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[ [ "Book of Micah" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Micah''' is the sixth of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible.", "Ostensibly, it records the sayings of Micah, whose name is ''Mikayahu'' (), meaning \"Who is like Yahweh?", "\", an 8th-century BCE prophet from the village of Moresheth in Judah (Hebrew name from the opening verse: מיכה המרשתי).The book has three major divisions, chapters 1–2, 3–5 and 6–7, each introduced by the word \"Hear,\" with a pattern of alternating announcements of doom and expressions of hope within each division.", "Micah reproaches unjust leaders, defends the rights of the poor against the rich and powerful; while looking forward to a world at peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch.While the book is relatively short, it includes lament (1.8–16; 7.8–10), theophany (1.3–4), hymnic prayer of petition and confidence (7.14–20), and the \"covenant lawsuit\" (6.1–8), a distinct genre in which Yahweh (God) sues Israel for breach of contract of the Mosaic covenant." ], [ "Setting", "Assyrian warriors armed with slings from the palace of Sennacherib, 7th century BCEChapter 1:1 identifies the prophet as \"Micah of Moresheth\" (a town in southern Judah), and states that he lived during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, roughly 750–700 BCE.This corresponds to the period when, after a long period of peace, Israel, Judah, and the other nations of the region came under increasing pressure from the aggressive and rapidly expanding Neo-Assyrian empire.", "Between 734 and 727 Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria conducted almost annual campaigns in Palestine, reducing the Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah and the Philistine cities to vassalage, receiving tribute from Ammon, Moab and Edom, and absorbing Damascus (the Kingdom of Aram) into the Empire.", "On Tiglath-Pileser's death Israel rebelled, resulting in an Assyrian counter-attack and the destruction of the capital, Samaria, in 721 after a three-year siege.", "Micah 1:2–7 draws on this event: Samaria, says the prophet, has been destroyed by God because of its crimes of idolatry, oppression of the poor, and misuse of power.", "The Assyrian attacks on Israel (the northern kingdom) led to an influx of refugees into Judah, which would have increased social stresses, while at the same time the authorities in Jerusalem had to invest huge amounts in tribute and defense.When the Assyrians attacked Judah in 701 they did so via the Philistine coast and the Shephelah, the border region which included Micah's village of Moresheth, as well as Lachish, Judah's second largest city.", "This in turn forms the background to verses 1:8–16, in which Micah warns the towns of the coming disaster (Lachish is singled out for special mention, accused of the corrupt practices of both Samaria and Jerusalem).", "In verses 2:1–5 he denounces the appropriation of land and houses, which might simply be the greed of the wealthy and powerful, or possibly the result of the militarizing of the area in preparation for the Assyrian attack." ], [ "Composition", "Some, but not all, scholars accept that only chapters 1–3 contain material from the late 8th century prophet Micah.", "The latest material comes from the post-Exilic period after the Temple was rebuilt in 515 BCE, so that the early 5th century BCE seems to be the period when the book was completed.", "The first stage was the collection and arrangement of some spoken sayings of the historical Micah (the material in chapters 1–3), in which the prophet attacks those who build estates through oppression and depicts the Assyrian invasion of Judah as Yahweh's punishment on the kingdom's corrupt rulers, including a prophecy that the Temple will be destroyed.The prophecy was not fulfilled in Micah's time, but a hundred years later when Judah was facing a similar crisis with the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Micah's prophecies were reworked and expanded to reflect the new situation.", "Still later, after Jerusalem did fall to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the book was revised and expanded further to reflect the circumstances of the late exilic and post-exilic community." ], [ "Content", "Impalement of Judeans by Assyrian soldiers (Neo-Assyrian relief)===Structure===At the broadest level, Micah can be divided into three roughly equal parts:* Judgment against the nations and their leaders* Restoration of Zion (chapters 4–5, probably exilic and post-exilic, together with the next section);* God's lawsuit against Israel and expression of hope (chapters 6–7).Within this broad three-part structure are a series of alternating oracles of judgment and promises of restoration:* 1.1 Superscription* 1.2–2.11 Oracles of judgment* 2.12–13 Oracles of restoration* 3.1–12 Oracles of judgment* 4.1–5.15 Oracles of restoration* 6.1–7.6 Oracles of judgment* 7.7–20 Oracles of restoration===Subsections===* '''The Heading (1:1)''': As is typical of prophetic books, an anonymous editor has supplied the name of the prophet, an indication of his time of activity, and an identification of his speech as the \"word of Yahweh\", a generic term carrying a claim to prophetic legitimacy and authority.", "Samaria and Jerusalem are given prominence as the foci of the prophet's attention.", "* '''Judgment against Samaria (1:2–7):''' Drawing upon ancient traditions for depicting a theophany, the prophet depicts the coming of Yahweh to punish the city, whose sins are idolatry and the abuse of the poor.", "* '''Warnings to the cities of Judah (1:8–16):''' Samaria has fallen, Judah is next.", "Micah describes the destruction of the lesser towns of Judah (referring to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib, 701 BCE).", "For these passages of doom on the various cities, paronomasia is used.", "Paronomasia is a literary device which 'plays' on the sound of each word for literary effect.", "For example, the inhabitants of Beth-le-aphrah (\"house of dust\") are told to \"roll yourselves in the dust.\"", "1:14.Though most of the Paronomasia is lost in translation, it is the equivalent of 'Ashdod shall be but ashes,' where the fate of the city matches its name.", "* '''Misuse of power denounced (2:1–5)''': Denounces those who appropriate the land and houses of others.", "The context may be simply the amassing wealth for its own sake, or could be connected with the militarisation of the region for the expected Assyrian attack.", "* '''Threats against the prophet (2:6–11)''': The prophet is warned not to prophesy.", "He answers that the rulers are harming God's people, and want to listen only to those who advocate the virtues of wine.", "* '''A later promise (2:12–13):''' These verses assume that judgment has already fallen and Israel is already scattered abroad.", "* '''Judgment on wicked Zion (3:1–4):''' Israel's rulers are accused of gaining more wealth at the expense of the poor, by any means.", "The metaphor of flesh being torn illustrates the length to which the ruling classes and socialites would go to further increase their wealth.", "Prophets are corrupt, seeking personal gain.", "Jerusalem's rulers believe that God will always be with them, but God will be with his people, and Jerusalem will be destroyed.", "* '''Zion's future hope (4:1–5)''' This is a later passage, almost identical with Isaiah 2:2–4.Zion (meaning the Temple) will be rebuilt, but by God, and based not on violence and corruption but on the desire to learn God's laws, beat swords to ploughshares and live in peace.Israeli stamp marking World Refugee Year (1960), quoting Micah 4:4: \"But they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and none shall make them afraid.\"", "(KJV)* '''Further promises to Zion (4:6–7)''' This is another later passage, promising Zion that she will once more enjoy her former independence and power.", "* '''Deliverance from Distress in Babylon (4:9–5:1)''' The similarities to Isaiah 41:15–16 and the references to Babylon suggest the period of this material, although it is unclear whether a period during or after the siege of 586 is meant.", "Despite their trials, God will not desert his people.", "* '''The promised ruler from Bethlehem (5:1–14):''' This passage is usually dated to the exile.", "Although chapters 4:9–10 have said that there is \"no king in Zion\", these chapters predict the coming Messiah will emerge from Bethlehem, the traditional home of the Davidic monarchy, to restore Israel.", "Assyria will be stricken, and Israel's punishment will lead to the punishment of the nations.", "* '''A Covenant lawsuit (6:1–5):''' Yahweh accuses Israel (the people of Judah) of breaking the covenant through their lack of justice and honesty, after the pattern of the kings of Israel (northern kingdom).", "* '''Torah Liturgy (6:6–8):''' Micah speaks on behalf of the community asking what they should do in order to get back on God's good side.", "Micah then responds by saying that God requires only \"to do justice, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with your God.\"", "Thus declaring that the burnt offering of both animals and humans (which may have been practiced in Judah under Kings Ahaz and Manasseh) is not necessary for God.", "* '''The City as a Cheat (6:9–16):''' The city is reprimanded for its dishonest trade practices.", "* '''Lament (7:1–7):''' The first passage in the book in the first person: whether it comes from Micah himself is disputed.", "Honesty and decency have vanished, families are filled with strife.", "* '''A song of fallen Jerusalem (7:8–10):''' The first person voice continues, but now it is the city who speaks.", "She recognises that her destruction is deserved punishment from God.", "The recognition gives grounds for hope that God is still with her.", "* '''A prophecy of restoration (7:11–13):''' Fallen Jerusalem is promised that she will be rebuilt and that her power will be greater than ever (a contrast with the vision of peace in 4:1–5).", "* '''A prayer for future prosperity (7:14–17):''' The mood switches from a request for power to grateful astonishment at God's mercy.", "Hermann Gunkel and Bo Reicke identify the last chapter as a ritual text possibly connected to festivals." ], [ "Themes", "Micah addresses the future of Judah/Israel after the Babylonian exile.", "Like Isaiah, the book has a vision of the punishment of Israel and creation of a \"remnant\", followed by world peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch; the people should do justice, turn to Yahweh, and await the end of their punishment.", "However, whereas Isaiah sees Jacob/Israel joining \"the nations\" under Yahweh's rule, Micah looks forward to Israel ruling over the nations.", "Insofar as Micah appears to draw on and rework parts of Isaiah, it seems designed at least partly to provide a counterpoint to that book." ], [ "Quotations in the New Testament", "In the New Testament, the Book of Matthew quotes from the Book of Micah in relation to Jesus being born in Bethlehem:Jesus quotes Micah when he warns that families will be divided by the gospel:In the New Testament, the Book of John is a possible alluding to the identification of the mysterious \"him\" that God causes to see marvels or marvelous things:" ], [ "See also", "* Zion" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"Book of Micah.\"", "The Anchor Bible Dictionary.", "Vol.", "4, Editor-in-Chief: Freedman, David N. Doubleday; New York.", "1992.", "* \"Book of Micah.\"", "International Standard Bible Encyclopedia.", "General Editor: Bromley, G.W.", "William B. Erdmans Publishing Co.; Grand Rapids, MI.", "1986.", "* “ Book of Micah” Forward Movement Publications, Cincinnati, OH, 2007* Holy Bible: The New Oxford Annotated Bible.", "Coogan; Oxford University Press, 2007.", "* LaSor, William Sanford et al.", "''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''.", "Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.", "* Hailey, Homer.", "(1973).", "''A Commentary on the Minor Prophets''.", "Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.", "* Maxey, Al.", "''The Minor Prophets: Micah''.", "(n.d.).", "20 Paragraphs.", "Retrieved October 4, 2005, from Micah* McKeating, Henry Engel.", "(1971).", "''The Books of Amos, Hosea, and Micah''.", "New York: the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press.", "* Pusey, E.B.", "(1963).", "''The Minor Prophets: A Commentary'' (Vol.", "II).", "Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.", "* Wood, Joyce Rilett.", "(2000).", "\"Speech and action in Micah's prophecy\".", "''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'', no.", "4(62), 49 paragraphs.", "Retrieved September 30, 2005, from OCLC (FirstSearch) database FirstSearch Login Screen" ], [ "External links", "* Jewish translations:** Michah – Micah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org* Christian translations:** ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)** BibleGateway.com (New International Version)** Micah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version)* Various versions" ] ]

[ [ "Book of Nahum" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Nahum''' is the seventh book of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew Bible.", "It is attributed to the prophet Nahum, and was probably written in Jerusalem in the 7th century BC." ], [ "Background", "Josephus places Nahum during the reign of Jotham, while others place him in the beginning of the reign of Ahaz, Judah's next king, or even the latter half of the reign of Hezekiah, Ahaz's son; all three accounts date the book to the 8th century BC.", "The book would then have been written in Jerusalem, where Nahum would have witnessed the invasion of Sennacherib and his retreat.The scholarly consensus is that the \"book of vision\" was written at the time of the fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Medes and Babylonians in 612 BC.", "This theory is demonstrated by the fact that the oracles must be dated after the Assyrian destruction of Thebes, Egypt in 663 BC, as this event is mentioned in Nahum 3:8.=== Author ===Little is known about Nahum's personal history.", "His name means \"comforter\", and he was from the town of ''Elkosh'' or ''Alqosh'' (Nahum 1:1), which scholars have attempted to identify with several cities, including the modern `Alqush of Assyria and Capernaum of northern Galilee.", "He was a very nationalistic Hebrew, and lived among the Elkoshites in peace.", "His writings were likely written in about 615 BC, before the downfall of Assyria.=== Historical context ===Simplified plan of ancient Nineveh, showing city wall and location of gateways.The subject of Nahum's prophecy is the approaching complete and final destruction of Nineveh which was the capital of the great and flourishing Assyrian empire, at that time.", "Ashurbanipal was at the height of his glory.", "Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was then the center of the civilization and commerce of the world, according to Nahum a \"bloody city all full of lies and robbery\", a reference to the Neo-Assyrian Empire's military campaigns and demand of tribute and plunder from conquered cities.Jonah had already uttered his message of warning, and Nahum was followed by Zephaniah, who also predicted the destruction of the city.Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire around 625 BC, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an event which changed the face of Asia.", "Archaeological digs have uncovered the splendor of Nineveh in its zenith under Sennacherib (705–681 BC), Esarhaddon (681–669 BC), and Ashurbanipal (669–633 BC).", "Massive walls were eight miles in circumference.", "It had a water aqueduct, palaces and a library with 20,000 clay tablets, including accounts of a creation in Enuma Elish and a flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh.The Babylonian chronicle of the fall of Nineveh tells the story of the end of Nineveh.", "Nabopolassar of Babylon joined forces with Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and laid siege for three months.Assyria lasted a few more years after the loss of its fortress, but attempts by Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II to rally the Assyrians failed due to opposition from king Josiah of Judah, and it seemed to be all over by 609 BC." ], [ "Overview", "The whole Book of Nahum in Latin as a part of Codex Gigas, made around 13th century.The Book of Nahum consists of two parts: a prelude in chapter one, followed by chapters two and three which describe the fall of Nineveh, which later took place in 612 BC.", "Nineveh is compared to Thebes, the Egyptian city that Assyria itself had destroyed in 663 BC.", "Nahum describes the siege and frenzied activity of Nineveh's troops as they try in vain to halt the invaders.", "Poetically, he becomes a participant in the battle, and with subtle irony, barks battle commands to the defenders.", "Nahum uses numerous similes and metaphor that Nineveh will become weak \"like the lion hiding in its den\".", "It concludes with a taunt song and funeral dirge of the impending destruction of Nineveh and the \"sleep\" or death of the Assyrian people and demise of the once great Assyrian conqueror-rulers." ], [ "Surviving early manuscripts", "The original text was written in Biblical Hebrew.Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter in Hebrew are the Masoretic Text, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), Aleppo Codex (10th century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).Fragments of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls including '''4QpNah''', known as the \"Nahum Commentary\" (1st century BC); 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 1st century BC).", "and Wadi Murabba'at MurXII (1st century AD).There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC, with extant manuscripts including Codex Vaticanus ('''B'''; B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus ('''S'''; BHK: S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus ('''A'''; A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus ('''Q'''; Q; 6th century).", "Some fragments containing parts of this chapter (a revision of the Septuagint) were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., Naḥal Ḥever (8ḤevXIIgr; 1st century AD)." ], [ "Themes", "=== The fall of Nineveh ===Nahum and the destruction of Nineveh; Illuminated Bible from the 1220s, National Library of PortugalNahum's prophecy carries a particular warning to the Ninevites of coming events, although he is partly in favor of the destruction.", "One might even say that the book of Nahum is \"a celebration of the fall of Assyria.\"", "And this is not just a warning or speaking positively of the destruction of Nineveh, it is also a positive encouragement and \"message of comfort for Israel, Judah, and others who had experienced the \"endless cruelty\" of the Assyrians.", "\"The prophet Jonah shows us where God shows concern for the people of Nineveh, while Nahum's writing testifies to his belief in the righteousness/justice of God and how God dealt with those Assyrians in punishment according to \"their cruelty\".", "The Assyrians had been used as God's \"rod of … anger, and the staff in their hand as indignation.", "\"=== The nature of God ===From its opening, Nahum shows God to be slow to anger, but that God will by no means ignore the guilty; God will bring his vengeance and wrath to pass.", "God is presented as a God who will punish evil, but will protect those who trust in Him.", "The opening passage states: \"God is jealous, and the LORD revengeth; the LORD revengeth, and is furious; the LORD will take vengeance on his adversaries, and he reserveth wrath for his enemies.", "The LORD is slow to anger, and great in power, and will not at all acquit the wicked\".", "\"The LORD is slow to anger and Quick to love; the LORD will not leave the guilty unpunished.", "\"\"The LORD is good, a refuge in times of trouble.", "He cares for those who trust in him\"" ], [ "Importance", "God's judgement on Nineveh is \"all because of the wanton lust of a harlot, alluring, the mistress of sorceries, who enslaved nations by her prostitution and peoples by her witchcraft.\"", "Infidelity, according to the prophets, related to spiritual unfaithfulness.", "For example: \"the land is guilty of the vilest adultery in departing from the LORD.\"", "John of Patmos used a similar analogy in Revelation chapter 17.The prophecy of Nahum was referenced in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit.", "In Tobit 14:4 (NRSV) a dying Tobit says to his son Tobias and Tobias' sons:My son hurry off to Media, for I believe the word of God that Nahum spoke about Nineveh, that all these things will take place and overtake Assyria and Nineveh.", "Indeed, everything that was spoken by the prophets of Israel, whom God sent, will occur.", "However, some versions, such as the King James Version, refer to the prophet Jonah instead." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Unique Pictures Of Nahum Tomb By Kobi Arami * Jewish translations:** Nachum – Nahum (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org* Christian translations:** ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)** BibleGateway** Nahum – King James Version* Various versions;Commentary* This article also contains a section on the Book of Nahum." ] ]

[ [ "Book of Haggai" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Haggai''' (; ) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and is the third-to-last of the Twelve Minor Prophets.", "It is a short book, consisting of only two chapters.", "The historical setting dates around 520 BC before the Temple had been rebuilt.", "The original text was written in Biblical Hebrew." ], [ "Authorship", "The Book of Haggai is named after the prophet Haggai whose prophecies are recorded in the book.", "The authorship of the book is uncertain.", "Some presume that Haggai wrote the book himself but he is repeatedly referred to in the third person which makes it unlikely that he wrote the text: it is more probable that the book was written by a disciple of Haggai who sought to preserve the content of Haggai's spoken prophecies.There is no biographical information given about the prophet in the Book of Haggai.", "Haggai's name is derived from the Hebrew verbal root ''hgg'', which means \"to make a pilgrimage.\"", "W. Sibley Towner suggests that Haggai's name might come \"from his single-minded effort to bring about the reconstruction of that destination of ancient Judean pilgrims, the Temple in Jerusalem.\"" ], [ "Date", "The ''Book of Haggai'' records events in 520 BC, some 18 years after Cyrus had conquered Babylon and issued a decree in 538 BC, allowing the captive Judahites to return to Judea.", "Cyrus saw the restoration of the temple as necessary for the restoration of religious practices and a sense of peoplehood, after the long exile.", "The precise date of the written text is uncertain but most likely dates to within a generation of Haggai himself.", "Traditional consensus dates the completion of the text to c. 515 BC.", "Other scholars consider the book to be completed around 417 BC, as it did not refer to Darius I, but to Darius II (424-405 BC)." ], [ "Early surviving manuscripts", "Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Biblical Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).", "Fragments of the Hebrew text of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q77 (4QXIIb; 150–125 BCE) 4Q80 (4QXIIe; 75–50 BCE); and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE).There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE.", "Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus ('''B'''; B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus ('''S'''; BHK: S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus ('''A'''; A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus ('''Q'''; Q; 6th century)." ], [ "Synopsis", "The Leningrad Codex (AD.", "1008) contains the complete Hebrew text of the Book of Haggai.Haggai's message is filled with an urgency for the people to proceed with the rebuilding of the second Jerusalem temple.", "Haggai attributes a recent drought to the people's refusal to rebuild the temple, which he sees as key to Jerusalem’s glory.", "The book ends with the prediction of the downfall of kingdoms, with one Zerubbabel, governor of Judah, as the Lord's chosen leader.", "The language here is not as finely wrought as in some other books of the minor prophets, yet the intent seems straightforward.The first chapter contains the first address (2–11) and its effects (12–15).The second chapter contains:#The second prophecy (1–9), which was delivered a month after the first#The third prophecy (10–19), delivered two months and three days after the second; and#The fourth prophecy (20–23), delivered on the same day as the thirdThese discourses are referred to in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14.", "(Compare Haggai 2:7, 8 and 22)Text from Haggai 2:9 on a synagogue in Alkmaar: \"The glory of this present house will be greater than the glory of the former house.", "\"Haggai reports that three weeks after his first prophecy the rebuilding of the Temple began on September 7 521 BC.", "\"They came and began to work on the house of the LORD Almighty, their God, on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month in the second year of Darius the King.\"", "(Haggai 1:14–15) and the Book of Ezra indicates that it was finished on February 25 516 BC \"The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of King Darius.\"", "(Ezra 6:15)" ], [ "Outline", "#Divine Announcement: The Command to Rebuild the Temple ( )##Introduction: Reluctant Rebuilders ( )##Consider your ways: fruitless prosperity ( )##Promise and Progress ( )#Divine Announcement: The Coming Glory of the Temple ( )##God will fulfill his promise ( ) ##Future Splendor of the temple ( )#Divine Announcement: Blessings for a Defiled People ( )##Former Misery ( )##Future Blessing ( )#Divine Announcement: Zerubbabel Chosen as a Signet ( )=== Music ===The King James Version of Haggai 2:6–7 is used in the libretto of the English-language oratorio \"Messiah\" by George Frideric Handel (HWV 56)." ], [ "See also", "*Darius I*Joshua the High Priest , son of Jehozadak*Old Testament messianic prophecies quoted in the New Testament" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* **" ], [ "External links", "*Jewish translations:** Chaggai – Haggai (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org*Christian translations:** ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)* Various versions" ] ]

[ [ "Book of Malachi" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Malachi''' (Hebrew: , '''') is the last book of the Neviim contained in the Tanakh, canonically the last of the Twelve Minor Prophets.", "In most Christian orderings, the grouping of the prophetic books is the last section of the Old Testament, making Malachi the last book before the New Testament.Most scholars consider the Book of Malachi to be the work of a single author who may or may not have been identified by the title Malachi.", "Its title has frequently been understood as a proper name, although its Hebrew meaning is simply \"My Messenger\" (the Septuagint reads \"his messenger\") and would not have been a proper name at the time of its writing.", "\"Malachi\" is often assumed to be a pseudonym used by the real writer so he would not face retribution for his prophecies.", "Jewish tradition states that the book was written by Ezra the scribe." ], [ "Oldest surviving manuscripts", "The whole Book of Malachi in Latin as a part of Codex Gigas, made around 13th century.The original manuscript of this book is lost, as are many centuries worth of copies.", "The oldest surviving manuscripts containing some or all of this book in Hebrew are in the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).", "Fragments containing parts of this book were also found among Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE.", "Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century)." ], [ "Authorship", "Little is known of the biography of the author of the Book of Malachi, although it has been suggested that he may have been Levitical.", "Due to the similarities between Malachi and Ezra's emphasis on forbidding marriage to foreign pagan women, the Talmud and certain Targums, such as Targum Jonathan, identify Ezra as the author of Malachi.", "This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians.", "The Catholic priest and historian Jerome suggests that this may be because Ezra is seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the \"great synagogue.\"", "According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried \"in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem.\"", "If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name \"Malachi\" is correct, then he was probably buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi, Haggai, and Zechariah.The name \"Malachi\" occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and in 3:1, although most consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both of these references.", "According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, some scholars believe the name \"Malachi\" is not a proper noun but rather an abbreviation of \"messenger of Yah\".", "This reading could be based on Malachi 3:1, \"Behold, I will send ''my messenger''...\", if \"my messenger\" is taken literally as the name ''Malachi''.", "Thus, there is substantial debate regarding the identity of the book's author and many assume that \"Malachi\" is an anonymous pen-name.", "However, others disagree.", "However, other scholars, including the editors of the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', argue that the grammatical evidence leads us to conclude that Malachi is in fact a name, asserting: \"We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name ''Mál'akhîyah'', that is Messenger of Elohim.", "\"Some scholars consider both Zechariah 9–14 and Malachi to be anonymous, which explains their placement at the end of the twelve minor prophets.", "Julius Wellhausen, Abraham Kuenen, and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack argue that Malachi 1:1 is a late addition, pointing to Zechariah 9:1 and 12:1.Another interpretation of the authorship comes from the Septuagint superscription, , which can be read as either \"by the hand of his messenger\" or as \"by the hand of his angel\".", "The \"angel\" reading found an echo among the ancient Church Fathers and ecclesiastical writers, and even gave rise to the \"strangest fancies\", especially among the disciples of Origen." ], [ "Period", "There are very few historical details in the Book of Malachi.", "The greatest clue as to its dating may lie in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor () is used in 1:8.This points to a post-exilic (that is, after 538 BC) date of composition both because of the use of the Persian period term and because Judah had a king before the exile.", "Since, in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BC.", "Malachi was apparently known to the author of the Book of Sirach early in the second century BC.", "Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position after the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah, close to the time when Ezra and Nehemiah came to Jerusalem in 445 BC." ], [ "Aim", "Israeli West Bank barrier with quotation from Malachi 2:10: \"Do we not have one father?", "Has not one God created us?", "Why does each of us act deceitfully, each man against his own brother, to profane the covenant of our ancestors?", "\"The Book of Malachi was written to correct the lax religious and social behavior of the Israelites – particularly the priests – in post-exilic Jerusalem.", "Although the prophets urged the people of Judah and Israel to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with God, it was not long after they had been restored to the land and to Temple worship that the people's commitment to their God began, once again, to wane.", "It was in this context that the prophet commonly referred to as Malachi delivered his prophecy.In 1:2, Malachi has the people of Israel question God's love for them.", "This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation which Malachi addresses.", "The graveness of the situation is also indicated by the dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience.", "Malachi proceeds to accuse his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves.", "One way in which this disrespect is made manifest is through the substandard sacrifices which Malachi claims are being offered by the priests.", "While God demands animals that are \"without blemish\" (Leviticus 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were \"to determine whether the animal was acceptable\" (Mason 143), were offering blind, lame and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.In 2:1, Malachi states Yahweh Sabaoth is sending a curse on the priests who have not honored him with appropriate animal sacrifices: \"Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face--the dung from your very solemnities--and sweep you away with it.", "Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi, says Yahweh Sabaoth.", "\"In 2:10, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce.", "On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem (\"Why then are we faithless to one another ...", "?\"", "2:10) and as a religious problem (\"Judah ... has married the daughter of a foreign god\" 2:11).", "In contrast to the book of Ezra, Malachi urges each to remain steadfast to the wife of his youth.Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God's justice.", "He reminds them that God is just, exhorting them to be faithful as they await that justice.", "Malachi quickly goes on to point out that the people have not been faithful.", "In fact, the people are not giving God all that God deserves.", "Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full tithe to God.", "The result of these shortcomings is that the people come to believe that no good comes out of serving God.Malachi assures the faithful among his audience that in the eschaton, the differences between those who served God faithfully and those who did not will become clear.", "The book concludes by calling upon the teachings of Moses and by promising that Elijah will return prior to the Day of Yahweh." ], [ "Interpretations", "The book of Malachi is divided into three chapters in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint and four chapters in the Latin Vulgate.", "The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter starting at verse 3:19.===Christianity===The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows:+ Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV Verse Reference Heading 1:1 (Superscription) 1:2–2:9 Israel Preferred to Edom 2:10–17 The Covenant Profaned by Judah 3:1–7 The Coming Messenger 3:8–18 Do Not Rob God 4:1–5 (3:19–24 in Hebrew) The Great Day of the Lord The majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles.", "According to this scheme, the book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between Yahweh and the various groups within the Israelite community.", "In the course of the book's three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated while those who do not adhere to the law of Moses are condemned.", "Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty or a covenant—one of the major themes throughout the Hebrew Scriptures.", "Implicit in the prophet's condemnation of Israel's religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh's statutes.The Book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Bible.", "Malachi appeals to the rivalry between Jacob and Esau and of Yahweh's preference for Jacob contained in Book of Genesis 25–28.Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob (Israel), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God's chosen people.", "In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (e.g.", "Leviticus 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the Book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels.", "Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which Ezra vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted).", "Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, \"For I hate divorce, says the Lord .", ".", ".\"", "(2:16).In many places throughout the Hebrew Scriptures – particularly the Book of Hosea – Israel is figured as Yahweh's wife or bride.", "Malachi's discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor.", "Malachi could very well be urging his audience not to break faith with Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols.", "It is quite likely that, since the people of Judah were questioning Yahweh's love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might be tempted to adopt foreign gods.", "William LaSor suggests that, because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendor of the messianic age which had been prophesied, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.Illustration of the coming of God's Messenger in 3:1, by Franciszek ŻmurkoIndeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who \"is like refiner's fire and like fullers' soap .", ".", ".\"", "(3:2).Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute – that is, failing to offer full tithes.", "In this discussion, Malachi has Yahweh request the people to \"Bring the full tithe .", ".", ".", "and see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing\" (3:10).", "This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways.", "It also stresses that keeping the Lord's statutes will not only allow the people to avoid God's wrath, but will also lead to God's blessing.", "(It is this portion of Malachi which is used as support for the view that tithing is required of Christians.", ")In the sixth dispute, the people of Israel illustrate the extent of their disillusionment.", "Malachi has them say \"'It is vain to serve God .", ".", ".", "Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape'\" (3:14–15).", "Once again, Malachi has Yahweh assure the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded.In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to \"Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel\" (4:4; 3:22, MT).", "Before the Day of the Lord, Malachi declares that Elijah (who \"ascended in a whirlwind into heaven .", ".", ".", ",\" 2 Kings 2:11) will return to earth in order that people might follow in God's ways.Primarily because of its messianic promise, the Book of Malachi is frequently referred to in the Christian New Testament.", "What follows is a brief comparison between the Book of Malachi and the New Testament texts which refer to it (as suggested in Hill 84–88).Quotation from Malachi 3:1 in an Austrian church: \"The Lord shall come to his temple.", "\"+ Use of the book of Malachi in the New Testament (NRSV) Malachi New Testament \"Yet I have loved Jacob but I have hated Esau\" (1:2–3) \"'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'\"", "(Romans 9:13) \"And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?\"", "(1:6) \"Why do you call me \"Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?\"", "(Luke 6:46) \"the table of YHWH\" (1:7,12) \"the table of the Lord\" (1 Corinthians 10:21) \"For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations,\" (1:11) \"so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you\" (2 Thessalonians 1:12) \"Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?\"", "(Revelation 15:4) \"For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts.", "But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts,\" (2:7–8) \"therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach\" (Matthew 23:3) \"Have we not all one father?\"", "(2:10) \"yet for us there is one God, the Father\" (1 Corinthians 8:6) \"See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me\" (3:1) \"See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way\" (Mark 1:2) \"See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you\" (Matthew 11:10†, Luke 7:27) \"But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?\"", "(3:2) \"for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?\"", "(Revelation 6:17) \"and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver\" (3:3) \"so that the genuineness of your faith .", ".", ".", "being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire .", ".", ".\"", "(1 Peter 1:7) \"against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages\" (3:5) \"Listen!", "The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud\" (James 5:4) \"For I, Jehovah, change not;\" (3:6) \"Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever.\"", "(Hebrews 13:8) \"Return to me, and I will return to you,\" (3:7) \"Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you\" (James 4:8) \"But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise,\" (4:2) \"By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us,\" (Luke 1:78) \"Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come.\"", "(4:5) \"he is Elijah who is to come.\"", "(Matthew 11:14) \"Elijah has already come,\" (Matthew 17:12) \"Elijah has come,\" (Mark 9:13) \"Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come.", "And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the earth with a curse.\"", "(4:5–6) \"With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous,\" (Luke 1:17)Although many Christians believe that the messianic prophecies of the Book of Malachi have been fulfilled in the life, ministry, transfiguration, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, most Jews continue to await the coming of the prophet Elijah who will prepare the way for the Lord." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* New American Bible* 21st Century KJV* NIRV* Malachi at Chabad.org** Various versions" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Hill, Andrew E. ''Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''.", "The Anchor Bible Volume 25D.", "Toronto: Doubleday, 1998.", "* LaSor, William Sanford et al.", "''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''.", "Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.", "* Mason, Rex.", "''The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi''.", "The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible.", "New York, Cambridge University Press, 1977.", "* Singer, Isidore & Adolf Guttmacher.", "\"Book of Malachi.\"", "'' JewishEncyclopedia.com''.", "2002.", "* Van Hoonacker, A.", "\"Malachias (Malachi).\"", "''Catholic Encyclopedia''.", "Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress.", "2003." ] ]

[ [ "Book of Zechariah" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Zechariah''', attributed to the Hebrew prophet Zechariah, is included in the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible." ], [ "Historical context", "Zechariah's prophecies took place during the reign of Darius the Great and were contemporary with Haggai in a post-exilic world after the fall of Jerusalem in 587/586 BC.", "Ezekiel and Jeremiah wrote before the fall of Jerusalem while continuing to prophesy in the early exile period.", "Scholars believe Ezekiel, with his blending of ceremony and vision, heavily influenced the visionary works of Zechariah 1–8.Zechariah is specific about dating his writing (520–518 BC).During the exile, many Judahites and Benjamites were taken to Babylon, where the prophets told them to make their homes, suggesting they would spend a long period of time there.", "Eventually freedom did come to many Israelites, when Cyrus the Great overtook the Babylonians in 539 BC.", "In 538 BC, the famous Edict of Cyrus was released, and the first return took place under Sheshbazzar.", "After the death of Cyrus in 530 BC, Darius consolidated power and took office in 522 BC.", "His system divided the different colonies of the empire into easily manageable districts overseen by governors.", "Zerubbabel comes into the story, appointed by Darius as governor over the district of Yehud Medinata.Under the reign of Darius, Zechariah also emerged, centering on the rebuilding of the Temple.", "Unlike the Babylonians, the Persian Empire went to great lengths to keep “cordial relations” between vassal and lord.", "The rebuilding of the Temple was encouraged by the leaders of the empire in hopes that it would strengthen the authorities in local contexts.", "This policy was good politics on the part of the Persians, and the Jews viewed it as a blessing from God." ], [ "Prophet", "The name \"Zechariah\" means \"God remembered.\"", "Not much is known about Zechariah's life other than what may be inferred from the book.", "It has been speculated that his grandfather Iddo was the head of a priestly family who returned with Zerubbabel and that Zechariah may have been a priest as well as a prophet.", "This is supported by Zechariah's interest in the Temple and the priesthood, and from Iddo's preaching in the Books of Chronicles." ], [ "Authorship", "Greek manuscript of Zechariah from c. 50 BCE–50 CE (Nahal Hever)Most modern scholars believe the Book of Zechariah was written by at least two different people.", "Zechariah 1–8, sometimes referred to as First Zechariah, was written in the 6th century BC and contains oracles from the historical prophet Zechariah, who lived in the Achaemenid Empire during the kingdom of Darius the Great.", "Zechariah 9–14, often called Second Zechariah, contains within the text no datable references to specific events or individuals, but most scholars give the text a date in the 5th century BC.", "Second Zechariah, in the opinion of some scholars, appears to make use of the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, the Deuteronomistic history, and the themes from First Zechariah.", "This has led some to believe that the writer(s) or editor(s) of Second Zechariah may have been a disciple of the prophet Zechariah.", "There are some scholars who go even further and divide Second Zechariah into Second Zechariah (9–11) and Third Zechariah (12–14) since each begins with a heading oracle." ], [ "Composition", "Zechariah's vision of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, engraving by Gustave Doré.The return from exile is the theological premise of the prophet's visions in chapters 1–6.Chapters 7–8 address the quality of life God wants his renewed people to enjoy, containing many encouraging promises to them.", "Chapters 9–14 comprise two \"oracles\" of the future.===Chapters 1 to 6===The book begins with a preface, which recalls the nation's history, for the purpose of presenting a solemn warning to the present generation.", "Then follows a series of eight visions succeeding one another in one night, which may be regarded as a symbolical history of Israel, intended to furnish consolation to the returned exiles and stir up hope in their minds.", "These visions include the four horses and Four Horns and Four Craftsmen, man with a measuring line, Joshua the high priest, gold lampstand and two olive trees, flying scroll and a woman in basket, and the four chariot.", "The symbolic action, the crowning of Joshua, describes how the kingdoms of the world become the kingdom of God's Messiah.===Chapters 7 and 8===Two years after the initial visions, chapters 7 and 8 are delivered.", "They are an answer to the question whether the days of mourning for the destruction of the city should be kept any longer.", "The answer is addressed to the entire people, assuring them of God's presence and blessing.===Chapters 9 to 14===This section consists of two \"oracles\" or \"burdens\": *The first oracle (Zechariah 9-11) gives an outline of the course of God's providential dealings with his people down to the time of the coming of the Messiah.", "*The second oracle (Zechariah 12–14) points out the glories that await Israel in \"the latter day\", the final conflict and triumph of God's kingdom." ], [ "Themes", "The purpose of this book is not strictly historical but theological and pastoral.", "The main emphasis is that God is at work and all His good deeds, including the construction of the Second Temple, are accomplished \"not by might nor by power, but by My Spirit.\"", "Ultimately, YHWH plans to live again with His people in Jerusalem.", "He will save them from their enemies and cleanse them from sin.", "However, God requires repentance, a turning away from sin towards faith in Him.Zechariah's concern for purity is apparent in the temple, priesthood and all areas of life as the prophecy gradually eliminates the influence of the governor in favour of the high priest, and the sanctuary becomes ever more clearly the centre of messianic fulfillment.", "The prominence of prophecy is quite apparent in Zechariah, but it is also true that Zechariah (along with Haggai) allows prophecy to yield to the priesthood; this is particularly apparent in comparing Zechariah to Third Isaiah (chapters 55–66 of the Book of Isaiah), whose author was active sometime after the first return from exile.Most Christian commentators read the series of predictions in chapters 7 to 14 as Messianic prophecies, either directly or indirectly.", "These chapters helped the writers of the Gospels understand Jesus’ suffering, death and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus' final days.", "Much of the Book of Revelation, which narrates the denouement of history, is also colored by images in Zechariah.===Apocalyptic literature===Chapters 9–14 of the Book of Zechariah are an early example of apocalyptic literature.", "Although not as fully developed as the apocalyptic visions described in the Book of Daniel, the \"oracles\", as they are titled in Zechariah 9–14, contain apocalyptic elements.", "One theme these oracles contain is descriptions of the Day of the Lord, when \"the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations as when he fights on a day of battle.\"", "These chapters also contain \"pessimism about the present, but optimism for the future based on the expectation of an ultimate divine victory and the subsequent transformation of the cosmos\".The final word in Zechariah proclaims that on the Day of the Lord \"in that day there shall be no more the Canaanite in the house of the LORD of hosts,\" proclaiming the need for purity in the Temple, which would come when God judges at the end of time.", "The word כְנַעֲנִי rendered \"Canaanite\" is alternatively translated as \"trader\" or \"trafficker\", as in other scripture verses." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Dempster, Stephen G., ''Dominion And Dynasty: A Theology Of The Hebrew Bible.''", "Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 2003.", "* Guthrie, Donald (ed.", "), ''New Bible Commentary.''", "3d ed., completely rev.", "and reset.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1970, .", "* Stuhlmueller, Carroll, ''Haggai and Zechariah: Rebuilding With Hope.''", "Edinburgh: The Handsel Press Ltd., 1988..* ''The Student Bible,'' NIV.", "Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992..*" ], [ "External links", ";Translations* Zechariah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)* Various versions" ] ]

[ [ "Book of Zephaniah" ], [ "Introduction", " The Leningrad Codex (AD.", "1008) contains the complete copy of Book of Zephaniah in Hebrew.The '''Book of Zephaniah''' (, ''Ṣəfanyā''; sometimes Latinized as ''Sophonias'') is the ninth of the Twelve Minor Prophets of the Old Testament and Tanakh, preceded by the Book of Habakkuk and followed by the Book of Haggai.", "Zephaniah means \"Yahweh has hidden/protected,\" or \"Yahweh hides\".", "Zephaniah is also a male given name.", "The original text was written in Biblical Hebrew." ], [ "Authorship and date", "13th century Latin bible, Toulouse, with part of the book of Zephaniah (Latin ''Sophonias'')The book's superscription attributes its authorship to \"Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of Hezekiah, in the days of King Josiah son of Amon of Judah,\" All that is known of Zephaniah comes from the text.The name \"Cushi,\" Zephaniah's father, means \"Cushite\" or \"Ethiopian,\" and the text of Zephaniah mentions the sin and restoration of ''Cushim''.", "While some have concluded from this that Zephaniah was dark-skinned or African, Ehud Ben Zvi maintains that, based on the context, \"Cushi\" must be understood as a personal name rather than an indicator of nationality.", "Abraham ibn Ezra interpreted the name Hezekiah in the superscription as King Hezekiah of Judah, though that is not a claim advanced in the text of Zephaniah.As with many of the other prophets, there is no external evidence to directly associate composition of the book with a prophet by the name of Zephaniah.", "Some scholars, such as Kent Harold Richards and Jason DeRouchie, consider the words in Zephaniah to reflect a time early in the reign of King Josiah (640–609 BC) before his reforms of 622 BC took full effect, in which case the prophet may have been born during the reign of Manasseh (698/687–642 BC).", "Others agree that some portion of the book is postmonarchic, that is, dating to later than 586 BC when the Kingdom of Judah fell in the Siege of Jerusalem.", "Some who consider the book to have largely been written by a historical Zephaniah have suggested that he may have been a disciple of Isaiah because of the two books' similar focus on rampant corruption and injustice in Judah." ], [ "Purpose", "If Zephaniah was largely composed during the monarchic period, then its composition was occasioned by Judah's refusal to obey its covenant obligations toward Yahweh despite having seen Israel's exile a generation or two previously—an exile that the Judahite literary tradition attributed to Yahweh's anger against Israel's disobedience to his covenant.", "In this historical context, Zephaniah urges Judah to obedience to Yahweh, saying that \"perhaps\" he will forgive them if they do." ], [ "Themes", "Illustration depicting Zephaniah addressing people, from a French 16th century bible.", "''The HarperCollins Study Bible'' supplies headings for the book as follows:+ Verse and chapter headings in the HCSB Verse (NRSV) Heading 1:1 (Superscription) 1:2–13 The Coming Judgment on Judah 1:14–18 The Great Day of the Lord 2:1–15 Judgment on Israel's Enemies 3:1–7 The Wickedness of Jerusalem 3:8–13 Punishment and Conversion of the Nations 3:14–20 Song of Joy More consistently than any other prophetic book, Zephaniah focuses on \"the day of the Lord,\" developing this tradition from its first appearance in Amos.", "The day of the Lord tradition also appears in Isaiah, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Joel, and Malachi.The book begins by describing Yahweh's judgement.", "With a triple repetition of \"I will sweep away\" in 1:2–3, Zephaniah emphasizes the totality of the destruction, as the number three often signifies perfection in the Bible.", "The order of creatures in Zephanaiah 1:2 (\"humans and animals ... the birds ... the fish\") is the opposite of the creation order in Genesis 1:1–28, signifying an undoing of creation.", "This is also signified by the way that \"from the face of the earth\" forms an ''inclusio'' around Zephaniah 1:2-3, hearkening back to how the phrase is used in the Genesis flood narrative in Genesis 6:7, Genesis 7:4, and Genesis 8:8, where it also connotes an undoing of creation.As is common in prophetic literature in the Bible, a \"remnant\" survives Yahweh's judgement in Zephaniah by humbly seeking refuge in Yahweh.", "The book concludes in an announcement of hope and joy, as Yahweh \"bursts forth in joyful divine celebration\" over his people." ], [ "Later influence", "Because of its hopeful tone of the gathering and restoration of exiles, has been included in Jewish liturgy.Zephaniah served as a major inspiration for the medieval Catholic hymn \"Dies Irae,\" whose title and opening words are from the Vulgate translation of ." ], [ "Surviving early manuscripts", "The original manuscript of this book has been lost.", "Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008).", "Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q77 (4QXIIb; 150–125 BCE),4Q78 (4QXIIc; 75–50 BCE),and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE).There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC.", "Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century).", "Some fragments containing parts of the Septuagint version of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., Naḥal Ḥever (1st century CE)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "***** **" ], [ "Further reading", "* Berlin, Adele.", "''Zephaniah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''.", "The Anchor Bible Volume 25A.", "Toronto: Doubleday, 1994.", "* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.", "* Transcribed by Thomas M. Barrett.", "2003.", "* Hirsch, Emil G. & Ira Maurice Price. \"", "Zephaniah.\"", "''JewishEncyclopedia.com''.", "2002.", "* LaSor, William Sanford et al.", "''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''.", "Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.", "* O. Palmer Robertson.", "''The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah'' (New International Commentary on the Old Testament, 1990)* Sweeney, Marvin A.", "''Zephaniah: A Commentary''.", "Ed.", "Paul D. Hanson.", "Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2003." ], [ "External links", "* Zephaniah at JewishEncyclopedia.com;Translations of the book of Zephaniah:*Jewish translations:** Tzefaniah – Zephaniah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org*Christian translations:** ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)** ''Zephaniah'' at CrossWalk.com (various versions)** ''Zephaniah'' at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version)** ''Zephaniah'' at Wikisource (Authorized King James Version)*Non-affiliated translations:** ''The Heavenly Fire: Zephaniah'' (PDF) (Creative Commons translation with in-depth introduction and extensive translation notes)* Various versions" ] ]

