linux virtual partition.===Successors===Family tree of BeOS and related operating systemsAfter BeOS came to an end, Palm created PalmSource which used parts of BeOS's multimedia framework for its failed Palm OS Cobalt product (with the takeover of PalmSource, the BeOS rights were assigned to Access Co.).",
"However, Palm refused the request of BeOS users to license the operating system.",
"As a result, a few projects formed to recreate BeOS or its key elements with the eventual goal of then continuing where Be Inc. quit.BeUnited, a BeOS oriented community, converted itself into a nonprofit organization in August 2001 to \"define and promote open specifications for the delivery of the Open Standards BeOS-compatible Operating System (OSBOS) platform\".====ZETA====Immediately after Palm's purchase of Be, a German company named yellowTAB started developing Zeta based on the BeOS R5.1 codebase and released it commercially.",
"It was later distributed by magnussoft.",
"During development by yellowTAB, the company received criticism from the BeOS community for refusing to discuss its legal position with regard to the BeOS codebase.",
"Access Co. (which bought PalmSource, until then the holder of the intellectual property associated with BeOS) declared that yellowTAB had no right to distribute a modified version of BeOS, and magnussoft was forced to cease distribution of the operating system in 2007.====Haiku (OpenBeOS)====Haiku is a complete open source reimplementation of BeOS.",
"It was originally named OpenBeOS and its first release in 2002 was a community update.",
"Unlike Cosmoe and BlueEyedOS, it is directly compatible with BeOS applications.",
"It is open source software.",
"As of 2022, it was the only BeOS clone still under development, with the fourth beta in December 2022 still keeping BeOS 5 compatibility in its x86 32-bit images, with an increased number of ported modern drivers and GTK apps.====Others====Screenshot of an early version of CosmoeBlueEyedOS tried to create a system under LGPL based on the Linux kernel and an X server that is compatible with BeOS.",
"Work began under the name BlueOS in 2001 and a demo CD was released in 2003.The project was discontinued in February 2005.Cosmoe, with an interface like BeOS, was designed by Bill Hayden as an open source operating system based on the source code of AtheOS, but using the Linux kernel.",
"ZevenOS was designed to continue where Cosmoe left off.BeFree started in 2003, initially developed under FreeBSD and later Linux."
],
[
"See also",
"* Access Co.* BeIA* Comparison of operating systems* Gobe Productive* Hitachi Flora Prius"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Dawn of Haiku, by Ryan Leavengood, IEEE Spectrum May 2012, p 40–43,51-54.",
"* Mirror of the old www.be.com site Other Mirror of the old www.be.com site* BeOS Celebrating Ten Years* BeGroovy A blog and news archive for BeOS* BeOS: The Mac OS X might-have-been, reghardware.co.uk* Programming the Be Operating System: An O'Reilly Open Book* * (BeOS)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Biome"
],
[
"Introduction",
"One way of mapping terrestrial (land) biomes around the worldA '''biome''' () is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, and animal life.",
"It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate.",
"Biomes may span more than one continent.",
"A biome encompasses multiple ecosystems within its boundaries.",
"It can also comprise a variety of habitats.",
"While a biome can cover small areas, a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a defined space on a much smaller scale.",
"For example, the human microbiome is the collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that are present on or in a human body.A biota is the total collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period, from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet and whole-timescale spatiotemporal scales.",
"The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere."
],
[
"Terminology",
"The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for ''biotic community'' of Möbius (1877).",
"Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation (used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic element of species composition.",
"In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ''ecosystem''.",
"The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.However, in some contexts, the term ''biome'' is used in a different manner.",
"In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as ''biotope'' (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his \"zonobiome\", \"orobiome\" and \"pedobiome\" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).In Brazilian literature, the term ''biome'' is sometimes used as synonym of ''biogeographic province'', an area based on species composition (the term ''floristic province'' being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the \"morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain\" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form.",
"Both include many biomes in fact."