[ [ "Book of Habakkuk" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Habakkuk''' is the eighth book of the 12 minor prophets of the Bible.", "It is attributed to the prophet Habakkuk, and was probably composed in the late 7th century BC.", "The original text was written in the Hebrew language.Of the three chapters in the book, the first two are a dialogue between Yahweh and the prophet.", "The message that \"the just shall live by his faith\" plays an important role in Christian thought.", "It is used in the Epistle to the Romans, Epistle to the Galatians, and the Epistle to the Hebrews as the starting point of the concept of faith.", "A copy of these chapters is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.", "Chapter 3 is now recognized as a liturgical piece.", "It is debated whether chapter 3 and the first two chapters were written by the same author." ], [ "Background", "The prophet Habakkuk is generally believed to have written his book in the mid-to-late 7th century BC.", "It is likely that it was written shortly after the Fall of Nineveh (in 612 BC) and before the Babyloniancapture of Jerusalem (in 586 BC).===Author===Habakkuk identifies himself as a prophet in the opening verse.", "Due to the liturgical nature of the book of Habakkuk, there have been some scholars who think that the author may have been a temple prophet.", "Temple prophets are described in 1 Chronicles 25:1 as using lyres, harps and cymbals.", "Some feel that this is echoed in Habakkuk 3:19b, and that Habakkuk may have been a Levite and singer in the Temple.There is no biographical information on the prophet Habakkuk.", "The only canonical information that exists comes from the book that is named for him.", "His name comes either from the Hebrew word חבק (''ḥavaq'') meaning \"embrace\" or else from an Akkadian word ''hambakuku'' for a kind of plant.Although his name does not appear in any other part of the Jewish Bible, Rabbinic tradition holds Habakkuk to be the Shunammite woman's son, who was restored to life by Elisha in 2 Kings 4:16.The prophet Habakkuk is also mentioned in the narrative of Bel and the Dragon, part of the deuterocanonical additions to Daniel in a late section of that book.", "In the superscription of the Old Greek version, Habakkuk is called the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi.", "In this book Habakkuk is lifted by an angel to Babylon to provide Daniel with some food while he is in the lion's den.===Historical context===Chaldean Empire c. 600 BCIt is unknown when Habakkuk lived and preached, but the reference to the rise and advance of the Chaldeans in 1:6–11 places him in the middle to last quarter of the 7th century BC.", "One possible period might be during the reign of Jehoiakim, from 609 to 598 BC.", "The reasoning for this date is that it is during his reign that the Neo-Babylonian Empire of the Chaldeans was growing in power.", "The Babylonians marched against Jerusalem in 598 BC.", "Jehoiakim died while the Babylonians were marching towards Jerusalem and Jehoiakim's eighteen-year-old son Jehoiachin assumed the throne.", "Upon the Babylonians' arrival, Jehoiachin and his advisors surrendered Jerusalem after a short time.", "With the transition of rulers and the young age and inexperience of Jehoiachin, they were not able to stand against Chaldean forces.", "There is a sense of an intimate knowledge of the Babylonian brutality in 1:12–17." ], [ "Overview", "The book of Habakkuk is a book of the Tanakh (the Old Testament) and stands eighth in a section known as the 12 Minor Prophets in the Masoretic and Greek texts.", "In the Masoretic listing, it follows Nahum and precedes Zephaniah, who are considered to be his contemporaries.The book consists of three chapters and the book is neatly divided into three different genres:* A discussion between God and Habakkuk* An oracle of woe* A psalm, \"Habakkuk's song\"===Differences in third chapter===Some scholars suggest that Habakkuk 3 may be a later independent addition to the book, in part because it is not included among the Dead Sea Scrolls.", "This chapter does appear in all copies of the Septuagint, as well as in texts from as early as the 3rd century BC.", "This final chapter is a poetic praise of God, and has some similarities with texts found in the Book of Daniel.", "However, the fact that the third chapter is written in a different style, as a liturgical piece, does not necessarily mean that Habakkuk was not also its author.", "Its omission from the Dead Sea Scrolls is attributed to incompatibilities with the theology of the Qumran sect." ], [ "Surviving early manuscripts", "The beginning of Habakkuk Commentary, '''1QpHab''', found among the Dead Sea Scrolls from the 1st century BC.Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew language are found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., '''1QpHab''', known as the \"Habakkuk Commentary\" (later half of the 1st century BC), and of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes Codex Cairensis (895 CE), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008).", "Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 25 BCE) with extant verses 4?", "; and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE) with extant verses 1:3–13, 1:15, 2:2–3, 2:5–11, 2:18–20, and 3:1–19.There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC.", "Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus ('''B'''; B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus ('''S'''; BHK: S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus ('''A'''; A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus ('''Q'''; Q; 6th century).", "Fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, that is, Naḥal Ḥever 8Ḥev1 (8ḤevXIIgr); late 1st century BCE) with extant verses 1:5–11, 1:14–17, 2:1–8, 2:13–20, and 3:8–15." ], [ "The Taunting Riddle", "The melitzah ḥidah, or the taunting riddle, is the oracle revealed to Habakkuk the prophet.", "It is a mashal or a parable.", "It is also known as a witty satire and an enigma.", "The riddle is 15 verses long from verse 6 to verse 20 and is divided into five woes which consist of three verses each.===Hebrew Text===The following table shows the Hebrew text of Habakkuk 2:6-20 with vowels alongside an English translation based upon the JPS 1917 translation (now in the public domain).VerseHebrew textEnglish translation (JPS 1917) 6 Shall not all these take up a parable against him, And a taunting riddle against him, And say: ‘Woe to him that increaseth that which is not his!", "How long?", "and that ladeth himself with many pledges!", "7 Shall they not rise up suddenly that shall exact interest of thee, And awake that shall violently shake thee, And thou shalt be for booties unto them?", "8 Because thou hast spoiled many nations, All the remnant of the peoples shall spoil thee; Because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, To the city and to all that dwell therein.", "9 Woe to him that gaineth evil gains for his house, That he may set his nest on high, That he may be delivered from the power of evil!", "10 Thou hast devised shame to thy house, By cutting off many peoples, And hast forfeited thy life.", "11 For the stone shall cry out of the wall, And the beam out of the timber shall answer it.", "12 Woe to him that buildeth a town with blood, And establisheth a city by iniquity!", "13 Behold, is it not of the LORD of hosts That the peoples labour for the fire, And the nations weary themselves for vanity?", "14 For the earth shall be filled With the knowledge of the glory of the LORD, As the waters cover the sea.", "15 Woe unto him that giveth his neighbour drink, That puttest thy venom thereto, and makest him drunken also, That thou mayest look on their nakedness!", "16 Thou art filled with shame instead of glory, Drink thou also, and be uncovered; The cup of the LORD’S right hand shall be turned unto thee, And filthiness shall be upon thy glory.", "17 For the violence done to Lebanon shall cover thee, And the destruction of the beasts, which made them afraid; Because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, To the city and to all that dwell therein.", "18 What profiteth the graven image, That the maker thereof hath graven it, Even the molten image, and the teacher of lies; That the maker of his work trusteth therein, To make dumb idols?", "19 Woe unto him that saith to the wood: ‘Awake’, To the dumb stone: ‘Arise!", "’ Can this teach?", "Behold, it is overlaid with gold and silver, And there is no breath at all in the midst of it.", "20 But the LORD is in His holy temple; Let all the earth keep silence before Him." ], [ "Themes", "Habakkuk and God; Illuminated Bible from the 1220s, National Library of PortugalThe major theme of Habakkuk is trying to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust in God.", "Habakkuk addresses his concerns over the fact that God will use the Babylonian empire to execute judgment on Judah for their sins.Habakkuk openly questions the wisdom of God.", "In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action.", "\"Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear?", "I cry out to you “Violence!” and will you not save?\"", "– (Habakkuk 1:2)In the middle part of Chapter 1, God explains that he will send the Chaldeans (also known as the Babylonians) to punish his people.", "In 1:5: \"Look among the nations, watch, and wonder marvelously; for I am working a work in your days, which you will not believe though it is told you.\"", "In 1:6: \"For, behold, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth of the earth, to possess dwelling places that are not theirs.", "\"One of the \"Eighteen Emendations to the Hebrew Scriptures\" appears at 1:12.According to the professional Jewish scribes, the Sopherim, the text of 1:12 was changed from \"You God do not die\" to \"We shall not die.\"", "The Sopherim considered it disrespectful to say to God, \"''You'' do not die.", "\"In the final part of the first chapter, the prophet expresses shock at God's choice of instrument for judgment.", "in 1:13: \"You who have purer eyes than to see evil, and who cannot look on perversity, why do you tolerate those who deal treacherously, and keep silent when the wicked swallows up the man who is more righteous than he...?", "\"In Chapter 2, he awaits God's response to his challenge.", "God explains that He will also judge the Chaldeans, and much more harshly.", "\"Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples will plunder you, because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, to the city and to all who dwell in it.", "Woe to him who gets an evil gain for his house.\"", "(Habakkuk 2:8-9)Finally, in Chapter 3, Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he does not fully understand.", "\"For though the fig tree doesn’t flourish, nor fruit be in the vines; the labor of the olive fails, the fields yield no food; the flocks are cut off from the fold, and there is no herd in the stalls: 3:18 yet I will rejoice in Yahweh.", "I will be joyful in the God of my salvation!\"" ], [ "Importance", "The book of Habakkuk is accepted as canonical by adherents of the Jewish and Christian faiths.", "A commentary on the first two chapters of the book was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran.", "Passages from Habakkuk are quoted by authors of the New Testament, and its message has inspired modern Christian hymn writers.===Judaism===The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the Twelve Prophets of the Hebrew Bible, and this collection appears in all copies of texts of the Septuagint, the Ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible completed by 132 BC.", "Likewise, the book of Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), also written in the 2nd century BC, mentions \"The Twelve Prophets\".A partial copy of Habakkuk itself is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, a ''pesher'' found among the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947.The Commentary contains a copy of the first two chapters of Habakkuk, but not of the third chapter.", "The writer of the ''pesher'' draws a comparison between the Babylonian invasion of the original text and the Roman threat of the writer's own period.", "What is even more significant than the commentary in the ''pesher'' is the quoted text of Habakkuk itself.", "The divergences between the Hebrew text of the scroll and the standard Masoretic Text are startlingly minimal.", "The biggest differences are word order, small grammatical variations, addition or omission of conjunctions, and spelling variations, but these are small enough not to damage the meaning of the text.Some scholars suggest that Chapter 3 may be a later independent addition to the book, in part because it is not included among the Dead Sea Scrolls.", "However, this chapter does appear in all copies of the Septuagint, as well as in texts from as early as the 3rd century BC.", "This final chapter is a poetic praise of God, and has some similarities with texts found in the Book of Daniel.", "However, the fact that the third chapter is written in a different style, as a liturgical piece, does not necessarily mean that Habakkuk was not also its author.", "Its omission from the Dead Sea Scrolls is attributed to the inability of the Qumran sect to fit Habakkuk's theology with their own narrow viewpoint.The Talmud (Makkot 24a) mentions that various Biblical figures summarized the 613 commandments into categories that encapsulated all of the 613.At the end of this discussion, the Talmud concludes \"Habakkuk came and established the 613 mitzvoth upon one, as it is stated: 'But the righteous person shall live by his faith' (Habakkuk 2:4)\", meaning that faith encapsulates all of the other commandments.===Habakkuk 2:4 in Christianity===Habakkuk 2:4b quoted in a Jewish cemetery in Cologne: \"the righteous will live by his faith.", "\"''Saint Paul Writing His Epistles'', 16th-century paintingHabakkuk 2:4 is well known in Christianity.", "In the New International Version of the bible it reads::''See, the enemy is puffed up; his desires are not upright''::''but the righteous person will live by his faithfulness.", "''\"But the just shall live by his faith\" is translated from the Hebrew (consisting of three words in Masoretic Text) וצדיק באמונתו יחיה (Transliteration: ''wə-tsaddîq be’ĕmūnāṯō yiḥyeh'').", "is quoted by some of the earliest Christian writers.", "Although this passage is only three words in the original Hebrew, it is quoted three times in the New Testament.", "Paul the Apostle quotes this verse twice in his epistles: in Epistle to the Romans.", "and again in Epistle to the Galatians.", "It became one of the most important verses that were used as foundations of the doctrines of the Protestant reformation.====Hymns====Prophet Habakkuk as imagined by an 18th century Russian icon painterModern Christian hymns have been inspired by the words of the prophet Habakkuk.", "The Christian hymn \"The Lord is in His Holy Temple\", written in 1900 by William J. Kirkpatrick, is based on Habakkuk 2:20.The fourth verse of William Cowper's hymn \"Sometimes a Light Surprises\", written in 1779, quotes Habakkuk 3:17–18.==== Interpretations ====There is controversy about the translation of the verse, the word \"emunah\" is most often translated as \"faithfulness\", though the word in this verse has been traditionally translated as \"faith\".The word \"emunah\" is not translated as \"belief\" in any other verse than Habakkuk 2:4, Clendenen, E. Ray defended the translation of the word as \"faith\" on the basis of the context of the verse, arguing that it refers to ''Genesis 15:6'', which used the word \"''he’ĕmin\"'' 'believed' of which \"''’ĕmȗnāh''\" is derived from, he also argued that the Essenes in the Qumran community likely understood the verse as referring to faith in the Teacher of Righteousness instead of faithfulness.Martin Luther believed that Habakkuk 2:4 taught the doctrine of faith alone, commenting on the verse \"For this is a general saying applicable to all of God's words.", "These must be believed, whether spoken at the beginning, middle, or end of the world\".Rashi interpreted the verse to be about Jeconiah.The Targum interpreted the verse as \"The wicked think that all these things are not so, but the righteous live by the truth of them\".Pseudo-Ignatius understood the verse to be about faith.=== Cultural references ===Irish composer Charles Villiers Stanford set slightly revised portions of text from the first and second chapters of Habakkuk in his piece for SATB choir, Soprano and Tenor soloist and organ, \"For Lo, I Raise Up\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", ";Historic manuscripts:* The Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, ''The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls'', hosted by the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.", ";Jewish translations:* Chavakuk – Habakkuk (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org;Christian translations:* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)* Various versions;Further information* A Brief Introduction to The Prophecy of Habakkuk for Contemporary Readers (Christian Perspective)* Introduction to the book of Habakkuk from the NIV Study Bible* Introduction to the Book of HabakkukForward Movement Publications" ] ]

[ [ "Backward compatibility" ], [ "Introduction", "The first model of the Wii features backward compatibility with its predecessor, the GameCube, having the ability to run its discs and use its controllers and memory cards.", "Later versions of the system removed this feature.", "'''Backward compatibility''' (sometimes known as '''backwards compatibility''') is a property of an operating system, software, real-world product, or technology that allows for interoperability with an older legacy system, or with input designed for such a system, especially in telecommunications and computing.Modifying a system in a way that does not allow backward compatibility is sometimes called \"breaking\" backward compatibility.", "Such breaking usually incurs various types of costs, such as switching cost.A complementary concept is forward compatibility.", "A design that is forward-compatible usually has a roadmap for compatibility with future standards and products." ], [ "Usage", "===In hardware===A simple example of both backward and forward compatibility is the introduction of FM radio in stereo.", "FM radio was initially mono, with only one audio channel represented by one signal.", "With the introduction of two-channel stereo FM radio, many listeners had only mono FM receivers.", "Forward compatibility for mono receivers with stereo signals was achieved by sending the sum of both left and right audio channels in one signal and the difference in another signal.", "That allows mono FM receivers to receive and decode the sum signal while ignoring the difference signal, which is necessary only for separating the audio channels.", "Stereo FM receivers can receive a mono signal and decode it without the need for a second signal, and they can separate a sum signal to left and right channels if both sum and difference signals are received.", "Without the requirement for backward compatibility, a simpler method could have been chosen.Full backward compatibility is particularly important in computer instruction set architectures, two of the most successful being the IBM 360/370/390/Zseries families of mainframes, and the Intel x86 family of microprocessors.IBM announced the first 360 models in 1964 and has continued to update the series ever since, with migration over the decades from 32-bit register/24-bit addresses to 64-bit registers and addresses.Intel announced the first Intel 8086/8088 processors in 1978, again with migrations over the decades from 16-bit to 64-bit.", "(The 8086/8088, in turn, were designed with easy machine-translatability of programs written for its predecessor in mind, although they were not instruction-set compatible with the 8-bit Intel 8080 processor of 1974.The Zilog Z80, however, was fully backward compatible with the Intel 8080.", ")Fully backward compatible processors can process the same binary executable software instructions as their predecessors, allowing the use of a newer processor without having to acquire new applications or operating systems.", "Similarly, the success of the Wi-Fi digital communication standard is attributed to its broad forward and backward compatibility; it became more popular than other standards that were not backward compatible.=== In software ===In software development or backward compatibility is a general notion of interoperation between software pieces that will not produce any errors when its functionality is invoked via API.", "The software is considered stable when its API that is used to invoke functions is stable across different versions.", "In operating systems upgraded to a newer versions are said to be backward compatible if executable and other files from previous versions will work as usual.In compilers backward compatibility may refer to the ability of a compiler of a newer version of the language to accept source code of programs or data that worked under the previous version.", "A data format is said to be backward compatible when a newer version of program that can open it opens it without errors just like its predecessor." ], [ "Tradeoffs", "===Benefits===There are several incentives for a company to implement backward compatibility.", "Backward compatibility can be used to preserve older software that would have otherwise been lost when a manufacturer decides to stop supporting older hardware.", "Classic video games are a common example used when discussing the value of supporting older software.", "The cultural impact of video games is a large part of their continued success, and some believe ignoring backward compatibility would cause these titles to disappear.", "Backward compatibility also acts as a selling point for new hardware, as an existing player base can more affordably upgrade to subsequent generations of a console.", "This also helps to make up for lack of content at the launch of new systems, as users can pull from the previous console's library of games while developers transition to the new hardware.", "Moreover, studies in the mid-1990s found that even consumers who never play older games after purchasing a new system consider backward compatibility a highly desirable feature, valuing the mere ability to continue to play an existing collection of games even if they choose never to do so.", "Backward compatibility with the original PlayStation (PS) software discs and peripherals is considered to have been a key selling point for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) during its early months on the market.Despite not being included at launch, Microsoft slowly incorporated backward compatibility for select titles on the Xbox One several years into its product life cycle.", "Players have racked up over a billion hours with backward-compatible games on Xbox, and the newest generation of consoles such as PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S also support this feature.", "A large part of the success and implementation of this feature is that the hardware within newer generation consoles is both powerful and similar enough to legacy systems that older titles can be broken down and re-configured to run on the Xbox One.", "This program has proven incredibly popular with Xbox players and goes against the recent trend of studio made remasters of classic titles, creating what some believe to be an important shift in console maker's strategies.===Costs===The monetary costs of supporting old software is considered a large drawback to the usage of backward compatibility.", "The associated costs of backward compatibility are a larger bill of materials if hardware is required to support the legacy systems; increased complexity of the product that may lead to longer time to market, technological hindrances, and slowing innovation; and increased expectations from users in terms of compatibility.", "Because of this, several console manufacturers phased out backward compatibility toward the end of the console generation in order to reduce cost and briefly reinvigorate sales before the arrival of newer hardware.It is possible to bypass some of the hardware costs.", "In earlier versions of the PS2, a CPU core identical to that of the PS serves a dual purpose, either as the main CPU in PS mode, or upclocking itself to offload I/O in PS2 mode.", "Such an approach can backfire, however, as in the case of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES), which opted for the peculiar 65C816 over more popular 16-bit microprocessors on the basis that it would allow easy compatibility with the original NES, but NES compatibility ultimately did not prove workable once the rest of the Super NES's architecture was designed.Backward compatibility introduces the risk that developers will favor developing games that are compatible with both the old and new systems, since this gives them a larger base of potential buyers, resulting in a dearth of software which uses the advanced features of the new system.With the decline in physical game sales and the rise of digital storefronts and downloads, some believe backward compatibility will soon be obsolete.", "Many game studios are re-mastering and re-releasing their most popular titles by improving the quality of graphics and adding new content.", "These remasters have found success by appealing both to nostalgic players who remember enjoying the original versions, and to newcomers who may not have had the original system it was released on.", "For most consumers, digital remasters are more appealing than hanging on to obsolete hardware.", "For the manufacturers of consoles, digital re-releases of classic titles are a large benefit.", "It not only removes the financial drawbacks of supporting older hardware, but also shifts all of the costs of updating software to the developers.", "The manufacturer gets a new addition to their system with name recognition, and the studio does not have to develop a new game." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bacterial conjugation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bacterial conjugation''' is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells.", "This takes place through a pilus.", "It is a '''parasexual mode of reproduction in bacteria.", "'''A micrograph displaying ''Escherichia coli'' undergoing bacterial conjugation using F-pili.", "These long and extremely robust extracellular appendages serve as physical conduits for translocation of DNA.", "Adapted from It is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact.Classical ''E.", "coli'' bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating since it involves the exchange of genetic material.", "However, it is not sexual reproduction, since no exchange of gamete occurs, and indeed no generation of a new organism: instead an existing organism is transformed.", "During classical ''E.", "coli'' conjugation the ''donor'' cell provides a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element that is most often a plasmid or transposon.", "Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the ''recipient'' cell does not already contain a similar element.The genetic information transferred is often beneficial to the recipient.", "Benefits may include antibiotic resistance, xenobiotic tolerance or the ability to use new metabolites.", "Other elements can be detrimental and may be viewed as bacterial parasites.Conjugation in ''Escherichia coli'' by spontaneous zygogenesis and in ''Mycobacterium smegmatis'' by distributive conjugal transfer differ from the better studied classical ''E.", "coli'' conjugation in that these cases involve substantial blending of the parental genomes." ], [ "History", "The process was discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946." ], [ "Mechanism", "Schematic drawing of bacterial conjugation.", "'''Conjugation diagram'''# Donor cell produces pilus.# Pilus attaches to recipient cell and brings the two cells together.# The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient cell.# Both cells synthesize a complementary strand to produce a double stranded circular plasmid and also reproduce pili; both cells are now viable donor for the F-factor.The F-factor is an episome (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial chromosome by homologous recombination) with a length of about 100 kb.", "It carries its own origin of replication, the ''oriV'', and an origin of transfer, or ''oriT''.", "There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a given bacterium, either free or integrated, and bacteria that possess a copy are called ''F-positive'' or ''F-plus'' (denoted F+).", "Cells that lack F plasmids are called ''F-negative'' or ''F-minus'' (F−) and as such can function as recipient cells.Among other genetic information, the F-plasmid carries a ''tra'' and ''trb'' locus, which together are about 33 kb long and consist of about 40 genes.", "The ''tra'' locus includes the ''pilin'' gene and regulatory genes, which together form pili on the cell surface.", "The locus also includes the genes for the proteins that attach themselves to the surface of F− bacteria and initiate conjugation.", "Though there is some debate on the exact mechanism of conjugation it seems that the pili are the structures through which DNA exchange occurs.", "The F-pili are extremely resistant to mechanical and thermochemical stress, which guarantees successful conjugation in a variety of environments.", "Several proteins coded for in the ''tra'' or ''trb'' locus seem to open a channel between the bacteria and it is thought that the traD enzyme, located at the base of the pilus, initiates membrane fusion.When conjugation is initiated by a signal the '''relaxase''' enzyme creates a nick in one of the strands of the conjugative plasmid at the ''oriT''.", "Relaxase may work alone or in a complex of over a dozen proteins known collectively as a '''relaxosome'''.", "In the F-plasmid system the relaxase enzyme is called TraI and the relaxosome consists of TraI, TraY, TraM and the integrated host factor IHF.", "The nicked strand, or ''T-strand'', is then unwound from the unbroken strand and transferred to the recipient cell in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction.", "The remaining strand is replicated either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication beginning at the ''oriV'') or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the rolling circle replication of lambda phage).", "Conjugative replication may require a second nick before successful transfer can occur.", "A recent report claims to have inhibited conjugation with chemicals that mimic an intermediate step of this second nicking event.1.The insertion sequences (yellow) on both the F factor plasmid and the chromosome have similar sequences, allowing the F factor to insert itself into the genome of the cell.", "This is called homologous recombination and creates an Hfr (high frequency of recombination) cell.2.The Hfr cell forms a pilus and attaches to a recipient F- cell.3.A nick in one strand of the Hfr cell's chromosome is created.4.DNA begins to be transferred from the Hfr cell to the recipient cell while the second strand of its chromosome is being replicated.5.The pilus detaches from the recipient cell and retracts.", "The Hfr cell ideally wants to transfer its entire genome to the recipient cell.", "However, due to its large size and inability to keep in contact with the recipient cell, it is not able to do so.6.a.", "The F- cell remains F- because the entire F factor sequence was not received.", "Since no homologous recombination occurred, the DNA that was transferred is degraded by enzymes.", "b.", "In very rare cases, the F factor will be completely transferred and the F- cell will become an Hfr cell.If the F-plasmid that is transferred has previously been integrated into the donor's genome (producing an Hfr strain \"High Frequency of Recombination\") some of the donor's chromosomal DNA may also be transferred with the plasmid DNA.", "The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact.", "In common laboratory strains of ''E.", "coli'' the transfer of the entire bacterial chromosome takes about 100 minutes.", "The transferred DNA can then be integrated into the recipient genome via homologous recombination.A cell culture that contains in its population cells with non-integrated F-plasmids usually also contains a few cells that have accidentally integrated their plasmids.", "It is these cells that are responsible for the low-frequency chromosomal gene transfers that occur in such cultures.", "Some strains of bacteria with an integrated F-plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture.", "Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently they are called '''Hfr''' ('''h'''igh '''f'''requency of '''r'''ecombination).", "The ''E.", "coli'' genome was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes (initially using a Waring blender).", "The genes that were transferred were then investigated.Since integration of the F-plasmid into the ''E.", "coli'' chromosome is a rare spontaneous occurrence, and since the numerous genes promoting DNA transfer are in the plasmid genome rather than in the bacterial genome, it has been argued that conjugative bacterial gene transfer, as it occurs in the ''E.", "coli'' Hfr system, is not an evolutionary adaptation of the bacterial host, nor is it likely ancestral to eukaryotic sex.", "'''Spontaneous zygogenesis in ''E.", "coli'''''In addition to classical bacterial conjugation described above for ''E.", "coli'', a form of conjugation referred to as spontaneous zygogenesis (Z-mating for short) is observed in certain strains of ''E.", "coli''.", "In Z-mating there is complete genetic mixing, and unstable diploids are formed that throw off phenotypically haploid cells, of which some show a parental phenotype and some are true recombinants." ], [ "Conjugal transfer in mycobacteria", "Conjugation in ''Mycobacteria smegmatis'', like conjugation in ''E.", "coli'', requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is DNase resistant, and the transferred DNA is incorporated into the recipient chromosome by homologous recombination.", "However, unlike ''E.", "coli'' Hfr conjugation, mycobacterial conjugation is chromosome rather than plasmid based.", "Furthermore, in contrast to ''E.", "coli'' Hfr conjugation, in ''M.", "smegmatis'' all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies.", "The lengths of the donor segments vary widely, but have an average length of 44.2kb.", "Since a mean of 13 tracts are transferred, the average total of transferred DNA per genome is 575kb.", "This process is referred to as \"Distributive conjugal transfer.\"", "Gray et al.", "found substantial blending of the parental genomes as a result of conjugation and regarded this blending as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction." ], [ "Conjugation-like DNA transfer in hyperthermophilic archaea", "Hyperthermophilic archaea encode pili structurally similar to the bacterial conjugative pili.", "However, unlike in bacteria, where conjugation apparatus typically mediates the transfer of mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids or transposons, the conjugative machinery of hyperthermophilic archaea, called Ced (Crenarchaeal system for exchange of DNA) and Ted (Thermoproteales system for exchange of DNA), appears to be responsible for the transfer of cellular DNA between members of the same species.", "It has been suggested that in these archaea the conjugation machinery has been fully domesticated for promoting DNA repair through homologous recombination rather than spread of mobile genetic elements.", "In addition to the VirB2-like conjugative pilus, the Ced and Ted systems include components for the VirB6-like transmembrane mating pore and the VirB4-like ATPase." ], [ "Inter-kingdom transfer", "''Agrobacterium tumefaciens'' gall at the root of ''Carya illinoensis''.Bacteria related to the nitrogen fixing ''Rhizobia'' are an interesting case of inter-kingdom conjugation.", "For example, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of ''Agrobacterium'' and the root-tumor inducing (Ri) plasmid of ''A.", "rhizogenes'' contain genes that are capable of transferring to plant cells.", "The expression of these genes effectively transforms the plant cells into opine-producing factories.", "Opines are used by the bacteria as sources of nitrogen and energy.", "Infected cells form crown gall or root tumors.", "The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.The Ti and Ri plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria using a system (the ''tra'', or transfer, operon) that is different and independent of the system used for inter-kingdom transfer (the ''vir'', or virulence, operon).", "Such transfers create virulent strains from previously avirulent strains." ], [ "Genetic engineering applications", "Conjugation is a convenient means for transferring genetic material to a variety of targets.", "In laboratories, successful transfers have been reported from bacteria to yeast, plants, mammalian cells, diatoms and isolated mammalian mitochondria.", "Conjugation has advantages over other forms of genetic transfer including minimal disruption of the target's cellular envelope and the ability to transfer relatively large amounts of genetic material (see the above discussion of ''E.", "coli'' chromosome transfer).", "In plant engineering, ''Agrobacterium''-like conjugation complements other standard vehicles such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).", "While TMV is capable of infecting many plant families these are primarily herbaceous dicots.", "''Agrobacterium''-like conjugation is also primarily used for dicots, but monocot recipients are not uncommon." ], [ "See also", "* Sexual conjugation in algae and ciliates* Transfection* Triparental mating* Zygotic induction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Bacterial conjugation (a Flash animation)" ] ]

[ [ "Galjoen" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''galjoen''', '''black bream''', or '''blackfish''' ('''''Dichistius capensis''''') is a species of marine fish found only along the coast of South Africa.", "Galjoen is the national fish of South Africa." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Galjoen at Rocky BayThe galjoen is indigenous to the coasts of southern Africa from Angola to South Africa, and is generally found around reefs at shallow depths around , often near the shore." ], [ "Description", "This species can reach in total length and a weight of .", "The body is compressed, and the fins are well developed, with prominent spines, 10 of them, with between 18 and 23 rays.", "The anal fin has three spines, and usually 13 or 14 rays, the pelvic fins have 1 spine and 5 rays, and the pectoral fins are typically shorter than the head.", "The body, fins, and head, with the except of the front of the snout, are covered in scales.", "The lips are thick, with strong curved incisors at the front of the mouth, with smaller teeth behind the front incisors.Galjoen at Castor Rock" ], [ "Ecology", "===Diet===The species usually feeds on red and coraline seaweed and red bait, small mussels and barnacles found off rocky shores, and appear in particular to be a partial to the white mussels residing in the sandy beaches and inlets of the rocky outcrops along the southern coast.===Home area===In 2005, the movements of the species were extensively studied.", "Some 25,000 galjoen were tagged at four sites in reserves in South Africa and their overall movement was found to remain localised, with some 95% of fish studied seeming to indicate a particular area." ], [ "Importance to humans", "===Fishing===It is important to local commercial fisheries and is also popular as a game fish.===As food===Due to their abundance in the shores off South Africa, galjoen is common in South African cuisine.", "A notable dish is the fish is sprinkled with pepper and lemon, or with lemon, mayonnaise, and melted garlic butter, and served with fresh bread and apricot jam.===As the national fish of South Africa===Galjoen is the national fish of South Africa.", "The suggestion to make it the national fish came from Margaret Smith, the wife of ichthyologist J. L. B. Smith, to find a marine equivalent to the springbok." ], [ "Etymology", "The scientific name of ''Coracinus capensis'' is a reference to its black colour when found in rocky areas, ''Coracinus'' meaning \"raven\" or \"black coloured\"; in sandy areas it gives off a silver-bronze colour." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Blue crane" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''blue crane''' ('''''Grus paradisea'''''), also known as the '''Stanley crane''' and the '''paradise crane''', is the national bird of South Africa.", "The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN." ], [ "Description", "A blue crane at the International Crane FoundationEtosha, NamibiaThe blue crane is a tall, ground-dwelling bird, but is fairly small by the standards of the crane family.", "It is tall, with a wingspan of and weighs .", "Among standard measurements, the wing chord measures , the exposed culmen measures and the tarsus measures .", "This crane is pale blue-gray in color becoming darker on the upper head, neck and nape.", "From the crown to the lores, the plumage is distinctly lighter, sometimes whitish.", "The bill is ochre to greyish, with a pink tinge.", "The long wingtip feathers which trail to the ground.", "The primaries are black to slate grey, with dark coverts and blackish on the secondaries.", "Unlike most cranes, it has a relatively large head and a proportionately thin neck.", "Juveniles are similar but slightly lighter, with tawny coloration on the head, and no long wing plumes." ], [ "Habitat", "Blue cranes are birds of the dry grassy uplands, usually the pastured grasses of hills, valleys, and plains with a few scattered trees.", "They prefer areas in the nesting season that have access to both upland and wetland areas, though they feed almost entirely in dry areas.", "They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the lower grasslands of an elevation of around 1,300 to 2,000 m and moving down to lower altitudes for winter." ], [ "Movements and behaviour", "Of the 15 species of crane, the blue crane has the most restricted distribution of all.", "Even species with lower population numbers now (such as Siberian or whooping cranes) are found over a considerable range in their migratory movements.", "The blue crane is migratory, primarily altitudinal, but details are little known.The blue crane is partially social, less so during the breeding season.", "There is a strict hierarchy in groups, with the larger adult males being dominant.", "They overlap in range with three other crane species but interactions with these species and other \"large wader\" type birds are not known.", "They are aggressively protective of their nesting sites during the nesting season, even attacking innocent, non-predatory animals such as antelope, cattle, tortoises, plovers and the smallest of birds, such as sparrows.", "Humans are also attacked if they approach a nest too closely, with the aggressive male having torn clothes and drawn blood in such cases.", "Threats to their eggs and chicks include large savannah and white-throated monitor lizards, egg-eating snakes, foxes, jackals, birds-of-prey, meerkats, and mongoose." ], [ "Feeding", "Blue cranes feed from the ground and appear to rarely feed near wetland areas.", "Most of their diet is comprised by grasses and sedges, with many types fed on based on their proximity to the nests.", "They are also regularly insectivorous, feeding on numerous, sizeable insects such as grasshoppers.", "Small animals such as crabs, snails, frogs, small lizards and snakes may supplement the diet, with such protein-rich food often being broken down and fed to the young." ], [ "Breeding", "Eggs of Blue Crane MHNT The breeding period is highly seasonal, with eggs being recorded between October and March.", "Pair-formation amongst groups often starts in October, beginning with both potential parents running in circles with each other.", "The male then engages in a \"dance\" flings various objects in the air and then jumps.", "Eventually, a female from the group and the male appear to \"select\" each other and both engage in the dance of throwing objects and jumping.", "After the dance, mating commences in around two weeks.In a great majority of known nests, two eggs are laid (rarely one or three).", "Both males and females will incubate, with the male often incubating at night and, during the day, defending the nest territory while the female incubates.", "The incubation stage lasts around 30 days.", "The young are able to walk after two days and can swim well shortly thereafter.", "They are fed primarily by their mothers, who regurgitates food into the mouths.", "The chicks fledge in the age of 3–5 months.", "The young continue to be tended to until the next breeding season, at which time they are chased off by their parents." ], [ "Decline", "While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and approx.", "26 000 individuals remain, it began a sudden population decline from around 1980 and is now classified as vulnerable.In the last two decades, the blue crane has largely disappeared from the Eastern Cape, Lesotho, and Eswatini.", "The population in the northern Free State, Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West Province has declined by up to 90%.", "The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the Etosha Pan of northern Namibia.", "Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighbouring countries.The primary causes of the sudden decline of the blue crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops) or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of crop dusting).The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the blue crane.", "Other conservation measures are focusing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners.The blue crane is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' (AEWA) applies.Since October 2021, the Blue Crane has been classified as Moderately Depleted by the IUCN." ], [ "Cultural references", "framelessThe blue crane is culturally significant to the Xhosa people, who call it ''indwe'' (flag).", "Traditionally, when a man distinguished himself in battle or otherwise, he was often decorated by a chief with blue crane feathers in a ceremony called ''ukundzabela''.", "Men so honoured, who would wear the feathers sticking out of their hair, were known as men of (trouble)—the implication being that if trouble arose, they would reinstate peace and order.It is also of significance to the Zulu people, whose kings and warriors wore a single or many feathers as a headdress.Because of the association with warriors and heroism, the Isitwalandwe Medal was created to honour those who had \"made an outstanding contribution and sacrifice to the liberation struggle\", that is, those who resisted the apartheid regime in South Africa (1949–1991) in various ways.", "Isitwalandwe means \"the one who wears the plumes of the rare bird\", or blue crane.The blue crane is also the national bird of South Africa." ], [ "Videos", "File:Anthropoides paradisea1.oggFile:Anthropoides paradisea2.oggFile:Anthropoides paradisea3.ogg" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Species text for Blue Crane in The Atlas of Southern African Birds* International Crane Foundation's Blue Crane page* Blue Crane (''Anthropoides paradises'') from ''Cranes of the World'' by Paul Johnsgard* Are traditional healers contributing to the decline of Blue Cranes in Namibia?" ] ]

[ [ "Babrak Karmal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Babrak Karmal''' (Dari/Pashto: ; born '''Sultan Hussein'''; 6 January 1929 – 1 or 3 December 1996) was an Afghan communist revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Afghanistan, serving in the post of general secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan from 1979 to 1986.Born in Kabul Province into a Tajik family, Karmal attended Kabul University and developed openly leftist views there, having been introduced to Marxism by Mir Akbar Khyber during his imprisonment for activities deemed too radical by the government.", "He became a founding member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and eventually became the leader of the Parcham faction when the PDPA split in 1967, with their ideological nemesis being the Khalq faction.", "Karmal was elected to the Lower House after the 1965 parliamentary election, serving in parliament until losing his seat in the 1969 parliamentary election.Under Karmal's leadership, the Parchamite PDPA participated in Mohammad Daoud Khan's rise to power in 1973, and his subsequent regime.", "While relations were good at the beginning, Daoud began a major purge of leftist influence in the mid-1970s.", "This in turn led to the reformation of the PDPA in 1977, and Karmal played a role in the 1978 Saur Revolution when the PDPA took power.", "Karmal was appointed Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, synonymous with vice head of state, in the communist government.", "The Parchamite faction found itself under significant pressure by the Khalqists soon after taking power.", "In June 1978, a PDPA Central Committee meeting voted in favor of giving the Khalqist faction exclusive control over PDPA policy.", "This decision was followed by a failed Parchamite coup, after which Hafizullah Amin, a Khalqist, initiated a purge against the Parchamites.", "Karmal survived this purge but was exiled to Prague and eventually dismissed from his post.", "Instead of returning to Kabul, he feared for his life and lived with his family in the forests protected by the Czechoslovak secret police StB.", "The Afghan secret police KHAD had allegedly sent members to Czechoslovakia to assassinate Karmal.", "In late 1979 he was brought to Moscow by the KGB and eventually, in December 1979, the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan (with the consent of Amin's government) to stabilize the country.", "The Soviet troops staged a coup and assassinated Amin, replacing him with Karmal.Karmal was promoted to Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers on 27 December 1979.He remained in the latter office until 1981, when he was succeeded by Sultan Ali Keshtmand.", "Throughout his term, Karmal worked to establish a support base for the PDPA by introducing several reforms.", "Among these were the \"Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan\", introducing a general amnesty for those people imprisoned during Nur Mohammad Taraki's and Amin's rule.", "He also replaced the red Khalqist flag with a more traditional one.", "These policies failed to increase the PDPA's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people and the Afghan mujahidin rebels - he was widely seen as a Soviet puppet amongst the populace.", "These policy failures, and the stalemate that ensued after the Soviet intervention, led the Soviet leadership to become highly critical of Karmal's leadership.", "Under Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Union deposed Karmal in 1986 and replaced him with Mohammad Najibullah.", "Following his loss of power, he was again exiled, this time to Moscow.", "It was Anahita Ratebzad who persuaded Najibullah to allow Babrak Karmal to return to Afghanistan in 1991, where Karmal became an associate of Abdul Rashid Dostum and possibly helped remove the Najibullah government from power in 1992.He eventually left Afghanistan again for Moscow.", "Not long after, in 1996, Karmal died from liver cancer." ], [ "Early life and career", "Karmal was born Sultan Hussein on 6 January 1929 in Kamari, a village close to Kabul.", "He was the son of Muhammad Hussein, a ''dagar jenral'' ('''lieutenant general, three-star rank''') in the Afghan Army and former governor of the province of Paktia and Herat provinces, and was the first of six siblings.", "His family was one of the wealthier families in Kabul.", "His ethnic background was publicly disputed, with some sources claiming he was Pashtun and that he was Tajik.", "Throughout his tenure in the Afghan Parliament, Karmal strategically sowed confusion by alternately identifying himself as Pashtun and Tajik, demonstrating a deliberate avoidance of strict ethnic categorization.", "Karmal's ethnicity was a subject of persistent dispute, with conflicting claims made by Pashtun sympathizers and affiliates asserting that he belonged to the ''Mullahkhel'' Kakar tribe of Khost and Paktia as a Pashtun, while Tajik sympathizers and affiliates insisted that he was a Tajik with roots originating from Kashmir.", "It is important to note that during and after the Cold War, many English language sources tended to categorize him as a Tajik, often with the intention of discrediting him and providing a rationale for the Russians' decision to oust him from power for not being Pashtun.He attended Nejat High School, a German-speaking school, and graduated from it in 1948, and applied to enter the Faculty of Law and Political Science of Kabul University.", "Karmal's application was initially denied admission to Kabul University because of his student political activist and his openly leftist views.", "He was always a charismatic speaker and became involved in the student union and the Wikh-i-Zalmayan (Awakened Youth Movement), a progressive and leftist organization.", "He studied at the College of Law and Political Science at Kabul University from 1951 to 1953.In 1953 Karmal was arrested because of his student union activities, but was released three years later in 1956 in an amnesty by Muhammad Daoud Khan.", "Shortly after, in 1957, Karmal found work as an English and German translator, before quitting and leaving for military training.", "Karmal graduated from the College of Law and Political Science in 1960, and in 1961, he found work as an employee in the Compilation and Translation Department of the Ministry of Education.", "From 1961 to 1963 he worked in the Ministry of Planning.", "When his mother died, Karmal left with his maternal aunt to live somewhere else.", "His father disowned him because of his leftist views.", "Karmal was involved in much debauchery, which was controversial in the mostly conservative Afghan society.===Communist politics===Imprisoned from 1953 to 1956, Karmal befriended fellow inmate Mir Akbar Khyber, who introduced Karmal to Marxism.", "Karmal changed his name from Sultan Hussein to Babrak Karmal, which means \"Comrade of the Workers'\" in Pashtun, to disassociate himself from his bourgeois background.", "When he was released from prison, he continued his activities in the student union, and began to promote Marxism.", "Karmal spent the rest of the 1950s and the early 1960s becoming involved with Marxist organizations, of which there were at least four in Afghanistan at the time; two of the four were established by Karmal.", "When the 1964 Afghan Provisional Constitution, which legalised the establishment of new political entities, was introduced several prominent Marxists agreed to establish a communist political party.", "The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA, the Communist Party) was established in January 1965 in Nur Muhammad Taraki's home.", "Factionalism within the PDPA quickly became a problem; the party split into the Khalq led by Taraki alongside Hafizullah Amin, and the Parcham led by Karmal.During the 1965 parliamentary election Karmal was one of four PDPA members elected to the lower house of parliament; the three others were Anahita Ratebzad (whom he would later have an affair with according to Vasili Mitrokhin), Nur Ahmed Nur and Fezanul Haq Fezan.", "No Khalqists were elected; however, Amin was 50 votes short of being elected.", "The Parchamite victory may be explained by the simple fact that Karmal could contribute financially to the PDPA electoral campaign.", "Karmal became a leading figure within the student movement in the 1960s, electing Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal as Prime Minister after a student demonstration (called for by Karmal) concluded with three deaths under the former leadership.", "In 1966 inside parliament, Karmal was physically assaulted by an Islamist MP, Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi.In 1967, the PDPA unofficially split into two formal parties, one Khalqist and one Parchamist.", "The dissolution of the PDPA was initiated by the closing down of the Khalqist newspaper, ''Khalq''.", "Karmal criticised the ''Khalq'' for being too communist, and believed that its leadership should have hidden its Marxist orientation instead of promoting it.", "According to the official version of events, the majority of the PDPA Central Committee rejected Karmal's criticism.", "The vote was a close one, and it is reported that Taraki expanded the Central Committee to win the vote; this plan resulted in eight of the new members becoming politically unaligned with and one switching to the Parchamite side.", "Karmal and half the PDPA Central Committee left the PDPA to establish a Parchamite-led PDPA.", "Officially the split was caused by ideological differences, but the party may have divided between the different leadership styles and plans of Taraki versus Karmal.", "Taraki wanted to model the party after Leninist norms while Karmal wanted to establish a democratic front.", "Other differences were socioeconomic.", "The majority of Khalqists came from rural areas; hence they were poorer, and were of Pashtun origin.", "The Parchamites were urban, richer, and spoke Dari more often than not.", "The Khalqists accused the Parchamites of having a connection with the monarchy, and because of it, referred to the Parchamite PDPA as the \"Royal Communist Party\".", "Both Karmal and Amin retained their seats in the lower house of parliament in the 1969 parliamentary election.===The Daoud era===Mohammed Daoud Khan, in collaboration with the Parchamite PDPA and radical military officers, overthrew the monarchy and instituted the Republic of Afghanistan in 1973.After Daoud's seizure of power, an American embassy cable stated that the new government had established a Soviet-style Central Committee, in which Karmal and Mir Akbar Khyber were given leading positions.", "Most ministries were given to Parchamites; Hassan Sharq became Deputy Prime Minister, Major Faiz Mohammad became Minister of Internal Affairs and Niamatullah Pazhwak became Minister of Education.", "The Parchamites took control over the ministries of finance, agriculture, communications and border affairs.", "The new government quickly suppressed the opposition, and secured their power base.", "At first, the National Front government between Daoud and the Parchamites seemed to work.", "By 1975, Daoud had strengthened his position by enhancing the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the Presidency.", "To the dismay of the Parchamites, all parties other than the National Revolutionary Party (NRP, established by Daoud) were made illegal.Shortly after the ban on opposition to the NRP, Daoud began a massive purge of Parchamites in government.", "Mohammad lost his position as interior minister, Abdul Qadir was demoted, and Karmal was put under government surveillance.", "To mitigate Daoud's suddenly anti-communist directives, the Soviet Union reestablished the PDPA; Taraki was elected its General Secretary and Karmal, Second Secretary.", "While the Saur Revolution (literally the April Revolution) was planned for August, the assassination of Khyber led to a chain of events which ended with the communists seizing power.", "Karmal, when taking power in 1979, accused Amin of ordering the assassination of Khyber.===Taraki–Amin rule===Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, retaining his post as PDPA general secretary.", "Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers.Mohammad Aslam Watanjar became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers.", "The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and Mohammad Rafi, became Minister of Defence and Minister of Public Works, respectively.", "The appointment of Amin, Karmal and Watanjar led to splits within the Council of Ministers: the Khalqists answered to Amin; Karmal led the civilian Parchamites; and the military officers (who were Parchamites) were answerable to Watanjar (a Khalqist).", "The first conflict arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to military officers who had participated in the Saur Revolution; Karmal opposed such a move but was overruled.", "A PDPA Politburo meeting voted in favour of giving Central Committee membership to the officers.On 27 June, three months after the Saur Revolution, Amin outmaneuvered the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting, giving the Khalqists exclusive right over formulating and deciding policy.", "A purge against the Parchamites was initiated by Amin and supported by Taraki on 1 July 1979.Karmal, fearing for his safety, went into hiding in one of his Soviet friends' homes.", "Karmal tried to contact Alexander Puzanov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, to talk about the situation.", "Puzanov refused, and revealed Karmal's location to Amin.", "The Soviets probably saved Karmal's life by sending him to the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia.", "In exile, Karmal established a network with the remaining Parchamites in government.", "A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for 4 September 1979.Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir and the Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai.", "The coup was planned for the Festival of Eid, in anticipation of relaxed military vigilance.", "The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan.", "Another purge was initiated, and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled.", "Few returned to Afghanistan; Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah stayed in their respective countries.", "The Soviets decided that Amin should be removed to make way for a Karmal-Taraki coalition government.", "However Amin managed to order the arrest and later the murder of Taraki.Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to intervene in Afghanistan and was initially supportive, but was assassinated.", "Under the command of the Soviets, Karmal ascended to power.", "On 27 December 1979, Karmal's pre-recorded speech to the Afghan people was broadcast via Radio Kabul from Tashkent in the Uzbek SSR (the radio wavelength was changed to that of Kabul), saying: \"Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed, his accomplices – the primitive executioners, usurpers and murderers of tens of thousand of our fellow countrymen – fathers, mothers, sisters, brothers, sons and daughters, children and old people ...\" Karmal was not in Kabul when the speech was broadcast; he was in Bagram, protected by the KGB.That evening Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, congratulated Karmal on his rise to the Chairmanship of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council, some time before Karmal received an official appointment.", "Karmal returned to Kabul on 28 December.", "He travelled alongside a Soviet military column.", "For the next few days Karmal lived in a villa on the outskirts of Kabul under the protection of the KGB.", "On 1 January 1980 Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and Alexei Kosygin, the Soviet Chairman of the Council of Ministers, congratulated Karmal on his \"election\" as leader." ], [ "Leadership", "===Domestic policies===Karmal's ascension was quickly troubled as he was effectively installed by the invading Soviet Union, delegitimizing him.", "Unrest in the country quickly escalated, and in Kabul two major uprisings, on 3 Hoot (22 February) and the months long students' protests were early signs of trouble.", "Karmal would also arrest Major Saddiq Alamyar in 1980, the commander of the 444th Commando Battalion, who committed the Kerala massacre while Afghanistan was still under the leadership of the Khalq.", "Other perpetrators were also arrested, such as other commandos and soldiers in the 11th Division of the Afghan Army.", "Alamyar remained in jail for a decade, even after Karmal was removed from his post as president.====The \"Fundamental Principles\" and amnesty====When he came to power, Karmal promised an end to executions, the establishment of democratic institutions and free elections, the creation of a constitution, and legalization of alternative political parties.", "Prisoners incarcerated under the two previous governments would be freed in a general amnesty (which occurred on 6 January).", "He promised the creation of a coalition government which would not espouse socialism.", "At the same time, he told the Afghan people that he had negotiated with the Soviet Union to give economic, military and political assistance.", "The mistrust most Afghans felt towards the government was a problem for Karmal.", "Many still remembered he had said he would protect private capital in 1978—a promise later proven to be a lie.Karmal's three most important promises were the general amnesty of prisoners, the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the adoption of a new flag containing the traditional black, red and green (the flag of Taraki and Amin was red).", "His government granted concessions to religious leaders and the restoration of confiscated property.", "Some property, which was confiscated during earlier land reforms, was also partially restored.", "All these measures, with the exception of the general amnesty of prisoners, were introduced gradually.", "Of 2,700 prisoners, 2,600 were released from prison; 600 of these were Parchamites.", "The general amnesty was greatly publicized by the government.", "While the event was hailed with enthusiasm by some, many others greeted the event with disdain, since their loved ones or associates had died during earlier purges.", "Amin had planned to introduce a general amnesty on 1 January 1980, to coincide with the PDPA's sixteenth anniversary.Work on the Fundamental Principles had started under Amin: it guaranteed democratic rights such as freedom of speech, the right to security and life, the right to peaceful association, the right to demonstrate and the right that \"no one would be accused of crime but in accord with the provisions of law\" and that the accused had the right to a fair trial.", "The Fundamental Principles envisaged a democratic state led by the PDPA, the only party then permitted by law.", "The Revolutionary Council, the organ of supreme power, would convene twice every year.", "The Revolutionary Council in turn elected a Presidium which would take decisions on behalf of the Revolutionary Council when it was not in session.", "The Presidium consisted mostly of PDPA Politburo members.", "The state would safeguard three kinds of property: state, cooperative and private property.", "The Fundamental Principles said that the state had the right to change the Afghan economy from an economy where man was exploited to an economy where man was free.", "Another clause stated that the state had the right to take \"families, both parents and children, under its supervision.\"", "While it looked democratic at the outset, the Fundamental Principles was based on contradictions.The Fundamental Principles led to the establishment of two important state organs: the Special Revolutionary Court, a specialized court for crimes against national security and territorial integrity, and the Institute for Legal and Scientific Research and Legislative Affairs, the supreme legislative organ of state, This body could amend and draft laws, and introduce regulations and decrees on behalf of the government.", "The introduction of more Soviet-style institutions led the Afghan people to distrust the communist government even more.The Fundamental Principles constitution came into power on 22 April 1980.====Dividing power: Khalq–Parcham====With Karmal's ascension to power, Parchamites began to \"settle old scores\".", "Revolutionary Troikas were created to arrest, sentence and execute people.", "Amin's guard were the first victims of the terror which ensued.", "Those commanders who had stayed loyal to Amin were arrested, filling the prisons.", "The Soviets protested, and Karmal replied, \"As long as you keep my hands bound and do not let me deal with the Khalq faction there will be no unity in the PDPA and the government cannot become strong ...", "They tortured and killed us.", "They still hate us!", "They are the enemies of the party ...\" Amin's daughter, along with her baby, was imprisoned for twelve years, until Mohammad Najibullah, then leader of the PDPA, released her.", "When Karmal took power, leading posts in the Party and Government bureaucracy were taken over by Parchamites.", "The Khalq faction was removed from power, and only technocrats, opportunists and individuals which the Soviets trusted would be appointed to the higher echelons of government.", "Khalqists remained in control of the Ministry of Interior, but Parchamites were given control over KHAD and the secret police.", "The Parchamites and the Khalqists controlled an equal share of the military.", "Two out of Karmal's three Council of Ministers deputy chairmen were Khalqists.", "Khalqists controlled the Ministry of Communications and the interior ministry.", "Parchamites, on the other hand, controlled the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Defence.", "In addition to the changes in government, the Parchamites held clear majority in the PDPA Central Committee.", "Only one Khalqi, Saleh Mohammad Zeary, was a member of the PDPA Secretariat during Karmal's rule.Over 14 and 15 March 1982 the PDPA held a party ''conference'' at the Kabul Polytechnic Institute instead of a party ''congress'', since a party congress would have given the Khalq faction a majority and could have led to a Khalqist takeover of the PDPA.", "The rules of holding a party conference were different, and the Parchamites had a three-fifths majority.", "This infuriated several Khalqists; the threat of expulsion did not lessen their anger.", "The conference was not successful, but it was portrayed as such by the official media.", "The conference broke up after one and a half days of a 3-day long program, because of the inter-party struggle for power between the Khalqists and the Parchamites.", "A \"program of action\" was introduced, and party rules were given minor changes.", "As an explanation of the low party membership, the official media also made it seem hard to become a member of the party.====PDPA base==== Karmal cabinet (1979–1981)OfficeIncumbentTook officeLeft officeDeputy Chairman of the Council of MinistersAssadullah Sarwari28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of PlanningSultan Ali Keshtmand28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of National DefenceMuhammad Rafie28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of InteriorSayed Mohammad Gulabzoy28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of Foreign AffairsShah Muhammad Dost28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of EducationAnahita Ratebzad28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of FinanceAbdul Wakil28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of TransportSherjan Mazduryar28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of Border and TribesFaiz Muhammad28 December 197914 September 1980Minister of TradeMuhammad Khan Jalalar28 December 197911 June 1981Minister of CommunicationsMuhammad Aslam Watanjar10 January 198011 June 1981Minister of Mines, IndustriesMuhammad Isma'il Danesh10 January 198011 June 1981Minister of Water, PowerRaz Muhammad Paktin10 January 198011 June 1981Minister of Higher EducationGuldad10 January 198011 June 1981Minister of HealthNazar Muhammad10 January 198011 June 1981Minister of Agriculture, Land ReformFazl Rahim Mohmand10 January 198011 June 1981When Karmal took power, he began expanding the support base of the PDPA.", "Karmal tried to persuade certain groups, which had been referred to class enemies of the revolution during Taraki and Amin's rule, to support the PDPA.", "Karmal appointed several non-communists to top positions.", "Between March and May 1980, 78 out of the 191 people appointed to government posts were not members of the PDPA.", "Karmal reintroduced the old Afghan custom of having an Islamic invocation every time the government issued a proclamation.", "In his first live speech to the Afghan people, Karmal called for the establishment of the National Fatherland Front (NFF); the NFF's founding congress was held in June 1981.Unfortunately for Karmal, his policies did not lead to a notable increase in support for his regime, and it did not help Karmal that most Afghans saw the Soviet intervention as an invasion.By 1981, the government gave up on political solutions to the conflict.", "At the fifth PDPA Central Committee plenum in June, Karmal resigned from his Council of Ministers chairmanship and was replaced by Sultan Ali Keshtmand, while Nur Ahmad Nur was given a bigger role in the Revolutionary Council.", "This was seen as \"base broadening\".", "The previous weight given to non-PDPA members in top positions ceased to be an important matter in the media by June 1981.This was significant, considering that up to five members of the Revolutionary Council were non-PDPA members.", "By the end of 1981, the previous contenders, who had been heavily presented in the media, were all gone; two were given ambassadorships, two ceased to be active in politics, and one continued as an advisor to the government.", "The other three changed sides, and began to work for the opposition.The national policy of reconciliation continued: in January 1984 the land reform introduced by Taraki and Amin was drastically modified, the limits of landholdings were increased to win the support of middle class peasants, the literacy programme was continued, and concessions to women were made.", "In 1985 the Loya Jirga was reconvened.", "The 1985 Loya Jirga was followed by a tribal jirga in September.", "In 1986 Abdul Rahim Hatef, a non-PDPA member, was elected to the NFF chairmanship.", "During the 1985–86 elections it was said that 60 percent of the elected officials were non-PDPA members.", "By the end of Karmal's rule, several non-PDPA members had high-level government positions.====Civil war and military====+'''Troop levels'''SoldiersAs of25,000198025–30,000198125–30,000198240,000198340,000198435–40,0001985In March 1979, the military budget was 6.4 million US$, which was 8.3 percent of the government budget, but only 2.2 of gross national product.", "After the Soviet intervention, the defence budget increased to 208 million US$ in 1980, and 325 million US$ by 1981.In 1982 it was reported that the government spent around 22 percent of total expenditure.When the political solution failed (see \"PDPA base\" section), the Afghan government and the Soviet military decided to solve the conflict militarily.", "The change from a political to a military solution did not come suddenly.", "It began in January 1981, as Karmal doubled wages for military personnel, issued several promotions, and decorated one general and thirteen colonels.", "The draft age was lowered, the obligatory length of arms duty was extended and the age for reservists was increased to thirty-five years of age.", "In June 1981, Assadullah Sarwari lost his seat in the PDPA Politburo, replaced by Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, a former tank commander and Minister of Communications, Major General Mohammad Rafi was made Minister of Defence and Mohammad Najibullah appointed KHAD Chairman.These measures were introduced due to the collapse of the army during the Soviet intervention.", "Before the intervention the army could field 100,000 troops, after the intervention only 25,000.Desertions were pandemic, and the recruitment campaigns for young people often drove them to the opposition.", "To better organize the military, seven military zones were established, each with its own Defence Council.", "The Defence Councils were established at the national, provincial and district level to empower the local PDPA.", "It is estimated that the Afghan government spent as much as 40 percent of government revenue on defense.Karmal refused to recognize the rebels as genuine, saying in an interview:====Economy====Indicators 1980 1981 1982 1986 '''Expenditure'''Total (millions of afghanis)31,69240,75142,11288,700Ordinary (in percent)62666974Development (in percent)38343126'''Sources of Finances'''Domestic revenue: excluding gas (in percent)50403731Sales of natural gas (in percent)33343417Foreign aid (in percent)28262829Rentier income (in percent)61596248Domestic borrowing (in percent)−111023During the civil war and the ensuing Soviet–Afghan War, most of the country's infrastructure was destroyed.", "Normal patterns of economic activity were disrupted.", "The Gross national product (GNP) fell substantially during Karmal's rule because of the conflict; trade and transport was disrupted with loss of labor and capital.", "In 1981 the Afghan GDP stood at 154.3 billion Afghan afghanis, a drop from 159.7 billion in 1978.GNP per capita decreased from 7,370 in 1978 to 6,852 in 1981.The dominant form of economic activity was in the agricultural sector.", "Agriculture accounted for 63 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1981; 56 percent of the labor force was working in agriculture in 1982.Industry accounted for 21 percent of GDP in 1982, and employed 10 percent of the labor force.", "All industrial enterprises were government-owned.", "The service sector, the smallest of the three, accounted for 10 percent of GDP in 1981, and employed an estimated one-third of the labour force.", "The balance of payments, which had grown in the pre-communist administration of Muhammad Daoud Khan, decreased, turning negative by 1982 at 70.3 million $US.", "The only economic activity which grew substantially during Karmal's rule was export and import.===Foreign policy===Karmal observed in early 1983 that without Soviet intervention, \"It is unknown what the destiny of the Afghan Revolution would be ... We are realists and we clearly realize that in store for us yet lie trials and deprivations, losses and difficulties.\"", "Two weeks before this statement Sultan Ali Keshtmand, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, lamented the fact that half the schools and three-quarters of communications had been destroyed since 1979.The Soviet Union rejected several Western-made peace plans, such as the Carrington Plan, since they did not take into consideration the PDPA government.", "Most Western peace plans had been made in collaboration with the Afghan opposition forces.", "At the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, stated;The stance of the Pakistani government was clear, demanding complete Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the establishment of a non-PDPA government.", "Karmal, summarizing his discussions with Iran and Pakistan, said \"Iran and Pakistan have so far not opted for concrete and constructive positions.\"", "During Karmal's rule Afghan–Pakistani relations remained hostile; the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was the catalyst for the hostile relationship.", "The increasing numbers of Afghan refugees in Pakistan challenged the PDPA's legitimacy to rule.The Soviet Union threatened in 1985 that it would support the Baloch separatist movement in Pakistan if the Pakistani government continued to aid the Afghan mujahideen.", "Karmal, problematically for the Soviets, did not want a Soviet withdrawal, and he hampered attempts to improve relations with Pakistan since the Pakistani government had refused to recognise the PDPA government.===Public image===Because Karmal was put into power without a formal ceremony as in Afghan tradition, he was seen as an illegitimate leader in many eyes of his people.", "A poor performance in foreign interviews also did not help his public image where he was noted to speak like an \"exhibitionist\" rather than a statesman.", "Karmal was widely viewed as a puppet leader of the Soviet Union by Afghans and the Western press.Despite his position, Karmal was apparently not permitted to make key decisions as he was following advice from Soviet advisers.", "The Soviet control of the Afghan state was apparently so much that Karmal himself admitted to a friend of his unfree life, telling him: “The Soviet comrades love me boundlessly, and for the sake of my personal safety, they don’t obey even my own orders.”===Fall from power and succession===Mikhail Gorbachev, then General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, said, \"The main reason that there has been no national consolidation so far is that Comrade Karmal is hoping to continue sitting in Kabul with our help.\"", "Karmal's position became less secure when the Soviet leadership began blaming him for the failures in Afghanistan.", "Gorbachev, worried over the situation, told the Soviet Politburo \"If we don't change approaches to evacuate Afghanistan, we will be fighting there for another 20 or 30 years.\"", "It is not clear when the Soviet leadership began to campaign for Karmal's dismissal, but Andrei Gromyko discussed the possibility of Karmal's resignation with Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, the Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1982.While it was Gorbachev who would dismiss Karmal, there may have been a consensus within the Soviet leadership in 1983 that Karmal should resign.", "Gorbachev's own plan was to replace Karmal with Mohammad Najibullah, who had joined the PDPA at its creation.", "Najibullah was thought highly of by Yuri Andropov, Boris Ponomarev and Dmitriy Ustinov, and negotiations for his succession may have started in 1983.Najibullah was not the Soviet leadership's only choice for Karmal's succession; a GRU report noted that the majority of the PDPA leadership would support Assadullah Sarwari's ascension to leadership.", "According to the GRU, Sarwari was a better candidate as he could balance between the Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks; Najibullah was a Pashtun nationalist.", "Another viable candidate was Abdul Qadir, who had been a participant in the Saur Revolution.Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Secretariat in November 1985.During Karmal's March 1986 visit to the Soviet Union, the Soviets tried to persuade Karmal that he was too ill to govern, and that he should resign.", "This backfired, as a Soviet doctor attending to Karmal told him he was in good health.", "Karmal asked to return home to Kabul, and said that he understood and would listen to the Soviet recommendations.", "Before leaving, Karmal promised he would step down as PDPA General Secretary.", "The Soviets did not trust him and sent Vladimir Kryuchkov, the head of intelligence (FCD) in the KGB, into Afghanistan.", "At a meeting in Kabul, Karmal confessed his undying love for the Soviet Union, comparing his ardor to his Muslim faith.", "Kryuchkov, concluding that he could not persuade Karmal to resign, left the meeting.", "After Kryuchkov left the room, the Afghan defence minister and the state security minister visited Karmal's office, telling him that he had to resign from one of his posts.", "Understanding that his Soviet support had been eliminated, Karmal resigned from the office of the General Secretary at the 18th PDPA Central Committee plenum.", "He was succeeded in his post by Najibullah.Karmal still had support within the party, and used his base to curb Najibullah's powers.", "He began spreading rumors that he would be reappointed General Secretary.", "Najibullah's power base was in the KHAD, the Afghan equivalent to the KGB, and not the party.", "Considering the fact that the Soviet Union had supported Karmal for over six years, the Soviet leadership wanted to ease him out of power gradually.", "Yuli Vorontsov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, told Najibullah to begin undermining Karmal's power slowly.", "Najibullah complained to the Soviet leadership that Karmal used most of his spare time looking for errors and \"speaking against the National Reconciliation programme\".", "At a meeting of the Soviet Politburo on 13 November 1986 it was decided that Najibullah should remove Karmal; this motion was supported by Gromyko, Vorontsov, Eduard Shevardnadze, Anatoly Dobrynin and Viktor Chebrikov.", "A PDPA meeting in November relieved Karmal of his Revolutionary Council chairmanship, and exiled him to Moscow where he was given a state-owned apartment and a dacha.", "Karmal was succeeded as Revolutionary Council chairman by Haji Mohammad Tsamkani, who was not a member of the PDPA." ], [ "Later life and death", "Many years after the end of his leadership, he denounced the Saur Revolution of 1978 in which he took part, taking aim at the Khalq governments of Taraki and Amin.", "He told a Soviet reporter:It was the greatest crime against the people of Afghanistan.", "Parcham's leaders were against armed actions because the country was not ready for a revolution...", "I knew that people would not support us if we decided to keep power without such support.For unknown reasons, Karmal was invited back to Kabul by Najibullah, and \"for equally obscure reasons Karmal accepted\", returning on 20 June 1991.", "(this could have been on the recommendation of Anahita Ratebzad who was very close to Karmal and also respected by Najibullah).", "If Najibullah's plan was to strengthen his position within the Watan Party (the renamed PDPA) by appeasing the pro-Karmal Parchamites, he failed – Karmal's apartment became a center for opposition to Najibullah's government.", "When Najibullah was toppled in 1992, Karmal became the most powerful politician in Kabul through leadership of the Parcham.", "However, his negotiations with the rebels collapsed quickly, and on 16 April 1992 the rebels, led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, took Kabul.", "After the fall of Najibullah's government, Karmal was based in Hairatan.", "There, it is alleged, Karmal used most of his time either trying to establish a new party, or advising people to join the secular National Islamic Movement (''Junbish-i-Milli'').", "Abdul Rashid Dostum, the leader of Junbish-i-Milli, was a supporter of Karmal during his rule.", "It is unknown how much control Karmal had over Dostum, but there is little evidence that Karmal was in any commanding position.", "Karmal's influence over Dostum appeared indirect – some of his former associates supported Dostum.", "Those who spoke with Karmal during this period noted his lack of interest in politics.", "In June 1992 it was reported that he had died in a plane crash along with Dostum, although these reports later proved to be false.In early December 1996, Karmal died in Moscow's Central Clinical Hospital from liver cancer.", "The date of his death was reported by some sources as 1 December and by others as 3 December.", "The Taliban summed up his rule as follows:he committed all kinds of crimes during his illegitimate rule ... God inflicted on him various kinds of hardship and pain.", "Eventually he died of cancer in a hospital belonging to his paymasters, the Russians." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Biography of President Babrak Karmal" ] ]

[ [ "Buddhist philosophy" ], [ "Introduction", "The Buddhist Nalanda university and monastery was a major institution of higher-learning in ancient India from the 5th century CE until the 12th century.", "'''Buddhist philosophy''' is the ancient Indian philosophical system that developed within the religio-philosophical tradition of Buddhism.", "It comprises all the philosophical investigations and systems of rational inquiry that developed among various schools of Buddhism in ancient India following the ''parinirvāṇa'' of Gautama Buddha (c. 5th century BCE), as well as the further developments which followed the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia.Buddhism combines both philosophical reasoning and the practice of meditation.", "The Buddhist religion presents a multitude of Buddhist paths to liberation; with the expansion of early Buddhism from ancient India to Sri Lanka and subsequently to East Asia and Southeast Asia, Buddhist thinkers have covered topics as varied as cosmology, ethics, epistemology, logic, metaphysics, ontology, phenomenology, the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of time, and soteriology in their analysis of these paths.Pre-sectarian Buddhism was based on empirical evidence gained by the sense organs (including the mind)'','' and the Buddha seems to have retained a skeptical distance from certain metaphysical questions, refusing to answer them because they were not conducive to liberation but led instead to further speculation.", "However he also affirmed theories with metaphysical implications, such as dependent arising, karma, and rebirth.Particular points of Buddhist philosophy have often been the subject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism, as well as between representative thinkers of Buddhist schools and Hindu or Jaina philosophers.", "These elaborations and disputes gave rise to various schools in early Buddhism of Abhidharma, and to the Mahāyāna traditions such as Prajñāpāramitā, Mādhyamaka, Sautrāntika, Buddha-nature, and Yogācāra.", "One recurrent theme in Buddhist philosophy has been the desire to find a Middle Way between philosophical views seen as extreme." ], [ "Historical phases of Buddhist philosophy", "Edward Conze splits the development of Indian Buddhist philosophy into three phases:# The phase of the pre-sectarian Buddhist doctrines derived from oral traditions that originated during the life of Gautama Buddha, and are common to all later schools of Buddhism.# The second phase concerns non-Mahāyāna \"scholastic\" Buddhism, as evident in the Abhidharma texts beginning in the 3rd century BCE, that feature scholastic reworking and schematic classification of material in the early Buddhist texts.", "The Abhidhamma philosophy of the Theravada school belongs to this phase.# The third phase concerns Mahāyāna Buddhism, beginning in the late first century CE.", "This movement emphasizes the path of a bodhisattva and includes various schools of thought, such as Prajñāpāramitā, Mādhyamaka, Sautrāntika, Buddha-nature, and Yogācāra.Various elements of these three phases are incorporated and/or further developed in the philosophy and worldview of the various sects of Buddhism that then emerged." ], [ "Philosophical orientation", "Philosophy in ancient India was aimed mainly at spiritual liberation and had soteriological goals.", "In his study of the Mādhyamaka and Sautrāntika schools of Buddhist philosophy in ancient India, Peter Deller Santina writes:For the Indian Buddhist philosophers, the teachings of Gautama Buddha were not meant to be taken on faith alone, but to be confirmed by logical analysis and inquiry (''pramāṇa'') of the world.", "The early Buddhist texts mention that a person becomes a follower of the Buddha's teachings after having pondered them over with wisdom and the gradual training also requires that a disciple \"investigate\" (''upaparikkhati'') and \"scrutinize\" (''tuleti'') the teachings.", "The Buddha also expected his disciples to approach him as a teacher in a critical fashion and scrutinize his actions and words, as shown in the ''Vīmaṃsaka Sutta''." ], [ "The Buddha and early Buddhism", "===The Buddha===Gautama Buddha surrounded by his followers.", "Illustration from an 18th-century Burmese watercolour, Bodleian Library.Scholarly opinion varies as to whether Gautama Buddha himself was engaged in philosophical inquiry.", "Siddartha Gautama (c. 5th century BCE) was a north Indian ''Śramaṇa'' (wandering ascetic), whose teachings are preserved in the Pāli Nikayas and in the Āgamas as well as in other surviving fragmentary textual collections, collectively known as the early Buddhist texts.", "Dating these texts is difficult, and there is disagreement on how much of this material goes back to a single religious founder.", "While the focus of the Buddha's teachings is about attaining the highest good of ''nirvāṇa'', they also contain an analysis of the source of human suffering (''duḥkha''), the nature of personal identity (''ātman''), and the process of acquiring knowledge (''prajña'') about the world.===The Middle Way===The Buddha defined his teaching as \"the Middle Way\" (Pāli: ''majjhimāpaṭipadā'').", "In the ''Dharmacakrapravartana Sūtra'', this is used to refer to the fact that his teachings steer a middle course between the extremes of asceticism and bodily denial (as practiced by the Jains and other Indian ascetic groups) and sensual hedonism or indulgence.", "Many ''Śramaṇa'' ascetics of the Buddha's time placed much emphasis on a denial of the body, using practices such as fasting, to liberate the mind from the body.", "Gautama Buddha, however, realized that the mind was embodied and causally dependent on the body, and therefore that a malnourished body did not allow the mind to be trained and developed.", "Thus, Buddhism's main concern is not with luxury or poverty, but instead with the human response to circumstances.Another related teaching of the historical Buddha is \"the teaching through the middle\" (''majjhena dhammaṃ desana''), which claims to be a metaphysical middle path between the extremes of eternalism and annihilationism, as well as the extremes of existence and non-existence.", "This idea would become central to later Buddhist metaphysics, as all Buddhist philosophies would claim to steer a metaphysical middle course.===Basic teachings===Apart from the middle way, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout these early Buddhist texts, so older studies by various scholars conclude that the Buddha must at least have taught some of these key teachings:* The Four Noble Truths, which provide an analysis of the cause of suffering (''duḥkha'')* The Noble Eightfold Path, which illustrate the path to spiritual liberation (''mokṣa'')* The four ''dhyānas'' (meditations)* The three marks of existence, three characteristics which apply to all phenomena and which are: suffering (''duḥkha''), impermanence (''anicca''), and non-self (''anattā'')* The five aggregates of clinging (''skandhā''), which provide an analysis of personal identity and physical existence* Dependent origination (''pratītyasamutpāda''), a complex doctrine which analyzes the how living beings come to be and how they are conditioned by various psycho-physical processes* ''Karma'' and rebirth, actions which lead to a new existence after death, in an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (''saṃsāra'')* ''Nirvāṇa'', the ultimate soteriological goal which leads to the cessation of all sufferingAccording to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Pāli Canon of Theravāda Buddhism and the ''Śālistamba Sūtra'' belonging to the Mahāsāṃghika school.", "A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravādin ''Majjhima Nikāya'' and the Sarvāstivādin ''Madhyama Āgama'' contain mostly the same major Buddhist doctrines.", "Richard G. Salomon, in his study of the Gandhāran Buddhist texts (which are the earliest manuscripts containing discourses attributed to Gautama Buddha), has confirmed that their teachings are \"consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools.", "\"However, some scholars such as Schmithausen, Vetter, and Bronkhorst argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among these various doctrines.", "They present alternative possibilities for what was taught in earliest Buddhism and question the authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines.", "For example, some scholars think that the doctrine of ''karma'' was not central to the teachings of the historical Buddha, while others disagree with this position.", "Likewise, there is scholarly disagreement on whether insight into the true nature of reality (''prajña'') was seen as liberating in earliest Buddhism or whether it was a later addition.", "according to Vetter and Bronkhorst, ''dhyāna'' constituted the original \"liberating practice\", while discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.", "Scholars such as Bronkhorst and Carol Anderson also think that the Four Noble Truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism but as Anderson writes \"emerged as a central teaching in a slightly later period that still preceded the final redactions of the various Buddhist canons.", "\"According to some scholars, the philosophical outlook of earliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to ''reject'' and let go of more than on what doctrines to ''accept''.", "Only knowledge that is useful in attaining liberation is valued.", "According to this theory, the cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early texts.===The Four Noble Truths and dependent causation===The Four Noble Truths or \"Truths of the Noble One\" are a central feature to the teachings of the historical Buddha and are put forth in the ''Dharmacakrapravartana Sūtra''.", "The first truth of ''duḥkha'', often translated as \"suffering\", is the inherent and eternal unsatisfactoriness of life.", "This unpleasantness is said to be not just physical pain and psychological distress, but also a kind of existential unease caused by the inevitable facts of our mortality and ultimately by the impermanence of all beings and phenomena.Suffering also arises because of contact with unpleasant events, and due to not getting what one desires.", "The second truth is that this unease arises out of conditions, mainly craving (''taṇhā'') and ignorance (''avidyā'').", "The third truth is then the fact that whenever sentient beings let go of craving and remove ignorance through insight and knowledge, suffering ceases (''nirodhā'').", "The fourth truth is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of eight practices that end suffering.", "They are: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right ''samādhi'' (concentration, mental unification, meditation).", "The highest good and ultimate goal taught by the historical Buddha, which is the attainment of ''nirvāṇa'', literally means \"extinguishing\" and signified \"the complete extinguishing of greed, hatred, and delusion (i.e.", "ignorance), the forces which power ''saṃsāra''\".", "''Nirvāṇa'' also means that after an enlightened being's death, there is no further rebirth.", "In earliest Buddhism, the concept of dependent origination (''pratītya-samutpāda'') was most likely limited to processes of mental conditioning and not to all physical phenomena.", "Gautama Buddha understood the world in procedural terms, not in terms of things or substances.", "His theory posits a flux of events arising under certain conditions which are interconnected and dependent, such that the processes in question at no time are considered to be static or independent.", "Craving (''taṇhā''), for example, is always dependent on, and caused by sensations gained by the sense organs (''āyatana'').", "Sensations are always dependent on contact with our surroundings.", "Buddha's causal theory is simply descriptive: \"This existing, that exists; this arising, that arises; this not existing, that does not exist; this ceasing, that ceases.\"", "This understanding of causation as \"impersonal lawlike causal ordering\" is important because it shows how the processes that give rise to suffering work, and also how they can be reversed.The removal of suffering that stemmed from ignorance (''avidyā''), then, requires a deep understanding of the nature of reality (''prajña'').", "While philosophical analysis of arguments and concepts is clearly necessary to develop this understanding, it is not enough to remove our unskillful mental habits and deeply ingrained prejudices, which require meditation, paired with understanding.", "According to the Buddha's teachings as recorded in the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, we need to train the mind in meditation to be able to truly comprehend the nature of reality, which is said to have the Three marks of existence: suffering, impermanence, and non-self (''anātman'').", "Understanding and meditation are said to work together to clearly see (''vipassanā'') the nature of human experience and this is said to lead to liberation.===Non-self===Gautama Buddha argued that compounded entities and sentient beings lacked essence, correspondingly the self is without essence (''anātman'').", "This means there is no part of a person which is unchanging and essential for continuity, and it means that there is no individual \"part of the person that accounts for the identity of that person over time\".", "This is in opposition to the Upanishadic concept of an unchanging ultimate self (''ātman'') and any view of an eternal soul.", "The Buddha held that attachment to the appearance of a permanent self in this world of change is the cause of suffering (''duḥkha''), and the main obstacle to the attainment of spiritual liberation (''mokṣa'').The most widely used argument that the Buddha employed against the idea of an unchanging ego is an empiricist one, based on the observation of the five aggregates of existence (''skandhā'') that constitute a sentient being, and the fact that these are always changing.", "This argument can be put in this way:# All psycho-physical processes (''skandhā'') are impermanent.# If there were a self it would be permanent.", "::IP There is no more to the person than the five aggregates of existence.", "::∴ There is no self.This argument requires the implied premise that the five aggregates are an exhaustive account of what makes up a person, or else the self could exist outside of these aggregates.", "This premise is affirmed in other Buddhist texts, such as ''Saṃyutta Nikāya'' 22.47, which states: \"whatever ascetics and brahmins regard various kinds of things as self, all regard the five grasping aggregates, or one of them.", "\"This argument is famously expounded in the ''Anātmalakṣaṇa Sūtra''.", "According to this text, the apparently fixed self is merely the result of identification with the temporary aggregates of existence (''skandhā''), the changing processes making up an individual human being.", "In this view, a 'person' is only a convenient nominal designation on a certain grouping of processes and characteristics, and an 'individual' is a conceptual construction overlaid upon a stream of experiences, just like a chariot is merely a conventional designation for the parts of a chariot and how they are put together.", "The foundation of this argument is purely empiricist, for it is based on the fact that all we observe is subject to change, especially everything observed when looking inwardly in meditation.Another argument supporting the doctrine of non-self, the \"argument from lack of control\", is based on the fact that we often seek to change certain parts of ourselves, that the \"executive function\" of the mind is that which finds certain things unsatisfactory and attempts to alter them.", "Furthermore, it is also based on the \"anti-reflexivity principle\" of Indian philosophy, which states an entity cannot operate on or control itself (a knife can cut other things but not itself, a finger can point at other things but not at itself, etc.).", "This means then, that the self could never desire to change itself and could not do so; another reason for this is that, besides Buddhism, in the orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy the unchanging ultimate self (''ātman'') is perfectly blissful and does not suffer.", "The historical Buddha used this idea to attack the concept of self.", "This argument could be structured thus:# If the self existed it would be the part of the person that performs the executive function, the \"controller.", "\"# The self could never desire that it be changed (anti-reflexivity principle).# Each of the five kinds of psycho-physical processes (''skandhā'') is such that one can desire that it be changed.", "::IP There is no more to the person than the five aggregates of existence.", "::∴ There is no self.This argument then denies that there is one permanent \"controller\" in the person.", "Instead, it views the person as a set of constantly changing processes which include volitional events seeking change and an awareness of that desire for change.", "According to Mark Siderits:\"What the Buddhist has in mind is that on one occasion one part of the person might perform the executive function, on another occasion another part might do so.", "This would make it possible for every part to be subject to control without there being any part that always fills the role of the controller (and so is the self).", "On some occasions, a given part might fall on the controller side, while on other occasions it might fall on the side of the controlled.", "This would explain how it's possible for us to seek to change any of the skandhas while there is nothing more to us than just those skandhas.", "\"As noted by K.R.", "Norman and Richard Gombrich, the Buddha extended his non-self critique to the Brahmanical belief expounded in the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' that the unchanging ultimate self (''ātman'') was indeed the whole world, or identical with Brahman.", "This concept is illustrated in the ''Alagaddupama Sūtra'', where the Buddha argues that an individual cannot experience the suffering of the entire world.", "He used the example of someone carrying off and burning grass and sticks from the Jeta grove and how a monk would not sense or consider themselves harmed by that action.", "In this example, the Buddha is arguing that we do not have direct experience of the entire world, and hence the self cannot be the whole world.", "In this Buddhist text, as well as in the ''Soattā Sūtra'', the Buddha outlines six wrong views about self:\"There are six wrong views: An unwise, untrained person may think of the body, 'This is mine, this is me, this is my self'; he may think that of feelings; of perceptions; of volitions; or of what has been seen, heard, thought, cognized, reached, sought or considered by the mind.", "The sixth is to identify the world and self, to believe: 'At death, I shall become permanent, eternal, unchanging, and so remain forever the same; and that is mine, that is me, that is my self.'", "A wise and well-trained person sees that all these positions are wrong, and so he is not worried about something that does not exist.", "\"Furthermore, Gautama Buddha argued that the world can be observed to be a cause of suffering (Brahman was held to be ultimately blissful in the orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy) and that since we cannot control the world as we wish, the world cannot be the self.", "The idea that \"this cosmos is the self\" is one of the six wrong views rejected by the historical Buddha, along with the related monistic Hindu theology which held that \"everything is a Oneness\" (SN 12.48 ''Lokayatika Sutta'').", "The historical Buddha also held that understanding and seeing the truth of non-self led to un-attachment, and hence to the cessation of suffering, while ignorance (''avidyā'') about the true nature of personality (''prajña'') led to further suffering and attachment.===Epistemology===All schools of Indian philosophy recognize various sets of valid justifications for knowledge (''pramāṇa'') and many see the Vedas as providing access to truth.", "The historical Buddha denied the authority of the Vedas, though, like his contemporaries, he affirmed the soteriological importance of holding the right view; that is, having a proper understanding of reality.", "However, this understanding was not conceived primarily as metaphysical and cosmological knowledge, but as a piece of knowledge into the arising and cessation of suffering in human experience.", "Therefore, the Buddha's epistemic project is different from that of modern philosophy; it is primarily a solution to the fundamental human spiritual/existential problem.Gautama Buddha's logico-epistemology has been compared to empiricism, in the sense that it was based on the experience of the world through the senses.", "The Buddha taught that empirical observation through the six sense fields (''āyatanā'') was the proper way of verifying any knowledge claims.", "Some Buddhist texts go further, stating that \"the All\", or everything that exists (''sabbam''), are these six sense spheres (SN 35.23, ''Sabba Sutta'') and that anyone who attempts to describe another \"All\" will be unable to do so because \"it lies beyond range\".", "This text seems to indicate that for the Buddha, things in themselves or noumena are beyond our epistemological reach (''avisaya'').Furthermore, in the ''Kālāma Sutta'' the Buddha tells a group of confused villagers that the only proper reason for one's beliefs is verification in one's own personal experience (and the experience of the wise) and denies any verification which stems from a personal authority, sacred tradition (''anussava''), or any kind of rationalism which constructs metaphysical theories (''takka'').", "In the ''Tevijja Sutta'' (DN 13), the Buddha rejects the personal authority of Brahmins because none of them can prove they have had personal experience of Brahman, nor could any of them prove its existence.", "The Buddha also stressed that experience is the only criterion for verification of the truth in this passage from the ''Majjhima Nikāya'' (MN.I.265):::\"Monks, do you only speak that which is known by yourselves seen by yourselves, found by yourselves?\"", "::\"Yes, we do, sir.\"", "::\"Good, monks, That is how you have been instructed by me in this timeless doctrine which can be realized and verified, that leads to the goal and can be understood by those who are intelligent.", "\"Furthermore, the Buddha's standard for personal verification was a pragmatic and salvific one, for the Buddha a belief counts as truth only if it leads to successful Buddhist practice (and hence, to the destruction of craving).", "In the \"Discourse to Prince Abhaya\" (MN.I.392–4) the Buddha states this pragmatic maxim by saying that a belief should only be accepted if it leads to wholesome consequences.", "This tendency of the Buddha to see what is true as what was useful or \"what works\" has been called by Western scholars such as Mrs Rhys Davids and Vallée-Poussin a form of pragmatism.", "However, K. N. Jayatilleke argues the Buddha's epistemology can also be taken to be a form of correspondence theory (as per the ''Apannaka Sutta'') with elements of coherentism, and that for the Buddha it is causally impossible for something which is false to lead to cessation of suffering and evil.Gautama Buddha discouraged his disciples and early followers of Buddhism from indulging in intellectual disputation for its own sake, which is fruitless, and distracts one from the ultimate goals of awakening (''bodhi'') and liberation (''mokṣa'').", "Only philosophy and discussion which has pragmatic value for liberation from suffering is seen as important.", "According to the Pāli Canon, during his lifetime the Buddha remained silent when asked several metaphysical questions which he regarded as the basis for \"unwise reflection\".", "These \"unanswered questions\" (''avyākṛta'') regarded issues such as whether the universe is eternal or non-eternal (or whether it is finite or infinite), the unity or separation of the body and the self (''ātman''), the complete inexistence of a person after death and ''nirvāṇa'', and others.", "In the ''Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta'', the historical Buddha stated that thinking about these imponderable issues led to \"a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views\".One explanation for this pragmatic suspension of judgment or epistemic Epoché is that such questions contribute nothing to the practical methods of realizing awakeness during one's lifetime and bring about the danger of substituting the experience of liberation by a conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith.", "According to the Buddha, the ''Dharma'' is not an ultimate end in itself or an explanation of all metaphysical reality, but a pragmatic set of teachings.", "The Buddha used two parables to clarify this point, the 'Parable of the raft' and the Parable of the Poisoned Arrow.", "The ''Dharma'' is like a raft in the sense that it is only a pragmatic tool for attaining nirvana (\"for the purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of holding onto\", MN 22); once one has done this, one can discard the raft.", "It is also like medicine, in that the particulars of how one was injured by a poisoned arrow (i.e.", "metaphysics, etc.)", "do not matter in the act of removing and curing the arrow wound itself (removing suffering).", "In this sense, the Buddha was often called \"the great physician\" because his goal was to cure the human condition of suffering first and foremost, not to speculate about metaphysics.Having said this, it is still clear that resisting and even refuting a false or slanted doctrine can be useful to extricate the interlocutor, or oneself, from error; hence, to advance in the way of liberation.", "Witness the Buddha's confutation of several doctrines by Nigantha Nataputta and other purported sages which sometimes had large followings (e.g., Kula Sutta, Sankha Sutta, Brahmana Sutta).", "This shows that a virtuous and appropriate use of dialectics can take place.", "By implication, reasoning and argument shouldn't be disparaged by Buddhists.After the Buddha's death, some Buddhists such as Dharmakirti went on to use the sayings of the Buddha as sound evidence equal to perception and inference.===Transcendence===Another possible reason why the Buddha refused to engage in metaphysics is that he saw ultimate reality and nirvana as devoid of sensory mediation and conception and therefore language itself is ''a priori'' inadequate to explain it.", "Thus, the Buddha's silence does not indicate misology or disdain for philosophy.", "Rather, it indicates that he viewed the answers to these questions as not understandable by the unenlightened.", "Dependent arising provides a framework for analysis of reality that is not based on metaphysical assumptions regarding existence or non-existence, but instead on direct cognition of phenomena as they are presented to the mind in meditation.The Buddha of the earliest Buddhists texts describes Dharma (in the sense of \"truth\") as \"beyond reasoning\" or \"transcending logic\", in the sense that reasoning is a subjectively introduced aspect of the way unenlightened humans perceive things, and the conceptual framework which underpins their cognitive process, rather than a feature of things as they really are.", "Going \"beyond reasoning\" means in this context penetrating the nature of reasoning from the inside, and removing the causes for experiencing any future stress as a result of it, rather than functioning outside the system as a whole.===Meta-ethics===The Buddha's ethics are based on the soteriological need to eliminate suffering and on the premise of the law of karma.", "Buddhist ethics have been termed eudaimonic (with their goal being well-being) and also compared to virtue ethics (this approach began with Damien Keown).", "Keown writes that Buddhist Nirvana is analogous to the Aristotelian Eudaimonia, and that Buddhist moral acts and virtues derive their value from how they lead us to or act as an aspect of the nirvanic life.The Buddha outlined five precepts (no killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, or drinking alcohol) which were to be followed by his disciples, lay and monastic.", "There are various reasons the Buddha gave as to why someone should be ethical.First, the universe is structured in such a way that if someone intentionally commits a misdeed, a bad karmic fruit will be the result.", "Hence, from a pragmatic point of view, it is best to abstain from these negative actions which bring forth negative results.", "However, the important word here is ''intentionally'': for the Buddha, karma is nothing else but intention/volition, and hence unintentionally harming someone does not create bad karmic results.", "Unlike the Jains who believed that karma was a quasi-physical element, for the Buddha karma was a volitional mental event, what Richard Gombrich calls 'an ethnicized consciousness'.This idea leads into the second moral justification of the Buddha: intentionally performing negative actions reinforces and propagates mental defilements which keep persons bound to the cycle of rebirth and interfere with the process of liberation, and hence intentionally performing good karmic actions is participating in mental purification which leads to nirvana, the highest happiness.", "This perspective sees immoral acts as unskillful (''akusala'') in our quest for happiness, and hence it is pragmatic to do good.The third meta-ethical consideration takes the view of not-self and our natural desire to end our suffering to its logical conclusion.", "Since there is no self, there is no reason to prefer our own welfare over that of others because there is no ultimate grounding for the differentiation of \"my\" suffering and someone else's.", "Instead, an enlightened person would just work to end suffering ''tout court'', without thinking of the conventional concept of persons.", "According to this argument, anyone who is selfish does so out of ignorance of the true nature of personal identity and irrationality." ], [ "Buddhist schools and Abhidharma", "The main Indian Buddhist philosophical schools practiced a form of analysis termed ''Abhidharma'' which sought to systematize the teachings of the early Buddhist discourses (sutras).", "Abhidharma analysis broke down human experience into momentary phenomenal events or occurrences called \"''dharmas''\".", "Dharmas are impermanent and dependent on other causal factors, they arise and pass as part of a web of other interconnected dharmas, and are never found alone.", "The Abhidharma schools held that the teachings of the Buddha in the sutras were merely conventional, while the Abhidharma analysis was ultimate truth (paramattha sacca), the way things really are when seen by an enlightened being.", "The Abhidharmic project has been likened as a form of phenomenology or process philosophy.", "Abhidharma philosophers not only outlined what they believed to be an exhaustive listing of ''dharmas'' (Pali: dhammas), which are the ultimate phenomena, events or processes (and include physical and mental phenomena), but also the causal relations between them.", "In the Abhidharmic analysis, the only thing which is ultimately real is the interplay of dharmas in a causal stream; everything else is merely conceptual (''paññatti'') and nominal.", "This view has been termed \"mereological reductionism\" by Mark Siderits because it holds that only impartite entities are real, not wholes.", "Abhidharmikas such as Vasubandhu argued that conventional things (tables, persons, etc.)", "\"disappear under analysis\" and that this analysis reveals only a causal stream of phenomenal events and their relations.", "The mainstream Abhidharmikas defended this view against their main Hindu rivals, the Nyaya school, who were substance theorists and posited the existence of universals.", "Some Abhidharmikas such as the Prajñaptivāda were also strict nominalists, and held that all things - even dharmas - were merely conceptual.===The Abhidharma schools===Aśoka and the elder Moggaliputta-Tissa, who is seen as a key thinker of the Vibhajyavāda tradition (and thus, of Theravada).An important Abhidhamma work from the Theravāda school is the ''Kathāvatthu'' (\"Points of controversy\"), attributed to the Indian scholar-monk Moggaliputta-Tissa (–247 BCE).", "This text is important because it attempts to refute several philosophical views which had developed after the death of the Buddha, especially the theory that 'all exists' (''sarvāstivāda''), the theory of momentariness (''khāṇavāda'') and the personalist view (''pudgalavada'').", "These were the major philosophical theories that divided the Buddhist Abhidharma schools in India.", "After being brought to Sri Lanka in the first century BCE, the Pali language Theravada Abhidhamma tradition was heavily influenced by the works of Buddhaghosa (4-5th century AD), the most important philosopher and commentator of the Theravada school.", "The Theravada philosophical enterprise was mostly carried out in the genre of Atthakatha (commentaries) as well as sub-commentaries (tikas) on the classic Pali Abhidhamma texts.", "Abhidhamma study also included smaller doctrinal summaries and compendiums, like the ''Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha'' (The Compendium of Things contained in the Abhidhamma).The Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāṣika (sometimes just \"Vaibhāṣika\") was one of the major Buddhist philosophical schools in India, and they were so named because of their belief that dharmas exist in all three times: past, present and future.", "Though the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma system began as a mere categorization of mental events, their philosophers and exegetes such as Dharmatrata and Katyāyāniputra, the compiler of the ''Mahāvibhāṣa'' (\"Great Commentary\"), eventually refined this system into a robust realism, which also included a type of essentialism or substance theory.", "This realism was based on the nature of dharmas, which was called svabhava (\"self-nature\" or \"intrinsic existence\").", "Svabhava is a sort of essence, though it is not a completely independent essence, since all dharmas were said to be causally dependent.", "The Sarvāstivāda system extended this realism across time, effectively positing a type of eternalism with regards to time; hence, the name of their school means \"the view that everything exists\".", "Vaibhāṣika remained an influential school in North India during the medieval period.", "Perhaps the most influential figure in this tradition was the great scholar Saṃghabhadra.", "Another key figure was Śubhagupta (720–780), who was a Vaibhāṣika thinker within the epistemological (pramana) tradition.Other Buddhist schools such as the Prajñaptivāda (\"the nominalists\"), as well as the Caitika Mahāsāṃghikas refused to accept the concept of svabhava.", "Thus, not all Abhidharma sources defend svabhava.", "For example, the main topic of the ''Tattvasiddhi Śāstra'' by Harivarman (3-4th century CE), an influential Abhidharma text, is the emptiness (shunyata) of dharmas.", "Indeed, this anti-essentialist nominalism was widespread among the Mahāsāṃghika sects.", "Another important feature of the Mahāsāṃghika tradition was its unique theory of consciousness.", "Many of the Mahāsāṃghika sub-schools defended a theory of self-awareness (''svasaṃvedana'') which held that consciousness can be simultaneously aware of itself as well as its intentional object.", "Some of these schools also held that the mind's nature (''cittasvabhāva'') is fundamentally pure (''mulavisuddha''), but it can be contaminated by adventitious defilements.Buddhaghosa (c. 5th century), the most important Abhidharma scholar of Theravāda Buddhism, presenting three copies of the Visuddhimagga.The Theravādins and other schools, such as the Sautrāntikas (\"those who follow the sutras\"), often attacked the theories of the Sarvāstivādins, especially their theory of time.", "A major figure in this argument was the scholar Vasubandhu, a Sarvāstivādin monk himself (who was also influenced by the critiques of the Sautrantika school), who critiqued the theory of all exists and argued for philosophical presentism in his comprehensive treatise, the ''Abhidharmakośa.''", "This work is the major Abhidharma text used in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism today.", "The Theravāda also holds that dharmas only exist in the present, and are thus also presentists.", "The Theravāda presentation of Abhidharma is also not as concerned with ontology as the Sarvāstivāda view, but is more of a phenomenological schema.", "Hence the concept of svabhava (Pali: sabhava) for the Theravādins is more of a certain characteristic or dependent feature of a dharma, than any sort of essence or metaphysical grounding.", "As the Sinhalese scholar Y. Karunadasa writes, the Pali tradition only postulates sabhava \"for the sake of definition and description.\"", "However, ultimately each dhamma (particular phenomenon) is not a singular independent existence.", "Thus, Karunadasa rejects the view that Theravada Abhidhamma defends an ontological pluralism (but it is also not monism either, since there is no single underlying ground of all things or metaphysical substratum).", "Instead they are merely processes that happen \"due to the interplay of a multitude of conditions.\"", "Karunadasa also describes the Theravada system as a \"critical realism\" which sees the ultimate existents as the myriad irreducible dhammas, and which also accepts the existence of an external world with entities that truly exist independently of cognition (as opposed to Mahayana forms of idealism).Another important theory held by some Sarvāstivādins, Theravādins and Sautrāntikas was the theory of \"momentariness\" (Skt., kṣāṇavāda, Pali, khāṇavāda).", "This theory held that dhammas only last for a minute moment (''ksana'') after they arise.", "The Sarvāstivādins saw these 'moments' in an atomistic way, as the smallest length of time possible (they also developed a material atomism).", "Reconciling this theory with their eternalism regarding time was a major philosophical project of the Sarvāstivāda..", "The Theravādins initially rejected this theory, as evidenced by the Khaṇikakathā of the Kathavatthu which attempts to refute the doctrine that \"all phenomena (dhamma) are as momentary as a single mental entity.\"", "However, momentariness with regards to mental dhammas (but not physical or rūpa dhammas) was later adopted by the Sri Lankan Theravādins, and it is possible that it was first introduced by the scholar Buddhagosa.All Abhidharma schools also developed complex theories of causation and conditionality to explain how dharmas interacted with each other.", "Another major philosophical project of the Abhidharma schools was the explanation of perception.", "Some schools such as the Sarvastivadins explained perception as a type of phenomenalist realism while others such as the Sautrantikas preferred representationalism and held that we only perceive objects indirectly.", "The major argument used for this view by the Sautrāntikas was the \"time-lag argument.\"", "According to Mark Siderits: \"The basic idea behind the argument is that since there is always a tiny gap between when the sense comes in contact with the external object and when there is sensory awareness, what we are aware of can't be the external object that the senses were in contact with, since it no longer exists.\"", "This is related to the theory of extreme momentariness.One major philosophical view which was rejected by all the schools mentioned above was the view held by the Pudgalavadin or 'personalist' schools.", "They seemed to have held that there was a sort of 'personhood' in some ultimately real sense which was not reducible to the five aggregates.", "This controversial claim was in contrast to the other Buddhists of the time who held that a personality was a mere conceptual construction (prajñapti) and only conventionally real." ], [ "Indian Mahāyāna philosophy", "From about the 1st century BCE, a new textual tradition began to arise in Indian Buddhist thought called Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle), which would slowly come to dominate Indian Buddhist philosophy.", "During the medieval period of Indian history, Buddhist philosophy thrived in large monastery-university complexes such as Nalanda, Vikramasila, and Vallabhi.", "These institutions became major centers of philosophical learning in North India (where both Buddhist and also non-Buddhist thought was studied and debated).", "Mahāyāna philosophers continued the philosophical projects of Abhidharma, while at the same time critiquing them and introducing many new concepts and ideas.", "Since the Mahāyāna held to the pragmatic concept of truth which states that doctrines are regarded as conditionally \"true\" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial, these new theories and practices were seen as 'skillful means' (upaya).", "The Mahayana also promoted the bodhisattva ideal, which included an attitude of compassion for all sentient beings.", "The Bodhisattva is someone who chooses to remain in ''samsara'' (the cycle of birth and death) to benefit all other beings who are suffering.Major Mahayana philosophical schools and traditions include the Prajñaparamita, Madhyamaka, Yogācāra, Tathagatagarbha, the epistemological school of Dignaga, and in China the Huayan, Tiantai and Zen schools.=== Prajñāpāramitā and Madhyamaka ===Vajra Cutter Sutra) from Dunhuang (circa 868 CE).Nagas snake spirits who are said to be the guardians of the Prajnaparamita sutras.The earliest Prajñāpāramitā-sutras (\"perfection of insight\" sutras) (circa 1st century BCE) emphasize the shunyata (emptiness) of ''all'' phenomena.", "It is thus a radical global nominalism and anti-essentialism, which sees all things as illusions and all of reality as a dreamlike appearance without any fundamental essence.", "The Prajñāpāramitā is said to be a transcendent spiritual knowledge of the nature of ultimate reality, which empty of any essence or foundation, like a universal mirage.Thus, the ''Diamond Sutra'' (''Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'') states: The ''Heart Sutra'' famously affirms the emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena:Oh, Sariputra, form does not differ from emptiness, and emptiness does not differ from form.Form is emptiness and emptiness is form; the same is true for feelings, perceptions, volitions and consciousness.The Prajñāpāramitā sources also note that this applies to every single phenomenon, even Buddhahood.", "The goal of the Buddhist aspirant in the Prajñāpāramitā texts is to awaken to the perfection of wisdom (\"prajñāpāramitā\"), a non-conceptual transcendent wisdom that knows the emptiness of all things while not being attached to anything (including the very idea of emptiness itself or perfect wisdom).The Prajñāpāramitā teachings are associated with the work of the Buddhist philosopher Nāgārjuna ( – ) and the Madhyamaka (Middle way, or \"Centrism\") school.", "Nāgārjuna was one of the most influential Indian Mahayana thinkers.", "He gave the classical arguments for the empty nature of all dharmas and attacked the essentialism found in various Abhidharma schools (and also in Hindu philosophy) in his magnum opus, ''The Root Verses on the Middle Way'' (''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'').", "In the ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'', Nagarjuna relies on reductio ad absurdum arguments to refute various theories which assume svabhava (an inherent essence or \"own being\"), dravya (substances) or any theory of existence (bhava).", "In this work, he covers topics such as causation, motion, and the sense faculties.Nāgārjuna asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, non-self (''anatta''), and emptiness (''śūnyatā'').", "He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of anatta (substantial being) underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as śūnyatā (i.e., emptiness of a nature or essence (''svabhāva sunyam'').Later philosophers of the Madhyamaka school built upon Nāgārjuna's analysis and defended Madhyamaka against their opponents.", "These included Āryadeva (3rd century CE), Nāgārjuna's pupil; Candrakīrti (600–), who wrote an important commentary on the ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''; and Shantideva (8th century), who is the key Mahayana ethicist.", "The commentator Buddhapālita (c. 470–550) has been understood as the originator of the 'prāsaṅgika' approach which is based on critiquing essentialism ''only'' through reductio arguments.", "He was criticized by Bhāvaviveka ( – ), who argued for the use of properly logical syllogisms to positively argue for emptiness (instead of just refuting the theories of others).", "These two approaches were later termed the prāsaṅgika and the svātantrika approaches to Madhyamaka by Tibetan philosophers and commentators.Influenced by the work of Dignaga, Bhāvaviveka's Madhyamika philosophy makes use of Buddhist epistemology.", "Candrakīrti, on the other hand, critiqued Bhāvaviveka's adoption of the epistemological (''pramana'') tradition on the grounds that it contained subtle essentialism.", "He quotes Nagarjuna's famous statement in the ''Vigrahavyavartani'' which says \"I have no thesis\" for his rejection of positive epistemic Madhyamaka statements.", "Candrakīrti held that a true Madhyamika could only use \"consequence\" (''prasanga''), in which one points out the inconsistencies of their opponent's position without asserting an \"autonomous inference\" (''svatantra''), for no such inference can be ultimately true from the point of view of Madhyamaka.In China, the Madhyamaka school (known as Sānlùn) was founded by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE), who translated the works of Nagarjuna to Chinese.", "Other Chinese Madhymakas include Kumārajīva 's pupil Sengzhao, Jizang (549–623), who wrote over 50 works on Madhyamaka, and Hyegwan, a Korean monk who brought Madhyamaka teachings to Japan.===Yogācāra===Vasubandhu wrote in defense of Vijñapti-matra (appearance only) as well as writing a massive work on Abhidharma, the Abhidharmakosa.The Yogācāra school (''Yoga practice'') was a Buddhist philosophical tradition which arose in between the 2nd century CE and the 4th century CE and is associated with the philosophers and brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu and with various sutras such as the ''Sandhinirmocana Sutra'' and the ''Lankavatara Sutra''.", "The central feature of Yogācāra thought is the concept of ''vijñapti-mātra'', often translated as \"impressions only\" or \"appearance only\".", "This has been interpreted as a form of Idealism or as a form of Phenomenology.", "Other names for the Yogācāra school are 'vijñanavada' (the doctrine of consciousness) and 'cittamatra' (mind-only).Yogācāra thinkers like Vasubandhu argued against the existence of external objects by pointing out that we only ever have access to our own mental impressions, and hence our inference of the existence of external objects is based on faulty logic.", "Vasubandhu's ''Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā (The Proof that There Are Only Impressions in Thirty Verses''), begins thus:I.", "This world is nothing but impressions, since it manifests itself as an unreal object, Just like the case of those with cataracts seeing unreal hairs in the moon and the like.According to Vasubandhu then, all our experiences are like seeing hairs on the moon when we have cataracts, that is, we project our mental images into something \"out there\" when there are no such things.", "Vasubandhu then goes on to use the dream argument to argue that mental impressions do not require external objects to (1) seem to be spatio-temporally located, (2) to seem to have an inter-subjective quality, and (3) to seem to operate by causal laws.", "The fact that purely mental events can have causal efficacy and be intersubjective is proved by the event of a wet dream and by the mass or shared hallucinations created by the karma of certain types of beings.", "After having argued that impressions-only is a theory that can explain our everyday experience, Vasubandhu then appeals to parsimony - since we do not need the concept of external objects to explain reality, then we can do away with those superfluous concepts altogether as they are most likely just mentally superimposed on our concepts of reality by the mind.", "Yogācārins like Vasubandhu also attacked the realist theories of Buddhist atomism and the Abhidharma theory of svabhava.", "He argued that atoms, as conceived by the atomists (un-divisible entities), would not be able to come together to form larger aggregate entities, and hence that they were illogical concepts.Inter-subjective reality for Vasubandhu is then the causal interaction between various mental streams and their karma, and does not include any external physical objects.", "The soteriological importance of this theory is that, by removing the concept of an external world, it also weakens the 'internal' sense of self as an observer which is supposed to be separate from the external world.", "To dissolve the dualism of inner and outer is also to dissolve the sense of self and other.", "The later Yogacara commentator Sthiramati explains this thus:There is a grasper if there is something to be grasped, but not in the absence of what is to be grasped.", "Where there is nothing to be grasped, the absence of a grasper also follows, there is not just the absence of the thing to be grasped.", "Thus there arises the extra-mundane non-conceptual cognition that is alike without object and without cognizer.Apart from its defense of an idealistic metaphysics and its attacks on realism, Yogācāra sources also developed a new theory of mind, based on the Eight Consciousnesses, which includes the innovative doctrine of the subliminal storehouse consciousness (Skt: ālayavijñāna).", "Yogācāra thinkers also developed a positive account of ultimate reality based on three basic modes or \"natures\" (svabhāva).", "This metaphysical doctrine is central to their view of the ultimate and to their understanding of the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā).=== The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition ===Statue of Dignāga in formal debating stanceDignāga (–540) and Dharmakīrti (c. 6-7th century) were Buddhist philosophers who developed a system of epistemology (pramana) and logic in their debates with the Brahminical philosophers in order to defend Buddhist doctrine.", "This tradition is called \"those who follow reasoning\" (Tibetan: ''rigs pa rjes su 'brang ba''); in modern literature, it is sometimes known by the Sanskrit \"''pramāṇavāda''\", or \"the Epistemological School.\"", "They were associated with the Yogacara and Sautrantika schools, and defended theories held by both of these schools.", "Dignāga's influence was profound and led to an \"epistemological turn\" among all Buddhists and also all Sanskrit language philosophers in India after his death.", "In the centuries following Dignāga's work, Sanskrit philosophers became much more focused on defending all of their propositions with fully developed theories of knowledge.The \"School of Dignāga\" includes later philosophers and commentators like Santabhadra, Dharmottara (8th century), Prajñakaragupta (740–800 C.E.", "), Jñanasrimitra (975–1025), Ratnakīrti (11th century) and Śaṅkaranandana (fl.", "c. 9th or 10th century).", "The epistemology they developed defends the view that there are only two 'instruments of knowledge' or 'valid cognitions' (''pramana''): \"perception\" (''pratyaksa'') and \"inference\" (''anumāṇa'').", "Perception is a non-conceptual awareness of particulars which is bound by causality, while inference is reasonable, linguistic and conceptual.These Buddhist philosophers argued in favor of the theory of momentariness, the Yogācāra \"awareness only\" view, the reality of particulars (''svalakṣaṇa''), atomism, nominalism and the self-reflexive nature of consciousness (''svasaṃvedana'').", "They attacked Hindu theories of God (Isvara), universals, the authority of the Vedas, and the existence of a permanent soul (''atman'').=== Later Yogācāra developments ===After the time of Asanga and Vasubandhu, the Yogācāra school developed in different directions.", "One branch focused on epistemology (this would become the school of Dignaga).", "Another branch focused on expanding the Yogācāra's metaphysics and philosophy.", "This latter tradition includes figures like Dharmapala of Nalanda, Sthiramati, Chandragomin (who was known to have debated the Madhyamaka thinker Candrakirti), and Śīlabhadra (a top scholar at Nalanda).", "Yogācārins such as Paramartha and Guṇabhadra brought the school to China and translated Yogacara works there, where it is known as Wéishí-zōng or Fǎxiàng-zōng.", "An important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra is Xuanzang's ''Cheng Weishi Lun'', or \"Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only\".A later development is the rise of a syncretic tradition of Yogācāra-tathāgatagarbha thought.", "This group adopted the doctrine of ''tathāgatagarbha'' (the buddha-womb, buddha-source, or \"buddha-within\") found in various ''tathāgatagarbha sutras.''", "This hybrid school eventually went on to equate the ''tathāgatagarbha'' with the pure aspect of the storehouse consciousness.", "Some key sources of this school are the ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'', ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' (''Uttaratantra''), and in China, the influential ''Mahayana Awakening of Faith treatise.''", "One key figure of this tradition was Paramārtha, an Indian monk who was an important translator in China.", "He promoted a new theory that said there was a \"stainless consciousness\" (''amala-vijñāna,'' a pure wisdom within all beings), which he equated with the buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha).", "This synthetic tradition also became important in later Indian Buddhism, where the ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' became the key text.Site of Vikramaśīla university (Bhagalpur district, Bihar), an important center for late Indian Yogacara.", "Great panditas like Jñānaśrīmitra and Ratnākaraśānti were 'gate-scholars' in this university.Another later development was the synthesis of Yogācāra with Madhyamaka.", "Jñānagarbha (8th century) and his student Śāntarakṣita (725–788) brought together Yogacara, Madhyamaka and the Dignaga school of epistemology into a philosophical synthesis known as the ''Yogācāra-Svatantrika-Mādhyamika''.", "Śāntarakṣita was also instrumental in the introduction of Buddhism and the Sarvastivadin monastic ordination lineage to Tibet, which was conducted at Samye.", "Śāntarakṣita's disciples included Haribhadra and Kamalaśīla.", "This philosophical tradition is influential in Tibetan Buddhist thought.Perhaps the most important debate among late Yogācāra philosophers was the debate between alikākāravāda (Tib.", "''rnam rdzun pa'', False Aspectarians, also known as Nirākāravāda) and Satyākāravāda (''rnam bden pa'', True Aspectarians, also known as sākāravāda).", "The crux of the debate was the question of whether mental appearances, images or “aspects” (''ākāra'') are true (''satya'') or false (''alika'').", "The Satyākāravāda camp, defended by scholars like Jñānaśrīmitra (ca.", "980–1040), held that images in consciousness have a real existence, since they arise from a real consciousness.", "Meanwhile, Alikākāravāda defenders like Ratnākaraśānti (ca.", "970–1045) argues that mental appearances do not really exist and are false (alīka) or illusory.", "For these thinkers, the only thing which is real is a pure self-aware consciousness which is contentless (nirākāra, “without images”).=== Buddha-nature thought ===The ''tathāgathagarbha sutras'', in a departure from mainstream Buddhist language, insist that there is a real potential for awakening is inherent to every sentient being.", "They marked a shift from a largely apophatic (negative) method within Buddhism to a decidedly more cataphatic (positive) mode.", "The main topic of this genre of literature is the ''tathāgata-garbha,'' which can mean the womb or embryo of a Tathāgata (i.e.", "a Buddha) and is what allows someone to become a Buddha.", "Another similar term used for this idea is ''buddhadhātu'' (buddha-nature or source of the Buddhas).Prior to the period of these scriptures, Mahāyāna metaphysics had been dominated by teachings on emptiness.", "The language used by this approach is primarily negative, and the buddha-nature literature can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism.", "In these sutras, the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self (atman).", "The word \"self\" (''atman'') is used in a way idiosyncratic to these sutras; the \"true self\" is described as the perfection of the wisdom of not-self in the ''Buddha-Nature Treatise'' (''Fóxìng lùn'', 佛性論, T. 1610) of Paramārtha, for example.", "The ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language that had been used previously in Indian philosophy by essentialist philosophers, but which was now adapted to describe the positive realities of Buddhahood.", "Perhaps the most influential source in the Indian tradition for this teaching is the ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' (5th century CE).", "This śāstra brought together all the major themes of the tathāgatagārbha theory into a single treatise.", "The ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' sees the tathāgatagarbha as being an inherent nature in all things which is omnipresent, all-pervasive, non-conceptual, free of suffering and inherently blissful.", "It also describes buddha nature as “the intrinsically stainless nature of the mind” (''cittaprakṛtivaimalya'').", "Indeed, in many later Indian sources, the ''tathāgathagarbha'' teachings also come to be identified with the similar doctrine of the luminous mind (prabhasvara-citta).", "This ancient idea holds that the mind is inherently pure, and that defilements are only adventitious.", "In the ''Ratnagotravibhāga'', this originally pure (prakṛtipariśuddha) nature (i.e.", "the fully purified buddha-nature) is further described through numerous terms such as: unconditioned (asaṃskṛta), unborn (ajāta), unarisen (anutpanna), eternal (nitya), changeless (dhruva), and permanent (śāśvata).According to some scholars, ''tathāgatagarbha'' does not represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language expression of emptiness and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.", "In this interpretation, the intention of the teaching of ''tathāgatagarbha'' is soteriological rather than metaphysical." ], [ "Vajrayāna Buddhism", "Abhayākaragupta, one of \"the last great masters\" of Indian Buddhism (Kapstein).Vajrayāna (also Mantrayāna, Sacret Mantra, Tantrayāna and Esoteric Buddhism) is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition associated with a group of texts known as the Buddhist Tantras which had developed into a major force in India by the eighth century.", "By this time Indian Tantric scholars were developing philosophical defenses, hermeneutics and explanations of the Buddhist tantric systems, especially through commentaries on key tantras such as the ''Guhyasamāja Tantra'', ''Mahavairocana sutra'', and the ''Guhyagarbha Tantra''.While the view of the Vajrayāna was based on the earlier Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Buddha-nature theories, it saw itself as being a faster vehicle to liberation containing many skillful methods (''upaya'') of tantric ritual.", "The need for an explication and defense of the Tantras arose out of the unusual nature of the rituals associated with them, which included the use of secret mantras, alcohol, sexual yoga, complex visualizations of mandalas filled with wrathful deities and other practices which were discordant with or at least novel in comparison to traditional Buddhist practice.The ''Guhyasamāja Tantra'', for example, states: \"you should kill living beings, speak lying words, take things that are not given and have sex with many women\".", "Other features of tantra included a focus on the physical body as the means to liberation, and a reaffirmation of feminine elements, feminine deities and a positive view of sexuality.The defense of these tantric practices is based on the theory of transformation which states that negative mental factors and physical actions can be cultivated and transformed in a ritual setting.", "The ''Hevajra tantra'' states:Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence.", "By passion the world is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists, this practice of reversals is not known.Another hermeneutic of Buddhist Tantric commentaries such as the ''Vimalaprabha'' (''Stainless Light'') of Pundarika (a commentary on the ''Kalacakra Tantra'') is one of interpreting taboo or unethical statements in the Tantras as metaphorical statements about tantric practice and physiology.", "For example, in the ''Vimalaprabha'', \"killing living beings\" refers to stopping the prana at the top of the head.", "In the Tantric Candrakirti's ''Pradipoddyotana'', a commentary to the ''Guhyasamaja Tantra'', killing living beings is glossed as \"making them void\" by means of a \"special samadhi\" which according to Bus-ton is associated with completion stage tantric practice.Douglas Duckworth notes that Vajrayāna philosophical outlook is one of embodiment, which sees the physical and cosmological body as already containing wisdom and divinity.", "Liberation (nirvana) and Buddhahood are not seen as something outside the body, or an event in the future, but as imminently present and accessible right now through unique tantric practices like deity yoga.", "Hence, Vajrayāna is also called the \"resultant vehicle\", that is to say, it is the spiritual vehicle that relies on the immanent nature of the result of practice (liberation), which is already present in all beings.", "Duckworth names the philosophical view of Vajrayāna as a form of pantheism, by which he means the belief that every existing entity is in some sense divine and that all things express some form of unity.Major Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such as Buddhaguhya, Padmavajra (author of the ''Guhyasiddhi'' commentary), Nagarjuna (the 7th-century disciple of Saraha), Indrabhuti (author of the ''Jñānasiddhi''), Anangavajra, Dombiheruka, Durjayacandra, Ratnākaraśānti and Abhayakaragupta wrote tantric texts and commentaries systematizing the tradition.Others such as Vajrabodhi and Śubhakarasiṃha brought tantra to Tang China (716 to 720), and tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such as Yi Xing (683–727) and Kūkai (774– 835).In Tibet, philosophers such as Sakya Pandita (1182-28–1251), Longchenpa (1308–1364) and Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) continued the tradition of Buddhist Tantric philosophy in Classical Tibetan." ], [ "Tibetan Buddhist philosophy", "Samye was the first Buddhist monastery built in Tibet (c. 775–779).Tibetan Buddhist philosophy is mainly a continuation and refinement of the Indian Mahayana philosophical traditions.", "The initial efforts of Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla brought their eclectic scholarly tradition to Tibet.", "The initial work of early Tibetan Buddhist philosophers was in the translation of classical Indian philosophical treatises and the writing of commentaries.", "This initial period is from the 8th to the 10th century.", "Early Tibetan commentator-philosophers were heavily influenced by the work of Dharmakirti and these include Ngok Loden Sherab (1059-1109) and Chaba Chökyi Senge (1182-1251).", "Their works are now lost.The 12th and 13th centuries saw the translation of the works of Chandrakirti, the promulgation of his views in Tibet by scholars such as Patsab Nyima Drakpa, Kanakavarman and Jayananda (12th century) and the development of the Tibetan debate between the prasangika and svatantrika views which continues to this day among Tibetan Buddhist schools.", "The main disagreement between these views is the use of reasoned argument.", "For Śāntarakṣita's school, reason is useful in establishing arguments that lead one to a correct understanding of emptiness.", "Then, through the use of meditation, one can reach non-conceptual gnosis that does not rely on reason.", "However, Chandrakirti rejects this idea, because meditation on emptiness cannot possibly involve any object.", "Reason's role for him is purely negative.", "Reason is used to negate any essentialist view, and then eventually reason must also negate itself, along with any conceptual proliferation (''prapañca'').Another very influential figure from this early period is Mabja Jangchub Tsöndrü (d. 1185), who wrote an important commentary on Nagarjuna's ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''.", "Mabja was studied under the Dharmakirtian Chaba and also the Candrakirti scholar Patsab.", "His work shows an attempt to steer a middle course between their views, he affirms the conventional usefulness of pramāṇa epistemology, but also accepts Candrakirti's prasangika views.", "Mabja's Madhyamaka scholarship was very influential on later Tibetan Madhyamikas such as Longchenpa, Tsongkhapa, Gorampa, and Mikyö Dorje.There are various Tibetan Buddhist schools or monastic orders.", "According to Georges B.J.", "Dreyfus, within Tibetan thought, the Sakya school holds a mostly anti-realist philosophical position (which sees ''saṁvṛtisatya'' / conventional truth as an illusion), while the Gelug school tends to defend a form of realism (which accepts that conventional truth is in some sense real and true, yet dependently originated).", "The Kagyu and Nyingma schools also tend to follow Sakya anti-realism (with some differences).===Shentong and Buddha nature===The 14th century saw increasing interest in the Buddha nature texts and doctrines.", "This can be seen in the work of the third Kagyu Karmapa Rangjung Dorje (1284-1339), especially his treatise ''\"Profound Inner Meaning\"''.", "This treatise describes ultimate nature or suchness as Buddha nature which is the basis for nirvana and samsara, radiant in nature and empty in essence, surpassing thought.One of the most important theoriests of buddha-nature in Tibet was the scholar-yogi Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen (c. 1292–1361).", "A figure of the Jonang school, Dölpopa developed a view called shentong (Wylie: gzhan , 'other emptiness'), based on earlier Yogacara and Buddha-nature ideas present in Indian sources (including the buddha-nature literature, the ''Kālacakratantra'' and the works of Ratnākaraśānti).", "The shentong view holds that Buddhahood is already immanent in all living beings as an eternal and all-pervaside non-dual wisdom he termed \"all-basis wisdom\" or \"gnosis of the ground of all\" (Tib.", "''kun gzhi ye shes'', Skt.", "ālaya-jñāna).", "This view holds that all relative phenomena are empty of inherent existence, but that the ultimate reality, the buddha-wisdom (''buddha jñana'') is ''not empty'' of its own inherent existence.", "According to Dölpopa, all beings are said to have the Buddha nature, the non-dual wisdom which is real, unchanging, permanent, non-conditioned, eternal, blissful and compassionate.", "This ultimate buddha wisdom is \"uncreated and indestructible, unconditioned and beyond the chain of dependent origination\" and is the basis for both samsara and nirvana.", "Dolpopa's shentong view also taught that ultimate reality was truly a \"Great Self\" or \"Supreme Self\" referring to works such as the ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'', the ''Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra'' and the ''Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra.''", "The shentong view had an influence on philosophers of other schools, such as Nyingma and Kagyu thinkers, and was also widely criticized in some circles as being similar to the Hindu notions of Atman.", "The Shentong philosophy was also expounded in Tibet and Mongolia by the later Jonang scholar Tāranātha (1575–1634) and numerous later figures of the Jonang tradition.", "In the late 17th century, the Jonang order and its teachings came under attack by the 5th Dalai Lama, who converted the majority of their monasteries in Tibet to the Gelug order, although several survived in secret.===Gelug===Tsongkapa, 15th-century painting, Rubin Museum of Art Je Tsongkhapa (Dzong-ka-ba) (1357–1419) founded the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, which came to dominate the country through the office of the Dalai Lama and is the major defender of the Prasaṅgika Madhyamaka view.", "His work is influenced by the philosophy of Candrakirti and Dharmakirti.", "Tsongkhapa's magnum opus is ''The Ocean of Reasoning'', a Commentary on Nagarjuna's ''Mulamadhyamakakarika''.", "Gelug philosophy is based upon the study of Madhyamaka texts and Tsongkhapa's works as well as formal debate (rtsod pa).Tsongkhapa defended Prasangika Madhyamaka as the highest view and critiqued the svatantrika position.", "Tsongkhapa argued that, because svatantrika conventionally establishes things by their own characteristics, they fail to completely understand the emptiness of phenomena and hence do not achieve the same realization.", "Drawing on Chandrakirti, Tsongkhapa rejected the Yogacara teachings, even as a provisional stepping point to the Madhyamaka view.", "Tsongkhapa was also critical of the Shengtong view of Dolpopa, which he saw as dangerously absolutist and hence outside the middle way.", "Tsongkhapa identified two major flaws in interpretations of Madhyamika, under-negation (of svabhava or own essence), which could lead to Absolutism, and over-negation, which could lead to Nihilism.", "Tsongkhapa's solution to this dilemma was the promotion of the use of inferential reasoning only within the conventional realm of the two truths framework, allowing for the use of reason for ethics, conventional monastic rules and promoting a conventional epistemic realism, while holding that, from the view of ultimate truth (''paramarthika satya''), all things (including Buddha nature and Nirvana) are empty of inherent existence (svabhava), and that true liberation is this realization of emptiness.Sakya scholars such as Rongtön and Gorampa disagreed with Tsongkhapa, and argued that the prasangika svatantrika distinction was merely pedagogical.", "Gorampa also critiqued Tsongkhapa's realism, arguing that the structures which allow an empty object to be presented as conventionally real eventually dissolve under analysis and are thus unstructured and non-conceptual (spros bral).", "Tsongkhapa's students Gyel-tsap, Kay-drup, and Ge-dun-drup set forth an epistemological realism against the Sakya scholars' anti-realism.===Sakya===Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) was a 13th-century head of the Sakya school and ruler of Tibet.", "He was also one of the most important Buddhist philosophers in the Tibetan tradition, writing works on logic and epistemology and promoting Dharmakirti's ''Pramanavarttika'' (Commentary on Valid Cognition) as central to the scholastic study.", "Sakya Pandita's 'Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition' (''Tshad ma rigs pa'i gter'') set forth the classic Sakya epistemic anti-realist position, arguing that concepts such as universals are not known through valid cognition and hence are not real objects of knowledge.", "Sakya Pandita was also critical of theories of sudden awakening, which were held by some teachers of the \"Chinese Great Perfection\" in Tibet.Gorampa Sonam SengeLater Sakyas such as Gorampa (1429–1489) and Sakya Chokden (1428–1507) would develop and defend Sakya anti-realism, and they are seen as the major interpreters and critics of Sakya Pandita's philosophy.", "Sakya Chokden also critiqued Tsongkhapa's interpretation of Madhyamaka and Dolpopa's Shentong.", "In his ''Definite ascertainment of the middle way'', Chokden criticized Tsongkhapa's view as being too logo-centric and still caught up in conceptualization about the ultimate reality which is beyond language.", "Sakya Chokden's philosophy attempted to reconcile the views of the Yogacara and Madhyamaka, seeing them both as valid and complementary perspectives on ultimate truth.", "Madhyamaka is seen by Chokden as removing the fault of taking the unreal as being real, and Yogacara removes the fault of the denial of Reality.", "Likewise, the Shentong and Rangtong views are seen as complementary by Sakya Chokden; Rangtong negation is effective in cutting through all clinging to wrong views and conceptual rectification, while Shentong is more amenable for describing and enhancing meditative experience and realization.", "Therefore, for Sakya Chokden, the same realization of ultimate reality can be accessed and described in two different but compatible ways.===Nyingma===Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso.The Nyingma school is strongly influenced by the view of Dzogchen (Great Perfection) and the Dzogchen Tantric literature.", "Longchenpa (1308–1364) was a major philosopher of the Nyingma school and wrote an extensive number of works on the Tibetan practice of Dzogchen and on Buddhist Tantra.", "These include the ''Seven Treasures'', the ''Trilogy of Natural Ease'', and his ''Trilogy of Dispelling Darkness''.", "Longchenpa's works provide a philosophical understanding of Dzogchen, a defense of Dzogchen in light of the sutras, as well as practical instructions.", "For Longchenpa, the ground of reality is luminous emptiness, rigpa (\"knowledge\"), or buddha nature, and this ground is also the bridge between sutra and tantra.", "Longchenpa's philosophy sought to establish the positive aspects of Buddha nature thought against the totally negative theology of Madhyamika without straying into the absolutism of Dolpopa.", "For Longchenpa, the basis for Dzogchen and Tantric practice in Vajrayana is the \"Ground\" or \"Basis\" (''gzhi''), the immanent Buddha nature, \"the primordially luminous reality that is unconditioned and spontaneously present\" which is \"free from all elaborated extremes\".=== Rimé movement ===The 19th century saw the rise of the Rimé movement (non-sectarian, unbiased) which sought to push back against the politically dominant Gelug school's criticisms of the Sakya, Kagyu, Nyingma and Bon philosophical views, and develop a more eclectic or universal system of textual study.", "Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892) and Jamgön Kongtrül (1813-1899) were the founders of Rimé.", "The Rimé movement came to prominence at a point in Tibetan history when the religious climate had become partisan.", "The aim of the movement was \"a push towards a middle ground where the various views and styles of the different traditions were appreciated for their individual contributions rather than being refuted, marginalized, or banned.\"", "Philosophically, Jamgön Kongtrül defended Shentong as being compatible with Madhyamaka while another Rimé scholar Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso (1846–1912) criticized Tsongkhapa from a Nyingma perspective.", "Mipham argued that the view of the middle way is Unity (zung 'jug), meaning that from the ultimate perspective the duality of sentient beings and Buddhas is also dissolved.", "Mipham also affirmed the view of ''rangtong'' (self emptiness).", "The later Nyingma scholar Botrul (1894–1959) classified the major Tibetan Madhyamaka positions as shentong (other emptiness), Nyingma rangtong (self emptiness) and Gelug bdentong (emptiness of true existence).", "The main difference between them is their \"object of negation\"; shengtong states that inauthentic experience is empty, rangtong negates any conceptual reference and bdentong negates any true existence.The 14th Dalai Lama was also influenced by this non-sectarian approach.", "Having studied under teachers from all major Tibetan Buddhist schools, his philosophical position tends to be that the different perspectives on emptiness are complementary:There is a tradition of making a distinction between two different perspectives on the nature of emptiness: one is when emptiness is presented within a philosophical analysis of the ultimate reality of things, in which case it ought to be understood in terms of a non-affirming negative phenomena.", "On the other hand, when it is discussed from the point of view of experience, it should be understood more in terms of an affirming negation – 14th Dalai Lama" ], [ "East Asian Buddhism", "Painting of Śramaṇa Zhiyi, the founding thinker of the Tiantai school.===Tiantai===The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to the emergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent direct transplantations from India, with little modification to their basic doctrines and methods.", "The Tiantai school, founded by Zhiyi (538–597), was the first truly unique Chinese Buddhist philosophical school.", "Tiantai doctrine sought to bring together all Buddhist teachings into a comprehensive system based on the ekayana (\"one vehicle\") doctrine taught in the ''Lotus Sutra''.Tiantai's metaphysics is an immanent holism, which sees every phenomenon (dharma) as conditioned and manifested by the whole of reality (the totality of all other dharmas).", "Every instant of experience is a reflection of every other, and hence, suffering and nirvana, good and bad, Buddhahood and evildoing, are all \"inherently entailed\" within each other.", "Tiantai metaphysics is entailed in their teaching of the \"three truths\", which is an extension of the Mādhyamaka two truths doctrine.", "The three truths are: the conventional truth of appearance, the truth of emptiness and the third truth of 'the exclusive Center' (但中 ''danzhong'') or middle way, which is beyond conventional truth and emptiness.", "This third truth is the Absolute and expressed by the claim that nothing is \"Neither-Same-Nor-Different\" than anything else, but rather each 'thing' is the absolute totality of all things manifesting as a particular, everything is mutually contained within each thing.", "Everything is a reflection of \"The Ultimate Reality of All Appearances\" (諸法實相 ''zhufashixiang'') and each thought \"contains three thousand worlds\".", "This perspective allows the Tiantai school to state such seemingly paradoxical things as \"evil is ineradicable from the highest good, Buddhahood.\"", "Moreover, in Tiantai, nirvana and samsara are ultimately the same; as Zhiyi writes, \"a single, unalloyed reality is all there is – no entities whatever exist outside of it.\"", "While Zhiyi did write \"one thought contains three thousand worlds\", this does not entail idealism.", "According to Zhiyi, \"the objects of the true aspects of reality are not something produced by Buddhas, gods, or men.", "They exist inherently on their own and have no beginning\" (''The Esoteric Meaning'', 210).", "This is then a form of realism, which sees the mind as real as the world, interconnected with and inseparable from it.", "In Tiantai thought, ultimate reality is simply the very phenomenal world of interconnected events or dharmas.Other key figures of Tiantai thought are Zhanran (711–782) and Siming Zhili (960–1028).", "Zhanran developed the idea that non-sentient beings have buddha nature, since they are also a reflection of the Absolute.", "In Japan, this school was known as Tendai and was first brought to the island by Saicho.", "Tendai thought is more syncretic and draws on Huayan and East Asian Esoteric Buddhism.===Huayan===A 13th century Japanese print of Fazang, the most important philosopher of the Huayan school.The Huayan school is the other native Chinese doctrinal system.", "Huayan is known for the doctrine of \"interpenetration\" (Sanskrit: ''yuganaddha''), based on the ''Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' (''Flower Garland Sutra'').", "Huayan holds that all phenomena (Sanskrit: ''dharmas'') are deeply interconnected, mutually arising and that every phenomenon contains all other phenomena.", "Various metaphors and images are used to illustrate this idea.", "The first is known as Indra's net.", "The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels, while the reflections also contain every other reflection, ad infinitum.", "The second image is that of the world text.", "This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous text which is as large as the universe itself.", "The words of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world.", "However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it.", "It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering.Fazang (Fa-tsang, 643–712), one of the most important Huayan thinkers, wrote 'Essay on the Golden Lion' and 'Treatise on the Five Teachings', which contain other metaphors for the interpenetration of reality.", "He also used the metaphor of a house of mirrors.", "Fazang introduced the distinction of \"the Realm of Principle\" and \"the Realm of Things\".", "This theory was further developed by Cheng-guan (738–839) into the major Huayan thesis of \"the fourfold Dharmadhatu\" (dharma realm): the Realm of Principle, the Realm of Things, the Realm of the Noninterference between Principle and Things, and the Realm of the Noninterference of All Things.", "The first two are the universal and the particular, the third is the interpenetration of universal and particular, and the fourth is the interpenetration of all particulars.", "The third truth was explained by the metaphor of a golden lion: the gold is the universal and the particular is the shape and features of the lion.", "While both Tiantai and Huayan hold to the interpenetration and interconnection of all things, their metaphysics have some differences.", "Huayan metaphysics is influenced by Yogacara thought and is closer to idealism.", "The Avatamsaka sutra compares the phenomenal world to a dream, an illusion, and a magician's conjuring.", "The sutra states nothing has true reality, location, beginning and end, or substantial nature.", "The Avatamsaka also states that \"The triple world is illusory – it is only made by one mind\", and Fazang echoes this by writing, \"outside of mind there is not a single thing that can be apprehended.\"", "Furthermore, according to Huayan thought, each mind creates its own world \"according to their mental patterns\", and \"these worlds are infinite in kind\" and constantly arising and passing away.", "However, in Huayan, the mind is not real either, but also empty.", "The true reality in Huayan, the noumenon, or \"Principle\", is likened to a mirror, while phenomena are compared to reflections in the mirror.", "It is also compared to the ocean, and phenomena to waves.In Korea, this school was known as Hwaeom and is represented in the work of Wonhyo (617–686), who also wrote about the idea of essence-function, a central theme in Korean Buddhist thought.", "In Japan, Huayan is known as Kegon and one of its major proponents was Myōe, who also introduced Tantric practices.===Chan and Japanese Buddhism===The philosophy of Chinese Chan Buddhism and Japanese Zen is based on various sources; these include Chinese Madhyamaka (''Sānlùn''), Yogacara (''Wéishí''), the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and the Buddha nature texts.", "An important issue in Chan is that of subitism or \"sudden awakening\", the idea that insight happens all at once in a flash of insight.", "This view was promoted by Shenhui and is a central issue discussed in the Platform Sutra, a key Chan scripture composed in China.Huayan philosophy also had an influence on Chan.", "The theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu influenced the Five Ranks of Dongshan Liangjie (806-869), the founder of the Caodong Chan lineage.", "Guifeng Zongmi, who was also a patriarch of Huayan Buddhism, wrote extensively on the philosophy of Chan and on the Avatamsaka sutra.Japanese Buddhism during the 6th and 7th centuries saw an increase in the proliferation of new schools and forms of thought, a period known as the six schools of Nara (''Nanto Rokushū'').", "The Kamakura Period (1185–1333) also saw another flurry of intellectual activity.", "During this period, the influential figure of Nichiren (1222–1282) made the practice and universal message of the Lotus Sutra more readily available to the population.", "He is of particular importance in the history of thought and religion, as his teachings constitute a separate sect of Buddhism, one of the only major sects to have originated in JapanAlso during the Kamakura period, the founder of Soto Zen, Dogen (1200–1253), wrote many works on the philosophy of Zen, and the ''Shobogenzo'' is his magnum opus.", "In Korea, Chinul was an important exponent of Seon Buddhism at around the same time.===Esoteric Buddhism===The ''Garbhadhatu'' mandala.", "The center square represents the young stage of Vairocana Buddha.Tantric Buddhism arrived in China in the 7th century, during the Tang dynasty.", "In China, this form of Buddhism is known as Mìzōng (密宗), or \"Esoteric School\", and ''Zhenyan'' (true word, Sanskrit: Mantrayana).", "Kūkai (AD774–835) is a major Japanese Buddhist philosopher and the founder of the Tantric Shingon (true word) school in Japan.", "He wrote on a wide variety of topics such as public policy, language, the arts, literature, music and religion.", "After studying in China under Huiguo, Kūkai brought together various elements into a cohesive philosophical system of Shingon.Kūkai's philosophy is based on the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra (both from the seventh century).", "His ''Benkenmitsu nikkyôron'' (Treatise on the Differences Between Esoteric and Exoteric Teachings) outlines the difference between exoteric, mainstream Mahayana Buddhism (kengyô) and esoteric Tantric Buddhism (mikkyô).. Kūkai provided the theoretical framework for the esoteric Buddhist practices of Mantrayana, bridging the gap between the doctrine of the sutras and tantric practices.", "At the foundation of Kūkai's thought is the Trikaya doctrine, which holds there are three \"bodies of the Buddha\".According to Kūkai, esoteric Buddhism has the Dharmakaya (Jpn: ''hosshin'', embodiment of truth) as its source, which is associated with Vairocana Buddha (Dainichi).", "Hosshin is embodied absolute reality and truth.", "Hosshin is mostly ineffable but can be experienced through esoteric practices such as mudras and mantras.", "While Mahayana is taught by the historical Buddha (nirmāṇakāya), it does not have ultimate reality as its source or the practices to experience the esoteric truth.", "For Shingon, from an enlightened perspective, the whole phenomenal world itself is also the teaching of Vairocana.", "The body of the world, its sounds and movements, is the body of truth (dharma) and furthermore it is also identical with the personal body of the cosmic Buddha.", "For Kūkai, world, actions, persons and Buddhas are all part of the cosmic monologue of Vairocana, they are the truth being preached, to its own self manifestations.", "This is ''hosshin seppô'' (literally: \"the dharmakâya's expounding of the Dharma\") which can be accessed through mantra which is the cosmic language of Vairocana emanating through cosmic vibration concentrated in sound.", "In a broad sense, the universe itself is a huge text expressing ultimate truth (Dharma) which must be \"read\".Dainichi means \"Great Sun\" and Kūkai uses this as a metaphor for the great primordial Buddha, whose teaching and presence illuminates and pervades all, like the light of the sun.", "This immanent presence also means that every being already has access to the liberated state (hongaku) and Buddha nature, and that, because of this, there is the possibility of \"becoming Buddha in this very embodied existence\" (''sokushinjôbutsu'').", "This is achieved because of the non-dual relationship between the macrocosm of Hosshin and the microcosm of the Shingon practitioner.Kūkai's exposition of what has been called Shingon's \"metaphysics\" is based on the three aspects of the cosmic truth or Hosshin – body, appearance and function.", "The body is the physical and mental elements, which are the body and mind of the cosmic Buddha and which is also empty (Shunyata).", "The physical universe for Shingon contains the interconnected mental and physical events.", "The appearance aspect is the form of the world, which appears as mandalas of interconnected realms and is depicted in mandala art such as the Womb Realm mandala.", "The function is the movement and change which happens in the world, which includes change in forms, sounds and thought.", "These forms, sounds and thoughts are expressed by the Shingon practitioner in various rituals and tantric practices which allow them to connect with and inter-resonate with Dainichi and hence attain liberation here and now." ], [ "Modern philosophy", "A portrait of Gendün Chöphel in India, 1936.Kitarō Nishida, professor of philosophy at Kyoto University and founder of the Kyoto School.In Sri Lanka, Buddhist modernists such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864-1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott sought to show that Buddhism was rational and compatible with modern Scientific ideas such as the theory of evolution.", "Dharmapala also argued that Buddhism included a strong social element, interpreting it as liberal, altruistic and democratic.A later Sri Lankan philosopher, K. N. Jayatilleke (1920–1970), wrote the classic modern account of Buddhist epistemology (''Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge'', 1963).", "His student David Kalupahana wrote on the history of Buddhist thought and psychology.", "Other important Sri Lankan Buddhist thinkers include Ven Ñāṇananda (''Concept and Reality''), Walpola Rahula, Hammalawa Saddhatissa (''Buddhist Ethics'', 1987), Gunapala Dharmasiri (''A Buddhist critique of the Christian concept of God'', 1988), P. D. Premasiri and R. G. de S. Wettimuny.In 20th-century China, the modernist Taixu (1890-1947) advocated a reform and revival of Buddhism.", "He promoted an idea of a Buddhist Pure Land, not as a metaphysical place in Buddhist cosmology but as something possible to create here and now in this very world, which could be achieved through a \"Buddhism for Human Life\" () which was free of supernatural beliefs.", "Taixu also wrote on the connections between modern science and Buddhism, ultimately holding that \"scientific methods can only corroborate the Buddhist doctrine, they can never advance beyond it\".", "Like Taixu, Yin Shun (1906–2005) advocated a form of Humanistic Buddhism grounded in concern for humanitarian issues, and his students and followers have been influential in promoting Humanistic Buddhism in Taiwan.", "This period also saw a revival of the study of Weishi (Yogachara), by Yang Rensan (1837-1911), Ouyang Jinwu (1871-1943) and Liang Shuming (1893–1988).One of Tibetan Buddhism's most influential modernist thinkers is Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951), who, according to Donald S. Lopez Jr., \"was arguably the most important Tibetan intellectual of the twentieth century.\"", "Gendün Chöphel travelled throughout India with the Indian Buddhist Rahul Sankrityayan and wrote a wide variety of material, including works promoting the importance of modern science to his Tibetan countrymen and also Buddhist philosophical texts such as ''Adornment for Nagarjuna's Thought''.", "Another very influential Tibetan Buddhist modernist was Chögyam Trungpa, whose Shambhala Training was meant to be more suitable to modern Western sensitivities by offering a vision of \"secular enlightenment\".In Southeast Asia, thinkers such as Buddhadasa, Thích Nhất Hạnh, Sulak Sivaraksa and Aung San Suu Kyi have promoted a philosophy of socially Engaged Buddhism and have written on the socio-political application of Buddhism.", "Likewise, Buddhist approaches to economic ethics (Buddhist economics) have been explored in the works of E. F. Schumacher, Prayudh Payutto, Neville Karunatilake and Padmasiri de Silva.", "The study of the Pali Abhidhamma tradition continued to be influential in Myanmar, where it was developed by monks such as Ledi Sayadaw and Mahasi Sayadaw.Japanese philosophy was heavily influenced by the work of the Kyoto School which included Kitaro Nishida, Keiji Nishitani, Hajime Tanabe and Masao Abe.", "These thinkers brought Buddhist ideas in dialogue with Western philosophy, especially European phenomenologists and existentialists.", "The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought after the formation of the Kyoto school is Critical Buddhism, which argues against several Mahayana concepts such as Buddha nature and original enlightenment.", "In Nichiren Buddhism, the work of Daisaku Ikeda has also been popular.The Japanese Zen Buddhist D.T.", "Suzuki (1870–1966) was instrumental in bringing Zen Buddhism to the West and his Buddhist modernist works were very influential in the United States.", "Suzuki's worldview was a Zen Buddhism influenced by Romanticism and Transcendentalism, which promoted spiritual freedom as \"a spontaneous, emancipatory consciousness that transcends rational intellect and social convention.\"", "This idea of Buddhism influenced the Beat writers, and a contemporary representative of Western Buddhist Romanticism is Gary Snyder.", "The American Theravada Buddhist monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu has critiqued 'Buddhist Romanticism' in his writings.Western Buddhist monastics and priests such as Nanavira Thera, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Nyanaponika Thera, Robert Aitken, Taigen Dan Leighton, and Matthieu Ricard have written texts on Buddhist philosophy.", "A feature of Buddhist thought in the West has been a desire for dialogue and integration with modern science and psychology, and various modern Buddhists such as B. Alan Wallace, James H. Austin, Mark Epstein and the 14th Dalai Lama have worked and written on this issue.Another area of convergence has been Buddhism and environmentalism, which is explored in the work of Joanna Macy.", "Another Western Buddhist philosophical trend has been the project to secularize Buddhism, as seen in the works of Stephen Batchelor.In the West, Comparative philosophy between Buddhist and Western thought began with the work of Charles A. Moore, who founded the journal Philosophy East and West.", "Contemporary Western Academics such as Mark Siderits, Jan Westerhoff, Jonardon Ganeri, Miri Albahari, Owen Flanagan, Damien Keown, Tom Tillemans, David Loy, Evan Thompson and Jay Garfield have written various works which interpret Buddhist ideas through Western philosophy." ], [ "Comparison with other philosophies", "Scholars such as Thomas McEvilley, Christopher I. Beckwith, and Adrian Kuzminski have identified cross influences between ancient Buddhism and the ancient Greek philosophy of Pyrrhonism.", "The Greek philosopher Pyrrho spent 18 months in India as part of Alexander the Great's court on Alexander's conquest of western India, where ancient biographers say his contact with the gymnosophists caused him to create his philosophy.", "Because of the high degree of similarity between Nāgārjuna's philosophy and Pyrrhonism, particularly the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus, Thomas McEvilley suspects that Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.Baruch Spinoza, though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory.", "In his opinion sorrow is conquered \"by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting.\"", "The Buddha taught that the only thing which is eternal is Nirvana.", "David Hume, after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states.", "Hume's Bundle theory is a very similar concept to the Buddhist ''skandhas'', though his skepticism about causation leads him to opposite conclusions in other areas.", "Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy parallels Buddhism in his affirmation of asceticism and renunciation as a response to suffering and desire (cf.", "Schopenhauer's ''The World as Will and Representation'', 1818).Ludwig Wittgenstein's \"language-game\" closely parallel the warning that intellectual speculation or papañca is an impediment to understanding, as found in the Buddhist ''Parable of the Poison Arrow''.", "Friedrich Nietzsche, although himself dismissive of Buddhism as yet another nihilism, had a similar impermanent view of the self.", "Heidegger's ideas on being and nothingness have been held by some to be similar to Buddhism today.An alternative approach to the comparison of Buddhist thought with Western philosophy is to use the concept of the Middle Way in Buddhism as a critical tool for the assessment of Western philosophies.", "In this way, Western philosophies can be classified in Buddhist terms as eternalist or nihilist.", "In a Buddhist view, all philosophies are considered non-essential views (ditthis) and not to be clung to." ], [ "See also", "* Buddhism and science* Buddhist ethics* Buddhist logic* Critical Buddhism* God in Buddhism* List of Buddhist terms and concepts* List of Buddhist topics* List of sutras* Madhyamaka* Mindstream* Reality in Buddhism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Buddhism in a Nutshell* 2500 Years of Buddhism by Prof. P.Y.", "Bapat (1956) at archive.org" ] ]