],
[
"Classifications",
"To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other.",
"Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.A 1978 study on North American grasslands found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr.",
"The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit.",
"These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker.",
"The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.=== Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones ===Holdridge life zone classification scheme.",
"Although conceived as three-dimensional by its originator, it is usually shown as a two-dimensional array of hexagons in a triangular frame.In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat.",
"Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called \"humidity provinces\", which are clearly visible in his diagram.",
"While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.=== Allee (1949) biome-types ===The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):* Tundra* Taiga* Deciduous forest* Grasslands* Desert* High plateaus* Tropical forest* Minor terrestrial biomes=== Kendeigh (1961) biomes ===The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):* ''Terrestrial''** Temperate deciduous forest** Coniferous forest** Woodland** Chaparral** Tundra** Grassland** Desert** Tropical savanna** Tropical forest* Marine** Oceanic plankton and nekton** Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte** Pelecypod-annelid** Coral reef=== Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types ===The distribution of vegetation types as a function of mean annual temperature and precipitation.Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature.",
"His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling.",
"He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.==== Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme ====* Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species - including plants.",
"* Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.",
"* Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.",
"* Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.",
"* Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals.",
"Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar communities.",
"==== Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types ====Whittaker used what he called \"gradient analysis\" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale.",
"Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.# Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide# Climatic moisture gradient# Temperature gradient by altitude# Temperature gradient by latitudeAlong these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:* The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.",
"* Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable).",
"* Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.",
"* Each growth-form (i.e.",
"grasses, shrubs, etc.)",
"has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.",
"* The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with a gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme.",
"The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.==== Biome-types ====# Tropical rainforest# Tropical seasonal rainforest#* deciduous#* semideciduous# Temperate giant rainforest# Montane rainforest# Temperate deciduous forest# Temperate evergreen forest#* needleleaf#* sclerophyll# Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests (taiga)# Elfin woodland# Thorn forests and woodlands# Thorn scrub# Temperate woodland# Temperate shrublands#* deciduous#* heath#* sclerophyll#* subalpine-needleleaf#* subalpine-broadleaf# Savanna# Temperate grassland# Alpine grasslands# Tundra# Tropical desert# Warm-temperate desert# Cool temperate desert scrub# Arctic-alpine desert# Bog# Tropical fresh-water swamp forest# Temperate fresh-water swamp forest# Mangrove swamp# Salt marsh# Wetland=== Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types ===The multi-authored series ''Ecosystems of the World'', edited by David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major \"ecosystem types or biomes\" on Earth:=== Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes ===The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation.",
"The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types.",
"The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region.",
"Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.",
"Zonobiome Zonal soil type Zonal vegetation type ZB I. Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality Equatorial brown clays Evergreen tropical rainforest ZB II.",
"Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler \"winter\" dry season Red clays or red earths Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna ZB III.",
"Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate Serosemes, sierozemes Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface ZB IV.",
"Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought Mediterranean brown earths Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands ZB V. Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive ZB VI.",
"Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing Forest brown earths and grey forest soils Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest ZB VII.",
"Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate deserts ZB VIII.",
"Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters Podsols Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga) ZB IX.",
"Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils) Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils=== Schultz (1988) eco-zones ===Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ''ecozones'' (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):# polar/subpolar zone# boreal zone# humid mid-latitudes# dry mid-latitudes# subtropics with winter rain# subtropics with year-round rain# dry tropics and subtropics# tropics with summer rain# tropics with year-round rain=== Bailey (1989) ecoregions ===Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976.He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989.The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into four domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).",
"* '''100 Polar Domain'''** 120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)** M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces** 130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)** M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces* '''200 Humid Temperate Domain'''** 210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)** M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces** 220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)** M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces** 230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)** M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces** 240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)** M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces** 250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)** 260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)** M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces* '''300 Dry Domain'''** 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division** M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces** 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division** 330 Temperate Steppe Division** 340 Temperate Desert Division* '''400 Humid Tropical Domain'''** 410 Savanna Division** 420 Rainforest Division=== Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200 ===Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson et al.",
"and used by the WWF and Global 200.A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called \"ecozones\" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.).",
"Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).==== Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater) ====* NA: Nearctic* PA: Palearctic* AT: Afrotropic* IM: Indomalaya* AA: Australasia* NT: Neotropic* OC: Oceania* AN: AntarcticThe applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.==== Biogeographic realms (marine) ====* Arctic* Temperate Northern Atlantic* Temperate Northern Pacific* Tropical Atlantic* Western Indo-Pacific* Central Indo-Pacific* Eastern Indo-Pacific* Tropical Eastern Pacific* Temperate South America* Temperate Southern Africa* Temperate Australasia* Southern Ocean==== Biomes (terrestrial) ====# Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)# Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)# Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)# Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)# Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)# Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)# Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)# Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)# Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)# Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)# Tundra (Arctic)# Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)# Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)# Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)==== Biomes (freshwater) ====According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:* Large lakes* Large river deltas* Polar freshwaters* Montane freshwaters* Temperate coastal rivers* Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands* Temperate upland rivers* Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers* Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands* Tropical and subtropical upland rivers* Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins* Oceanic islands==== Biomes (marine) ====Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):* Polar* Temperate shelves and sea* Temperate upwelling* Tropical upwelling* Tropical coral==== Summary of the scheme ====* Biosphere** Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)*** Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a main biome type (14)**** Ecosystems (biotopes)* Biosphere** Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)*** Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a main biome type (12)**** Ecosystems (biotopes)* Biosphere** Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)*** (Marine provinces) (62)**** Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a main biome type (5)***** Ecosystems (biotopes)Example:* Biosphere** Biogeographic realm: Palearctic*** Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests**** Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)***** Biotope: ''Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae'' Fuk.",
"(Plant list)****** Plant: Silver fir (''Abies alba'')"
],
[
"Other biomes",
"=== Marine biomes ===Pruvot (1896) zones or \"systems\":* Littoral zone* Pelagic zone* Abyssal zoneLonghurst (1998) biomes:* Coastal* Polar* Trade wind* WesterlyOther marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):* Open sea* Deep sea* Hydrothermal vents* Cold seeps* Benthic zone* Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)* Abyssal* Hadal (ocean trench)* Littoral/Intertidal zone* Salt marsh* Estuaries* Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons* Kelp forest* Pack ice=== Anthropogenic biomes ===Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes.",
"As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities.",
"Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land.",
"Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.Major anthropogenic biomes:* Dense settlements* Croplands* Rangelands* Forested* Indoor=== Microbial biomes ======= Endolithic biomes ====The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes."
],
[
"Effects of climate change",
"Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes.",
"Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely.",
"More specifically, 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes.",
"3.6% of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual.",
"Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes, which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change.",
"South American terrestrial biomes have been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes.",
"With its annual average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Ritter, Michael E. (2005).",
"The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography.",
"University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point."
],
[
"External links",
"* University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley's The World's Biomes* Gale/Cengage Biome Overview (archived 11 July 2011)* * Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map* WorldBiomes.com (archived 22 February 2011)* Panda.org's Major Habitat Types (archived 6 July 2017)* NASA's Earth Observatory Mission: Biomes* World Map of Desert Biomes"
]
] | wikipedia |
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