[ [ "Billy Bob Thornton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Billy Bob Thornton''' (born August 4, 1955) is an American film actor, writer and director.", "He had his first break when he co-wrote and starred in the 1992 thriller ''One False Move'', and received international attention after writing, directing, and starring in the independent drama film ''Sling Blade'' (1996), for which he won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor.", "He appeared in several major film roles in the 1990s following ''Sling Blade'', including Oliver Stone's neo-noir ''U Turn'' (1997), political drama ''Primary Colors'' (1998), science fiction disaster film ''Armageddon'' (1998), the highest-grossing film of that year, and the crime drama ''A Simple Plan'' (1998), which earned him his third Oscar nomination.In the 2000s, Thornton achieved further success starring in dramas ''Monster's Ball'' (2001), ''The Man Who Wasn't There'' (2001), and ''Friday Night Lights'' (2004); and comedy films, ''Intolerable Cruelty'' (2003), and ''Bad Santa'' (2003).", "In 2014, Thornton starred as Lorne Malvo in the first season of the anthology series ''Fargo'', earning a nomination for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or TV Movie at the Emmy Awards and won Best Actor in a Miniseries or TV Film at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards.", "In 2016–2021 he starred for four seasons in an Amazon original series, ''Goliath'', which earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama.Thornton has written a variety of films, usually set in the Southern United States and mainly co-written with Tom Epperson, including ''A Family Thing'' (1996) and ''The Gift'' (2000).", "After ''Sling Blade'', he directed several other films, including ''Daddy and Them'' (2001), ''All the Pretty Horses'' (2000), and ''Jayne Mansfield's Car'' (2012).Thornton has received the President's Award from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, a Special Achievement Award from the National Board of Review, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "He has also been nominated for an Emmy Award, four Golden Globes, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.", "In addition to film work, Thornton began a career as a singer-songwriter.", "He has released four solo albums and is the vocalist of the rock band the Boxmasters.Thornton has been vocal about his distaste for celebrity culture, choosing to keep out of the public eye.", "He was unable to avoid media intrusion concerning his marriage to Angelina Jolie." ], [ "Early life", "Thornton was born on August 4, 1955, in Hot Springs, Arkansas, the son of Virginia Roberta (''née'' Faulkner; died July 29, 2017), a self-proclaimed psychic, and William Raymond \"Billy Ray\" Thornton (November 1929 – August 1974), a high school history teacher and basketball coach.", "His brother Jimmy Don (April 1958 – October 1988) wrote a number of songs; Thornton recorded two of them (\"Island Avenue\" and \"Emily\") on his solo albums.", "He is of English and part Irish descent.", "He has another brother, John David.Thornton lived in numerous places in Arkansas during his childhood, including Alpine, Malvern, and Mount Holly.", "He was raised Methodist in an extended family in a shack that had no electricity or plumbing.", "He graduated from Malvern High School in 1973.A good high school baseball player, he tried out for the Kansas City Royals, but was released after an injury.", "After a short period laying asphalt for the Arkansas State Transportation Department, he attended Henderson State University to pursue studies in psychology but dropped out after two semesters.In the mid-1980s Thornton settled in Los Angeles to pursue his career as an actor with future writing partner Tom Epperson.", "He had a difficult time succeeding as an actor and worked in telemarketing, offshore wind farming, and fast food management between auditioning for acting jobs.", "He also played the drums and sang with South African rock band Jack Hammer.", "While working as a waiter for an industry event, he served film director and screenwriter Billy Wilder.", "He struck up a conversation with Wilder, who advised Thornton to consider a career as a screenwriter." ], [ "Career", "===Acting and filmmaking===Thornton at the South by Southwest in Austin, Texas, in March 2008In September 1987, Thornton appeared on stage in a one-act play, \"Beethoven Symphonies,\" as part of the West Coast Theatre Ensemble in Los Angeles.", "His first on-screen role was playing a character named Billy Bob in the thriller ''Hunter's Blood''.", "He was a stand-in on that film for the whole production, and then appeared in two scenes.", "He subsequently appeared in minor roles in the film ''South of Reno'' and the 1987 ''Matlock'' episode \"The Photographer\".", "Another one of his early screen roles was as a cast member on the CBS sitcom ''Hearts Afire'' and in 1989 he appeared as an angry heckler in Adam Sandler's debut film ''Going Overboard''.", "His role as the villain in 1992's ''One False Move'', which he also co-wrote, brought him to the attention of critics.", "He also had small roles in the 1990s films ''Indecent Proposal'', ''On Deadly Ground'', ''Bound by Honor'', and ''Tombstone''.", "He went on to write, direct, and star in the 1996 independent film ''Sling Blade''.", "The film, an expansion of the short film ''Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade'', introduced the story of a mentally disabled man imprisoned for a gruesome and seemingly inexplicable murder.", "''Sling Blade'' garnered international acclaim.", "Thornton's screenplay earned him an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, a Writers Guild of America Award, and an Edgar Award, while his performance received Oscar and Screen Actors Guild nominations for Best Actor.", "In 1998, Thornton portrayed the James Carville-like Richard Jemmons in ''Primary Colors''.", "He adapted the book ''All the Pretty Horses'' into a 2000 film of the same name.", "The negative experience (he was forced to cut more than an hour of footage) led to his decision to never direct another film; a subsequent release, ''Daddy and Them'', had been filmed earlier.", "Also in 2000, an early script which he and Tom Epperson wrote together was made into ''The Gift''.In 2000, Thornton appeared in Travis Tritt's music video for the song \"Modern Day Bonnie and Clyde\".", "His screen persona has been described by the press as that of a \"tattooed, hirsute man's man\".", "He appeared in several major film roles following the success of ''Sling Blade'', including 1998's ''Armageddon'' and ''A Simple Plan''.", "In 2001, he directed ''Daddy and Them'' while securing starring roles in three Hollywood films: ''Monster's Ball'', ''Bandits'', and ''The Man Who Wasn't There'', for which he received many awards.Thornton played a malicious mall Santa in 2003's ''Bad Santa'', a black comedy that performed well at the box office and established him as a leading comic actor, and in the same year, portrayed an oil millionaire in the comedy film ''Intolerable Cruelty'', and a womanizing President of the United States in the British romantic comedy film ''Love Actually''.", "He stated that, following the success of ''Bad Santa'', audiences \"like to watch him play that kind of guy\" and that \"casting directors call him up when they need an asshole\".", "He referred to this when he said that \"it's kinda that simple... you know how narrow the imagination in this business can be\".In 2004, Thornton starred as David Crockett in ''The Alamo'', and played Coach Gary Gaines in the football drama film ''Friday Night Lights''.", "Also that year, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on October 7.He played a baseball coach in the 2005 sports comedy ''Bad News Bears'', a remake of the 1976 ''film of the same name''.", "He appeared in the 2006 comic film ''School for Scoundrels''.", "In the film, he plays a self-help doctor, which was written specifically for him.", "More recent films include 2007 drama ''The Astronaut Farmer'' and the comedy ''Mr.", "Woodcock'', in which he played a sadistic gym teacher.", "In September 2008, he starred in the action film ''Eagle Eye''.", "He has also expressed an interest in directing another film, possibly a period piece about cave explorer Floyd Collins, based on the book ''Trapped!", "The Story of Floyd Collins''.Thornton in 2012 In 2011, Thorton voiced Jack in the animated comedy film ''Puss in Boots''.", "In 2014, he starred as sociopathic hitman Lorne Malvo in the FX miniseries ''Fargo'', inspired by the 1996 film of the same name, for which he won a Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Mini-Series.", "Thornton made a guest appearance on ''The Big Bang Theory'' in 2014, where he played a middle-aged urologist who gets excited about every woman who touches him.", "That same year, he played a prosecutor in the legal drama ''The Judge''.", "\"Goliath\", a television series by Amazon Studios, features Thornton as a formerly brilliant and personable lawyer, who is now washed up and alcoholic.", "It premiered on October 13, 2016, on Amazon Prime Video.", "On February 15, 2017, Amazon announced the series had been renewed for a second season.", "Goliath was renewed for two additional seasons, with the final season released on September 24, 2021, by Amazon Prime Video.In 2017, Thornton starred in the music video ''Stand Down'' by Kario Salem (musically known as K.O.).", "It received the Best Music Video award from the Toronto Shorts International Film Festival and has had 13 million views on Facebook and counting.===Music===In the 1970s, Thornton was the drummer of a blues rock band named Tres Hombres.", "Guitarist Billy Gibbons referred to the band as \"the best little cover band in Texas\", and Thornton bears a tattoo with the band's name on it.Thornton with The Boxmasters, 2007In 1985, Thornton joined Piet Botha in the South African rock band Jack Hammer, while Botha worked in Los Angeles.", "Thornton recorded one studio album with Jack Hammer, ''Death'' ''of'' ''a'' ''Gypsy'', which was released in September 1986.In 2001, Thornton released the album ''Private Radio'' on Lost Highway Records.", "Subsequent albums include ''The Edge of the World'' (2003), ''Hobo'' (2005) and ''Beautiful Door'' (2007).", "He performed the Warren Zevon song ''The Wind'' on the tribute album ''Enjoy Every Sandwich: Songs of Warren Zevon''.", "Thornton recorded a cover of the Johnny Cash classic \"Ring of Fire\" with Earl Scruggs, for the ''Oxford American'' magazine's Southern Music CD in 2001.The song also appeared on Scruggs' 2001 album ''Earl Scruggs and Friends''.In 2007, Thornton formed The Boxmasters with J.D.", "Andrew.====CBC incident====On April 8, 2009, Thornton and his musical group The Boxmasters appeared on the CBC Radio One program ''Q''.", "The appearance was widely criticized and received international attention after Thornton was persistently unintelligible and discourteous to host Jian Ghomeshi.", "Thornton eventually explained that he had instructed the show's producers to not ask questions about his movie career.", "Ghomeshi had mentioned Thornton's acting in the introduction.", "Thornton had also complained Canadian audiences were like \"mashed potatoes without the gravy.\"", "The following night, opening for Willie Nelson at Toronto's Massey Hall, Thornton said mid-set he liked Canadians but not Ghomeshi, which was greeted with boos and catcalls.", "The Boxmasters did not continue the tour in Canada as, according to Thornton, some of the crew and band had the flu." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Discography", ";Studio albums* ''Private Radio'' (2001)* ''The Edge of the World'' (2003)* ''Hobo'' (2005)* ''Beautiful Door'' (2007)" ], [ "Awards" ], [ "Personal life", "===Relationships and children===Thornton with the Boxmasters, 2007Thornton has been married six times.", "He has four children by three women.From 1978 to 1980, he was married to Melissa Lee Gatlin, who in her divorce petition cited \"incompatibility and adultery on his part\".", "They had a daughter Amanda (Brumfield), who in 2008 was sentenced to 20 years in prison for the death of her friend's one-year-old daughter.", "Amanda was freed in 2020 after a deal was reached with prosecutors prior to an evidentiary hearing to provide medical and scientific evidence of her innocence.Thornton married actress Toni Lawrence in 1986; they separated the following year and divorced in 1988.From 1990 to 1992, he was married to actress Cynda Williams, who was cast in his writing debut ''One False Move'' (1992).In 1993, Thornton married ''Playboy'' model Pietra Dawn Cherniak, with whom he had two sons.", "The marriage ended in 1997 with Cherniak accusing Thornton of spousal abuse, sometimes in front of his children.Thornton dated Laura Dern (despite reports, they were never engaged) from 1997 to 1999, but in 2000, he married actress Angelina Jolie, with whom he starred in ''Pushing Tin'' (1999) and who was 20 years his junior.", "The marriage became known for the couple's eccentric displays of affection, which reportedly included wearing vials of each other's blood around their necks; Thornton later clarified that the \"vials\" were actually two small lockets, each containing only a single drop of blood.", "Thornton and Jolie announced the adoption of a child from Cambodia in March 2002, but it was later revealed that Jolie had adopted the child as a single parent.", "They separated in June 2002 and divorced the following year.In 2003, Thornton began a relationship with makeup effects crew member Connie Angland with whom he has a daughter.", "Although he once said that he likely would not marry again since marriage \"doesn't work\" for him, his representatives confirmed that he and Angland were married on October 22, 2014, in Los Angeles.=== Health problems ===During his early years in Los Angeles, Thornton was admitted to a hospital and diagnosed with myocarditis, a heart condition brought on by malnutrition.", "He has since said that he follows a vegan diet and is \"extremely healthy\", eating no junk food as he is allergic to wheat and dairy.=== Neurodivergent Behaviors ===Thornton has obsessive–compulsive disorder.", "Various idiosyncratic behaviors have been well documented in interviews with Thornton; among these is a phobia of antique furniture, a disorder shared by Dwight Yoakam's character Doyle Hargraves in the Thornton-penned ''Sling Blade'' and by Thornton's own character in the 2001 film ''Bandits''.", "Additionally, he has stated that he has a fear of certain types of silverware, a trait assumed by his character in 2001's ''Monster's Ball'', in which Grotowski insists on a plastic spoon for his daily bowl of ice cream.In a 2004 interview with ''The Independent'', Thornton explained, ===Other===Thornton is a baseball fan and a devout fan of the St. Louis Cardinals.", "In his movie contracts, one of his demands is a television in his trailer with a satellite dish so he can watch the Cardinals play.", "He narrated ''The 2006 World Series Film'', the year-end retrospective DVD chronicling the Cardinals' championship season.", "He is also a professed fan of the Indianapolis Colts football team.Thornton is a self-described Brony, a male fan of ''My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Billy Bob Thornton on Discogs* *" ] ]

[ [ "The Big O" ], [ "Introduction", " is a Japanese mecha-anime television series created by designer Keiichi Sato and director Kazuyoshi Katayama for Sunrise.", "The writing staff was assembled by the series' head writer, Chiaki J. Konaka, who is known for his work on ''Serial Experiments Lain'' and ''Hellsing''.", "The story takes place forty years after a mysterious occurrence causes the residents of Paradigm City to lose their memories.", "The series follows Roger Smith, Paradigm City's top Negotiator.", "He provides this \"much needed service\" with the help of a robot named R. Dorothy Wayneright and his butler Norman Burg.", "When the need arises, Roger calls upon Big O, a giant relic from the city's past.The television series was designed as a tribute to Japanese and Western shows from the 1960s and 1970s.", "The series is presented in the style of ''film noir'' and combines themes of detective fiction and mecha anime.", "The setpieces are reminiscent of ''tokusatsu'' productions of the 1950s and 1960s, particularly Toho's ''kaiju'' movies, and the score is an eclectic mix of styles and musical homages.", "''The Big O'' aired on Wowow satellite television from October 13, 1999, and January 19, 2000.The English-language version premiered on Cartoon Network's Toonami on April 2, 2001, and ended on April 23, 2001.Originally planned as a 26-episode series, low viewership in Japan reduced production to the first 13.Positive international reception resulted in a second season consisting of the remaining 13 episodes, co-produced by Cartoon Network, Sunrise, and Bandai Visual.", "Season two premiered on Japan's Sun Television on January 2, 2003, and the American premiere took place seven months later.", "Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment by parent company Bandai (owned by Bandai Namco Holdings) in 2012, Sunrise announced at Otakon 2013 that Sentai Filmworks acquired both seasons of ''The Big O''." ], [ "Synopsis", "===Setting===An aerial shot of Paradigm City.", "The city is based on the island of Manhattan and is suggested to be New York City itself.", "''The Big O'' is set in the fictional city-state of .", "The city is located on a seacoast and is surrounded by a vast desert wasteland.", "The partially domed city is wholly controlled by the monopolistic Paradigm Corporation, resulting in a corporate police state.", "Paradigm is known as because forty years prior to the story, destroyed the world outside the city and left the survivors without any prior memories.", "The city is characterized by severe class inequity; the higher-income population resides inside the more pleasant domes, with the remainder left in tenements outside.", "Residents of the city believe that they are the last survivors of the world and no other nations exist outside the city.", "Androids and giant robots known as \"Megadeus\" coexist with the residents of Paradigm City and residents do not find them unusual.===Plot===After failing to negotiate with terrorists at the cost of his client's life, Roger Smith is obligated to care for Dorothy Wayneright, a young female android.", "Over the course of the series, Roger Smith continues to accept negotiation work from the residents of Paradigm City, he often leads to uncovering the nature and mystery of Paradigm City and encountering megadeus or other giant enemies that require Big O.", "Supporting characters are Angel, a mysterious woman in search of memories; Dan Dastun, chief of the military police of Paradigm city and old friend of Roger Smith; and Norman Burg, the butler of Roger Smith and mechanic of Big O.The main antagonist is Alex Rosewater, chairman of Paradigm City whose goal is to revive the megadeus \"Big Fau\" in attempts to become the god of Paradigm City.", "Other recurring antagonists are Jason Beck, criminal and con-artist attempting to humiliate Roger Smith; Schwarzwald, an ex-reporter obsessed with finding the truth of Paradigm City and also pilot of the megadeus \"Big Duo\"; Vera Ronstadt, leader of a group of foreigners known as the Union searching for memories and revenge against Paradigm City; and Alan Gabriel, a cyborg assassin working for Alex Rosewater and the Union.The series ends with the awakening of a new megadeus, and the revelation that the world is a simulated reality.", "A climactic battle ensues between Big O and Big Fau, after which reality is systematically erased by the new megadeus, an incarnation of Angel, recognized as \"Big Venus\" by Dorothy.", "Roger implores Angel to \"let go of the past\" regardless of its existential reality, and focus only on the present and the future.", "In an isolated control room, the real Angel observes Roger and her past encounters with him on a series of television monitors.", "On the control panel lies ''Metropolis'', a book featured prominently since the thirteenth episode; the cover features an illustration of angel wings and gives the author's name as \"Angel Rosewater\".", "Big Venus and Big O physically merge, causing the virtual reality to reset.", "The final scene shows Roger Smith driving down a restored Paradigm city with Dorothy and Angel observing him from the side of the road." ], [ "Production and release", "Development of the retro-styled series began in 1996.Keiichi Sato came up with the concept of ''The Big O'': a giant city-smashing robot, piloted by a man in black, in a Gotham-like environment.", "He later met up with Kazuyoshi Katayama, who had just finished directing ''Those Who Hunt Elves'', and started work on the layouts and character designs.", "But when things \"were about to really start moving,\" production on Katayama's ''Sentimental Journey'' began, putting plans on hold.", "Meanwhile, Sato was heavily involved with his work on ''City Hunter''.", "The initial story idea revolved around a cataclysm (caused by an meteorite impact) that destroyed most of human civilization.", "The setting would be a city that survived, where the protagonist pilots a giant robot engineered from the meteorite's recovered superalloy to battle against the authority in charge of the surviving city.Sato admits it all started as \"a gimmick for a toy\" but the representatives at Bandai Hobby Division did not see the same potential.", "From there on, the dealings would be with Bandai Visual, but Sunrise still needed some safeguards and requested more robots be designed to increase prospective toy sales.", "In 1999, with the designs complete, Chiaki J. Konaka was brought on as head writer.", "Among other things, Konaka came up with the idea of \"a town without memory\" and his writing staff put together the outline for a 26-episodes series.", "Konaka deliberately chose to present the setting, Paradigm City, as a city of amnesiacs to avoid needing to develop lore for the origin of the show's mecha.", "When Cartoon Network later offered funding for the second season, its representatives requested that the story be satisfactorily finished at the end of this season; this prompted Konaka to continue developing the concept of the amnesiac city as its central theme.", "''The Big O'' premiered on October 13, 1999, on Wowow.", "When the production staff was informed the series would be shortened to 13 episodes, the writers decided to end it with a cliffhanger, hoping the next 13 episodes would be picked up.", "In April 2001, ''The Big O'' premiered on Cartoon Network's Toonami lineup.The series garnered positive fan response internationally that resulted in a second season co-produced by Cartoon Network and Sunrise.", "Season two premiered on Japan's Sun Television in January 2003, with the American premiere taking place seven months later as an Adult Swim exclusive.", "The second season would not be seen on Toonami until July 27, 2013, 10 years after it began airing on Adult Swim.The second season was scripted by Chiaki Konaka with input from the American producers.", "Cartoon Network raised two requests for the second season: more action and reveal the mystery in the first season, although Kazuyoshi Katayama admitted that he did not intend to reveal it, just to make an anthology of adventures setting in the universe.", "Along with the 13 episodes of season two, Cartoon Network had an option for 26 additional episodes to be written by Konaka, but according to Jason DeMarco, executive producer for season two, the middling ratings and DVD sales in the United States and Japan made any further episodes impossible to be produced.Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment by parent company in 2012, Sunrise announced at Otakon 2013 that Sentai Filmworks rescued both seasons of ''The Big O''.", "On June 20, 2017, Sentai Filmworks released both seasons on Blu-ray.===Music===''The Big O'' was scored by ''Geidai'' alumnus Toshihiko Sahashi.", "His composition is richly symphonic and classical, with a number of pieces delving into electronica and jazz.", "Chosen because of his \"frightening amount of musical knowledge about TV dramas overseas,\" Sahashi integrates musical homages into the soundtrack.", "The background music draws from ''film noir'', spy films and sci-fi television series like ''The Twilight Zone''.", "The battle themes are reminiscent of Akira Ifukube's compositions for the ''Godzilla'' series.The first opening theme is the Queen-influenced \"Big-O!\".", "Composed, arranged and performed by Rui Nagai, the song resembles the theme to the ''Flash Gordon'' film.", "The second opening theme is \"Respect,\" composed by Sahashi.", "The track is an homage to the music of ''UFO'', composed by Barry Gray.", "In 2007, Rui Nagai composed \"Big-O!", "Show Must Go On,\" a 1960s hard rock piece, for Animax's reruns of the show; this composition replaced the original opening themes for the Blu-Ray release of the series.", "The closing theme is the slow love ballad \"And Forever...\" written by Chie and composed by Ken Shima.", "The duet is performed by Robbie Danzie and Naoki Takao.Along with Sahashi's original compositions, the soundtrack features Chopin's Prelude No.", "15 and a jazz saxophone rendition of \"Jingle Bells.\"", "The complete score was released in two volumes by Victor Entertainment." ], [ "Design", "''The Big O'' is the brainchild of Keiichi Sato and Kazuyoshi Katayama, an homage to the shows they grew up with.", "The show references the works of ''tokusatsu'' produced by the Toei Company and Tsuburaya Productions, as well as shows such as ''Super Robot Red Baron'' and ''Super Robot Mach Baron'' and \"old school\" super robot anime.", "The series is done in the style of ''film noir'' and pulp fiction and combines the feel of a detective show with the giant robot genre.===Style===The shadows of Venetian blinds cast upon the hero, a signature visual of ''film noir''.", "''The Big O'' shares many of its themes, diction, archetypes and visual iconography with ''film noirs'' of the 1940s like ''The Big Sleep'' (1946).", "The series incorporates the use of long dark shadows in the tradition of ''chiaroscuro'' and tenebrism.", "''Film noir'' is also known for its use of odd angles, such as Roger's low shot introduction in the first episode.", "''Noir'' cinematographers favoured this angle because it made characters almost rise from the ground, giving them dramatic girth and symbolic overtones.", "Other disorientating devices like dutch angles, mirror reflection and distorting shots are employed throughout the series.The characters of ''The Big O'' fit the ''noir'' and pulp fiction archetypes.", "Roger Smith is a protagonist in the mold of Chandler's Philip Marlowe or Hammett's Sam Spade.", "He is canny and cynical, a disillusioned cop-turned-negotiator whose job has more in common with detective-style work than negotiating.", "Big Ear is Roger's street informant and Dan Dastun is the friend on the police force.", "The recurring Beck is the imaginative thug compelled by delusions of grandeur while Angel fills the role of the ''femme fatale''.", "Minor characters include crooked cops, corrupt business men and deranged scientists.The dialogue in the series is recognized for its witty, wry sense of humor.", "The characters come off as charming and exchange banter not often heard in anime series, as the dialogue has the tendency to be straightforward.", "The plot is moved along by Roger's voice-over narration, a device used in ''film noir'' to place the viewer in the mind of the protagonist so it can intimately experience the character's angst and partly identify with the narrator.The tall buildings and giant domes create a sense of claustrophobia and paranoia characteristic of the style.", "The rural landscape, Ailesberry Farm, contrasts Paradigm City.", "''Noir'' protagonists often look for sanctuary in such settings but they just as likely end up becoming a killing ground.", "The series score is representative of its setting.", "While no classic ''noir'' possesses a jazz score, the music could be heard in nightclubs within the films.", "Roger's recurring theme, a lone saxophone accompaniment to the protagonist's narration, best exemplifies the ''noir'' stylings of the series.Amnesia is a common plot device in ''film noir''.", "Because most of these stories focused on a character proving his innocence, authors up the ante by making him an amnesiac, unable to prove his innocence even to himself.===Influences===Before ''The Big O'', Sunrise was a subcontractor for Warner Bros.", "Animation's ''Batman: The Animated Series'', one of the series' influences.", "Cartoon Network, under the Toonami flag advertised the series as \"One part Bond.", "One part Bruce Wayne.", "One part City Smashing Robot.", "\"Roger Smith is a pastiche of the Bruce Wayne persona and the Batman.", "The character design resembles Wayne, complete with slicked-back hair and double-breasted business suit.", "Like Bruce, Roger prides himself in being a rich playboy to the extent that one of his household's rules is only women may be let into his mansion without his permission.", "Like Batman, Roger Smith carries a no-gun policy, albeit more flexible.", "Unlike the personal motives of the Batman, Roger enforces this rule for \"it's all part of being a gentleman.\"", "Among Roger's gadgetry is the Griffon, a large, black hi-tech sedan comparable to the Batmobile, a grappling cable that shoots out his wristwatch and the giant robot that Angel calls \"Roger's alter ego.", "\"''The Big O'''s cast of supporting characters includes Norman, Roger's faithful mechanically-inclined butler who fills the role of Alfred Pennyworth; R. Dorothy Wayneright, who plays the role of the sidekick; and Dan Dastun, a good honest cop who, like Jim Gordon, is both a friend to the hero and greatly respected by his comrades.The other major influence is Mitsuteru Yokoyama's ''Giant Robo''.", "Before working on ''The Big O'', Kazuyoshi Katayama and other animators worked with Yasuhiro Imagawa on ''Giant Robo: The Day the Earth Stood Still''.", "The feature, a \"retro chic\" homage to Yokoyama's career, took seven years to produce and suffered low sales and high running costs.", "Frustrated by the experience, Katayama and his staff put all their efforts into making \"good\" with ''The Big O''.Like Giant Robo, the megadeuses of ''Big O'' are metal behemoths.", "The designs are strange and \"more macho than practical,\" sporting big stovepipe arms and exposed rivets.", "Unlike the giants of other mecha series, the megadeuses do not exhibit ninja-like speed nor grace.", "Instead, the robots are armed with \"old school\" weaponry such as missiles, piston powered punches, machine guns and laser cannons.Katayama also cited ''Super Robot Red Baron'' and ''Super Robot Mach Baron'' among influences on the inspiration of ''The Big O''.", "Believing that because ''Red Baron'' had such a low budget and the big fights always happened outside of a city setting, he wanted ''Big O'' to be the show he felt ''Red Baron'' could be with a bigger budget.", "He also spoke of how he first came up with designs for the robots first as if they were making designs to appeal to toy companies, rather than how ''Gundam'' was created with a toy company wanting an anime to represent their new product.", "Big O's large pumping piston \"Sudden Impact\" arms, for example, he felt would be cool gimmicks in a toy." ], [ "Related media", "===Publications===''The Big O'' was conceived as a media franchise.", "To this effect, Sunrise requested a manga be produced along with the animated series.", "''The Big O'' manga started serialization in Kodansha's ''Magazine Z'' in July 1999, three months before the anime premiere.", "Authored by Hitoshi Ariga, the manga uses Keiichi Sato's concept designs in an all-new story.", "The series ended in October 2001.The issues were later collected in six volumes.", "The English version of the manga is published by Viz Media.In anticipation of the broadcast of the second season, a new manga series was published.", ", authored by Hitoshi Ariga.", "''Lost Memory'' takes place between volumes five and six of the original manga.", "The issues were serialized in ''Magazine Z'' from November 2002 to September 2003 and were collected in two volumes.", ", a novel by Yuki Taniguchi, was released 16 July 2003 by Tokuma Shoten.", "''The Big O Visual: The official companion to the TV series'' () was published by Futabasha in 2003.The book contains full-color artwork, character bios and concept art, mecha sketches, video/LD/DVD jacket illustrations, history on the making of The Big O, staff interviews, \"Roger's Monologues\" comic strip and the original script for the final episode of the series.===Audio drama===\"Walking Together On The Yellow Brick Road\" was released by Victor Entertainment on 21 September 2000.The drama CD was written by series head writer Chiaki J. Konaka and featured the series' voice cast.", "An English translation, written by English dub translator David Fleming, was posted on Konaka's website.===Video games===The first season of Big O is featured in ''Super Robot Wars D'' for the Game Boy Advance in 2003.The series, including its second season, is also featured in ''Super Robot Wars Z'', released in 2008.", "''The Big O'' became a mainstay of the \"Z\" games, appearing in each entry of the subseries.===Toys and model kits===Bandai released a non-scale model kit of Big O in 2000.Though it was an easy snap-together kit, it required painting, as all of the parts (except the clear orange crown and canopy) were molded in dark gray.", "The kit included springs that enabled the slide-action Side Piles on the forearms to simulate Big O's Sudden Impact maneuver.", "Also included was an unpainted Roger Smith figure.PVC figures of Big O and Big Duo (Schwarzwald's Megadeus) were sold by Bandai America.", "Each came with non-poseable figures of Roger, Dorothy and Angel.", "Mini-figure sets were sold in Japan and America during the run of the second season.", "The characters included Big O (standard and attack modes), Roger, Dorothy & Norman, Griffon (Roger's car), Dorothy-1 (Big O's first opponent), Schwarzwald and Big Duo.In 2009, Bandai released a plastic/diecast figure of the Big O under their Soul of Chogokin line.", "The figure has the same features as the model kit, but with added detail and accessories.", "Its design was closely supervised by original designer Keiichi Sato.In 2011, Max Factory released action figures of Roger and Dorothy through their Figma toyline.", "Like most Figmas, they are very detailed, articulated and come with accessories and interchangeable faces.", "In the same year, Max Factory also released a 12-inch, diecast figure of Big O under their Max Gokin line.", "The figure contained most of the accessories as the Soul of Chogokin figure but also included some others that could be bought separately from the SOC figure, such as the Mobydick (hip) Anchors and Roger Smith's car: the Griffon.", "Like the Soul of Chogokin figure, its design was also supervised by Keiichi Sato.", "As well, in that same year, Max Factory released soft vinyl figures of Big Duo and Big Fau, in-scale with the Max Gokin Big O.", "These figures are high in detail but limited in articulation, such as the arms and legs being the only things to move.", "To date, this is the only action figure of Big Fau." ], [ "Reception", "''The Big O'' premiered on October 13, 1999.The show was not a hit in its native Japan, rather it was reduced from an outlined 26 episodes to 13 episodes.", "Western audiences were more receptive and the series achieved the success its creators were looking for.", "In an interview with AnimePlay, Keiichi Sato said \"This is exactly as we had planned\", referring to the success overseas.Several words appear constantly in the English-language reviews; adjectives like \"hip\", \"sleek,\" \"stylish\", \"classy\", and, above all, \"cool\" serve to describe the artwork, the concept, and the series itself.", "Reviewers have pointed out references and homages to various works of fiction, namely ''Batman'', Giant Robo, the works of Isaac Asimov, Fritz Lang's ''Metropolis'', James Bond, and ''Cowboy Bebop''.", "But \"while saying that may cause one to think the show is completely derivative\", reads an article at Anime on DVD, \"''The Big O'' still manages to stand out as something original amongst the other numerous cookie-cutter anime shows.\"", "One reviewer cites the extensive homages as one of the series problems and calls to unoriginality on the creators' part.The first season's reception was positive.", "Anime on DVD recommends it as an essential series.", "Chris Beveridge of the aforementioned site gave an A− to Vols.", "1 and 2, and a B+ to Vols.", "3 and 4.Mike Toole of Anime Jump gave it 4.5 (out of a possible 5) stars, while the review at the Anime Academy gave it a grade of 83, listing the series' high points as being \"unique\", the characters \"interesting,\" and the action \"nice.\"", "Reviewers, and fans alike, agree the season's downfall was the ending, or its lack thereof.", "The dangling plot threads frustrated the viewers and prompted Cartoon Network's involvement in the production of further episodes.The look and feel of the show received a big enhancement in the second season.", "This time around, the animation is \"near OVA quality\" and the artwork \"far more lush and detailed.\"", "Also enhanced are the troubles of the first season.", "The giant robot battles still seem out of place to some, while others praise the \"over-the-top-ness\" of their execution.For some reviewers, the second season \"doesn't quite match the first\" addressing to \"something\" missing in these episodes.", "Andy Patrizio of IGN points out changes in Roger Smith's character, who \"lost some of his cool and his very funny side in the second season.\"", "Like a repeat of season one, this season's ending is considered its downfall.", "Chris Beveridge of Anime on DVD wonders if this was head writer \"Konaka's attempt to throw his hat into the ring for creating one of the most confusing and oblique endings of any series.\"", "Patrizio states \"the creators watched ''The Truman Show'' and ''The Matrix'' a few times too many.", "\"Sato, Katayama, Konaka, and Bandai in general received many inquiries from fans in Japan asking for further clarification on the plot and ending.", "The three directly addressed these questions via an art book and companion to the series in 2004.Katayama describes Paradigm City as the created narrative of Angel, who (alongside Roger Smith only) stands above the story but writes herself a role to play.", "The narrative provided for civilization to continue in some form, though Angel included a safeguard that would reset the narrative should her identity as the creator ever be discovered by the characters.", "Having fallen in love with the character of Roger Smith, she inserts herself into the story with conditions designed to bring them together whenever Roger encounters a particularly tough challenge or is investigating mysteries.", "According to Katayama, her planned narrative collapses when she becomes jealous of Roger's affinity for R. Dorothy, culminating in Gordon Rosewater's realization that Angel is indeed the creator of Paradigm City.", "Angel prepares to end the narrative world via piloting Big Venus, which Konaka states will return everything to its destroyed, ruined state it lay in immediately after the cataclysm 40 years ago.", "Roger however successfully negotiates for her to simply restart the narrative and allow Paradigm City to be reset and continue in some form.", "Konaka originally wrote the ending to clearly show that Angel changed her role to become Roger's assistant, repeating a scene in the first episode where Roger negotiates for the release of Dorothy Waynewright, who is implied to now be human; Katayama changed this to make the ending more ambiguous.", "In both endings, Paradigm City continues as a city of amnesiacs, despite Gordon Rosewater's wishes for Roger to negotiate with the creator to return people's memories to them.The series continues to have a strong cult following into the 2010s.", "In 2014 BuzzFeed writer Ryan Broderick ranked ''The Big O'' as one of the best anime series to binge-watch.", "Dan Casey host of The Nerdist's ''Dan Cave'' stated ''The Big O'' was the anime series he was most eager to see rebooted or remade, along with ''Trigun'' and ''Soul Eater''.", "In 2017, Ollie Barder of Forbes wrote, \"From the classic and retro styled mecha design of Keiichi Sato to the overall film noir visual tone of the series, The Big O was a fascinating and visually very different kind of show.", "It also had a fantastic voice cast, with probably the most notable of these being Akiko Yajima as the voice of Roger's disapproving android Dorothy.\"", "In 2019, Crunchyroll writer Thomas Zoth ranked ''The Big O'' as his top 10 anime since the 1990s." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "BIOS" ], [ "Introduction", "In computing, '''BIOS''' (, ; '''Basic Input/Output System''', also known as the '''System BIOS''', '''ROM BIOS''', '''BIOS ROM''' or '''PC BIOS''') is firmware used to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs and to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on startup).", "The BIOS firmware comes pre-installed on an IBM PC or IBM PC compatible's system board and exists in some UEFI-based systems to maintain compatibility with operating systems that do not support UEFI native operation.", "The name originates from the Basic Input/Output System used in the CP/M operating system in 1975.The BIOS originally proprietary to the IBM PC has been reverse engineered by some companies (such as Phoenix Technologies) looking to create compatible systems.", "The interface of that original system serves as a ''de facto'' standard.The BIOS in modern PCs initializes and tests the system hardware components (power-on self-test), and loads a boot loader from a mass storage device which then initializes a kernel.", "In the era of DOS, the BIOS provided BIOS interrupt calls for the keyboard, display, storage, and other input/output (I/O) devices that standardized an interface to application programs and the operating system.", "More recent operating systems do not use the BIOS interrupt calls after startup.Most BIOS implementations are specifically designed to work with a particular computer or motherboard model, by interfacing with various devices especially system chipset.", "Originally, BIOS firmware was stored in a ROM chip on the PC motherboard.", "In later computer systems, the BIOS contents are stored on flash memory so it can be rewritten without removing the chip from the motherboard.", "This allows easy, end-user updates to the BIOS firmware so new features can be added or bugs can be fixed, but it also creates a possibility for the computer to become infected with BIOS rootkits.", "Furthermore, a BIOS upgrade that fails could brick the motherboard.", "The last version of Microsoft Windows to officially support running on PCs which use legacy BIOS firmware is Windows 10 as Windows 11 requires a UEFI-compliant system.Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is a successor to the legacy PC BIOS, aiming to address its technical limitations." ], [ "History", "The term BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) was created by Gary Kildall and first appeared in the CP/M operating system in 1975, describing the machine-specific part of CP/M loaded during boot time that interfaces directly with the hardware.", "(A CP/M machine usually has only a simple boot loader in its ROM.", ")Versions of MS-DOS, PC DOS or DR-DOS contain a file called variously \"IO.SYS\", \"IBMBIO.COM\", \"IBMBIO.SYS\", or \"DRBIOS.SYS\"; this file is known as the \"DOS BIOS\" (also known as the \"DOS I/O System\") and contains the lower-level hardware-specific part of the operating system.", "Together with the underlying hardware-specific but operating system-independent \"System BIOS\", which resides in ROM, it represents the analogue to the \"CP/M BIOS\".The BIOS originally proprietary to the IBM PC has been reverse engineered by some companies (such as Phoenix Technologies) looking to create compatible systems.With the introduction of PS/2 machines, IBM divided the System BIOS into real- and protected-mode portions.", "The real-mode portion was meant to provide backward compatibility with existing operating systems such as DOS, and therefore was named \"CBIOS\" (for \"Compatibility BIOS\"), whereas the \"ABIOS\" (for \"Advanced BIOS\") provided new interfaces specifically suited for multitasking operating systems such as OS/2." ], [ "{{Anchor|BCU}}User interface", "The BIOS of the original IBM PC and XT had no interactive user interface.", "Error codes or messages were displayed on the screen, or coded series of sounds were generated to signal errors when the power-on self-test (POST) had not proceeded to the point of successfully initializing a video display adapter.", "Options on the IBM PC and XT were set by switches and jumpers on the main board and on expansion cards.", "Starting around the mid-1990s, it became typical for the BIOS ROM to include a ''\"BIOS configuration utility\"'' (BCU) or \"BIOS setup utility\", accessed at system power-up by a particular key sequence.", "This program allowed the user to set system configuration options, of the type formerly set using DIP switches, through an interactive menu system controlled through the keyboard.", "In the interim period, IBM-compatible PCsincluding the IBM ATheld configuration settings in battery-backed RAM and used a bootable configuration program on floppy disk, not in the ROM, to set the configuration options contained in this memory.", "The floppy disk was supplied with the computer, and if it was lost the system settings could not be changed.", "The same applied in general to computers with an EISA bus, for which the configuration program was called an EISA Configuration Utility (ECU).A modern Wintel-compatible computer provides a setup routine essentially unchanged in nature from the ROM-resident BIOS setup utilities of the late 1990s; the user can configure hardware options using the keyboard and video display.", "The modern Wintel machine may store the BIOS configuration settings in flash ROM, perhaps the same flash ROM that holds the BIOS itself." ], [ "Operation", "=== System startup ===Early Intel processors started at physical address 000FFFF0h.", "Systems with later processors provide logic to start running the BIOS from the system ROM.If the system has just been powered up or the reset button was pressed (\"cold boot\"), the full power-on self-test (POST) is run.", "If Ctrl+Alt+Delete was pressed (\"warm boot\"), a special flag value stored in nonvolatile BIOS memory (\"CMOS\") tested by the BIOS allows bypass of the lengthy POST and memory detection.The POST identifies, tests and initializes system devices such as the CPU, chipset, RAM, motherboard, video card, keyboard, mouse, hard disk drive, optical disc drive and other hardware, including integrated peripherals.Early IBM PCs had a routine in the POST that would download a program into RAM through the keyboard port and run it.", "This feature was intended for factory test or diagnostic purposes.=== Boot process ===Boot processAfter the option ROM scan is completed and all detected ROM modules with valid checksums have been called, or immediately after POST in a BIOS version that does not scan for option ROMs, the BIOS calls INT 19h to start boot processing.", "Post-boot, programs loaded can also call INT 19h to reboot the system, but they must be careful to disable interrupts and other asynchronous hardware processes that may interfere with the BIOS rebooting process, or else the system may hang or crash while it is rebooting.When INT 19h is called, the BIOS attempts to locate boot loader software on a \"boot device\", such as a hard disk, a floppy disk, CD, or DVD.", "It loads and executes the first boot software it finds, giving it control of the PC.The BIOS uses the boot devices set in Nonvolatile BIOS memory (CMOS), or, in the earliest PCs, DIP switches.", "The BIOS checks each device in order to see if it is bootable by attempting to load the first sector (boot sector).", "If the sector cannot be read, the BIOS proceeds to the next device.", "If the sector is read successfully, some BIOSes will also check for the boot sector signature 0x55 0xAA in the last two bytes of the sector (which is 512 bytes long), before accepting a boot sector and considering the device bootable.When a bootable device is found, the BIOS transfers control to the loaded sector.", "The BIOS does not interpret the contents of the boot sector other than to possibly check for the boot sector signature in the last two bytes.", "Interpretation of data structures like partition tables and BIOS Parameter Blocks is done by the boot program in the boot sector itself or by other programs loaded through the boot process.A non-disk device such as a network adapter attempts booting by a procedure that is defined by its option ROM or the equivalent integrated into the motherboard BIOS ROM.", "As such, option ROMs may also influence or supplant the boot process defined by the motherboard BIOS ROM.With the El Torito optical media boot standard, the optical drive actually emulates a 3.5\" high-density floppy disk to the BIOS for boot purposes.", "Reading the \"first sector\" of a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM is not a simply defined operation like it is on a floppy disk or a hard disk.", "Furthermore, the complexity of the medium makes it difficult to write a useful boot program in one sector.", "The bootable virtual floppy disk can contain software that provides access to the optical medium in its native format.==== Boot priority ====The user can select the boot priority implemented by the BIOS.", "For example, most computers have a hard disk that is bootable, but sometimes there is a removable-media drive that has higher boot priority, so the user can cause a removable disk to be booted.In most modern BIOSes, the boot priority order can be configured by the user.", "In older BIOSes, limited boot priority options are selectable; in the earliest BIOSes, a fixed priority scheme was implemented, with floppy disk drives first, fixed disks (i.e., hard disks) second, and typically no other boot devices supported, subject to modification of these rules by installed option ROMs.", "The BIOS in an early PC also usually would only boot from the first floppy disk drive or the first hard disk drive, even if there were two drives installed.==== Boot failure ====On the original IBM PC and XT, if no bootable disk was found, ROM BASIC was started by calling INT 18h.", "Since few programs used BASIC in ROM, clone PC makers left it out; then a computer that failed to boot from a disk would display \"No ROM BASIC\" and halt (in response to INT 18h).Later computers would display a message like \"No bootable disk found\"; some would prompt for a disk to be inserted and a key to be pressed to retry the boot process.", "A modern BIOS may display nothing or may automatically enter the BIOS configuration utility when the boot process fails.=== Boot environment ===The environment for the boot program is very simple: the CPU is in real mode and the general-purpose and segment registers are undefined, except SS, SP, CS, and DL.", "CS:IP always points to physical address 0x07C00.What values CS and IP actually have is not well defined.", "Some BIOSes use a CS:IP of 0x0000:0x7C00 while others may use 0x07C0:0x0000.Because boot programs are always loaded at this fixed address, there is no need for a boot program to be relocatable.", "DL may contain the drive number, as used with INT 13h, of the boot device.", "SS:SP points to a valid stack that is presumably large enough to support hardware interrupts, but otherwise SS and SP are undefined.", "(A stack must be already set up in order for interrupts to be serviced, and interrupts must be enabled in order for the system timer-tick interrupt, which BIOS always uses at least to maintain the time-of-day count and which it initializes during POST, to be active and for the keyboard to work.", "The keyboard works even if the BIOS keyboard service is not called; keystrokes are received and placed in the 15-character type-ahead buffer maintained by BIOS.)", "The boot program must set up its own stack, because the size of the stack set up by BIOS is unknown and its location is likewise variable; although the boot program can investigate the default stack by examining SS:SP, it is easier and shorter to just unconditionally set up a new stack.At boot time, all BIOS services are available, and the memory below address 0x00400 contains the interrupt vector table.", "BIOS POST has initialized the system timers, interrupt controller(s), DMA controller(s), and other motherboard/chipset hardware as necessary to bring all BIOS services to ready status.", "DRAM refresh for all system DRAM in conventional memory and extended memory, but not necessarily expanded memory, has been set up and is running.", "The interrupt vectors corresponding to the BIOS interrupts have been set to point at the appropriate entry points in the BIOS, hardware interrupt vectors for devices initialized by the BIOS have been set to point to the BIOS-provided ISRs, and some other interrupts, including ones that BIOS generates for programs to hook, have been set to a default dummy ISR that immediately returns.", "The BIOS maintains a reserved block of system RAM at addresses 0x00400–0x004FF with various parameters initialized during the POST.", "All memory at and above address 0x00500 can be used by the boot program; it may even overwrite itself." ], [ "Extensions (option ROMs)", "Peripheral cards such as hard disk drive host bus adapters and video cards have their own firmware, and BIOS extension option ROM may be a part of the expansion card firmware, which provide additional functionality to BIOS.", "Code in option ROMs runs before the BIOS boots the operating system from mass storage.", "These ROMs typically test and initialize hardware, add new BIOS services, or replace existing BIOS services with their own services.", "For example, a SCSI controller usually has a BIOS extension ROM that adds support for hard drives connected through that controller.", "An extension ROM could in principle contain operating system, or it could implement an entirely different boot process such as network booting.", "Operation of an IBM-compatible computer system can be completely changed by removing or inserting an adapter card (or a ROM chip) that contains a BIOS extension ROM.The motherboard BIOS typically contains code for initializing and bootstrapping integrated display and integrated storage.", "In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as SCSI, RAID, network interface cards, and video cards often include their own BIOS (e.g.", "Video BIOS), complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component.", "Even devices built into the motherboard can behave in this way; their option ROMs can be a part of the motherboard BIOS.An add-in card requires an option ROM if the card is not supported by the motherboard BIOS and the card needs to be initialized or made accessible through BIOS services before the operating system can be loaded (usually this means it is required in the boot process).", "An additional advantage of ROM on some early PC systems (notably including the IBM PCjr) was that ROM was faster than main system RAM.", "(On modern systems, the case is very much the reverse of this, and BIOS ROM code is usually copied (\"shadowed\") into RAM so it will run faster.", ")=== Boot procedure ===If an expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots (such as from a network device or a SCSI adapter) in a cooperative way, it can use the ''BIOS Boot Specification'' (BBS) API to register its ability to do so.", "Once the expansion ROMs have registered using the BBS APIs, the user can select among the available boot options from within the BIOS's user interface.", "This is why most BBS compliant PC BIOS implementations will not allow the user to enter the BIOS's user interface until the expansion ROMs have finished executing and registering themselves with the BBS API.Also, if an expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots unilaterally, it can simply hook INT 19h or other interrupts normally called from interrupt 19h, such as INT 13h, the BIOS disk service, to intercept the BIOS boot process.", "Then it can replace the BIOS boot process with one of its own, or it can merely modify the boot sequence by inserting its own boot actions into it, by preventing the BIOS from detecting certain devices as bootable, or both.", "Before the BIOS Boot Specification was promulgated, this was the only way for expansion ROMs to implement boot capability for devices not supported for booting by the native BIOS of the motherboard.=== Initialization ===After the motherboard BIOS completes its POST, most BIOS versions search for option ROM modules, also called BIOS extension ROMs, and execute them.", "The motherboard BIOS scans for extension ROMs in a portion of the \"upper memory area\" (the part of the x86 real-mode address space at and above address 0xA0000) and runs each ROM found, in order.", "To discover memory-mapped option ROMs, a BIOS implementation scans the real-mode address space from 0x0C0000 to 0x0F0000 on 2 KB (2,048 bytes) boundaries, looking for a two-byte ROM ''signature'': 0x55 followed by 0xAA.", "In a valid expansion ROM, this signature is followed by a single byte indicating the number of 512-byte blocks the expansion ROM occupies in real memory, and the next byte is the option ROM's entry point (also known as its \"entry offset\").", "If the ROM has a valid checksum, the BIOS transfers control to the entry address, which in a normal BIOS extension ROM should be the beginning of the extension's initialization routine.At this point, the extension ROM code takes over, typically testing and initializing the hardware it controls and registering interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications.", "It may use BIOS services (including those provided by previously initialized option ROMs) to provide a user configuration interface, to display diagnostic information, or to do anything else that it requires.", "It is possible that an option ROM will not return to BIOS, pre-empting the BIOS's boot sequence altogether.An option ROM should normally return to the BIOS after completing its initialization process.", "Once (and if) an option ROM returns, the BIOS continues searching for more option ROMs, calling each as it is found, until the entire option ROM area in the memory space has been scanned.=== Physical placement ===BIOS chips in a Dell 310 that were updated by replacing the chipsOption ROMs normally reside on adapter cards.", "However, the original PC, and perhaps also the PC XT, have a spare ROM socket on the motherboard (the \"system board\" in IBM's terms) into which an option ROM can be inserted, and the four ROMs that contain the BASIC interpreter can also be removed and replaced with custom ROMs which can be option ROMs.", "The IBM PCjr is unique among PCs in having two ROM cartridge slots on the front.", "Cartridges in these slots map into the same region of the upper memory area used for option ROMs, and the cartridges can contain option ROM modules that the BIOS would recognize.", "The cartridges can also contain other types of ROM modules, such as BASIC programs, that are handled differently.", "One PCjr cartridge can contain several ROM modules of different types, possibly stored together in one ROM chip." ], [ "Operating system services", "The BIOS ROM is customized to the particular manufacturer's hardware, allowing low-level services (such as reading a keystroke or writing a sector of data to diskette) to be provided in a standardized way to programs, including operating systems.", "For example, an IBM PC might have either a monochrome or a color display adapter (using different display memory addresses and hardware), but a single, standard, BIOS system call may be invoked to display a character at a specified position on the screen in text mode or graphics mode.The BIOS provides a small library of basic input/output functions to operate peripherals (such as the keyboard, rudimentary text and graphics display functions and so forth).", "When using MS-DOS, BIOS services could be accessed by an application program (or by MS-DOS) by executing an INT 13h interrupt instruction to access disk functions, or by executing one of a number of other documented BIOS interrupt calls to access video display, keyboard, cassette, and other device functions.Operating systems and executive software that are designed to supersede this basic firmware functionality provide replacement software interfaces to application software.", "Applications can also provide these services to themselves.", "This began even in the 1980s under MS-DOS, when programmers observed that using the BIOS video services for graphics display were very slow.", "To increase the speed of screen output, many programs bypassed the BIOS and programmed the video display hardware directly.", "Other graphics programmers, particularly but not exclusively in the demoscene, observed that there were technical capabilities of the PC display adapters that were not supported by the IBM BIOS and could not be taken advantage of without circumventing it.", "Since the AT-compatible BIOS ran in Intel real mode, operating systems that ran in protected mode on 286 and later processors required hardware device drivers compatible with protected mode operation to replace BIOS services.In modern PCs running modern operating systems (such as Windows and Linux) the BIOS interrupt calls is used only during booting and initial loading of operating systems.", "Before the operating system's first graphical screen is displayed, input and output are typically handled through BIOS.", "A boot menu such as the textual menu of Windows, which allows users to choose an operating system to boot, to boot into the safe mode, or to use the last known good configuration, is displayed through BIOS and receives keyboard input through BIOS.Many modern PCs can still boot and run legacy operating systems such as MS-DOS or DR-DOS that rely heavily on BIOS for their console and disk I/O, providing that the system has a BIOS, or a CSM-capable UEFI firmware.=== Processor microcode updates ===Intel processors have reprogrammable microcode since the P6 microarchitecture.", "AMD processors have reprogrammable microcode since the K7 microarchitecture.", "The BIOS contain patches to the processor microcode that fix errors in the initial processor microcode; microcode is loaded into processor's SRAM so reprogramming is not persistent, thus loading of microcode updates is performed each time the system is powered up.", "Without reprogrammable microcode, an expensive processor swap would be required; for example, the Pentium FDIV bug became an expensive fiasco for Intel as it required a product recall because the original Pentium processor's defective microcode could not be reprogrammed.", "Operating systems can update main processor microcode also.=== Identification ===Some BIOSes contain a software licensing description table (SLIC), a digital signature placed inside the BIOS by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), for example Dell.", "The SLIC is inserted into the ACPI data table and contains no active code.Computer manufacturers that distribute OEM versions of Microsoft Windows and Microsoft application software can use the SLIC to authenticate licensing to the OEM Windows Installation disk and system recovery disc containing Windows software.", "Systems with a SLIC can be preactivated with an OEM product key, and they verify an XML formatted OEM certificate against the SLIC in the BIOS as a means of self-activating (see System Locked Preinstallation, SLP).", "If a user performs a fresh install of Windows, they will need to have possession of both the OEM key (either SLP or COA) and the digital certificate for their SLIC in order to bypass activation.", "This can be achieved if the user performs a restore using a pre-customised image provided by the OEM.", "Power users can copy the necessary certificate files from the OEM image, decode the SLP product key, then perform SLP activation manually.=== Overclocking ===Some BIOS implementations allow overclocking, an action in which the CPU is adjusted to a higher clock rate than its manufacturer rating for guaranteed capability.", "Overclocking may, however, seriously compromise system reliability in insufficiently cooled computers and generally shorten component lifespan.", "Overclocking, when incorrectly performed, may also cause components to overheat so quickly that they mechanically destroy themselves.=== Modern use ===Some older operating systems, for example MS-DOS, rely on the BIOS to carry out most input/output tasks within the PC.Calling real mode BIOS services directly is inefficient for protected mode (and long mode) operating systems.", "BIOS interrupt calls are not used by modern multitasking operating systems after they initially load.In the 1990s, BIOS provided some protected mode interfaces for Microsoft Windows and Unix-like operating systems, such as Advanced Power Management (APM), Plug and Play BIOS, Desktop Management Interface (DMI), VESA BIOS Extensions (VBE), e820 and MultiProcessor Specification (MPS).", "Starting from the 2000, most BIOSes provide ACPI, SMBIOS, VBE and e820 interfaces for modern operating systems.After operating systems load, the System Management Mode code is still running in SMRAM.", "Since 2010, BIOS technology is in a transitional process toward UEFI." ], [ "Configuration", "=== Setup utility ===Historically, the BIOS in the IBM PC and XT had no built-in user interface.", "The BIOS versions in earlier PCs (XT-class) were not software configurable; instead, users set the options via DIP switches on the motherboard.", "Later computers, including all IBM-compatibles with 80286 CPUs, had a battery-backed nonvolatile BIOS memory (CMOS RAM chip) that held BIOS settings.", "These settings, such as video-adapter type, memory size, and hard-disk parameters, could only be configured by running a configuration program from a disk, not built into the ROM.", "A special \"reference diskette\" was inserted in an IBM AT to configure settings such as memory size.Early BIOS versions did not have passwords or boot-device selection options.", "The BIOS was hard-coded to boot from the first floppy drive, or, if that failed, the first hard disk.", "Access control in early AT-class machines was by a physical keylock switch (which was not hard to defeat if the computer case could be opened).", "Anyone who could switch on the computer could boot it.Later, 386-class computers started integrating the BIOS setup utility in the ROM itself, alongside the BIOS code; these computers usually boot into the BIOS setup utility if a certain key or key combination is pressed, otherwise the BIOS POST and boot process are executed.Award BIOS setup utility on a standard PCA modern BIOS setup utility has a text user interface (TUI) or graphical user interface (GUI) accessed by pressing a certain key on the keyboard when the PC starts.", "Usually, the key is advertised for short time during the early startup, for example \"Press DEL to enter Setup\".", "The actual key depends on specific hardware.", "Features present in the BIOS setup utility typically include:* Configuring, enabling and disabling the hardware components* Setting the system time* Setting the boot order* Setting various passwords, such as a password for securing access to the BIOS user interface and preventing malicious users from booting the system from unauthorized portable storage devices, or a password for booting the system=== Hardware monitoring ===A modern BIOS setup screen often features a '''PC Health Status''' or a '''Hardware Monitoring''' tab, which directly interfaces with a Hardware Monitor chip of the mainboard.", "This makes it possible to monitor CPU and chassis temperature, the voltage provided by the power supply unit, as well as monitor and control the speed of the fans connected to the motherboard.Once the system is booted, hardware monitoring and computer fan control is normally done directly by the Hardware Monitor chip itself, which can be a separate chip, interfaced through I2C or SMBus, or come as a part of a Super I/O solution, interfaced through Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) or Low Pin Count (LPC).", "Some operating systems, like NetBSD with envsys and OpenBSD with sysctl hw.sensors, feature integrated interfacing with hardware monitors.However, in some circumstances, the BIOS also provides the underlying information about hardware monitoring through ACPI, in which case, the operating system may be using ACPI to perform hardware monitoring.=== Reprogramming ===BIOS replacement kit for a Dell 310 from the late 1980s.", "Included are two chips, a plastic holder for the chips, and a IC extractor.In modern PCs the BIOS is stored in rewritable EEPROM or NOR flash memory, allowing the contents to be replaced and modified.", "This rewriting of the contents is sometimes termed ''flashing''.", "It can be done by a special program, usually provided by the system's manufacturer, or at POST, with a BIOS image in a hard drive or USB flash drive.", "A file containing such contents is sometimes termed \"a BIOS image\".", "A BIOS might be reflashed in order to upgrade to a newer version to fix bugs or provide improved performance or to support newer hardware." ], [ "Hardware", "American Megatrends BIOS 686.This BIOS chip is housed in a PLCC package in a socket.The original IBM PC BIOS (and cassette BASIC) was stored on mask-programmed read-only memory (ROM) chips in sockets on the motherboard.", "ROMs could be replaced, but not altered, by users.", "To allow for updates, many compatible computers used re-programmable BIOS memory devices such as EPROM, EEPROM and later flash memory (usually NOR flash) devices.", "According to Robert Braver, the president of the BIOS manufacturer Micro Firmware, '''Flash BIOS''' chips became common around 1995 because the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) chips are cheaper and easier to program than standard ultraviolet erasable PROM (EPROM) chips.", "Flash chips are programmed (and re-programmed) in-circuit, while EPROM chips need to be removed from the motherboard for re-programming.", "BIOS versions are upgraded to take advantage of newer versions of hardware and to correct bugs in previous revisions of BIOSes.Beginning with the IBM AT, PCs supported a hardware clock settable through BIOS.", "It had a century bit which allowed for manually changing the century when the year 2000 happened.", "Most BIOS revisions created in 1995 and nearly all BIOS revisions in 1997 supported the year 2000 by setting the century bit automatically when the clock rolled past midnight, 31 December 1999.The first flash chips were attached to the ISA bus.", "Starting in 1998, the BIOS flash moved to the LPC bus, following a new standard implementation known as \"firmware hub\" (FWH).", "In 2005, the BIOS flash memory moved to the SPI bus.The size of the BIOS, and the capacity of the ROM, EEPROM, or other media it may be stored on, has increased over time as new features have been added to the code; BIOS versions now exist with sizes up to 32 megabytes.", "For contrast, the original IBM PC BIOS was contained in an 8 KB mask ROM.", "Some modern motherboards are including even bigger NAND flash memory ICs on board which are capable of storing whole compact operating systems, such as some Linux distributions.", "For example, some ASUS notebooks included Splashtop OS embedded into their NAND flash memory ICs.", "However, the idea of including an operating system along with BIOS in the ROM of a PC is not new; in the 1980s, Microsoft offered a ROM option for MS-DOS, and it was included in the ROMs of some PC clones such as the Tandy 1000 HX.Another type of firmware chip was found on the IBM PC AT and early compatibles.", "In the AT, the keyboard interface was controlled by a microcontroller with its own programmable memory.", "On the IBM AT, that was a 40-pin socketed device, while some manufacturers used an EPROM version of this chip which resembled an EPROM.", "This controller was also assigned the A20 gate function to manage memory above the one-megabyte range; occasionally an upgrade of this \"keyboard BIOS\" was necessary to take advantage of software that could use upper memory.", "The BIOS may contain components such as the Memory Reference Code (MRC), which is responsible for the memory initialization (e.g.", "SPD and memory timings initialization).Modern BIOS includesIntel Management Engine or AMD Platform Security Processor firmware." ], [ "{{Anchor|COMPARISON}}Vendors and products", "+ Comparison of different BIOS implementations Company AwardBIOS AMIBIOS Insyde SeaBIOS License Maintained / developed 32-bit PCI BIOS calls (1.2) (1.2) Boot menu Compression (LHA) (LHA) (RLE) (LZMA) CMOS Flash from ROM Language Assembly Assembly Assembly C (48) (48) (48) MultiProcessor Specification Option ROM Password Setup screen Splash screen (EPA) (PCX) (BMP, JPG) USB booting USB hub USB keyboard USB mouse IBM published the entire listings of the BIOS for its original PC, PC XT, PC AT, and other contemporary PC models, in an appendix of the ''IBM PC Technical Reference Manual'' for each machine type.", "The effect of the publication of the BIOS listings is that anyone can see exactly what a definitive BIOS does and how it does it.Compaq Portable 386 BIOSIn May 1984 Phoenix Software Associates released its first ROM-BIOS, which enabled OEMs to build essentially fully compatible clones without having to reverse-engineer the IBM PC BIOS themselves, as Compaq had done for the Portable, helping fuel the growth in the PC-compatibles industry and sales of non-IBM versions of DOS.", "And the first American Megatrends (AMI) BIOS was released in 1986.New standards grafted onto the BIOS are usually without complete public documentation or any BIOS listings.", "As a result, it is not as easy to learn the intimate details about the many non-IBM additions to BIOS as about the core BIOS services.Many PC motherboard suppliers licensed the BIOS \"core\" and toolkit from a commercial third party, known as an \"independent BIOS vendor\" or IBV.", "The motherboard manufacturer then customized this BIOS to suit its own hardware.", "For this reason, updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacturer.", "Major IBV included American Megatrends (AMI), Insyde Software, Phoenix Technologies, and Byosoft.", "Microid Research and Award Software were acquired by Phoenix Technologies in 1998; Phoenix later phased out the Award brand name.", "General Software, which was also acquired by Phoenix in 2007, sold BIOS for embedded systems based on Intel processors.=== Open-source BIOS firmware ===The open-source community increased their effort to develop a replacement for proprietary BIOSes and their future incarnations with an open-sourced counterparts.", "Open Firmware was an early attempt to make open source standard for booting firmware.", "It was initially endorsed by IEEE in its ''IEEE 1275-1994'' standard but was withdrawn in 2005.Later examples include the libreboot, coreboot and OpenBIOS/Open Firmware projects.", "AMD provided product specifications for some chipsets, and Google is sponsoring the project.", "Motherboard manufacturer Tyan offers coreboot next to the standard BIOS with their Opteron line of motherboards." ], [ "{{Anchor|MEBROMI|DualBIOS}}Security", "Gigabyte DualBIOS PLCC32A detached BIOS chipEEPROM and Flash memory chips are advantageous because they can be easily updated by the user; it is customary for hardware manufacturers to issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products, improve compatibility and remove bugs.", "However, this advantage had the risk that an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update could render the computer or device unusable.", "To avoid these situations, more recent BIOSes use a \"boot block\"; a portion of the BIOS which runs first and must be updated separately.", "This code verifies if the rest of the BIOS is intact (using hash checksums or other methods) before transferring control to it.", "If the boot block detects any corruption in the main BIOS, it will typically warn the user that a recovery process must be initiated by booting from removable media (floppy, CD or USB flash drive) so the user can try flashing the BIOS again.", "Some motherboards have a ''backup'' BIOS (sometimes referred to as DualBIOS boards) to recover from BIOS corruptions.There are at least five known viruses that attack the BIOS.", "Two of which were for demonstration purposes.", "The first one found in the wild was ''Mebromi'', targeting Chinese users.The first BIOS virus was BIOS Meningitis, which instead of erasing BIOS chips it infected them.", "BIOS Meningitis was relatively harmless, compared to a virus like CIH.The second BIOS virus was CIH, also known as the \"Chernobyl Virus\", which was able to erase flash ROM BIOS content on compatible chipsets.", "CIH appeared in mid-1998 and became active in April 1999.Often, infected computers could no longer boot, and people had to remove the flash ROM IC from the motherboard and reprogram it.", "CIH targeted the then-widespread Intel i430TX motherboard chipset and took advantage of the fact that the Windows 9x operating systems, also widespread at the time, allowed direct hardware access to all programs.Modern systems are not vulnerable to CIH because of a variety of chipsets being used which are incompatible with the Intel i430TX chipset, and also other flash ROM IC types.", "There is also extra protection from accidental BIOS rewrites in the form of boot blocks which are protected from accidental overwrite or dual and quad BIOS equipped systems which may, in the event of a crash, use a backup BIOS.", "Also, all modern operating systems such as FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, Windows NT-based Windows OS like Windows 2000, Windows XP and newer, do not allow user-mode programs to have direct hardware access using a hardware abstraction layer.As a result, as of 2008, CIH has become essentially harmless, at worst causing annoyance by infecting executable files and triggering antivirus software.", "Other BIOS viruses remain possible, however; since most Windows home users without Windows Vista/7's UAC run all applications with administrative privileges, a modern CIH-like virus could in principle still gain access to hardware without first using an exploit.", "The operating system OpenBSD prevents all users from having this access and the grsecurity patch for the Linux kernel also prevents this direct hardware access by default, the difference being an attacker requiring a much more difficult kernel level exploit or reboot of the machine.The third BIOS virus was a technique presented by John Heasman, principal security consultant for UK-based Next-Generation Security Software.", "In 2006, at the Black Hat Security Conference, he showed how to elevate privileges and read physical memory, using malicious procedures that replaced normal ACPI functions stored in flash memory.The fourth BIOS virus was a technique called \"Persistent BIOS infection.\"", "It appeared in 2009 at the CanSecWest Security Conference in Vancouver, and at the SyScan Security Conference in Singapore.", "Researchers Anibal Sacco and Alfredo Ortega, from Core Security Technologies, demonstrated how to insert malicious code into the decompression routines in the BIOS, allowing for nearly full control of the PC at start-up, even before the operating system is booted.", "The proof-of-concept does not exploit a flaw in the BIOS implementation, but only involves the normal BIOS flashing procedures.", "Thus, it requires physical access to the machine, or for the user to be root.", "Despite these requirements, Ortega underlined the profound implications of his and Sacco's discovery: \"We can patch a driver to drop a fully working rootkit.", "We even have a little code that can remove or disable antivirus.", "\"Mebromi is a trojan which targets computers with AwardBIOS, Microsoft Windows, and antivirus software from two Chinese companies: Rising Antivirus and Jiangmin KV Antivirus.", "Mebromi installs a rootkit which infects the Master boot record.In a December 2013 interview with ''60 Minutes'', Deborah Plunkett, Information Assurance Director for the US National Security Agency claimed the NSA had uncovered and thwarted a possible BIOS attack by a foreign nation state, targeting the US financial system.", "The program cited anonymous sources alleging it was a Chinese plot.", "However follow-up articles in ''The Guardian,'' ''The Atlantic,'' ''Wired'' and ''The Register'' refuted the NSA's claims.Newer Intel platforms have Intel Boot Guard (IBG) technology enabled, this technology will check the BIOS digital signature at startup, and the IBG public key is fused into the PCH.", "End users can't disable this function." ], [ "Alternatives and successors", "Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) supplements the BIOS in many new machines.", "Initially written for the Intel Itanium architecture, UEFI is now available for x86 and Arm platforms; the specification development is driven by the Unified EFI Forum, an industry Special Interest Group.", "EFI booting has been supported in only Microsoft Windows versions supporting GPT, the Linux kernel 2.6.1 and later, and macOS on Intel-based Macs.", ", new PC hardware predominantly ships with UEFI firmware.", "The architecture of the rootkit safeguard can also prevent the system from running the user's own software changes, which makes UEFI controversial as a legacy BIOS replacement in the open hardware community.", "Also, Windows 11 requires UEFI to boot.Other alternatives to the functionality of the \"Legacy BIOS\" in the x86 world include coreboot and libreboot.Some servers and workstations use a platform-independent Open Firmware (IEEE-1275) based on the Forth programming language; it is included with Sun's SPARC computers, IBM's RS/6000 line, and other PowerPC systems such as the CHRP motherboards, along with the x86-based OLPC XO-1.As of at least 2015, Apple has removed legacy BIOS support from MacBook Pro computers.", "As such the BIOS utility no longer supports the legacy option, and prints \"Legacy mode not supported on this system\".", "In 2017, Intel announced that it would remove legacy BIOS support by 2020.Since 2019, new Intel platform OEM PCs no longer support the legacy option." ], [ "See also", "* Double boot* Extended System Configuration Data (ESCD)* Input/Output Control System* Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI)* Ralf Brown's Interrupt List (RBIL)interrupts, calls, interfaces, data structures, memory and port addresses, and processor opcodes for the x86 architecture* System Management BIOS (SMBIOS)* Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * BIOS Disassembly Ninjutsu Uncovered, 1st edition, a freely available book in PDF format * More Power To Firmware, free bonus chapter to the ''Mac OS X Internals: A Systems Approach'' book" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bose–Einstein condensate" ], [ "Introduction", "Schematic Bose–Einstein condensation versus temperature of the energy diagramIn condensed matter physics, a '''Bose–Einstein condensate''' ('''BEC''') is a state of matter that is typically formed when a gas of bosons at very low densities is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 °C or −459.67 °F).", "Under such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy the lowest quantum state, at which microscopic quantum mechanical phenomena, particularly wavefunction interference, become apparent macroscopically.", "More generally, condensation refers to the appearance of macroscopic occupation of one or several states: for example, in BCS theory, a superconductor is a condensate of Cooper pairs.", "As such, condensation can be associated with phase transition, and the macroscopic occupation of the state is the order parameter.Bose–Einstein condensate was first predicted, generally, in 1924–1925 by Albert Einstein, crediting a pioneering paper by Satyendra Nath Bose on the new field now known as quantum statistics.", "In 1995, the Bose–Einstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman of the University of Colorado Boulder using rubidium atoms; later that year, Wolfgang Ketterle of MIT produced a BEC using sodium atoms.", "In 2001 Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle shared the Nobel Prize in Physics \"for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates.\"" ], [ "History", "Velocity-distribution data (3 views) for gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate.", "before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate.", "after the appearance of the condensate.", "further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate.Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons), in which he derived Planck's quantum radiation law without any reference to classical physics.", "Einstein was impressed, translated the paper himself from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the ''Zeitschrift für Physik'', which published it in 1924.", "(The Einstein manuscript, once believed to be lost, was found in a library at Leiden University in 2005.)", "Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to matter in two other papers.", "The result of their efforts is the concept of a Bose gas, governed by Bose–Einstein statistics, which describes the statistical distribution of identical particles with integer spin, now called bosons.", "Bosons, particles that include the photon as well as atoms such as helium-4 (), are allowed to share a quantum state.", "Einstein proposed that cooling bosonic atoms to a very low temperature would cause them to fall (or \"condense\") into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting in a new form of matter.In 1938, Fritz London proposed the BEC as a mechanism for superfluidity in and superconductivity.The quest to produce a Bose–Einstein condensate in the laboratory was stimulated by a paper published in 1976 by two Program Directors at the National Science Foundation (William Stwalley and Lewis Nosanow).", "This led to the immediate pursuit of the idea by four independent research groups; these were led by Isaac Silvera (University of Amsterdam), Walter Hardy (University of British Columbia), Thomas Greytak (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and David Lee (Cornell University).On 5 June 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST–JILA lab, in a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK).", "Shortly thereafter, Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT produced a Bose–Einstein Condensate in a gas of sodium atoms.", "For their achievements Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics.", "These early studies founded the field of ultracold atoms, and hundreds of research groups around the world now routinely produce BECs of dilute atomic vapors in their labs.Since 1995, many other atomic species have been condensed, and BECs have also been realized using molecules, quasi-particles, and photons." ], [ "Critical temperature", "This transition to BEC occurs below a critical temperature, which for a uniform three-dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles with no apparent internal degrees of freedom is given by::where:: is the critical temperature, the particle density, the mass per boson, the reduced Planck constant, the Boltzmann constant and the Riemann zeta function; Interactions shift the value and the corrections can be calculated by mean-field theory.This formula is derived from finding the gas degeneracy in the Bose gas using Bose–Einstein statistics." ], [ "Derivation", "=== Ideal Bose gas ===For an ideal Bose gas we have the equation of state::where is the per particle volume, the thermal wavelength, the fugacity and:It is noticeable that is a monotonically growing function of in , which are the only values for which the series converge.Recognizing that the second term on the right-hand side contains the expression for the average occupation number of the fundamental state , the equation of state can be rewritten as:Because the left term on the second equation must always be positive, and because , a stronger condition is:which defines a transition between a gas phase and a condensed phase.", "On the critical region it is possible to define a critical temperature and thermal wavelength:::recovering the value indicated on the previous section.", "The critical values are such that if or we are in the presence of a Bose–Einstein condensate.Understanding what happens with the fraction of particles on the fundamental level is crucial.", "As so, write the equation of state for , obtaining: and equivalently .So, if the fraction and if the fraction .", "At temperatures near to absolute 0, particles tend to condensate in the fundamental state, which is the state with momentum ." ], [ "Models", "=== Bose Einstein's non-interacting gas ===Consider a collection of ''N'' non-interacting particles, which can each be in one of two quantum states, and .", "If the two states are equal in energy, each different configuration is equally likely.If we can tell which particle is which, there are different configurations, since each particle can be in or independently.", "In almost all of the configurations, about half the particles are in and the other half in .", "The balance is a statistical effect: the number of configurations is largest when the particles are divided equally.If the particles are indistinguishable, however, there are only ''N''+1 different configurations.", "If there are ''K'' particles in state , there are particles in state .", "Whether any particular particle is in state or in state cannot be determined, so each value of ''K'' determines a unique quantum state for the whole system.Suppose now that the energy of state is slightly greater than the energy of state by an amount ''E''.", "At temperature ''T'', a particle will have a lesser probability to be in state by .", "In the distinguishable case, the particle distribution will be biased slightly towards state .", "But in the indistinguishable case, since there is no statistical pressure toward equal numbers, the most-likely outcome is that most of the particles will collapse into state .In the distinguishable case, for large ''N'', the fraction in state can be computed.", "It is the same as flipping a coin with probability proportional to ''p'' = exp(−''E''/''T'') to land tails.In the indistinguishable case, each value of ''K'' is a single state, which has its own separate Boltzmann probability.", "So the probability distribution is exponential::For large ''N'', the normalization constant ''C'' is .", "The expected total number of particles not in the lowest energy state, in the limit that , is equal to: It does not grow when ''N'' is large; it just approaches a constant.", "This will be a negligible fraction of the total number of particles.", "So a collection of enough Bose particles in thermal equilibrium will mostly be in the ground state, with only a few in any excited state, no matter how small the energy difference.Consider now a gas of particles, which can be in different momentum states labeled .", "If the number of particles is less than the number of thermally accessible states, for high temperatures and low densities, the particles will all be in different states.", "In this limit, the gas is classical.", "As the density increases or the temperature decreases, the number of accessible states per particle becomes smaller, and at some point, more particles will be forced into a single state than the maximum allowed for that state by statistical weighting.", "From this point on, any extra particle added will go into the ground state.To calculate the transition temperature at any density, integrate, over all momentum states, the expression for maximum number of excited particles, :::When the integral (also known as Bose–Einstein integral) is evaluated with factors of and ℏ restored by dimensional analysis, it gives the critical temperature formula of the preceding section.", "Therefore, this integral defines the critical temperature and particle number corresponding to the conditions of negligible chemical potential .", "In Bose–Einstein statistics distribution, is actually still nonzero for BECs; however, is less than the ground state energy.", "Except when specifically talking about the ground state, can be approximated for most energy or momentum states as .=== Bogoliubov theory for weakly interacting gas ===Nikolay Bogoliubov considered perturbations on the limit of dilute gas, finding a finite pressure at zero temperature and positive chemical potential.", "This leads to corrections for the ground state.", "The Bogoliubov state has pressure (''T'' = 0): .The original interacting system can be converted to a system of non-interacting particles with a dispersion law.=== Gross–Pitaevskii equation ===In some simplest cases, the state of condensed particles can be described with a nonlinear Schrödinger equation, also known as Gross–Pitaevskii or Ginzburg–Landau equation.", "The validity of this approach is actually limited to the case of ultracold temperatures, which fits well for the most alkali atoms experiments.This approach originates from the assumption that the state of the BEC can be described by the unique wavefunction of the condensate .", "For a system of this nature, is interpreted as the particle density, so the total number of atoms is Provided essentially all atoms are in the condensate (that is, have condensed to the ground state), and treating the bosons using mean-field theory, the energy (E) associated with the state is::Minimizing this energy with respect to infinitesimal variations in , and holding the number of atoms constant, yields the Gross–Pitaevski equation (GPE) (also a non-linear Schrödinger equation)::where::  is the mass of the bosons,  is the external potential, and  represents the inter-particle interactions.In the case of zero external potential, the dispersion law of interacting Bose–Einstein-condensed particles is given by so-called Bogoliubov spectrum (for )::The Gross-Pitaevskii equation (GPE) provides a relatively good description of the behavior of atomic BEC's.", "However, GPE does not take into account the temperature dependence of dynamical variables, and is therefore valid only for .It is not applicable, for example, for the condensates of excitons, magnons and photons, where the critical temperature is comparable to room temperature." ], [ "Numerical solution", "The Gross-Pitaevskii equation is a partial differential equation in space and time variables.", "Usually it does not have analytic solution anddifferent numerical methods, such as split-stepCrank-Nicolsonand Fourier spectral methods, are used for its solution.", "There are different Fortran and C programs for its solution for contact interactionand long-range dipolar interaction which can be freely used.=== Weaknesses of Gross–Pitaevskii model ===The Gross–Pitaevskii model of BEC is a physical approximation valid for certain classes of BECs.", "By construction, the GPE uses the following simplifications: it assumes that interactions between condensate particles are of the contact two-body type and also neglects anomalous contributions to self-energy.", "These assumptions are suitable mostly for the dilute three-dimensional condensates.", "If one relaxes any of these assumptions, the equation for the condensate wavefunction acquires the terms containing higher-order powers of the wavefunction.", "Moreover, for some physical systems the amount of such terms turns out to be infinite, therefore, the equation becomes essentially non-polynomial.", "The examples where this could happen are the Bose–Fermi composite condensates, effectively lower-dimensional condensates, and dense condensates and superfluid clusters and droplets.", "It is found that one has to go beyond the Gross-Pitaevskii equation.", "For example, the logarithmic term found in the Logarithmic Schrödinger equation must be added to the Gross-Pitaevskii equation along with a Ginzburg-Sobyanin contribution to correctly determine that the speed of sound scales as the cubic root of pressure for Helium-4 at very low temperatures in close agreement with experiment.=== Other ===However, it is clear that in a general case the behaviour of Bose–Einstein condensate can be described by coupled evolution equations for condensate density, superfluid velocity and distribution function of elementary excitations.", "This problem was solved in 1977 by Peletminskii et al.", "in microscopical approach.", "The Peletminskii equations are valid for any finite temperatures below the critical point.", "Years after, in 1985, Kirkpatrick and Dorfman obtained similar equations using another microscopical approach.", "The Peletminskii equations also reproduce Khalatnikov hydrodynamical equations for superfluid as a limiting case.=== Superfluidity of BEC and Landau criterion ===The phenomena of superfluidity of a Bose gas and superconductivity of a strongly-correlated Fermi gas (a gas of Cooper pairs) are tightly connected to Bose–Einstein condensation.", "Under corresponding conditions, below the temperature of phase transition, these phenomena were observed in helium-4 and different classes of superconductors.", "In this sense, the superconductivity is often called the superfluidity of Fermi gas.", "In the simplest form, the origin of superfluidity can be seen from the weakly interacting bosons model." ], [ "Experimental observation", "=== Superfluid helium-4 ===In 1938, Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener discovered that helium-4 became a new kind of fluid, now known as a superfluid, at temperatures less than 2.17 K (the lambda point).", "Superfluid helium has many unusual properties, including zero viscosity (the ability to flow without dissipating energy) and the existence of quantized vortices.", "It was quickly believed that the superfluidity was due to partial Bose–Einstein condensation of the liquid.", "In fact, many properties of superfluid helium also appear in gaseous condensates created by Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle (see below).", "Superfluid helium-4 is a liquid rather than a gas, which means that the interactions between the atoms are relatively strong; the original theory of Bose–Einstein condensation must be heavily modified in order to describe it.", "Bose–Einstein condensation remains, however, fundamental to the superfluid properties of helium-4.Note that helium-3, a fermion, also enters a superfluid phase (at a much lower temperature) which can be explained by the formation of bosonic Cooper pairs of two atoms (see also fermionic condensate).=== Dilute atomic gases ===The first \"pure\" Bose–Einstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and co-workers at JILA on 5 June 1995.They cooled a dilute vapor of approximately two thousand rubidium-87 atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of laser cooling (a technique that won its inventors Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, and William D. Phillips the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics) and magnetic evaporative cooling.", "About four months later, an independent effort led by Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT condensed sodium-23.Ketterle's condensate had a hundred times more atoms, allowing important results such as the observation of quantum mechanical interference between two different condensates.", "Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievements.A group led by Randall Hulet at Rice University announced a condensate of lithium atoms only one month following the JILA work.", "Lithium has attractive interactions, causing the condensate to be unstable and collapse for all but a few atoms.", "Hulet's team subsequently showed the condensate could be stabilized by confinement quantum pressure for up to about 1000 atoms.", "Various isotopes have since been condensed.==== Velocity-distribution data graph ====In the image accompanying this article, the velocity-distribution data indicates the formation of a Bose–Einstein condensate out of a gas of rubidium atoms.", "The false colors indicate the number of atoms at each velocity, with red being the fewest and white being the most.", "The areas appearing white and light blue are at the lowest velocities.", "The peak is not infinitely narrow because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: spatially confined atoms have a minimum width velocity distribution.", "This width is given by the curvature of the magnetic potential in the given direction.", "More tightly confined directions have bigger widths in the ballistic velocity distribution.", "This anisotropy of the peak on the right is a purely quantum-mechanical effect and does not exist in the thermal distribution on the left.", "This graph served as the cover design for the 1999 textbook ''Thermal Physics'' by Ralph Baierlein.=== Quasiparticles ===Bose–Einstein condensation also applies to quasiparticles in solids.", "Magnons, excitons, and polaritons have integer spin which means they are bosons that can form condensates.Magnons, electron spin waves, can be controlled by a magnetic field.", "Densities from the limit of a dilute gas to a strongly interacting Bose liquid are possible.", "Magnetic ordering is the analog of superfluidity.", "In 1999 condensation was demonstrated in antiferromagnetic , at temperatures as great as 14 K. The high transition temperature (relative to atomic gases) is due to the magnons' small mass (near that of an electron) and greater achievable density.", "In 2006, condensation in a ferromagnetic yttrium-iron-garnet thin film was seen even at room temperature, with optical pumping.Excitons, electron-hole pairs, were predicted to condense at low temperature and high density by Boer et al., in 1961.Bilayer system experiments first demonstrated condensation in 2003, by Hall voltage disappearance.", "Fast optical exciton creation was used to form condensates in sub-kelvin in 2005 on.Polariton condensation was first detected for exciton-polaritons in a quantum well microcavity kept at 5 K.=== In zero gravity ===In June 2020, the Cold Atom Laboratory experiment on board the International Space Station successfully created a BEC of rubidium atoms and observed them for over a second in free-fall.", "Although initially just a proof of function, early results showed that, in the microgravity environment of the ISS, about half of the atoms formed into a magnetically insensitive halo-like cloud around the main body of the BEC." ], [ "Peculiar properties", "=== Quantized vortices ===As in many other systems, vortices can exist in BECs.", "Vortices can be created, for example, by \"stirring\" the condensate with lasers, rotating the confining trap, or by rapid cooling across the phase transition.", "The vortex created will be a quantum vortex with core shape determined by the interactions.", "Fluid circulation around any point is quantized due to the single-valued nature of the order BEC order parameter or wavefunction, that can be written in the form where and are as in the cylindrical coordinate system, and is the angular quantum number (a.k.a.", "the \"charge\" of the vortex).", "Since the energy of a vortex is proportional to the square of its angular momentum, in trivial topology only vortices can exist in the steady state; Higher-charge vortices will have a tendency to split into vortices, if allowed by the topology of the geometry.An axially symmetric (for instance, harmonic) confining potential is commonly used for the study of vortices in BEC.", "To determine , the energy of must be minimized, according to the constraint .", "This is usually done computationally, however, in a uniform medium, the following analytic form demonstrates the correct behavior, and is a good approximation::Here, is the density far from the vortex and , where is the healing length of the condensate.A singly charged vortex () is in the ground state, with its energy given by:where  is the farthest distance from the vortices considered.", "(To obtain an energy which is well defined it is necessary to include this boundary .", ")For multiply charged vortices () the energy is approximated by:which is greater than that of singly charged vortices, indicating that these multiply charged vortices are unstable to decay.", "Research has, however, indicated they are metastable states, so may have relatively long lifetimes.Closely related to the creation of vortices in BECs is the generation of so-called dark solitons in one-dimensional BECs.", "These topological objects feature a phase gradient across their nodal plane, which stabilizes their shape even in propagation and interaction.", "Although solitons carry no charge and are thus prone to decay, relatively long-lived dark solitons have been produced and studied extensively.=== Attractive interactions ===Experiments led by Randall Hulet at Rice University from 1995 through 2000 showed that lithium condensates with attractive interactions could stably exist up to a critical atom number.", "Quench cooling the gas, they observed the condensate to grow, then subsequently collapse as the attraction overwhelmed the zero-point energy of the confining potential, in a burst reminiscent of a supernova, with an explosion preceded by an implosion.Further work on attractive condensates was performed in 2000 by the JILA team, of Cornell, Wieman and coworkers.", "Their instrumentation now had better control so they used naturally ''attracting'' atoms of rubidium-85 (having negative atom–atom scattering length).", "Through Feshbach resonance involving a sweep of the magnetic field causing spin flip collisions, they lowered the characteristic, discrete energies at which rubidium bonds, making their Rb-85 atoms repulsive and creating a stable condensate.", "The reversible flip from attraction to repulsion stems from quantum interference among wave-like condensate atoms.When the JILA team raised the magnetic field strength further, the condensate suddenly reverted to attraction, imploded and shrank beyond detection, then exploded, expelling about two-thirds of its 10,000 atoms.", "About half of the atoms in the condensate seemed to have disappeared from the experiment altogether, not seen in the cold remnant or expanding gas cloud.", "Carl Wieman explained that under current atomic theory this characteristic of Bose–Einstein condensate could not be explained because the energy state of an atom near absolute zero should not be enough to cause an implosion; however, subsequent mean-field theories have been proposed to explain it.", "Most likely they formed molecules of two rubidium atoms; energy gained by this bond imparts velocity sufficient to leave the trap without being detected.The process of creation of molecular Bose condensate during the sweep of the magnetic field throughout the Feshbach resonance, as well as the reverse process, are described by the exactly solvable model that can explain many experimental observations." ], [ "Current research", "Compared to more commonly encountered states of matter, Bose–Einstein condensates are extremely fragile.", "The slightest interaction with the external environment can be enough to warm them past the condensation threshold, eliminating their interesting properties and forming a normal gas.Nevertheless, they have proven useful in exploring a wide range of questions in fundamental physics, and the years since the initial discoveries by the JILA and MIT groups have seen an increase in experimental and theoretical activity.", "Examples include experiments that have demonstrated interference between condensates due to wave–particle duality, the study of superfluidity and quantized vortices, the creation of bright matter wave solitons from Bose condensates confined to one dimension, and the slowing of light pulses to very low speeds using electromagnetically induced transparency.", "Vortices in Bose–Einstein condensates are also currently the subject of analogue gravity research, studying the possibility of modeling black holes and their related phenomena in such environments in the laboratory.", "Experimenters have also realized \"optical lattices\", where the interference pattern from overlapping lasers provides a periodic potential.", "These have been used to explore the transition between a superfluid and a Mott insulator, and may be useful in studying Bose–Einstein condensation in fewer than three dimensions, for example the Tonks–Girardeau gas.", "Further, the sensitivity of the pinning transition of strongly interacting bosons confined in a shallow one-dimensional optical lattice originally observed by Haller has been explored via a tweaking of the primary optical lattice by a secondary weaker one.", "Thus for a resulting weak bichromatic optical lattice, it has been found that the pinning transition is robust against theintroduction of the weaker secondary optical lattice.", "Studies of vortices in nonuniform Bose–Einstein condensates as well as excitations of these systems by the application of moving repulsive or attractive obstacles, have also been undertaken.", "Within this context, the conditions for order and chaos in the dynamics of a trapped Bose–Einstein condensate have been explored by the application of moving blue and red-detuned laser beams (hitting frequencies slightly above and below the resonance frequency, respectively) via the time-dependent Gross-Pitaevskii equation.Bose–Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of isotopes have been produced.Cooling fermions to extremely low temperatures has created degenerate gases, subject to the Pauli exclusion principle.", "To exhibit Bose–Einstein condensation, the fermions must \"pair up\" to form bosonic compound particles (e.g.", "molecules or Cooper pairs).", "The first molecular condensates were created in November 2003 by the groups of Rudolf Grimm at the University of Innsbruck, Deborah S. Jin at the University of Colorado at Boulder and Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT.", "Jin quickly went on to create the first fermionic condensate, working with the same system but outside the molecular regime.In 1999, Danish physicist Lene Hau led a team from Harvard University which slowed a beam of light to about 17 meters per second using a superfluid.", "Hau and her associates have since made a group of condensate atoms recoil from a light pulse such that they recorded the light's phase and amplitude, recovered by a second nearby condensate, in what they term \"slow-light-mediated atomic matter-wave amplification\" using Bose–Einstein condensates.Another current research interest is the creation of Bose–Einstein condensates in microgravity in order to use its properties for high precision atom interferometry.", "The first demonstration of a BEC in weightlessness was achieved in 2008 at a drop tower in Bremen, Germany by a consortium of researchers led by Ernst M. Rasel from Leibniz University Hannover.", "The same team demonstrated in 2017 the first creation of a Bose–Einstein condensate in space and it is also the subject of two upcoming experiments on the International Space Station.Researchers in the new field of atomtronics use the properties of Bose–Einstein condensates in the emerging quantum technology of matter-wave circuits.In 1970, BECs were proposed by Emmanuel David Tannenbaum for anti-stealth technology.In 2020, researchers reported the development of superconducting BEC and that there appears to be a \"smooth transition between\" BEC and Bardeen–Cooper–Shrieffer regimes.=== Continuous Bose–Einstein condensation ===Limitations of evaporative cooling have restricted atomic BECs to \"pulsed\" operation, involving a highly inefficient duty cycle that discards more than 99% of atoms to reach BEC.", "Achieving continuous BEC has been a major open problem of experimental BEC research, driven by the same motivations as continuous optical laser development: high flux, high coherence matter waves produced continuously would enable new sensing applications.Continuous BEC was achieved for the first time in 2022.=== Dark matter ===P.", "Sikivie and Q. Yang showed that cold dark matter axions would form a Bose–Einstein condensate by thermalisation because of gravitational self-interactions.", "Axions have not yet been confirmed to exist.", "However the important search for them has been greatly enhanced with the completion of upgrades to the Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX) at the University of Washington in early 2018.In 2014, a potential dibaryon was detected at the Jülich Research Center at about 2380 MeV.", "The center claimed that the measurements confirm results from 2011, via a more replicable method.", "The particle existed for 10−23 seconds and was named d*(2380).", "This particle is hypothesized to consist of three up and three down quarks.", "It is theorized that groups of d* (d-stars) could form Bose–Einstein condensates due to prevailing low temperatures in the early universe, and that BECs made of such hexaquarks with trapped electrons could behave like dark matter.=== Isotopes ===The effect has mainly been observed on alkaline atoms which have nuclear properties particularly suitable for working with traps.", "As of 2012, using ultra-low temperatures of or below, Bose–Einstein condensates had been obtained for a multitude of isotopes, mainly of alkali metal, alkaline earth metal,and lanthanide atoms (, , , , , , , , , , , , , , and ).", "Research was finally successful in hydrogen with the aid of the newly developed method of 'evaporative cooling'.", "In contrast, the superfluid state of below is not a good example, because the interaction between the atoms is too strong.", "Only 8% of atoms are in the ground state of the trap near absolute zero, rather than the 100% of a true condensate.The bosonic behavior of some of these alkaline gases appears odd at first sight, because their nuclei have half-integer total spin.", "It arises from a subtle interplay of electronic and nuclear spins: at ultra-low temperatures and corresponding excitation energies, the half-integer total spin of the electronic shell and half-integer total spin of the nucleus are coupled by a very weak hyperfine interaction.", "The total spin of the atom, arising from this coupling, is an integer lower value.", "The chemistry of systems at room temperature is determined by the electronic properties, which is essentially fermionic, since room temperature thermal excitations have typical energies much higher than the hyperfine values." ], [ "In fiction", "* In the 2016 film ''Spectral'', the US military battles mysterious enemy creatures fashioned out of Bose–Einstein condensates.", "* In the 2003 novel ''Blind Lake'', scientists observe sentient life on a planet 51 light-years away using telescopes powered by Bose–Einstein condensate-based quantum computers.", "* The video game franchise ''Mass Effect'' has cryonic ammunition whose flavour text describes it as being filled with Bose–Einstein condensates.", "Upon impact, the bullets rupture and spray super-cold liquid on the enemy." ], [ "See also", "* Atom laser* Atomic coherence* Bose–Einstein correlations* Bose–Einstein condensation: a network theory approach* Bose–Einstein condensation of quasiparticles* Bose–Einstein statistics* Cold Atom Laboratory* Electromagnetically induced transparency* Fermionic condensate* Gas in a box* Gross–Pitaevskii equation* Macroscopic quantum phenomena* Macroscopic quantum self-trapping* Slow light* Super-heavy atom* Superconductivity* Superfluid film* Superfluid helium-4* Supersolid* Tachyon condensation* Timeline of low-temperature technology* Ultracold atom* Wiener sausage" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ,* * * * * * .", "* * .", "* * * * * .", "* * * * * C. J. Pethick and H. Smith, ''Bose–Einstein Condensation in Dilute Gases'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001.", "* Lev P. Pitaevskii and S. Stringari, ''Bose–Einstein Condensation'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2003.", "* * Monique Combescot and Shiue-Yuan Shiau, \"Excitons and Cooper Pairs: Two Composite Bosons in Many-Body Physics\", Oxford University Press ()." ], [ "External links", "* Bose–Einstein Condensation 2009 Conference – Frontiers in Quantum Gases* BEC Homepage General introduction to Bose–Einstein condensation* Nobel Prize in Physics 2001 – for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates** Bose–Einstein condensates at JILA* Atomcool at Rice University* Alkali Quantum Gases at MIT* Atom Optics at UQ* Einstein's manuscript on the Bose–Einstein condensate discovered at Leiden University* Bose–Einstein condensate on arxiv.org* Bosons – The Birds That Flock and Sing Together* Easy BEC machine – information on constructing a Bose–Einstein condensate machine.", "* Verging on absolute zero – Cosmos Online * Lecture by W Ketterle at MIT in 2001* Bose–Einstein Condensation at NIST – NIST resource on BEC" ] ]

[ [ "B (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''B''' is a programming language developed at Bell Labs circa 1969 by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie.B was derived from BCPL, and its name may possibly be a contraction of BCPL.", "Thompson's coworker Dennis Ritchie speculated that the name might be based on Bon, an earlier, but unrelated, programming language that Thompson designed for use on Multics.B was designed for recursive, non-numeric, machine-independent applications, such as system and language software.", "It was a typeless language, with the only data type being the underlying machine's natural memory word format, whatever that might be.", "Depending on the context, the word was treated either as an integer or a memory address.As machines with ASCII processing became common, notably the DEC PDP-11 that arrived at Bell Labs, support for character data stuffed in memory words became important.", "The typeless nature of the language was seen as a disadvantage, which led Thompson and Ritchie to develop an expanded version of the language supporting new internal and user-defined types, which became the C programming language." ], [ "History", "Circa 1969, Ken Thompson and later Dennis Ritchie developed B basing it mainly on the BCPL language Thompson used in the Multics project.", "B was essentially the BCPL system stripped of any component Thompson felt he could do without in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time.", "The BCPL to B transition also included changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program).", "Much of the typical ALGOL-like syntax of BCPL was rather heavily changed in this process.", "The assignment operator := reverted to the = of Rutishauser's Superplan, and the equality operator = was replaced by ==.Thompson added \"two-address assignment operators\" using x =+ y syntax to add y to x (in C the operator is written +=).", "This syntax came from Douglas McIlroy's implementation of TMG, in which B's compiler was first implemented (and it came to TMG from ALGOL 68's x +:= y syntax).", "Thompson went further by inventing the increment and decrement operators (++ and --).", "Their prefix or postfix position determines whether the value is taken before or after alteration of the operand.", "This innovation was not in the earliest versions of B.", "According to Dennis Ritchie, people often assumed that they were created for the auto-increment and auto-decrement address modes of the DEC PDP-11, but this is historically impossible as the machine didn't exist when B was first developed.The semicolon version of the for loop was borrowed by Ken Thompson from the work of Stephen Johnson.B is typeless, or more precisely has one data type: the computer word.", "Most operators (e.g.", "+, -, *, /) treated this as an integer, but others treated it as a memory address to be dereferenced.", "In many other ways it looked a lot like an early version of C. There are a few library functions, including some that vaguely resemble functions from the standard I/O library in C. In Thompson's words: \"B and the old old C were very very similar languages except for all the types in C\".Early implementations were for the DEC PDP-7 and PDP-11 minicomputers using early Unix, and Honeywell 36-bit mainframes running the operating system GCOS.", "The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to threaded code, and Ritchie wrote a compiler using TMG which produced machine code.", "In 1970 a PDP-11 was acquired and threaded code was used for the port; an assembler, , and the B language itself were written in B to bootstrap the computer.", "An early version of yacc was produced with this PDP-11 configuration.", "Ritchie took over maintenance during this period.The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support.", "Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables.", "During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into \"New B\" (NB) and then C.B is almost extinct, having been superseded by the C language.", "However, it continues to see use on GCOS mainframes () and on certain embedded systems () for a variety of reasons: limited hardware in small systems, extensive libraries, tooling, licensing cost issues, and simply being good enough for the job.", "The highly influential AberMUD was originally written in B." ], [ "Examples", "The following examples are from the ''Users' Reference to B'' by Ken Thompson:/* The following function will print a non-negative number, n, to the base b, where 2/* The following program will calculate the constant e-2 to about 4000 decimal digits, and print it 50 characters to the line in groups of 5 characters.", "The method is simple output conversion of the expansion 1/2!", "+ 1/3!", "+ ... = .111.... where the bases of the digits are 2, 3, 4, .", ".", ".", "*/main() {\textrn putchar, n, v;\tauto i, c, col, a;\ti = col = 0;\twhile(i" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Manual page for b(1) from Unix First Edition* The Development of the C Language, Dennis M. Ritchie.", "Puts B in the context of BCPL and C.* Users' Reference to B'', Ken Thompson.", "Describes the PDP-11 version.", "* The Programming Language B, S. C. Johnson & B. W. Kernighan, Technical Report CS TR 8, Bell Labs (January 1973).", "The GCOS version on Honeywell equipment.", "* B Language Reference Manual, Thinkage Ltd.", "The production version of the language as used on GCOS, including language and runtime library." ] ]

[ [ "Beer–Lambert law" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Beer-Lambert law''' is commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements to determine the concentration of chemical species that absorb light.", "It is often referred to as '''Beer's law'''.", "In physics, the '''Bouguer–Lambert law''' is an empirical law which relates the extinction or attenuation of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling.", "It had its first use in astronomical extinction.", "The fundamental law of extinction (the process is linear in the intensity of radiation and amount of radiatively active matter, provided that the physical state is held constant) is sometimes called the '''Beer-Bouguer-Lambert law''' or the '''Bouguer-Beer-Lambert law''' or merely the '''extinction law.'''", "The extinction law is also used in understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons, or rarefied gases.", "In mathematical physics, this law arises as a solution of the BGK equation." ], [ "History", "Bouguer-Lambert law: This law is based on observations made by Pierre Bouguer before 1729.It is often attributed to Johann Heinrich Lambert, who cited Bouguer's (Claude Jombert, Paris, 1729) – and even quoted from it – in his ''Photometria'' in 1760.Lambert expressed the law, which states that the loss of light intensity when it propagates in a medium is directly proportional to intensity and path length, in the mathematical form used today.", "Lambert began by assuming that the intensity of light traveling into an absorbing body would be given by the differential equation: which is compatible with Bouguer's observations.", "The constant of proportionality was often termed the \"optical density\" of the body.", "Integrating to find the intensity at a distance into the body, one obtains: For a homogeneous medium, this reduces to: from which follows the exponential attenuation law: Beer's law: Much later, in 1852, the German scientist August Beer studied another attenuation relation.", "In the introduction to his classic paper, he wrote: \"The absorption of light during the irradiation of a colored substance has often been the object of experiment; but attention has always been directed to the relative diminution of the various colors or, in the case of crystalline bodies, the relation between the absorption and the direction of polarization.", "Concerning the absolute magnitude of the absorption that a particular ray of light suffers during its propagation through an absorbing medium, there is no information available.\"", "By studying absorption of red light in colored aqueous solutions of various salts, he concluded that \"the transmittance of a concentrated solution can be derived from a measurement of the transmittance of a dilute solution\".", "It is clear that he understood the exponential relationship, as he wrote: \"If is the coefficient (fraction) of diminution, then this coefficient (fraction) will have the value for double this thickness.\"", "Furthermore Beer stated: \"We shall take the absorption coefficient to be the coefficient giving the diminution in amplitude suffered by a light ray as it passes through a unit length of an absorbing material.", "We then have, according to theory, and as I have found verified by experiment, where is the absorption coefficient and D the length of the absorbing material traversed in the experiment.\"", "This is the relationship that might properly be called '''Beer's law.'''", "There is no evidence that Beer saw concentration and path length as symmetrical variables in an equation in the manner of the Beer-Lambert law.", "Beer-Lambert law: The modern formulation of the Beer–Lambert law combines the observations of Bouguer and Beer into the mathematical form of Lambert.", "It correlates the absorbance, most often expressed as the negative decadic logarithm of the transmittance, to both the concentrations of the attenuating species and the thickness of the material sample.", "An early, possibly the first, modern formulation was given by Robert Luther and Andreas Nikolopulos in 1913.=== Differences between Bouguer and Beer in application areas ===While the observations of Bouguer and Beer have a similar form in the Beer-Lambert law, their areas of observation were very different.", "For both experimenters, the incident beam was well collimated, with a light sensor which preferentially detected directly transmitted light.", "Beer specifically looked at solutions.", "Solutions are homogeneous and do not scatter light (Ultraviolet, visible, Infrared) of wavelengths commonly used in analytical spectroscopy (except upon entry and exit).", "The attenuation of a beam of light within a solution is assumed to be only due to absorption.", "In order to approximate the conditions required for the Beer Lambert law to hold, often the intensity of transmitted light through a reference sample consisting of pure solvent is measured, and compared to the intensity of light transmitted through a sample , with the absorbance of the sample taken as: .", "It is for this case that the common mathematical formulation (see below) applies: Bouguer looked at astronomical phenomena where the size of a detector is very small compared to the distance traveled by the light.", "In this case, any light that is scattered by a particle, either in the forward or backward direction, will not strike the detector.", "The loss of intensity to the detector will be due to both absorption and scatter.", "Consequently, the total loss is called attenuation (rather than absorption).", "A single measurement cannot separate the two, but conceptually the contribution of each can be separated in the attenuation coefficient.", "If is the intensity of the light at the beginning of the travel and is the intensity of the light detected after travel of a distance , the fraction transmitted, , is given by: , where is called an attenuation constant or coefficient.", "The amount of light transmitted is falling off exponentially with distance.", "Taking the natural logarithm in the above equation, we get: .", "For scattering media, the constant is often divided into two parts, , separating it into a scattering coefficient, , and an absorption coefficient, ." ], [ "Absorptivity, cross-sections, and units of coefficients", "The fundamental law of extinction states that the extinction process is linear in the intensity of radiation and amount of radiatively active matter, provided that the physical state is held constant.", "(Neither concentration or length are fundamental parameters.)", "There are two factors that determine the degree to which a medium containing particles will attenuate a light beam: the number of particles encountered by the light beam, and the degree to which each particle extinguishes the light.", "For the case of absorption (Beer), this later quantity is called the absorptivity , which is defined as \"the property of a body that determines the fraction of incident radiation absorbed by the body\".", "The Beer-Lambert law uses concentration and length in order to determine the number of particles the beam encounters.", "If we know the area of a collimated beam (directed radiation), we can get the number of particles in a distance.", "The number of particles encountered can be calculated from Avagadro's number, the molar concentration, the cross-sectional area of the incident beam .", "There must be a large number of particles that are uniformly distributed for this relationship to hold.", "In practice, the beam area is thought of as a constant, and since the fraction has the area in both the numerator and denominator, the beam area cancels in the calculation of the absorbance.", "The units of the absorptivity must match the units in which the sample is described.", "For example, if the sample is described by mass concentration (g/L) and length (cm), then the units on the absorptivity would be L g−1 cm−1, so that the absorbance has no units.", "For the case of \"extinction\" (Bouguer), the sum of absorption and scatter, the terms absorption, scattering, and extinction cross-sections are often used.", "The fraction of light extinguished by the sample may be described by the extinction cross section (fraction extinguished per particle).", "the number of particles in a unit distance and the distance in those units.", "For example: (fraction extinguished / particle) (# particles / meter) (# meters / sample) = fraction extinguished / sample" ], [ "Mathematical formulations", "A common and practical expression of the Beer–Lambert law relates the optical attenuation of a physical material containing a single attenuating species of uniform concentration to the optical path length through the sample and absorptivity of the species.", "This expression is:where* is the absorbance* is the molar attenuation coefficient or absorptivity of the attenuating species* is the optical path length* is the concentration of the attenuating speciesA more general form of the Beer–Lambert law states that, for attenuating species in the material sample,or equivalently thatwhere* is the attenuation cross section of the attenuating species in the material sample;* is the number density of the attenuating species in the material sample;* is the molar attenuation coefficient or absorptivity of the attenuating species in the material sample;* is the amount concentration of the attenuating species in the material sample;* is the path length of the beam of light through the material sample.In the above equations, the transmittance of material sample is related to its optical depth and to its absorbance by the following definitionwhere* is the radiant flux ''transmitted'' by that material sample;* is the radiant flux received by that material sample.Attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient are related byand number density and amount concentration bywhere is the Avogadro constant.In case of ''uniform'' attenuation, these relations becomeor equivalentlyCases of ''non-uniform'' attenuation occur in atmospheric science applications and radiation shielding theory for instance.The law tends to break down at very high concentrations, especially if the material is highly scattering.", "Absorbance within range of 0.2 to 0.5 is ideal to maintain linearity in the Beer–Lambert law.", "If the radiation is especially intense, nonlinear optical processes can also cause variances.", "The main reason, however, is that the concentration dependence is in general non-linear and Beer's law is valid only under certain conditions as shown by derivation below.", "For strong oscillators and at high concentrations the deviations are stronger.", "If the molecules are closer to each other interactions can set in.", "These interactions can be roughly divided into physical and chemical interactions.", "Physical interaction do not alter the polarizability of the molecules as long as the interaction is not so strong that light and molecular quantum state intermix (strong coupling), but cause the attenuation cross sections to be non-additive via electromagnetic coupling.", "Chemical interactions in contrast change the polarizability and thus absorption.", "=== Expression with attenuation coefficient ===The law can be expressed in terms of attenuation coefficient, but in this case is better called the Bouguer-Lambert's law.", "The (Napierian) attenuation coefficient and the decadic attenuation coefficient of a material sample are related to its number densities and amount concentrations asrespectively, by definition of attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient.", "Then the law becomesandIn case of ''uniform'' attenuation, these relations becomeor equivalentlyIn many cases, the attenuation coefficient does not vary with , in which case one does not have to perform an integral and can express the law as:where the attenuation is usually an addition of absorption coefficient (creation of electron-hole pairs) or scattering (for example Rayleigh scattering if the scattering centers are much smaller than the incident wavelength).", "Also note that for some systems we can put (1 over inelastic mean free path) in place of" ], [ "Derivation", "Assume that a beam of light enters a material sample.", "Define as an axis parallel to the direction of the beam.", "Divide the material sample into thin slices, perpendicular to the beam of light, with thickness sufficiently small that one particle in a slice cannot obscure another particle in the same slice when viewed along the direction.", "The radiant flux of the light that emerges from a slice is reduced, compared to that of the light that entered, by where is the (Napierian) attenuation coefficient, which yields the following first-order linear, ordinary differential equation:The attenuation is caused by the photons that did not make it to the other side of the slice because of scattering or absorption.", "The solution to this differential equation is obtained by multiplying the integrating factorthroughout to obtainwhich simplifies due to the product rule (applied backwards) toIntegrating both sides and solving for for a material of real thickness , with the incident radiant flux upon the slice and the transmitted radiant flux givesand finallySince the decadic attenuation coefficient is related to the (Napierian) attenuation coefficient by we also haveTo describe the attenuation coefficient in a way independent of the number densities of the attenuating species of the material sample, one introduces the attenuation cross section has the dimension of an area; it expresses the likelihood of interaction between the particles of the beam and the particles of the species in the material sample:One can also use the molar attenuation coefficients where is the Avogadro constant, to describe the attenuation coefficient in a way independent of the amount concentrations of the attenuating species of the material sample:" ], [ "Validity", "Under certain conditions the Beer–Lambert law fails to maintain a linear relationship between attenuation and concentration of analyte.", "These deviations are classified into three categories:# Real—fundamental deviations due to the limitations of the law itself.# Chemical—deviations observed due to specific chemical species of the sample which is being analyzed.# Instrument—deviations which occur due to how the attenuation measurements are made.There are at least six conditions that need to be fulfilled in order for the Beer–Lambert law to be valid.", "These are:# The attenuators must act independently of each other.# The attenuating medium must be homogeneous in the interaction volume.# The attenuating medium must not scatter the radiation—no turbidity—unless this is accounted for as in DOAS.# The incident radiation must consist of parallel rays, each traversing the same length in the absorbing medium.# The incident radiation should preferably be monochromatic, or have at least a width that is narrower than that of the attenuating transition.", "Otherwise a spectrometer as detector for the power is needed instead of a photodiode which cannot discriminate between wavelengths.# The incident flux must not influence the atoms or molecules; it should only act as a non-invasive probe of the species under study.", "In particular, this implies that the light should not cause optical saturation or optical pumping, since such effects will deplete the lower level and possibly give rise to stimulated emission.If any of these conditions are not fulfilled, there will be deviations from the Beer–Lambert law." ], [ "Chemical analysis by spectrophotometry", "The Beer–Lambert law can be applied to the analysis of a mixture by spectrophotometry, without the need for extensive pre-processing of the sample.", "An example is the determination of bilirubin in blood plasma samples.", "The spectrum of pure bilirubin is known, so the molar attenuation coefficient is known.", "Measurements of decadic attenuation coefficient are made at one wavelength that is nearly unique for bilirubin and at a second wavelength in order to correct for possible interferences.", "The amount concentration is then given byFor a more complicated example, consider a mixture in solution containing two species at amount concentrations and .", "The decadic attenuation coefficient at any wavelength is, given byTherefore, measurements at two wavelengths yields two equations in two unknowns and will suffice to determine the amount concentrations and as long as the molar attenuation coefficients of the two components, and are known at both wavelengths.", "This two system equation can be solved using Cramer's rule.", "In practice it is better to use linear least squares to determine the two amount concentrations from measurements made at more than two wavelengths.", "Mixtures containing more than two components can be analyzed in the same way, using a minimum of wavelengths for a mixture containing components.The law is used widely in infra-red spectroscopy and near-infrared spectroscopy for analysis of polymer degradation and oxidation (also in biological tissue) as well as to measure the concentration of various compounds in different food samples.", "The carbonyl group attenuation at about 6 micrometres can be detected quite easily, and degree of oxidation of the polymer calculated." ], [ "Application for the atmosphere", "The Bouguer-Lambert law may be applied to describe the attenuation of solar or stellar radiation as it travels through the atmosphere.", "In this case, there is scattering of radiation as well as absorption.", "The optical depth for a slant path is , where refers to a vertical path, is called the relative airmass, and for a plane-parallel atmosphere it is determined as where is the zenith angle corresponding to the given path.", "The Bouguer-Lambert law for the atmosphere is usually writtenwhere each is the optical depth whose subscript identifies the source of the absorption or scattering it describes:* refers to aerosols (that absorb and scatter);* are uniformly mixed gases (mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and molecular oxygen (O2) which only absorb);* is nitrogen dioxide, mainly due to urban pollution (absorption only);* are effects due to Raman scattering in the atmosphere;* is water vapour absorption;* is ozone (absorption only);* is Rayleigh scattering from molecular oxygen () and nitrogen () (responsible for the blue color of the sky);* the selection of the attenuators which have to be considered depends on the wavelength range and can include various other compounds.", "This can include tetraoxygen, HONO, formaldehyde, glyoxal, a series of halogen radicals and others.", "is the ''optical mass'' or ''airmass factor'', a term approximately equal (for small and moderate values of ) to where is the observed object's zenith angle (the angle measured from the direction perpendicular to the Earth's surface at the observation site).", "This equation can be used to retrieve , the aerosol optical thickness, which is necessary for the correction of satellite images and also important in accounting for the role of aerosols in climate." ], [ "See also", "* Applied spectroscopy* Atomic absorption spectroscopy* Absorption spectroscopy* Cavity ring-down spectroscopy* Clausius-Mossotti relation* Infra-red spectroscopy* Job plot* Laser absorption spectrometry* Lorentz-Lorenz relation* Logarithm* Polymer degradation* Scientific laws named after people* Quantification of nucleic acids* Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy* Transmittance#Beer–Lambert law" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Beer–Lambert Law Calculator* Beer–Lambert Law Simpler Explanation" ] ]

[ [ "The Beach Boys" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Beach Boys''' are an American rock band formed in Hawthorne, California, in 1961.The group's original lineup consisted of brothers Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and friend Al Jardine.", "Distinguished by their vocal harmonies, adolescent-oriented lyrics, and musical ingenuity, they are one of the most influential acts of the rock era.", "They drew on the music of older pop vocal groups, 1950s rock and roll, and black R&B to create their unique sound.", "Under Brian's direction, they often incorporated classical or jazz elements and unconventional recording techniques in innovative ways.The Beach Boys formed as a garage band centered on Brian's songwriting and managed by the Wilsons' father, Murry.", "In 1963, the band enjoyed their first national hit with \"Surfin' U.S.A.\", beginning a string of top-ten singles that reflected a southern California youth culture of surfing, cars, and romance, dubbed the \"California sound\".", "They were one of the few American rock bands to sustain their commercial standing during the British Invasion.", "Starting with 1965's ''The Beach Boys Today!", "'', they abandoned beachgoing themes for more personal lyrics and ambitious orchestrations.", "In 1966, the ''Pet Sounds'' album and \"Good Vibrations\" single raised the group's prestige as rock innovators; both are now widely considered to be among the greatest and most influential works in popular music history.", "After scrapping the ''Smile'' album in 1967, Brian gradually ceded control of the group to his bandmates.In the late 1960s, the group's commercial momentum faltered in the U.S., and they were widely dismissed by the early rock music press before rebranding themselves in the early 1970s.", "Carl took over as ''de facto'' leader until the mid-1970s, when the band responded to the growing success of their live shows and greatest hits compilations by transitioning into an oldies act.", "Dennis drowned in 1983 and Brian soon became estranged from the group.", "Following Carl's death from lung cancer in 1998, the band granted Love legal rights to tour under the group's name.", "In the early 2010s, the original members briefly reunited for the band's 50th anniversary tour.", ", Brian and Jardine do not perform with Love's edition of the Beach Boys, but remain official members of the band.The Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed and commercially successful bands of all time, selling over 100 million records worldwide.", "They helped legitimize popular music as a recognized art form and influenced the development of music genres and movements such as psychedelia, power pop, progressive rock, punk, alternative, and lo-fi.", "Between the 1960s and 2020s, the group had 37 songs reach the US Top 40 (the most by an American band), with four topping the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.In 2004, they were ranked number 12 on ''Rolling Stone''s list of the greatest artists of all time.", "Many critics' polls have ranked ''Today!", "'', ''Pet Sounds'', ''Smiley Smile'' (1967), ''Sunflower'' (1970), and ''Surf's Up'' (1971) among the finest albums in history.", "The founding members were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.Other members during the band's history have been David Marks, Bruce Johnston, Blondie Chaplin, and Ricky Fataar." ], [ "History", "=== 1958–1961: Formation ===Historical landmark in Hawthorne, California, marking where the Wilson family home once stoodAt the time of his 16th birthday on June 20, 1958, Brian Wilson shared a bedroom with his brothers, Dennis and Carlaged 13 and 11, respectivelyin their family home in Hawthorne.", "He had watched his father Murry Wilson play piano, and had listened intently to the harmonies of vocal groups such as the Four Freshmen.", "After dissecting songs such as \"Ivory Tower\" and \"Good News\", Brian would teach family members how to sing the background harmonies.", "For his birthday that year, Brian received a reel-to-reel tape recorder.", "He learned how to overdub, using his vocals and those of Carl and their mother.", "Brian played piano with Carl and David Marks, an eleven-year-old longtime neighbor, playing guitars they had each received as Christmas presents.Soon Brian and Carl were avidly listening to Johnny Otis' KFOX radio show.", "Inspired by the simple structure and vocals of the rhythm and blues songs he heard, Brian changed his piano-playing style and started writing songs.", "Family gatherings brought the Wilsons in contact with cousin Mike Love.", "Brian taught Love's sister Maureen and a friend harmonies.", "Later, Brian, Love and two friends performed at Hawthorne High School.", "Brian also knew Al Jardine, a high school classmate.", "Brian suggested to Jardine that they team up with his cousin and brother Carl.", "Love gave the fledgling band its name: \"The Pendletones\", a pun on \"Pendleton\", a style of woolen shirt popular at the time.", "Dennis was the only avid surfer in the group, and he suggested that the group write songs that celebrated the sport and the lifestyle that it had inspired in Southern California.", "Brian finished the song, titled \"Surfin\", and with Mike Love, wrote \"Surfin' Safari\".Murry Wilson, who was a sometime songwriter, arranged for the Pendletones to meet his publisher Hite Morgan.", "He said: \"Finally, Hite agreed to hear it, and Mrs. Morgan said 'Drop everything, we're going to record your song.", "I think it's good.'", "And she's the one responsible.\"", "On September 15, 1961, the band recorded a demo of \"Surfin with the Morgans.", "A more professional recording was made on October 3, at World Pacific Studio in Hollywood.", "David Marks was not present at the session as he was in school that day.", "Murry brought the demos to Herb Newman, owner of Candix Records and Era Records, and he signed the group on December 8.When the single was released a few weeks later, the band found that they had been renamed \"the Beach Boys\".", "Candix wanted to name the group the Surfers until Russ Regan, a young promoter with Era Records, noted that there already existed a group by that name.", "He suggested calling them the Beach Boys.", "\"Surfin was a regional success for the West Coast, and reached number 75 on the national ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart.=== 1962–1967: Peak years ======= ''Surfin' Safari'', ''Surfin' U.S.A.'', ''Surfer Girl'', and ''Little Deuce Coupe'' ====Pendleton outfits, performing at a local high school, late 1962By this time the de facto manager of the Beach Boys, Murry landed the group's first paying gig (for which they earned $300) on New Year's Eve, 1961, at the Ritchie Valens Memorial Dance in Long Beach.", "In their early public appearances, the band wore heavy wool jacket-like shirts that local surfers favored before switching to their trademark striped shirts and white pants (a look that was taken directly from the Kingston Trio).", "All five members sang, with Brian playing bass, Dennis playing drums, Carl playing lead guitar and Al Jardine playing rhythm guitar, while Mike Love was the main singer and occasionally played saxophone.", "In early 1962, Morgan requested that some of the members add vocals to a couple of instrumental tracks that he had recorded with other musicians.", "This led to the creation of the short-lived group Kenny & the Cadets, which Brian led under the pseudonym \"Kenny\".", "The other members were Carl, Jardine, and the Wilsons' mother Audree.", "In February, Jardine left the Beach Boys and was replaced by David Marks on rhythm guitar.", "A common misconception is that Jardine left to focus on dental school.", "In reality, Jardine did not even apply to dental school until 1964, and the reason he left in February 1962 was due to creative differences and his belief that the newly-formed group would not be a commercial success.", "After being turned down by Dot and Liberty, the Beach Boys signed a seven-year contract with Capitol Records.", "This was at the urging of Capitol executive and staff producer Nick Venet who signed the group, seeing them as the \"teenage gold\" he had been scouting for.", "On June 4, 1962, the Beach Boys debuted on Capitol with their second single, \"Surfin' Safari\" backed with \"409\".", "The release prompted national coverage in the June 9 issue of ''Billboard'', which praised Love's lead vocal and said the song had potential.", "\"Surfin' Safari\" rose to number 14 and found airplay in New York and Phoenix, a surprise for the label.The Beach Boys' first album, ''Surfin' Safari'', was released in October 1962.It was different from other rock albums of the time in that it consisted almost entirely of original songs, primarily written by Brian with Mike Love and friend Gary Usher.", "Another unusual feature of the Beach Boys was that, although they were marketed as \"surf music\", their repertoire bore little resemblance to the music of other surf bands, which was mainly instrumental and incorporated heavy use of spring reverb.", "For this reason, some of the Beach Boys' early local performances had young audience members throwing vegetables at the band, believing that the group were poseurs.In January 1963, the Beach Boys recorded their first top-ten single, \"Surfin' U.S.A.\", which began their long run of highly successful recording efforts.", "It was during the sessions for this single that Brian made the production decision from that point on to use double tracking on the group's vocals, resulting in a deeper and more resonant sound.", "The album of the same name followed in March and reached number 2 on the ''Billboard'' charts.", "Its success propelled the group into a nationwide spotlight, and was vital to launching surf music as a national craze, albeit the Beach Boys' vocal approach to the genre, not the original instrumental style pioneered by Dick Dale.", "Biographer Luis Sanchez highlights the \"Surfin' U.S.A.\" single as a turning point for the band, \"creating a direct passage to California life for a wide teenage audience ... and a distinct Southern California sensibility that exceeded its conception as such to advance right to the front of American consciousness.", "\"Throughout 1963, and for the next few years, Brian produced a variety of singles for outside artists.", "Among these were the Honeys, a surfer trio that comprised sisters Diane and Marilyn Rovell with cousin Ginger Blake.", "Brian was convinced that they could be a successful female counterpart to the Beach Boys, and he produced a number of singles for them, although they could not replicate the Beach Boys' popularity.", "He also attended some of Phil Spector's sessions at Gold Star Studios.", "His creative and songwriting interests were revamped upon hearing the Ronettes' 1963 song \"Be My Baby\", which was produced by Spector.", "The first time he heard the song was while driving, and was so overwhelmed that he had to pull over to the side of the road and analyze the chorus.", "Later, he reflected: \"I was unable to really think as a producer up until the time where I really got familiar with Phil Spector's work.", "That was when I started to design the experience to be a record rather than just a song.", "\"The Beach Boys in 1963; top to bottom: Brian Wilson, Carl Wilson, Dennis Wilson, David Marks, Mike Love.", "''Surfer Girl'' marked the first time the group used outside musicians on a substantial portion of an LP.", "Many of them were the musicians Spector used for his Wall of Sound productions.", "Only a month after ''Surfer Girl'''s release the group's fourth album ''Little Deuce Coupe'' was issued.", "To close 1963, the band released a standalone Christmas-themed single, \"Little Saint Nick\", backed with an a cappella rendition of the scriptural song \"The Lord's Prayer\".", "The A-side peaked at number 3 on the US ''Billboard'' Christmas chart.", "By the end of the year David Marks had left the group and Al Jardine had returned.==== British Invasion, ''Shut Down Volume 2'', ''All Summer Long'', and ''Christmas Album'' ====The surf music craze, along with the careers of nearly all surf acts, was slowly replaced by the British Invasion.", "Following a successful Australasian tour in January and February 1964, the Beach Boys returned home to face their new competition, the Beatles.", "Both groups shared the same record label in the US, and Capitol's support for the Beach Boys immediately began waning.", "Although it generated a top-five single in \"Fun Fun Fun\", the group's fifth album, ''Shut Down Volume 2'', became their first since ''Surfin' Safari'' not to reach the US top-ten.", "This caused Murry to fight for the band at the label more than before, often visiting their offices without warning to \"twist executive arms\".", "Carl said that Phil Spector \"was Brian's favorite kind of rock; he liked him better than the early Beatles stuff.", "He loved the Beatles' later music when they evolved and started making intelligent, masterful music, but before that Phil was it.\"", "According to Mike Love, Carl followed the Beatles closer than anyone else in the band, while Brian was the most \"rattled\" by the Beatles and felt tremendous pressure to \"keep pace\" with them.", "For Brian, the Beatles ultimately \"eclipsed a lot of what we'd worked for ... they eclipsed the whole music world.", "\"Performing \"I Get Around\" on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' in September 1964 Brian wrote his last surf song, \"Don't Back Down\", in April 1964.That month, during recording of the single \"I Get Around\", Murry was relieved of his duties as manager.", "He remained in close contact with the group and attempted to continue advising on their career decisions.", "When \"I Get Around\" was released in May, it would climb to number 1 in the US and Canada, their first single to do so (also reaching the top-ten in Sweden and the UK), proving that the Beach Boys could compete with contemporary British pop groups.", "\"I Get Around\" and \"Don't Back Down\" both appeared on the band's sixth album ''All Summer Long'', released in July 1964 and reaching number 4 in the US.", "''All Summer Long'' introduced exotic textures to the Beach Boys' sound exemplified by the piccolos and xylophones of its title track.", "The album was a swan-song to the surf and car music the Beach Boys built their commercial standing upon.", "Later albums took a different stylistic and lyrical path.", "Before this, a live album, ''Beach Boys Concert'', was released in October to a four-week chart stay at number 1, containing a set list of previously recorded songs and covers that they had not yet recorded.The Beach Boys in 1964; clockwise from top left: Mike Love, Brian Wilson, Carl Wilson, Dennis Wilson, Al Jardine.In June 1964, Brian recorded the bulk of ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'' with a forty-one-piece studio orchestra in collaboration with Four Freshmen arranger Dick Reynolds.", "The album was a response to Phil Spector's ''A Christmas Gift for You'' (1963).", "Released in December, the Beach Boys' album was divided between five new, original Christmas-themed songs, and seven reinterpretations of traditional Christmas songs.", "It would be regarded as one of the finest holiday albums of the rock era.", "One single from the album, \"The Man with All the Toys\", was released, peaking at number 6 on the US ''Billboard'' Christmas chart.", "On October 29, the Beach Boys performed for ''The T.A.M.I.", "Show'', a concert film intended to bring together a wide range of musicians for a one-off performance.", "The result was released to movie theaters one month later.====''Today!", "'', ''Summer Days'', and ''Party!", "''====The band with caricatures in Paris, November 1964By the end of 1964, the stress of road travel, writing, and producing became too much for Brian.", "On December 23, while on a flight from Los Angeles to Houston, he suffered a panic attack.", "In January 1965, he announced his withdrawal from touring to concentrate entirely on songwriting and record production.", "For the last few days of 1964 and into early 1965, session musician and up-and-coming solo artist Glen Campbell agreed to temporarily serve as Brian's replacement in concert.", "Carl took over as the band's musical director onstage.", "Now a full-time studio artist, Brian wanted to move the Beach Boys beyond their surf aesthetic, believing that their image was antiquated and distracting the public from his talents as a producer and songwriter.", "Musically, he said he began to \"take the things I learned from Phil Spector and use more instruments whenever I could.", "I doubled up on basses and tripled up on keyboards, which made everything sound bigger and deeper.", "\"Released in March 1965, ''The Beach Boys Today!''", "marked the first time the group experimented with the \"album-as-art\" form.", "The tracks on side one feature an uptempo sound that contrasts side two, which consists mostly of emotional ballads.", "Music writer Scott Schinder referenced its \"suite-like structure\" as an early example of the rock album format being used to make a cohesive artistic statement.", "Brian also established his new lyrical approach toward the autobiographical; journalist Nick Kent wrote that the subjects of Brian's songs \"were suddenly no longer simple happy souls harmonizing their sun-kissed innocence and dying devotion to each other over a honey-coated backdrop of surf and sand.", "Instead, they'd become highly vulnerable, slightly neurotic and riddled with telling insecurities.\"", "In the book ''Yeah Yeah Yeah: The Story of Modern Pop'', Bob Stanley remarked that \"Brian was aiming for Johnny Mercer but coming up proto-indie.\"", "In 2012, the album was voted 271 on ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.In April 1965, Campbell's own career success pulled him from touring with the group.", "Columbia Records staff producer Bruce Johnston was asked to locate a replacement for Campbell; having failed to find one, Johnston himself became a full-time member of the band on May 19, 1965.With Johnston's arrival, Brian now had a sixth voice he could work with in the band's vocal arrangements, with the June 4 vocal sessions for \"California Girls\" being Johnston's first recording session with the Beach Boys.", "\"California Girls\" was included on the band's next album ''Summer Days (And Summer Nights)'' and eventually charted at number 3 in the US as the second single from the album, while the album itself went to number 2.The first single from ''Summer Days'' had been a reworked arrangement of \"Help Me, Rhonda\", which became the band's second number 1 US single in the spring of 1965.For contractual reasons, owing to his previous deal with Columbia Records, Johnston was not able to be credited or pictured on Beach Boys records until 1967.To appease Capitol's demands for a Beach Boys LP for the 1965 Christmas season, Brian conceived ''Beach Boys' Party!", "'', a live-in-the-studio album consisting mostly of acoustic covers of 1950s rock and R&B songs, in addition to covers of three Beatles songs, Bob Dylan's \"The Times They Are a-Changin'\", and idiosyncratic rerecordings of the group's earlier songs.", "The album was an early precursor of the \"unplugged\" trend.", "It also included a cover of the Regents' song \"Barbara Ann\", which unexpectedly reached number 2 when released as a single several weeks later.", "In November, the group released another top-twenty single, \"The Little Girl I Once Knew\".", "It was considered the band's most experimental statement thus far.", "The single continued Brian's ambitions for daring arrangements, featuring unexpected tempo changes and numerous false endings.", "With the exception of their 1963 and 1964 Christmas singles (\"Little Saint Nick\" and \"The Man with All the Toys\") it was the group's lowest charting single on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 since \"Ten Little Indians\" in 1962, peaking at number 20.According to Luis Sanchez, in 1965, Bob Dylan was \"rewriting the rules for pop success\" with his music and image, and it was at this juncture that Wilson \"led The Beach Boys into a transitional phase in an effort to win the pop terrain that had been thrown up for grabs.", "\"==== ''Pet Sounds'' ====Brian Wilson in 1966Wilson collaborated with jingle writer Tony Asher for several of the songs on the album ''Pet Sounds'', a refinement of the themes and ideas that were introduced in ''Today!''.", "In some ways, the music was a jarring departure from their earlier style.", "Jardine explained that \"it took us quite a while to adjust to the new material because it wasn't music you could necessarily dance to—it was more like music you could make love to.\"", "In ''The Journal on the Art of Record Production'', Marshall Heiser writes that ''Pet Sounds'' \"diverges from previous Beach Boys' efforts in several ways: its sound field has a greater sense of depth and 'warmth;' the songs employ even more inventive use of harmony and chord voicings; the prominent use of percussion is a key feature (as opposed to driving drum backbeats); whilst the orchestrations, at times, echo the quirkiness of 'exotica' bandleader Les Baxter, or the 'cool' of Burt Bacharach, more so than Spector's teen fanfares.", "\"The Beach Boys (Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, and Bruce Johnston), with Terry Melcher and engineer Chuck Britz, during the ''Pet Sounds'' sessions, 1966For ''Pet Sounds'', Brian desired to make \"a complete statement\", similar to what he believed the Beatles had done with their newest album ''Rubber Soul'', released in December 1965.Brian was immediately enamored with the album, given the impression that it had no filler tracks, a feature that was mostly unheard of at a time when 45 rpm singles were considered more noteworthy than full-length LPs.", "He later said: \"It didn't make me want to copy them but to be as good as them.", "I didn't want to do the same kind of music, but on the same level.\"", "Thanks to mutual connections, Brian was introduced to the Beatles' former press officer Derek Taylor, who was subsequently employed as the Beach Boys' publicist.", "Responding to Brian's request to reinvent the band's image, Taylor devised a promotion campaign with the tagline \"Brian Wilson is a genius\", a belief Taylor sincerely held.", "Taylor's prestige was crucial in offering a credible perspective to those on the outside, and his efforts are widely recognized as instrumental in the album's success in Britain.Released on May 16, 1966, ''Pet Sounds'' was widely influential and raised the band's prestige as an innovative rock group.", "Early reviews for the album in the US ranged from negative to tentatively positive, and its sales numbered approximately 500,000 units, a drop-off from the run of albums that immediately preceded it.", "It was assumed that Capitol considered ''Pet Sounds'' a risk, appealing more to an older demographic than the younger, female audience upon which the Beach Boys had built their commercial standing.", "Within two months, the label capitulated by releasing the group's first greatest hits compilation album, ''Best of the Beach Boys'', which was quickly certified gold by the RIAA.", "By contrast, ''Pet Sounds'' met a highly favorable critical response in Britain, where it reached number 2 and remained among the top-ten positions for six months.", "Responding to the hype, ''Melody Maker'' ran a feature in which many pop musicians were asked whether they believed that the album was truly revolutionary and progressive, or \"as sickly as peanut butter\".", "The author concluded that \"the record's impact on artists and the men behind the artists has been considerable.", "\"==== \"Good Vibrations\" and ''Smile'' ====The Beach Boys accepting a gold record sales certification for \"Good Vibrations\" at the Capitol Tower, late 1966.Throughout the summer of 1966, Brian concentrated on finishing the group's next single, \"Good Vibrations\".", "Instead of working on whole songs with clear large-scale syntactical structures, he limited himself to recording short interchangeable fragments (or \"modules\").", "Through the method of tape splicing, each fragment could then be assembled into a linear sequence, allowing any number of larger structures and divergent moods to be produced at a later time.", "Coming at a time when pop singles were usually recorded in under two hours, it was one of the most complex pop productions ever undertaken, with sessions for the song stretching over several months in four major Hollywood studios.", "It was also the most expensive single ever recorded to that point, with production costs estimated to be in the tens of thousands.Van Dyke Parks, Brian's lyricist and collaborator for the unfinished album ''Smile''In the midst of \"Good Vibrations\" sessions, Wilson invited session musician and songwriter Van Dyke Parks to collaborate as lyricist for the Beach Boys' next album project, soon titled ''Smile''.", "Parks agreed.", "Wilson and Parks intended ''Smile'' to be a continuous suite of songs linked both thematically and musically, with the main songs linked together by small vocal pieces and instrumental segments that elaborated on the major songs' musical themes.", "It was explicitly American in style and subject, a conscious reaction to the overwhelming British dominance of popular music at the time.", "Some of the music incorporated chanting, cowboy songs, explorations in Indian and Hawaiian music, jazz, classical tone poems, cartoon sound effects, ''musique concrète'', and yodeling.", "''Saturday Evening Post'' writer Jules Siegel recalled that, on one October evening, Brian announced to his wife and friends that he was \"writing a teenage symphony to God\".Recording for ''Smile'' lasted about a year, from mid-1966 to mid-1967, and followed the same modular production approach as \"Good Vibrations\".", "Concurrently, Wilson planned many different multimedia side projects, such as a sound effects collage, a comedy album, and a \"health food\" album.", "Capitol did not support all these ideas, which led to the Beach Boys' desire to form their own label, Brother Records.", "According to biographer Steven Gaines, Wilson employed his newfound \"best friend\" David Anderle as head of the label.Throughout 1966, EMI flooded the UK market with Beach Boys albums not yet released there, including ''Beach Boys' Party!", "'', ''The Beach Boys Today!''", "and ''Summer Days (and Summer Nights)'', while ''Best of the Beach Boys'' was number 2 there for several weeks at the end of the year.", "Over the final quarter of 1966, the Beach Boys were the highest-selling album act in the UK, where for the first time in three years American artists broke the chart dominance of British acts.", "In 1971, ''Cue'' magazine wrote that, from mid-1966 to late-1967, the Beach Boys \"were among the vanguard in practically every aspect of the counter culture\".Released on October 10, 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" was the Beach Boys' third US number 1 single, reaching the top of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in December, and became their first number 1 in Britain.", "That month, the record was their first single certified gold by the RIAA.", "It came to be widely acclaimed as one of the greatest masterpieces of rock music.", "In December 1966, the Beach Boys were voted the top band in the world in the ''NME''s annual readers' poll, ahead of the Beatles, the Walker Brothers, the Rolling Stones, and the Four Tops.Throughout the first half of 1967, the album's release date was repeatedly postponed as Brian tinkered with the recordings, experimenting with different takes and mixes, unable or unwilling to supply a final version.", "Meanwhile, he suffered from delusions and paranoia, believing on one occasion that the would-be album track \"Fire\" caused a building to burn down.", "On January 3, 1967, Carl Wilson refused to be drafted for military service, leading to indictment and criminal prosecution, which he challenged as a conscientious objector.", "The FBI arrested him in April, and it took several years for courts to resolve the matter.After months of recording and media hype, ''Smile'' was shelved for personal, technical, and legal reasons.", "A February 1967 lawsuit seeking $255,000 (equivalent to $ in ) was launched against Capitol Records over neglected royalty payments.", "Within the lawsuit was an attempt to terminate the band's contract with Capitol before its November 1969 expiry.", "Many of Wilson's associates, including Parks and Anderle, disassociated themselves from the group by April 1967.Brian later said: \"Time can be spent in the studio to the point where you get so next to it, you don't know where you are with it—you decide to just chuck it for a while.", "\"In the decades following ''Smile''s non-release, it became the subject of intense speculation and mystique and the most legendary unreleased album in pop music history.", "Many of the album's advocates believe that had it been released, it would have altered the group's direction and cemented them at the vanguard of rock innovators.", "In 2011, ''Uncut'' magazine staff voted ''Smile'' the \"greatest bootleg recording of all time\".=== 1967–1969: Faltered popularity and Brian's reduced involvement =======''Smiley Smile'' and ''Wild Honey''====From 1965 to 1967, the Beach Boys had developed a musical and lyrical sophistication that contrasted their work from before and after.", "This divide was further solidified by the difference in sound between their albums and their stage performances.", "This resulted in a split fanbase corresponding to two distinct musical markets.", "One group enjoys the band's early work as a wholesome representation of American popular culture from before the political and social movements brought on in the mid-1960s.", "The other group also appreciates the early songs for their energy and complexity, but not as much as the band's ambitious work that was created during the formative psychedelic era.", "At the time, rock music journalists typically valued the Beach Boys' early records over their experimental work.In May 1967, the Beach Boys attempted to tour Europe with four extra musicians brought from the US, but were stopped by the British musicians' union.", "The tour went on without the extra support, and critics described their performances as \"amateurish\" and \"floundering\".", "At the last minute, the Beach Boys declined to headline the Monterey Pop Festival, an event held in June.", "According to David Leaf, \"Monterey was a gathering place for the 'far out' sounds of the 'new' rock ... and it is thought that their non-appearance was what really turned the 'underground' tide against them.\"", "Fan magazines speculated that the group was on the verge of breaking up.", "Detractors called the band the \"Bleach Boys\" and \"the California Hypes\" as media focus shifted from Los Angeles to the happenings in San Francisco.", "As authenticity became a higher concern among critics, the group's legitimacy in rock music became an oft-repeated criticism, especially since their early songs appeared to celebrate a politically unconscious youth culture.The band at Zuma Beach, July 1967Although ''Smile'' had been cancelled, the Beach Boys were still under pressure and a contractual obligation to record and present an album to Capitol.", "Carl remembered: \"Brian just said, 'I can't do this.", "We're going to make a homespun version of ''Smile'' instead.", "We're just going to take it easy.", "I'll get in the pool and sing.", "Or let's go in the gym and do our parts.'", "That was ''Smiley Smile''.\"", "Sessions for the new album lasted from June to July 1967 at Brian's new makeshift home studio.", "Most of the album featured the Beach Boys playing their own instruments, rather than the session musicians employed in much of their previous work.", "It was the first album for which production was credited to the entire group instead of Brian alone.In July 1967, lead single \"Heroes and Villains\" was issued, arriving after months of public anticipation, and reached number 12 in US.", "It was met with general confusion and underwhelming reviews, and in the ''NME'', Jimi Hendrix famously dismissed it as a \"psychedelic barbershop quartet\".", "By then, the group's lawsuit with Capitol was resolved, and it was agreed that ''Smile'' would not be the band's next album.", "In August, the group embarked on a two-date tour of Hawaii.", "The shows saw Brian make a brief return to live performance, as Bruce Johnston chose to take a temporary break from the band during the summer of 1967, feeling that the atmosphere within the band \"had all got too weird\".", "The performances were filmed and recorded with the intention of releasing a live album, ''Lei'd in Hawaii'', which was also left unfinished and unreleased.", "The general record-buying public came to view the music made after this time as the point marking the band's artistic decline.", "''Smiley Smile'' was released on September 18, 1967, and peaked at number 41 in the US, making it their worst-selling album to that date.", "Critics and fans were generally underwhelmed by the album.", "According to Scott Schinder, the album was released to \"general incomprehension.", "While ''Smile'' may have divided the Beach Boys' fans had it been released, ''Smiley Smile'' merely baffled them.\"", "The group was virtually blacklisted by the music press, to the extent that reviews of the group's records were either withheld from publication or published long after the release dates.", "When released in the UK in November, it performed better, reaching number 9.Over the years, the album gathered a reputation as one of the best \"chill-out\" albums to listen to during an LSD comedown.", "In 1974, ''NME'' voted it the 64th-greatest album of all time.The Beach Boys immediately recorded a new album, ''Wild Honey'', an excursion into soul music, and a self-conscious attempt to \"regroup\" themselves as a rock band in opposition to their more orchestral affairs of the past.", "Its music differs in many ways from previous Beach Boys records: it contains very little group singing compared to previous albums, and mainly features Brian singing at his piano.", "Again, the Beach Boys recorded mostly at his home studio.", "Love reflected that ''Wild Honey'' was \"completely out of the mainstream for what was going on at that time ... and that was the idea.", "\"''Wild Honey'' was released on December 18, 1967, in competition with the Beatles' ''Magical Mystery Tour'' and the Rolling Stones' ''Their Satanic Majesties Request''.", "It had a higher chart placing than ''Smiley Smile'', but still failed to make the top-twenty and remained on the charts for only 15 weeks.", "As with ''Smiley Smile'', contemporary critics viewed it as inconsequential, and it alienated fans whose expectations had been raised by ''Smile''.", "That month, Mike Love told a British journalist: \"Brian has been rethinking our recording program and in any case we all have a much greater say nowadays in what we turn out in the studio.", "\"====''Friends'', ''20/20'', and Manson affair====The Beach Boys were at their lowest popularity in the late 1960s, and their cultural standing was especially worsened by their public image, which remained incongruous with their peers' \"heavier\" music.", "At the end of 1967, ''Rolling Stone'' co-founder and editor Jann Wenner printed an influential article that denounced the Beach Boys as \"just one prominent example of a group that has gotten hung up on trying to catch The Beatles.", "It's a pointless pursuit.\"", "The article had the effect of excluding the group among serious rock fans and such controversy followed them into the next year.", "Capitol continued to bill them as \"America's Top Surfin' Group!\"", "and expected Brian to write more beachgoing songs for the yearly summer markets.", "From 1968 onward, his songwriting output declined substantially, but the public narrative of \"Brian as leader\" continued.", "The group also stopped wearing their longtime striped-shirt stage uniforms in favor of matching white, polyester suits that resembled a Las Vegas show band's.The Beach Boys in 1968, left to right: Dennis Wilson, Mike Love, Carl Wilson (top), Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston.After meeting Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at a UNICEF Variety Gala in Paris, Love and other high-profile celebrities such as the Beatles and Donovan traveled to Rishikesh, India, in February–March 1968.The following Beach Boys album, ''Friends'', had songs influenced by the Transcendental Meditation the Maharishi taught.", "In support of ''Friends'', Love arranged for the Beach Boys to tour with the Maharishi in the US Starting on May 3, 1968, the tour lasted five shows and was canceled when the Maharishi withdrew to fulfill film contracts.", "Because of disappointing audience numbers and the Maharishi's withdrawal, 24 tour dates were canceled at a cost estimated at $250,000.", "''Friends'', released on June 24, peaked at number 126 in the US.", "In August, Capitol issued an album of Beach Boys backing tracks, ''Stack-o-Tracks''.", "It was the first Beach Boys LP that failed to chart in the US and UK.In June 1968, Dennis befriended Charles Manson, an aspiring singer-songwriter, and their relationship lasted for several months.", "Dennis bought him time at Brian's home studio, where recording sessions were attempted while Brian stayed in his room.", "Dennis then proposed that Manson be signed to Brother Records.", "Brian reportedly disliked Manson, and a deal was never made.", "In July 1968, the group released the single \"Do It Again\", which lyrically harkened back to their earlier surf songs.", "Around this time, Brian admitted himself to a psychiatric hospital; his bandmates wrote and produced material in his absence.", "Released in January 1969, the album ''20/20'' mixed new material with outtakes and leftovers from recent albums; Brian produced virtually none of the newer recordings.The Beach Boys recorded one song by Manson without his involvement: \"Cease to Exist\", rewritten as \"Never Learn Not to Love\", which was included on ''20/20''.", "As his cult of followers took over Dennis's home, Dennis gradually distanced himself from Manson.", "According to Leaf, \"The entire Wilson family reportedly feared for their lives.", "\"In August, the Manson Family committed the Tate–LaBianca murders.", "According to Jon Parks, the band's tour manager, it was widely suspected in the Hollywood community that Manson was responsible for the murders, and it had been known that Manson had been involved with the Beach Boys, causing the band to be viewed as pariahs for a time.", "In November, police apprehended Manson, and his connection with the Beach Boys received media attention.", "He was later convicted for several counts of murder and conspiracy to murder.==== Selling of the band's publishing ====In April 1969, the band revisited its 1967 lawsuit against Capitol after it alleged an audit revealed the band was owed over $2 million for unpaid royalties and production duties.", "In May, Brian told the music press that the group's funds were depleted to the point that it was considering filing for bankruptcy at the end of the year, which ''Disc & Music Echo'' called \"stunning news\" and a \"tremendous shock on the American pop scene\".", "Brian hoped that the success of a forthcoming single, \"Break Away\", would mend the financial issues.", "The song, written and produced by Brian and Murry, reached number 63 in the US and number 6 in the UK, and Brian's remarks to the press ultimately thwarted long-simmering contract negotiations with Deutsche Grammophon.", "The group's Capitol contract expired two weeks later with one more album still due.", "''Live in London'', a live album recorded in December 1968, was released in several countries in 1970 to fulfil the contract, although it would not see US release until 1976.After the contract was completed Capitol deleted the Beach Boys' catalog from print, effectively cutting off their royalty flow.", "The lawsuit was later settled in their favor and they acquired the rights to their post-1965 catalog.In August, Sea of Tunes, the Beach Boys' catalog, was sold to Irving Almo Music for $700,000 (equivalent to $ in ).", "According to his wife, Marilyn Wilson, Brian was devastated by the sale.", "Over the years, the catalog generated more than $100 million in publishing royalties, none of which Murry or the band members ever received.", "That same month, Carl, Dennis, Love, and Jardine sought a permanent replacement for Johnston, with Johnston unaware of this search.", "They approached Carl's brother-in-law Billy Hinsche, who declined the offer to focus on his college studies.===1970–1978: Reprise era=======''Sunflower'', ''Surf's Up'', ''Carl and the Passions'', and ''Holland''====The Beach Boys in 1971; top left to right: Mike Love, Brian Wilson; middle left to right: Carl Wilson, Al Jardine, Dennis Wilson; bottom: Bruce Johnston.The group was signed to Reprise Records in 1970.Scott Schinder described the label as \"probably the hippest and most artist-friendly major label of the time.\"", "The deal was brokered by Van Dyke Parks, who was then employed as a multimedia executive at Warner Music Group.", "Reprise's contract stipulated Brian's proactive involvement with the band in all albums.", "By the time the Beach Boys' tenure ended with Capitol in 1969, they had sold 65 million records worldwide, closing the decade as the most commercially successful American group in popular music.After recording over 30 different songs and going through several album titles, their first LP for Reprise, ''Sunflower'', was released on August 31, 1970.", "''Sunflower'' featured a strong group presence with significant writing contributions from all six band members.", "Brian was active during this period, writing or co-writing seven of ''Sunflower'''s 12 songs and performing at half of the band's domestic concerts in 1970.The album received critical acclaim in both the US and the UK.", "This was offset by the album reaching only number 151 on US record charts during a four-week stay, becoming one of the worst-selling of the Beach Boys' albums at that point.", "Fans generally regard the LP as the Beach Boys' finest post-''Pet Sounds'' album.", "In 2003, it placed at number 380 on ''Rolling Stone''s \"Greatest Albums of All Time\" list.The Beach Boys performing in alt=In mid-1970, the Beach Boys hired radio presenter Jack Rieley as their manager.", "One of his initiatives was to encourage the band to record songs featuring more socially conscious lyrics.", "He also requested the completion of ''Smile'' track \"Surf's Up\" and arranged a guest appearance at a Grateful Dead concert at Bill Graham's Fillmore East in April 1971 to foreground the Beach Boys' transition into the counterculture.", "During this time, the group ceased wearing matching uniforms on stage, while Dennis took time to star alongside James Taylor, Laurie Bird, and Warren Oates in the cult film ''Two-Lane Blacktop'', released in 1971.Later in 1971, Dennis injured his hand, leaving him temporarily unable to play the drums.", "He continued in the band, singing and occasionally playing keyboards, while Ricky Fataar, formally of the Flames, took over on drums.", "In July, the American music press rated the Beach Boys \"the hottest grossing act\" in the country, alongside Grand Funk Railroad.", "The band filmed a concert for ABC-TV in Central Park, which aired as ''Good Vibrations from Central Park'' on August 19.On August 30, the band released ''Surf's Up'', which was moderately successful, reaching the US top-thirty, a marked improvement over their recent releases.", "While the record charted, the Beach Boys added to their renewed fame by performing a near-sellout set at Carnegie Hall; their live shows during this era included reworked arrangements of many of their previous songs, with their set lists culling from ''Pet Sounds'' and ''Smile''.", "On October 28, the Beach Boys were the featured cover story on that date's issue of ''Rolling Stone''.", "It included the first part of a lengthy two-part interview, titled \"The Beach Boys: A California Saga\", conducted by Tom Nolan and David Felton.Bruce Johnston left the Beach Boys in early 1972, with Fataar and another ex-Flames member, singer and guitarist Blondie Chaplin, becoming official members of the band.", "The new line-up released the comparatively unsuccessful ''Carl and the Passions – \"So Tough\"'' in May 1972, followed by ''Holland'' in January 1973.Reprise felt ''Holland'' needed a strong single.", "Following the intervention of Van Dyke Parks, this resulted in the inclusion of \"Sail On, Sailor\".", "Reprise approved, and the resulting album peaked at number 37.Brian's musical children's story, ''Mount Vernon and Fairway'', was included as a bonus EP.====Greatest hits LPs, touring resurgence, and Caribou sessions====After ''Holland'', the group maintained a touring regimen, captured on the double live album ''The Beach Boys in Concert'' released in November 1973, but recorded very little in the studio through 1975.Several months earlier, they had announced that they would complete ''Smile'', but this never came to fruition, and plans for its release were once again abandoned.", "Following Murry's death in June 1973, Brian retreated into his bedroom and withdrew further into drug abuse, alcoholism, chain smoking, and overeating.", "In October, the band fired Rieley.", "Rieley's position was succeeded by Mike Love's brother, Stephen, and Chicago manager James William Guercio.", "Chaplin and Fataar left the band in December 1973 and November 1974, respectively, with Dennis returning to drums following Fataar's departure.The Beach Boys' greatest hits compilation album ''Endless Summer'' was released in June 1974 to unexpected success, becoming the band's second number 1 US album in October.", "The LP had a 155-week chart run, selling over 3 million copies.", "The Beach Boys became the number-one act in the US, propelling themselves from opening for Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young in the summer of 1974 to headliners selling out basketball arenas in a matter of weeks.", "Guercio prevailed upon the group to swap out newer songs with older material in their concert setlists, partly to accommodate their growing audience and the demand for their early hits.", "Later in the year, members of the band appeared as guests on Chicago's hit \"Wishing You Were Here\".", "At the end of 1974, ''Rolling Stone'' proclaimed the Beach Boys \"Band of the Year\" based on the strength of their live performances.To capitalize on their sudden resurgence in popularity, the Beach Boys accepted Guercio's invitation to record their next Reprise album at his Caribou Ranch studio, located around the mountains of Nederland, Colorado.", "These October 1974 sessions marked the group's return to the studio after a 21-month period of virtual inactivity, but the proceedings were cut short after Brian had insisted on returning to his home in Los Angeles.", "With the project put on hold, the Beach Boys spent most of the next year on the road playing college football stadiums and basketball arenas.", "The only Beach Boys recording of 1974 to see release at the time was the Christmas single \"Child of Winter\", recorded upon the group's return to Los Angeles in November and released the following month.Over the summer of 1975, the touring group played a co-headlining series of concert dates with Chicago, a pairing that was nicknamed \"Beachago\".", "The tour was massively successful and restored the Beach Boys' profitability to what it had been in the mid-1960s.", "Although another joint tour with Chicago had been planned for the summer of 1976, the Beach Boys' association with Guercio and his Caribou Management company ended in early 1976.Stephen Love subsequently took over as the band's ''de facto'' business manager.====''15 Big Ones'', ''Love You'', and ''Adult/Child''====Early in 1975, Brian signed a production deal with California Music, a Los Angeles collective that included Bruce Johnston and Gary Usher, but was drawn away by the Beach Boys' pressing demands for a new album.", "In October, Marilyn persuaded Brian to admit himself to the care of psychologist Eugene Landy, who kept him from indulging in substance abuse with constant supervision.", "Brian was kept in the program until December 1976.Brian Wilson behind Brother Studios' mixing console in early 1976At the end of January 1976, the Beach Boys returned to the studio with Brian producing once again.", "Brian decided the band should do an album of rock and roll and doo wop standards.", "Carl and Dennis disagreed, feeling that an album of originals was far more ideal, while Love and Jardine wanted the album out as quickly as possible.", "To highlight Brian's recovery and his return to writing and producing, Stephen devised a promotional campaign with the tagline \"Brian Is Back!", "\", and paid the Rogers & Cowan publicity agency $3,500 per month to implement it.", "The band also commissioned an NBC-TV special, later known as ''The Beach Boys: It's OK!", "'', that was produced by ''Saturday Night Live'' creator Lorne Michaels.Released on July 5, 1976, ''15 Big Ones'' was generally disliked by fans and critics, as well as Carl and Dennis, who disparaged the album to the press.", "The album peaked at number 8 in the US, becoming their first top-ten album of new material since ''Pet Sounds'', and their highest-charting studio album since ''Summer Days (And Summer Nights)''.", "Lead single \"Rock and Roll Music\" peaked at number 5 – their highest chart ranking since \"Good Vibrations\".From late-1976 to early-1977, Brian made sporadic public appearances and produced the band's next album, ''The Beach Boys Love You''.", "He regarded it as a spiritual successor to ''Pet Sounds'', namely because of the autobiographical lyrics.", "Released on April 11, 1977, ''Love You'' peaked at number 53 in the US and number 28 in the UK.", "Critically, it was met with polarized reactions from the public.", "Numerous esteemed critics penned favorable reviews, but casual listeners generally found the album's idiosyncratic sound to be a detriment.", "''Adult/Child'', the intended follow-up to ''Love You'', was completed, but the release was vetoed by Love and Jardine.", "According to Stan Love, when his brother Mike heard the album, Mike turned to Brian and asked: \"''What the fuck are you doing?''\"", "Some of the unreleased songs on ''Adult/Child'' later saw individual release on subsequent Beach Boys albums and compilations.", "Following this period, his concert appearances with the band gradually diminished and their performances were occasionally erratic.====CBS signing and ''M.I.U.", "Album''====At the beginning of 1977, the Beach Boys had enjoyed their most lucrative concert tours ever, with the band playing in packed stadiums and earning up to $150,000 per show.", "Concurrently, the band was the subject of a record company bidding war, as their contract with Warner Bros. had been set to expire soon.", "Stephen Love arranged for the Beach Boys to sign an $8 million deal with CBS Records on March 1.Numerous stipulations were given in the CBS contract, including that Brian was required to write at least four songs per album, co-write at least 70% of all the tracks, and produce or co-produce alongside his brothers.", "Another part of the deal required the group to play thirty concerts a year in the U.S., in addition to one tour in Australia and Japan, and two tours in Europe.Within weeks of the CBS contract, Stephen was effectively fired by the band, with one of the alleged reasons being that Mike had not permitted Stephen to sign on his behalf while at a TM retreat in Switzerland.", "For Stephen's replacement, the group hired Carl's friend Henry Lazarus, an entertainment business owner that had no prior experience in the music industry.", "Lazarus arranged a major European tour for the Beach Boys, starting in late July, with stops in Germany, Switzerland, and France.", "Due to poor planning, the tour was cancelled shortly before it began, as Lazarus had failed to complete the necessary paperwork.", "The group subsequently fired Lazarus and were sued by many of the concert promoters, with losses of $200,000 in preliminary expenses and $550,000 in potential revenue.In July, the Beach Boys played a concert at Wembley Stadium that was notable for the fact that, during the show, Mike attacked Brian with a piano bench onstage in front of over 15,000 attendees.", "In August, Mike and Jardine persuaded Stephen to return as the group's manager, a decision that Carl and Dennis had strongly opposed.", "By this point, the band had effectively split into two camps; Dennis and Carl on one side, Mike and Jardine on the other, with Brian remaining neutral.", "These two opposing contingents within the group – known among their associates as the \"free-livers\" and the \"meditators\" – were traveling in different planes, using different hotels, and rarely speaking to each other.", "According to Love, \"The terms 'smokers' and 'nonsmokers' were also used.", "\"On September 3, after completing the final date of a northeastern US tour, the internal wrangling came to a head.", "Following a confrontation on an airport apron – a spectacle that a bystanding ''Rolling Stone'' journalist compared to the ending of ''Casablanca'' – Dennis declared that he had left the band.", "The group was broken up until a meeting at Brian's house on September 17.In light of the lucrative CBS contract, the parties negotiated a settlement resulting in Love gaining control of Brian's vote in the group, allowing Love and Jardine to outvote Carl and Dennis on any matter.The Beach Boys performing a concert in Michigan, August 1978The group had still owed one more album for Reprise.", "Released in September 1978, ''M.I.U.", "Album'' was recorded at Maharishi International University in Iowa at the suggestion of Love.", "The band originally attempted to record a Christmas album, to be titled ''Merry Christmas from the Beach Boys'', but this idea was rejected by Reprise.", "These Christmas recordings would eventually be released in 1998 as part of the ''Ultimate Christmas'' compilation album.", "Dennis and Carl made limited contributions to ''M.I.U.", "Album''; the album was produced by Jardine and Ron Altbach, with Brian credited as \"executive producer\".", "Dennis started to withdraw from the group to focus on his second solo album, Bambu, which was shelved just as alcoholism and marital problems overcame all three Wilson brothers.", "Carl appeared intoxicated during concerts (especially at appearances for their 1978 Australia tour) and Brian gradually slid back into addiction and an unhealthy lifestyle.", "Stephen was fired shortly after the Australia tour partly due to an incident in which Brian's bodyguard Rocky Pamplin physically assaulted Carl.===1978–1998: Continued recording and Brian's estrangement=======''L.A.", "(Light Album)'' and ''Keepin' the Summer Alive''====The Beach Boys in 1979The group's first two albums for CBS, 1979's ''L.A.", "(Light Album)'' and 1980's ''Keepin' the Summer Alive'', struggled in the US, charting at 100 and 75 respectively, though the band did manage a top-forty single from ''L.A.''", "with \"Good Timin'\".", "The recording of these albums saw Bruce Johnston return to the band, initially solely as a producer and eventually as a full-time band member.", "In-between the two albums the group contributed the song \"It's a Beautiful Day\" to the soundtrack of the film ''Americathon''.", "In an April 1980 interview, Carl reflected that \"the last two years have been the most important and difficult time of our career.", "We were at the ultimate crossroads.", "We had to decide whether what we had been involved in since we were teenagers had lost its meaning.", "We asked ourselves and each other the difficult questions we'd often avoided in the past.\"", "By the next year, he left the touring group because of unhappiness with the band's nostalgia format and lackluster live performances, subsequently pursuing a solo career.", "He stated: \"I haven't quit the Beach Boys but I do not plan on touring with them until they decide that 1981 means as much to them as 1961.\"", "Carl returned in May 1982, after approximately 14 months of being away, on the condition that the group reconsider their rehearsal and touring policies and refrain from \"Las Vegas-type\" engagements.On June 21, 1980, the Beach Boys performed a concert at Knebworth, England, which featured a slightly intoxicated Dennis.", "The concert would later be released as a live album titled ''Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980'' in 2002.In 1981, the band scored a surprise US top-twenty hit when their cover of the Del-Vikings' \"Come Go with Me\" from the three year old ''M.I.U.", "Album'' was released as a single.In late 1982, Eugene Landy was once more employed as Brian's therapist, and a more radical program was undertaken to try to restore Brian to health.", "This involved removing him from the group on November 5, 1982, at the behest of Carl, Love, and Jardine, in addition to putting him on a rigorous diet and health regimen.", "Coupled with long, extreme counseling sessions, this therapy was successful in bringing Brian back to physical health, slimming down from to .====Death of Dennis, ''The Beach Boys'', and ''Still Cruisin''====The Beach Boys with President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan at the White House, June 1983By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Dennis had been embroiled in successive failed romantic relationships, including a tense and short-lived relationship with Fleetwood Mac's Christine McVie, and found himself in severe economic trouble resulting in the sale of Brother Studios, established by the Wilson brothers in 1974 and where ''Pacific Ocean Blue'' was produced, and the forfeiture of his beloved yacht.", "To cope with the combination of devastating losses, Dennis heavily abused alcohol, cocaine, and heroin and was, by 1983, homeless and lived a nomadic lifestyle.", "He was often seen spending much of his time wandering the Los Angeles coast and often missed Beach Boys performances.", "By this point, he had lost his voice and much of his ability to play drums.In 1983, tensions between Dennis and Love escalated to the point that each obtained a restraining order against the other.", "Following Brian's readmission for Landy's treatment, Dennis was given an ultimatum after his last performance in November 1983 to check into rehab for his alcohol problems or be banned from performing live with the band again.", "Dennis checked into rehab for his chance to get sober, but on December 28, he drowned at the age of 39 in Marina del Rey while diving from a friend's boat trying to recover items that he had previously thrown overboard in a fit of rage.The Beach Boys spent the next several years touring, often playing in front of large audiences, and recording songs for film soundtracks and various artists compilations.", "One new studio album, the self-titled ''The Beach Boys'', appeared in 1985 and proved a modest success, becoming their highest-charting album in the US since ''15 Big Ones''.", "''The Beach Boys'' was the group's final album for CBS.", "The following year they returned to Capitol with a 25th anniversary greatest hits album ''Made in U.S.A'', which featured two new tracks, \"Rock 'n' Roll to the Rescue\" and a cover of the Mamas and the Papas' \"California Dreamin'\", with the latter featuring Roger McGuinn of the Byrds on lead guitar.", "''Made in U.S.A'' eventually went double platinum.Commenting on his relationship to the band in 1988, Brian said that he avoided his family at Landy's suggestion, adding that \"Although we stay together as a group, as people we're a far cry from friends.\"", "Mike denied the accusation that he and the band were keeping Brian from participating with the group.", "In 1987 the band scored a top-twenty single in collaboration with rap group the Fat Boys, on their cover of the Surfaris' \"Wipeout!\".", "The following year, the Beach Boys unexpectedly claimed their first US number 1 single in 22 years with \"Kokomo\", which topped the chart for one week.", "The track was featured in the film ''Cocktail''.", "Both \"Wipeout!\"", "and \"Kokomo\" were included on the band's next album, 1989's ''Still Cruisin''', which went platinum in the US.", "In 1991 the band contributed a cover of \"Crocodile Rock\" to the Elton John and Bernie Taupin tribute album ''Two Rooms''.====Lawsuits, ''Summer in Paradise'', and ''Stars and Stripes, Vol.", "1''====Carlin summarized, \"Once surfin' pin-ups, they remade themselves as avant-garde pop artists, then psychedelic oracles.", "After that they were down-home hippies, then retro-hip icons.", "Eventually they devolved into none of the above: a kind of perpetual-motion nostalgia machine.\"", "Music journalist Erik Davis wrote in 1990, \"the Beach Boys are either dead, deranged, or dinosaurs; their records are Eurocentric, square, unsampled; they've made too much money to merit hip revisionism.\"", "In 1992, critic Jim Miller wrote, \"They have become a figment of their own past, prisoners of their unflagging popularity—incongruous emblems of a sunny myth of eternal youth belied by much of their own best music.", "… The group is still largely identified with its hits from the early Sixties.", "\"Love filed a defamation lawsuit against Brian due to how he was presented in Brian's 1992 memoir ''Wouldn't It Be Nice: My Own Story''.", "Its publisher HarperCollins settled the suit for $1.5 million.", "He said that the suit allowed his lawyer \"to gain access to the transcripts of Brian's interviews with his book collaborator, Todd Gold.", "Those interviews affirmed—according to Brian—that I had been the inspiration of the group and that I had written many of the songs that would soon be in dispute.\"", "Other defamation lawsuits were filed by Carl, Brother Records, and the Wilsons' mother Audree.", "With Love and Brian unable to determine exactly what Love was properly owed in royalties, Love sued Brian in 1992, winning $13 million in 1994 for lost royalties.", "35 of the group's songs were then amended to credit Love.", "He later called it \"almost certainly the largest case of fraud in music history\".The day after California courts issued a restraining order between Brian and Landy, Brian phoned Sire Records staff producer Andy Paley to collaborate on new material tentatively for the Beach Boys.", "After losing the songwriting credits lawsuit with Love, Brian told ''MOJO'' in February 1995: \"Mike and I are just cool.", "There's a lot of shit Andy and I got written for him.", "I just had to get through that goddamn trial!\"", "In April, it was unclear whether the project would turn into a Wilson solo album, a Beach Boys album, or a combination of the two.", "The project ultimately disintegrated.", "Instead, Brian and his bandmates recorded ''Stars and Stripes Vol.", "1'', an album of country music stars covering Beach Boys songs, with co-production helmed by River North Records owner Joe Thomas.", "Afterward, the group discussed finishing the album ''Smile'', but Carl rejected the idea, fearing that it would cause Brian another nervous breakdown.=== 1998–present: Love-led tours ======= Death of Carl and band name litigation ====The touring lineup of Mike Love and Bruce Johnston's \"The Beach Boys Band\", with David Marks, in 2008Early in 1997, Carl was diagnosed with lung and brain cancer after years of heavy smoking.", "Despite his terminal condition, Carl continued to perform with the band on its 1997 summer tour (a double-bill with the band Chicago) while undergoing chemotherapy.", "During performances, he sat on a stool and needed oxygen after every song.", "Carl died on February 6, 1998, at the age of 51, two months after the death of the Wilsons' mother, Audree.After Carl's death, Jardine left the touring line-up and began to perform regularly with his band \"Beach Boys: Family & Friends\" until he ran into legal issues for using the name without license.", "Meanwhile, Jardine sued Love, claiming that he had been excluded from their concerts, BRI, through its longtime attorney, Ed McPherson, sued Jardine in Federal Court.", "Jardine, in turn, counter-claimed against BRI for wrongful termination.", "BRI ultimately prevailed.In 2000, ABC-TV premiered a two-part television miniseries, ''The Beach Boys: An American Family'', that dramatized the Beach Boys' story.", "It was produced by ''Full House'' actor John Stamos, and was criticized by numerous parties, including Wilson, for historical inaccuracies.In 2004, Wilson recorded and released his solo album ''Brian Wilson Presents Smile'', a reinterpretation of the unfinished ''Smile'' project.", "That September, Wilson issued a free CD through the ''Mail On Sunday'' that included Beach Boys songs he had recently rerecorded, five of which he co-authored with Love.", "The 10 track compilation had 2.6 million copies distributed and prompted Love to file a lawsuit in November 2005; he claimed the promotion hurt the sales of the original recordings.", "Love's suit was dismissed in 2007 when a judge determined that there were no triable issues.In late 2006, Jardine joined Brian Wilson and his band for a short tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of ''Pet Sounds''.==== ''The Smile Sessions'', ''That's Why God Made the Radio'', and 50th anniversary reunion tour ====On October 31, 2011, Capitol released a double album and box set dedicated to the ''Smile'' recordings in the form of ''The Smile Sessions''.", "The album garnered universal critical acclaim and charted in both the US ''Billboard'' and UK top-thirty.", "It went on to win Best Historical Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards.The reunited Beach Boys performing \"Heroes and Villains\" in tribute to ''Smile''On December 16, 2011, it was announced that Wilson, Love, Jardine, Johnston and David Marks would reunite for a new album and 50th anniversary tour.", "On February 12, 2012, the Beach Boys performed at the 2012 Grammy Awards, in what was billed as a \"special performance\" by organizers.", "It marked the group's first live performance to include Wilson since 1996, Jardine since 1998, and Marks since 1999.Released on June 5, ''That's Why God Made the Radio'' debuted at number 3 on the US charts, expanding the group's span of ''Billboard'' 200 top-ten albums across 49 years and one week, passing the Beatles with 47 years of top-ten albums.", "Critics generally regarded the album as an \"uneven\" collection, with most of the praise centered on its closing musical suite.The reunion tour ended in September 2012 as planned, but amid erroneous rumors that Love had dismissed Wilson from the Beach Boys.", "Love and Johnston continued to perform under the Beach Boys name, while Wilson, Jardine, and Marks continued to tour as a trio, and a subsequent tour with guitarist Jeff Beck also included Blondie Chaplin at select dates.====Copyright extension releases====Responding to a new European Union copyright law that extended copyright to 70 years for recordings that were published within 50 years after they were made, Capitol began issuing annual 50-year anniversary \"copyright extension\" releases of Beach Boys recordings, starting with ''The Big Beat 1963'' (2013).Jardine, Marks, Johnston and Love appeared together at the 2014 Ella Awards Ceremony, where Love was honored for his work as a singer.", "In 2015, ''Soundstage'' aired an episode featuring Wilson performing with Jardine, Chaplin, and Ricky Fataar at The Venetian in Las Vegas.", "In April, when asked if he was interested in making music with Love again, Wilson replied: \"I don't think so, no,\" adding in July that he \"doesn't talk to the Beach Boys or Mike Love.", "\"In 2016, Love and Wilson published memoirs, ''Good Vibrations: My Life as a Beach Boy'' and ''I Am Brian Wilson'', respectively.", "Asked about negative comments that Wilson made about him in the book, Love challenged the legitimacy of statements attributed to Wilson in the book and in the press.", "In an interview with ''Rolling Stone'' conducted in June 2016, Wilson said he would like to try to repair his relationship with Love and collaborate with him again.", "In January 2017, Love said, \"If it were possible to make it just Brian and I, and have it under control and done better than what happened in 2012, then yeah, I'd be open to something.", "\"Johnston and Love performing as the Beach Boys in 2019In July 2018, Wilson, Jardine, Love, Johnston, and Marks reunited for a one-off Q&A session moderated by director Rob Reiner at the Capitol Records Tower in Los Angeles.", "It was the first time the band had appeared together in public since their 2012 tour.", "That December, Love described his new holiday album, ''Reason for the Season'', as a \"message to Brian\" and said that he \"would love nothing more than to get together with Brian and do some music.", "\"In February 2020, Wilson and Jardine's official social media pages encouraged fans to boycott the band's music after it was announced that Love's Beach Boys would perform at the Safari Club International Convention in Reno, Nevada on animal rights grounds.", "The concert proceeded despite online protests, as Love issued a statement that said his group has always supported \"freedom of thought and expression as a fundamental tenet of our rights as Americans.\"", "In October, Love and Johnston's Beach Boys performed at a fundraiser for Donald Trump's presidential re-election campaign; Wilson and Jardine again issued a statement that they had not been informed about this performance and did not support it.====Selling of the band's intellectual property and 60th anniversary====In March 2020, Jardine was asked about a possible reunion and responded that the band would reunite for a string of live performances in 2021, although he believed a new album was unlikely.", "In response to reunion rumors, Love said in May that he was open to a 60th anniversary tour, although Wilson has \"some serious health issues\", while Wilson's manager Jean Sievers commented that no one had spoken to Wilson about such a tour.", "In February 2021, it was announced that Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, and the estate of Carl Wilson had sold a majority stake in the band's intellectual property to Irving Azoff and his new company Iconic Artists Group; rumors of a 60th anniversary reunion were again discussed.In April 2021, Omnivore Recordings released ''California Music Presents Add Some Music'', an album featuring Love, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and several children of the original Beach Boys (most notably on a re-recording of The Beach Boys' \"Add Some Music to Your Day\" from 1970's ''Sunflower'').", "In August, Capitol released the box set ''Feel Flows: The Sunflower & Surf's Up Sessions 1969–1971''.", "In 2022, the group was expected to participate in a \"60th anniversary celebration\".", "Azoff stated in an interview from May 2021, \"We're going to announce a major deal with a streamer for the definitive documentary on The Beach Boys and a 60th anniversary celebration.", "We're planning a tribute concert affiliated with the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and SiriusXM, with amazing acts.", "That's adding value, and that's why I invested in The Beach Boys.", "\"On Mike Love's 81st birthday, Jardine once again hinted at a possible reunion on his Facebook page by stating that he was \"looking forward\" to seeing Love at the \"reunion\".", "However, while a reunion ultimately did not occur in 2022, Capitol released the ''Sail On Sailor – 1972'' box set in December; following on from the ''Feel Flows'' box set, which focused on ''Sunflower'' and ''Surf's Up'', ''Sail On Sailor'' focused on ''Carl and the Passions'' and ''Holland''.In January 2023, the tribute concert mentioned by Azoff in 2021 was announced as being part of the “Grammys Salute” series of televised tribute concerts.", "On February 8 – three days after the 2023 Grammy award ceremonies, ''A Grammy Salute to the Beach Boys'' was recorded at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, California and subsequently aired as a 2-hour special on CBS on April 9.Present for the taping were Wilson, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and Love – this time not as performers but as featured guests, seated in a luxury box at the theatre, overlooking tribute performances covering the gamut of their catalog by mostly contemporary artists.", "According to ''Billboard'', the program had 5.18 million viewers.In July 2023, the Beach Boys announced a limited edition to their book, ''The Beach Boys by The Beach Boys'', set to be released in 2024.It will feature exclusive interviews, archived photos, live shots, as well as archived texts from late members Carl and Dennis Wilson." ], [ "Musical style and development", "In ''Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis'', musicologist Daniel Harrison writes:The Beach Boys began as a garage band playing 1950s style rock and roll, reassembling styles of music such as surf to include vocal jazz harmony, which created their unique sound.", "In addition, they introduced their signature approach to common genres such as the pop ballad by applying harmonic or formal twists not native to rock and roll.", "Among the distinct elements of the Beach Boys' style were the nasal quality of their singing voices, their use of a falsetto harmony over a driving, locomotive-like melody, and the sudden chiming in of the whole group on a key line.", "Brian Wilson handled most stages of the group's recording process from the beginning, even though he was not properly credited on most of the early recordings.A Rickenbacker 360/12 identical to the 12-string guitar used by Carl Wilson in the early to mid-1960sEarly on, Mike Love sang lead vocals in the rock-oriented songs, while Carl contributed guitar lines on the group's ballads.", "Jim Miller commented: \"On straight rockers they sang tight harmonies behind Love's lead ... on ballads, Brian played his falsetto off against lush, jazz-tinged voicings, often using (for rock) unorthodox harmonic structures.\"", "Harrison adds that \"even the least distinguished of the Beach Boys' early uptempo rock 'n' roll songs show traces of structural complexity at some level; Brian was simply too curious and experimental to leave convention alone.\"", "Although Brian was often dubbed a perfectionist, he was an inexperienced musician, and his understanding of music was mostly self-taught.", "At the lyric stage, he usually worked with Love, whose assertive persona provided youthful swagger that contrasted Brian's explorations in romanticism and sensitivity.", "Luis Sanchez noted a pattern where Brian would spare surfing imagery when working with collaborators outside of his band's circle, in the examples \"Lonely Sea\" and \"In My Room\".Brian's bandmates resented the notion that he was the sole creative force in the group.", "In a 1966 article that asked if \"the Beach Boys rely too much on sound genius Brian\", Carl said that although Brian was the most responsible for their music, every member of the group contributed ideas.", "Mike Love wrote, \"As far as I was concerned, Brian ''was'' a genius, deserving of that recognition.", "But the rest of us were seen as nameless components in Brian's music machine ...", "It didn't feel to us as if we were just riding on Brian's coattails.\"", "Conversely, Dennis defended Brian's stature in the band, stating: \"Brian Wilson ''is'' the Beach Boys.", "He is the band.", "We're his fucking messengers.", "He is all of it.", "Period.", "We're nothing.", "He's everything.", "\"===Influences===The band's earliest influences came primarily from the work of Chuck Berry and the Four Freshmen.", "Performed by the Four Freshmen, \"Their Hearts Were Full of Spring\" (1961) was a particular favorite of the group.", "By analyzing their arrangements of pop standards, Brian educated himself on jazz harmony.", "Bearing this in mind, Philip Lambert noted, \"If Bob Flanigan helped teach Brian how to sing, then Gershwin, Kern, Porter, and the other members of this pantheon helped him learn how to craft a song.\"", "Other general influences on the group included the Hi-Los, the Penguins, the Robins, Bill Haley & His Comets, Otis Williams, the Cadets, the Everly Brothers, the Shirelles, the Regents, and the Crystals.The eclectic mix of white and black vocal group influences – ranging from the rock and roll of Berry, the jazz harmonies of the Four Freshmen, the pop of the Four Preps, the folk of the Kingston Trio, the R&B of groups like the Coasters and the Five Satins, and the doo wop of Dion and the Belmonts – helped contribute to the Beach Boys' uniqueness in American popular music.", "Carl remembered that Love was \"really immersed in doo-wop\" and likely \"influenced Brian to listen to it\", adding that the \"black artists were so much better in terms of rock records in those days that the white records almost sounded like put-ons.", "\"Another significant influence on Brian's work was Burt Bacharach.", "He said in the 1960s: \"Burt Bacharach and Hal David are more like me.", "They're also the best pop team – per se – today.", "As a producer, Bacharach has a very fresh, new approach.\"", "Regarding surf rock pioneer Dick Dale, Brian said that his influence on the group was limited to Carl and his style of guitar playing.", "Carl credited Chuck Berry, the Ventures, and John Walker with shaping his guitar style, and that the Beach Boys had learned to play all of the Ventures' songs by ear early in their career.In 1967, Lou Reed wrote in ''Aspen'' that the Beach Boys created a \"hybrid sound\" out of old rock and the Four Freshmen, explaining that such songs as \"Let Him Run Wild\", \"Don't Worry Baby\", \"I Get Around\", and \"Fun, Fun, Fun\" were not unlike \"Peppermint Stick\" by the Elchords.", "Similarly, John Sebastian of the Lovin' Spoonful noted, \"Brian had control of this vocal palette of which we had no idea.", "We had never paid attention to the Four Freshmen or doo-wop combos like the Crew Cuts.", "Look what gold he mined out of that.", "\"===Vocals===Brian identified each member individually for their vocal range, once detailing the ranges for Carl, Dennis, Jardine (\"they progress upwards through G, A, and B\"), Love (\"can go from bass to the E above middle C\"), and himself (\"I can take the second D in the treble clef\").", "He declared in 1966 that his greatest interest was to expand modern vocal harmony, owing to his fascination with a voice to the Four Freshmen, which he considered a \"groovy sectional sound.\"", "He added, \"The harmonies that we are able to produce give us a uniqueness which is really the only important thing you can put into records – some quality that no one else has got.", "I love peaks in a song – and enhancing them on the control panel.", "Most of all, I love the human voice for its own sake.\"", "For a period, Brian avoided singing falsetto for the group, saying, \"I thought people thought I was a fairy...the band told me, 'If that's the way you sing, don't worry about it.", "'\"In the group's early recordings, from lowest intervals to highest, the group's vocal harmony stack usually began with Love or Dennis, followed by Jardine or Carl, and finally Brian on top, according to Jardine, while Carl said that the blend was Love on bottom, Carl above, followed by Dennis or Jardine, and then Brian on top.", "Jardine explains, \"We always sang the same vocal intervals.", "... As soon as we heard the chords on the piano we'd figure it out pretty easily.", "If there was a vocal move Brian envisioned, he'd show that particular singer that move.", "We had somewhat photographic memory as far as the vocal parts were concerned so that was never a problem for us.\"", "Striving for perfection, Brian insured that his intricate vocal arrangements exercised the group's calculated blend of intonation, attack, phrasing, and expression.", "Sometimes, he would sing each vocal harmony part alone through multi-track tape.On the group's blend, Carl said: \"Love has a beautifully rich, very full-sounding bass voice.", "Yet his lead singing is real nasal, real punk.", "Jardine's voice has a bright timbre to it; it really cuts.", "My voice has a kind of calm sound.", "We're big oooh-ers; we love to oooh.", "It's a big, full sound, that's very pleasing to us; it opens up the heart.\"", "Rock critic Erik Davis wrote, \"The 'purity' of tone and genetic proximity that smoothed their voices was almost creepy, pseudo-castrato, and a 'barbershop' sound.\"", "Jimmy Webb said, \"They used very little vibrato and sing in very straight tones.", "The voices all lie down beside each other very easily – there's no bumping between them because the pitch is very precise.\"", "According to Brian: \"Jack Good once told us, 'You sing like eunuchs in a Sistine Chapel,' which was a pretty good quote.\"", "Writer Richard Goldstein reported that, according to a fellow journalist who asked Brian about the black roots of his music, Brian's response was: \"We're white and we sing white.\"", "Goldstein added that when he asked where his approach to vocal harmonies had derived from, Wilson answered: 'Barbershop'.", "\"===Use of studio musicians===The Beach Boys performing in 1964Biographer James Murphy said, \"By most contemporary accounts, they were not a very good live band when they started.", "...", "The Beach Boys learned to play as a band in front of live audiences\", eventually to become \"one of the best and enduring live bands\".", "With only a few exceptions, the Beach Boys played every instrument heard on their first four albums and first five singles.", "It is the belief of Richie Unterberger that, \"Before session musicians took over most of the parts, the Beach Boys could play respectably gutsy surf rock as a self-contained unit.", "\"As Wilson's arrangements increased in complexity, he began employing a group of professional studio musicians, later known as \"the Wrecking Crew\", to assist with recording the instrumentation on select tracks.", "According to some reports, these musicians then completely replaced the Beach Boys on the backing tracks to their records.", "Much of the relevant documentation, while accounting for the attendance of unionized session players, had failed to record the presence of the Beach Boys themselves.", "These documents, along with the full unedited studio session tapes, were not available for public scrutiny until the 1990s.Wilson started occasionally employing members of the Wrecking Crew for certain Beach Boys tracks during the 1963 ''Surfer Girl'' sessions – specifically, on two songs, \"Hawaii\" and \"Our Car Club\".", "The 1964 albums ''Shut Down Volume 2'' and ''All Summer Long'' featured the Beach Boys themselves playing the vast majority of the instruments while occasionally being augmented by outside musicians.", "It is commonly misreported that Dennis in particular was replaced by Hal Blaine on drums.", "Dennis's drumming is documented on a number of the group's singles, including 1964's \"I Get Around\", \"Fun, Fun, Fun\", and \"Don't Worry Baby\".", "Starting with the 1965 albums ''Today!''", "and ''Summer Days'', Brian used the Wrecking Crew with greater frequency, \"but still\", Stebbins writes, \"the Beach Boys continued to play the instruments on many of the key tracks and single releases.", "\"Overall, the Beach Boys played the instruments on the majority of their recordings from the decade, with 1966 and 1967 being the only years when Wilson used the Wrecking Crew almost exclusively.", "''Pet Sounds'' and ''Smile'' are their only albums in which the backing tracks were largely played by studio musicians.", "After 1967, the band's use of studio musicians was considerably reduced.", "Wrecking Crew biographer Kent Hartman supported in his 2012 book about the musicians, \"Though Brian Wilson had for several months brought in various session players on a sporadic, potluck basis to supplement things, the other Beach Boys generally played on the earliest songs, too.", "\"The source of the longstanding controversy regarding the Beach Boys' use of studio musicians largely derives from a misinterpreted statement in David Leaf's 1978 biography ''The Beach Boys and the California Myth'', later bolstered by erroneous recollections from participants of the recording sessions.", "Starting in the 1990s, unedited studio session tapes, along with American Federation of Musicians (AFM) sheets and tape logs, were leaked to the public.", "Music historian Craig Slowinski, who contributes musician credits to the liner notes of the band's reissues and compilations, wrote in 2006: \"Once the vaults were opened up and the tapes were studied, the true situation became clear: the Boys themselves played ''most'' of the instruments on their records until the ''Beach Boys Today!''", "album in early 1965.\"", "Slowinski goes on to note, \"when painting a picture of a Beach Boys recording session, it's important to examine ''both'' the AFM contracts and the session tapes, either of which may be incomplete on their own.", "\"During the period when Brian relied heavily on studio musicians, Carl was an exception among the Beach Boys in that he played alongside the studio musicians whenever he was available to attend sessions.", "In Slowinski's view, \"One should not sell short Carl's own contributions; the youngest Wilson had developed as a musician sufficiently to play alongside the horde of high-dollar session pros that big brother was now bringing into the studio.", "Carl's guitar playing was a key ingredient.", "\"===Spirituality===The band members often reflected on the spiritual nature of their music (and music in general), particularly for the recording of ''Pet Sounds'' and ''Smile''.", "Even though the Wilsons did not grow up in a particularly religious household, Carl was described as \"the most truly religious person I know\" by Brian, and Carl was forthcoming about the group's spiritual beliefs stating: \"We believe in God as a kind of universal consciousness.", "God is love.", "God is you.", "God is me.", "God is everything right here in this room.", "It's a spiritual concept which inspires a great deal of our music.\"", "Carl told ''Rave'' magazine in 1967 that the group's influences are of a \"religious nature\", but not any religion in specific, only \"an idea based upon that of Universal Consciousness.", "...", "The spiritual concept of happiness and doing good to others is extremely important to the lyric of our songs, and the religious element of some of the better church music is also contained within some of our new work.", "\"Brian is quoted during the ''Smile'' era: \"I'm very religious.", "Not in the sense of churches, going to church; but like the essence of ''all'' religion.\"", "During the recording of ''Pet Sounds'', Brian held prayer meetings, later reflecting that \"God was with us the whole time we were doing this record ...", "I could feel that feeling in my brain.\"", "In 1966, he explained that he wanted to move into a white spiritual sound, and predicted that the rest of the music industry would follow suit.", "In 2011, Brian maintained the spirituality was important to his music, and that he did not follow any particular religion.Carl said that ''Smile'' was chosen as an album title because of its connection to the group's spiritual beliefs.", "Brian referred to ''Smile'' as his \"teenage symphony to God\", composing a hymn, \"Our Prayer\", as the album's opening spiritual invocation.", "Experimentation with psychotropic substances also proved pivotal to the group's development as artists.", "He spoke of his LSD trips as a \"religious experience\", and during a session for \"Our Prayer\", Brian can be heard asking the other Beach Boys: \"Do you guys feel any acid yet?\".", "In 1968, the group's interest in transcendental meditation led them to record the original song, \"Transcendental Meditation\"." ], [ "Legacy and cultural influence", "===Achievements and accolades===The Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed, commercially successful, and influential bands of all time.", "They have sold over 100 million records worldwide.", "The group's early songs made them major pop stars in the US, the UK, Australia and other countries, having seven top 10 singles between April 1963 and November 1964.They were one of the first American groups to exhibit the definitive traits of a self-contained rock band, playing their own instruments and writing their own songs, and they were one of the few American bands formed prior to the 1964 British Invasion to continue their success.", "Among artists of the 1960s, they are one of the central figures in the histories of rock.", "Between the 1960s and 2020s, they had 37 songs reach the US Top 40 (the most by an American group) with four topping the ''Billboard'' Hot 100; they also hold Nielsen SoundScan's record as the top-selling American band for albums and singles.Brian Wilson's artistic control over the Beach Boys' records was unprecedented for the time.", "Carl Wilson elaborated: \"Record companies were used to having absolute control over their artists.", "It was especially nervy, because Brian was a 21-year-old kid with just two albums.", "It was unheard of.", "But what could they say?", "Brian made good records.\"", "This made the Beach Boys one of the first rock groups to exert studio control.", "Music producers after the mid-1960s would draw on Brian's influence, setting a precedent that allowed bands and artists to enter a recording studio and act as producers, either autonomously, or in conjunction with other like minds.A manuscript of \"God Only Knows\" displayed in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in ClevelandIn 1988, the original five members (the Wilson brothers, Love, and Jardine) were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "Ten years later, they were selected for the Vocal Group Hall of Fame.", "In 2004, ''Pet Sounds'' was preserved in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being \"culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant.\"", "Their recordings of \"In My Room\", \"Good Vibrations\", \"California Girls\" and the entire ''Pet Sounds'' album have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.The Beach Boys are one of the most influential acts of the rock era.", "In 2017, a study of AllMusic's catalog indicated the Beach Boys as the 6th most frequently cited artist influence in its database.", "In 2021, the staff of ''Ultimate Classic Rock'' ranked the Beach Boys as the top American band of all time; the publication's editor wrote in the group's entry that \"few bands ... have had a greater impact on popular music.", "\"===California sound===The Beach Boys appearing in a 1963 ''Billboard'' advertisementProfessor of cultural studies James M. Curtis wrote in 1987, \"We can say that the Beach Boys represent the outlook and values of white Protestant Anglo-Saxon teenagers in the early sixties.", "Having said that, we immediately realize that they must mean much more than this.", "Their stability, their staying power, and their ability to attract new fans prove as much.\"", "Cultural historian Kevin Starr explains that the group first connected with young Americans specifically for their lyrical interpretation of a mythologized landscape: \"Cars and the beach, surfing, the California Girl, all this fused in the alembic of youth: Here was a way of life, an iconography, already half-released into the chords and multiple tracks of a new sound.\"", "in Robert Christgau's opinion, \"the Beach Boys were a touchstone for real rock and rollers, all of whom understood that the music had its most essential roots in an innocently hedonistic materialism.", "\"The group's \"California sound\" grew to national prominence through the success of their 1963 album ''Surfin' U.S.A.'', which helped turn the surfing subculture into a mainstream youth-targeted advertising image widely exploited by the film, television, and food industry.", "The group's surf music was not entirely of their own invention, being preceded by artists such as Dick Dale.", "However, previous surf musicians did not project a world view as the Beach Boys did.", "The band's earlier surf music helped raise the profile of the state of California, creating its first major regional style with national significance, and establishing a musical identity for Southern California, as opposed to Hollywood.", "California ultimately supplanted New York as the center of popular music thanks to the success of Brian's productions.1932 Ford that appeared on the cover to the platinum certified album ''Little Deuce Coupe''A 1966 article discussing new trends in rock music writes that the Beach Boys popularized a type of drum beat heard in Jan and Dean's \"Surf City\", which sounds like \"a locomotive getting up speed\", in addition to the method of \"suddenly stopping in between the chorus and verse\".", "Pete Townshend of the Who is credited with coining the term \"power pop\", which he defined as \"what we play—what the Small Faces used to play, and the kind of pop the Beach Boys played in the days of 'Fun, Fun, Fun' which I preferred.", "\"The California sound gradually evolved to reflect a more musically ambitious and mature world view, becoming less to do with surfing and cars and more about social consciousness and political awareness.", "Between 1964 and 1969, it fueled innovation and transition, inspiring artists to tackle largely unmentioned themes such as sexual freedom, black pride, drugs, oppositional politics, other countercultural motifs, and war.", "Soft pop (later known as \"sunshine pop\") derived in part from this movement.", "Sunshine pop producers widely imitated the orchestral style of ''Pet Sounds''; however, the Beach Boys themselves were rarely representative of the genre, which was rooted in easy-listening and advertising jingles.By the end of the 1960s, the California sound declined due to a combination of the West Coast's cultural shifts, Wilson's professional and psychological downturn, and the Manson murders, with David Howard calling it the \"sunset of the original California Sunshine Sound ... the sweetness advocated by the California Myth had led to chilling darkness and unsightly rot\".", "Drawing from the Beach Boys' associations with Manson and former California governor Ronald Reagan, Erik Davis remarked, \"The Beach Boys may be the only bridge between those deranged poles.", "There is a wider range of political and aesthetic sentiments in their records than in any other band in those heady times—like the state of California, they expand and bloat and contradict themselves.", "\"During the 1970s, advertising jingles and imagery were predominately based on the Beach Boys' early music and image.", "The group also inspired the development of the West Coast style later dubbed \"yacht rock\".", "According to ''Jacobin''s Dan O'Sullivan, the band's aesthetic was the first to be \"scavenged\" by yacht rock acts like Rupert Holmes.", "O'Sullivan also cites the Beach Boys' recording of \"Sloop John B\" as the origin of yacht rock's preoccupation with the \"sailors and beachgoers\" aesthetic that was \"lifted by everyone, from Christopher Cross to Eric Carmen, from 'Buffalo Springfield' folksters like Jim Messina to 'Philly Sound' rockers like Hall & Oates.", "\"===Innovations===''Pet Sounds'' came to inform the developments of genres such as pop, rock, jazz, electronic, experimental, punk, and hip hop.", "Similar to subsequent experimental rock LPs by Frank Zappa, the Beatles, and the Who, ''Pet Sounds'' featured countertextural aspects that called attention to the very recordedness of the album.", "Professor of American history John Robert Greene stated that the album broke new ground and took rock music away from its casual lyrics and melodic structures into what was then uncharted territory.", "He furthermore called it one factor which spawned the majority of trends in post-1965 rock music, the only others being ''Rubber Soul'', the Beatles' ''Revolver'', and the contemporary folk movement.", "The album was the first piece in popular music to incorporate the Electro-Theremin, an easier-to-play version of the theremin, as well as the first in rock music to feature a theremin-like instrument.", "With ''Pet Sounds'', they were also the first group to make an entire album that departed from the usual small-ensemble electric rock band format.According to David Leaf in 1978, ''Pet Sounds'' and \"Good Vibrations\" \"established the group as the leaders of a new type of pop music, Art Rock.\"", "Academic Bill Martin states that the band opened a path in rock music \"that went from ''Sgt.", "Pepper's'' to ''Close to the Edge'' and beyond\".", "He argues that the advancing technology of multitrack recording and mixing boards were more influential to experimental rock than electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, allowing the Beatles and the Beach Boys to become the first crop of non-classically trained musicians to create extended and complex compositions.", "In ''Strange Sounds: Offbeat Instruments and Sonic Experiments in Pop'', Mark Brend writes:The making of \"Good Vibrations\", according to Domenic Priore, was \"unlike anything previous in the realms of classical, jazz, international, soundtrack, or any other kind of recording\", while biographer Peter Ames Carlin wrote that it \"sounded like nothing that had ever been played on the radio before.\"", "It contained previously untried mixes of instruments, and was the first successful pop song to have cellos in a juddering rhythm.", "Musicologist Charlie Gillett called it \"one of the first records to flaunt studio production as a quality in its own right, rather than as a means of presenting a performance\".", "Again, Brian employed the use of Electro-Theremin for the track.", "Upon release, the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins while increasing awareness of analog synthesizers, leading Moog Music to produce their own brand of ribbon-controlled instruments.", "In a 1968 editorial for ''Jazz & Pop'', Gene Sculatti predicted that the song \"may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance ...", "In no minor way, 'Good Vibrations' is a primary influential piece for all producing rock artists; everyone has felt its import to some degree\".Discussing ''Smiley Smile'', Daniel Harrison argues that the album could \"almost\" be considered art music in the Western classical tradition, and that the group's innovations in the musical language of rock can be compared to those that introduced atonal and other nontraditional techniques into that classical tradition.", "He explains, \"The spirit of experimentation is just as palpable ... as it is in, say, Schoenberg's op.", "11 piano pieces.\"", "However, such notions were not widely acknowledged by rock audiences nor by the classically minded at the time.", "Harrison concludes: \"What influences could these innovations then have?", "The short answer is, not much.", "''Smiley Smile'', ''Wild Honey'', ''Friends'', and ''20/20'' sound like few other rock albums; they are ''sui generis''.", "...", "It must be remembered that the commercial failure of the Beach Boys' experiments was hardly motivation for imitation.\"", "Musicologist David Toop, who included the ''Smiley Smile'' track \"Fall Breaks and Back to Winter\" on a companion CD for his book ''Ocean of Sound'', placed the Beach Boys' effect on sound pioneering in league with Les Baxter, Aphex Twin, Herbie Hancock, King Tubby, and My Bloody Valentine.", "''Sunflower'' marked an end to the experimental songwriting and production phase initiated by ''Smiley Smile''.", "After ''Surf's Up'', Harrison wrote, their albums \"contain a mixture of middle-of-the-road music entirely consonant with pop style during the early 1970s with a few oddities that proved that the desire to push beyond conventional boundaries was not dead,\" until 1974, \"the year in which the Beach Boys ceased to be a rock 'n' roll act and became an oldies act.", "\"===Punk, alternative, and indie===In the 1970s, the Beach Boys served a \"totemic influence\" on punk rock that later gave way to indie rock.", "Brad Shoup of Stereogum surmised that, thanks to the Ramones' praise for the group, many punk, pop punk, or \"punk-adjacent\" artists showed influence from the Beach Boys, noting cover versions of the band's songs recorded by Slickee Boys, Agent Orange, Bad Religion, Shonen Knife, the Queers, Hi-Standard, the Descendents, the Donnas, M.O.D., and the Vandals.", "''The Beach Boys Love You'' is sometimes considered the group's \"punk album\", and ''Pet Sounds'' is sometimes advanced as the first emo album.In the 1990s, the Beach Boys experienced a resurgence of popularity with the alternative rock generation.", "According to Sean O'Hagan, leader of the High Llamas and former member of Stereolab, a younger generation of record-buyers \"stopped listening to indie records\" in favor of the Beach Boys.", "Bands who advocated for the Beach Boys included founding members of the Elephant 6 Collective (Neutral Milk Hotel, the Olivia Tremor Control, the Apples in Stereo, and of Montreal).", "United by a shared love of the group's music, they named Pet Sounds Studio in honor of the band.", "''Rolling Stone'' writer Barry Walters wrote in 2000 that albums such as ''Surf's Up'' and ''Love You'' \"are becoming sonic blueprints, akin to what early Velvet Underground LPs meant to the previous indie peer group.\"", "The High Llamas, Eric Matthews and Saint Etienne are among the \"alt heroes\" who contributed cover versions of \"unreleased, overlooked or underappreciated Wilson/Beach Boys obscurities\" on the tribute album ''Caroline Now!''", "(2000).The Beach Boys remained among the most significant influences on indie rock into the late 2000s.", "''Smile'' became a touchstone for many bands who were labelled \"chamber pop\", a term used for artists influenced by the lush orchestrations of Brian Wilson, Lee Hazlewood, and Burt Bacharach.", "''Pitchfork'' writer Mark Richardson cited ''Smiley Smile'' as the origin point of \"the kind of lo-fi bedroom pop that would later propel Sebadoh, Animal Collective, and other characters.\"", "The ''Sunflower'' track \"All I Wanna Do\" is also cited as one of the earliest precursors to chillwave, a microgenre that emerged in 2009." ], [ "Landmarks", " The Beach Boys' star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 1500 Vine Street* The Wilsons' California house, where the Wilson brothers grew up and the group began, was demolished in 1986 to make way for Interstate 105, the Century Freeway.", "A Beach Boys Historic Landmark (California Landmark No.", "1041 at 3701 West 119th Street), dedicated on May 20, 2005, marks the location.", "* On December 30, 1980, the Beach Boys were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 1500 Vine Street.", "* On September 2, 1977, the group performed before an audience of 40,000 at Narragansett Park in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, which remains the largest concert audience in Rhode Island history.", "In 2017, the street where the concert stage formerly stood was officially renamed to \"Beach Boys Way\".", "* On September 21, 2017, The Beach Boys were honored by Roger Williams University and plaques were unveiled to commemorate the band's concert on September 22, 1971, at the Baypoint Inn & Conference Center in Portsmouth, Rhode Island.", "The concert was the first-ever appearance of South African Ricky Fataar as an official member of the band and Filipino Billy Hinsche as a touring member, essentially changing the Beach Boys' live and recording act's line-up into a multi-cultural group.", "Diversity is a credo of Roger Williams University, which is why they chose to celebrate this moment in the band's history." ], [ "Members", "'''Current members'''*Brian Wilson – lead vocals, harmony and backing vocals, keyboards, bass *Mike Love – lead vocals, harmony and backing vocals, percussion, saxophone, electro-Theremin *Al Jardine – harmony and backing vocals, lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass *Bruce Johnston – harmony and backing vocals, occasional lead vocals, keyboards, bass '''Former members'''*Carl Wilson – lead vocals, harmony and backing vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, bass, keyboards *Dennis Wilson – harmony and backing vocals, lead vocals, drums, percussion, keyboards *David Marks – harmony and backing vocals, occasional lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars *Blondie Chaplin – harmony and backing vocals, occasional lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, slide guitar, bass *Ricky Fataar – harmony and backing vocals, occasional lead vocals, drums, percussion, rhythm guitar, pedal steel guitar, flute ===Timeline===Notable supporting musicians for both the Beach Boys' live performances and studio recordings included guitarist and session musician Glen Campbell, keyboardists Daryl Dragon and Toni Tennille (Captain & Tennille), keyboardist Billy Hinsche, guitarist Jeffrey Foskett, drummer John Cowsill, actor, drummer and guitarist John Stamos, and saxophonist Charles Lloyd." ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===* ''Surfin' Safari'' (1962)* ''Surfin' U.S.A.'' (1963)* ''Surfer Girl'' (1963)* ''Little Deuce Coupe'' (1963)* ''Shut Down Volume 2'' (1964)* ''All Summer Long'' (1964)* ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'' (1964)* ''The Beach Boys Today!''", "(1965)* ''Summer Days (And Summer Nights)'' (1965)* ''Beach Boys' Party!''", "(1965)* ''Pet Sounds'' (1966)* ''Smiley Smile'' (1967)* ''Wild Honey'' (1967)* ''Friends'' (1968)* ''20/20'' (1969)* ''Sunflower'' (1970)* ''Surf's Up'' (1971)* ''Carl and the Passions – \"So Tough\"'' (1972)* ''Holland'' (1973)* ''15 Big Ones'' (1976)* ''The Beach Boys Love You'' (1977)* ''M.I.U.", "Album'' (1978)* ''L.A.", "(Light Album)'' (1979)* ''Keepin' the Summer Alive'' (1980)* ''The Beach Boys'' (1985)* ''Still Cruisin''' (1989)* ''Summer in Paradise'' (1992)* ''Stars and Stripes Vol.", "1'' (1996)* ''That's Why God Made the Radio'' (2012)===Selected archival releases===* ''The Pet Sounds Sessions'' (1997)* ''Endless Harmony Soundtrack'' (1998)* ''Ultimate Christmas'' (1998)* ''Hawthorne, CA'' (2001)* ''The Smile Sessions'' (2011)* ''The Big Beat 1963'' (2013)* ''Keep an Eye on Summer 1964'' (2014)* ''Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions'' (2015)* ''Beach Boys' Party!", "Uncovered and Unplugged'' (2015)* ''1967 – Sunshine Tomorrow'' (2017)* ''Wake the World: The Friends Sessions'' (2018)* ''I Can Hear Music: The 20/20 Sessions'' (2018)* ''Feel Flows: The Sunflower & Surf's Up Sessions 1969–1971'' (2021)* ''Sail On Sailor – 1972'' (2022)" ], [ "Selected filmography", "* 1965: ''The Girls on the Beach''* 1965: ''The Monkey's Uncle'' * 1976: ''The Beach Boys: Good Vibrations Tour''* 1985: ''The Beach Boys: An American Band''* 1996: ''The Beach Boys: Nashville Sounds''* 1998: ''Endless Harmony: The Beach Boys Story''* 2002: ''Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980''* 2003: ''The Beach Boys: The Lost Concert 1964''* 2006: ''The Beach Boys: In London 1966''* 2012: ''The Beach Boys: Chronicles''* 2012: ''The 50th Reunion Tour''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "'''Articles'''* * '''Books'''* * Berry, Torrence (2013).", "Beach Boys Archives, Volume 2.White Lightning Publishing.", ".", "* Berry, Torrence (2014).", "Beach Boys Archives, Volume 5.White Lightning Publishing.", ".", "* Berry, Torrence (2015).", "Beach Boys Archives, Volume 7.White Lightning Publishing.", ".", "* Berry, Torrence and Zenker, Gary (2013).", "Beach Boys Archives, Volume 1.White Lightning Publishing.", ".", "* Berry, Torrence and Zenker, Gary (2014).", "Beach Boys Archives, Volume 3.White Lightning Publishing.", ".", "* Berry, Torrence and Zenker, Gary (2014).", "Beach Boys Archives, Volume 4.White Lightning Publishing.", ".", "* Cox, Perry D. (2017).", "Price and Reference Guide for the Beach Boys American Records (By Perry Cox, Frank Daniels & Mark Galloway.", "Foreword by Jeffrey Foskett).", "Perry Cox Ent.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "BCE (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BCE''' is an abbreviation meaning Before Common Era, an alternative to the use of BC.", "'''BCE''', '''B.C.E.'''", "or '''bce''' may also refer to:* Bachelor of Civil Engineering* Banco Central del Ecuador* Basic Chess Endings, a book by Reuben Fine* BCE Inc., formerly Bell Canada Enterprises* BCE Place, Toronto, Canada, later Brookfield Place* Bracknell railway station, Berkshire, UK, code* Bhagalpur College of Engineering* Entity-control-boundary, an architectural pattern used in software design* \"Before Christian Era\", also known as Before Christ (BC)" ], [ "See also", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "BC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BC''' most often refers to:* Before Christ, a calendar era based on the traditionally reckoned year of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth* British Columbia, the westernmost province of Canada* Baja California, a state of Mexico'''BC''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* \"B.C.", "\", a song by Sparks from the 1974 album ''Propaganda''* ''B.C.''", "(comic strip) by Johnny Hart, and one of its characters* ''BC'' (video game) by Lionhead Studios* ''BC The Archaeology of the Bible Lands'', a BBC television series* Bullet Club, a professional wrestling stable" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "* Basilian Chouerite Order of Saint John the Baptist, an order of the Greek Catholic Church* BC Card, a Korean credit card company* Bella Center, a conference center in Copenhagen, Denmark* Brasseries du Cameroun, a brewery in Cameroon (also known as ''SABC'')* Brunswick Corporation (NYSE ticker symbol BC)" ], [ "Education", "=== United States ===* Bakersfield College, a college in Bakersfield, California* Bellevue College, a college in Bellevue, Washington* Benedictine College, a college in Atchison, Kansas* Benedictine Military School, a high school in Savannah, Georgia* Bergen Catholic High School, a high school in Oradell, New Jersey* Boston College, a university in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts** Boston College Eagles, its athletic teams* Brazosport College, a college in Lake Jackson, Texas* Broward College, a college in Fort Lauderdale, Florida=== Worldwide ===* ''Baccalaureus'' or bc, a Bachelor's degree in the Netherlands* Baghdad College, a high school in Baghdad, Iraq* British Council" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Backcrossing, a crossing of a hybrid with one of its parents, or a genetically similar individual* Backward compatibility, the ability of new software to work similarly to its predecessor* Ballistic coefficient, a measure of air drag on a projectile* Base curve radius, a parameter of a contact lens* Battle command, a military discipline* Bayonet cap, a standard light bulb connection* bc (programming language), an arbitrary-precision calculator language* Black carbon, a carbonaceous component of soot* Bliss bibliographic classification, a library cataloguing system* × ''Brassocattleya'' or ''Bc.", "'', an orchid genus* Buoyancy compensator (diving), a piece of scuba diving equipment" ], [ "Transportation", "* NZR BC class, a type of steam locomotive* Skymark Airlines (IATA airline code BC)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Bullcrap, a phrase denoting something worthless* \"B.C.", "\", nickname of Burr Chamberlain (1877–1933), American football player and coach* Baguio, a city in the Philippines, locally abbreviated as \"B.C.", "\"* BC Powder, a brand of pain reliever* BookCrossing, a website that encourages leaving books in public places to be found by others* Botswana, WMO country code (and obsolete NATO and FIPS country codes)" ], [ "See also", "* BC Cygni, a red supergiant star that is one of the largest stars* Belaruskaja Čyhunka (BCh), the national railway company of Belarus* Blind carbon copy (Bcc:), the practice of sending an e-mail to multiple recipients without disclosing the complete list of recipients" ] ]

[ [ "Beatrix Potter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helen Beatrix Potter''' (, 28 July 186622 December 1943) was an English writer, illustrator, natural scientist, and conservationist.", "She is best known for her children's books featuring animals, such as ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'', which was her first commercially published work in 1902.Her books, including 23 Tales, have sold more than 250 million copies.", "An entrepreneur, Potter was a pioneer of character merchandising.", "In 1903, Peter Rabbit was the first fictional character to be made into a patented stuffed toy, making him the oldest licensed character.Born into an upper-middle-class household, Potter was educated by governesses and grew up isolated from other children.", "She had numerous pets and spent holidays in Scotland and the Lake District, developing a love of landscape, flora and fauna, all of which she closely observed and painted.", "Potter's study and watercolours of fungi led to her being widely respected in the field of mycology.", "In her thirties, Potter self-published the highly successful children's book ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit''.", "Following this, Potter began writing and illustrating children's books full-time.Potter wrote over sixty books, with the best known being her twenty-three children's tales.", "With the proceeds from the books and a legacy from an aunt, in 1905 Potter bought Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, a village in the Lake District.", "Over the following decades, she purchased additional farms to preserve the unique hill country landscape.", "In 1913, at the age of 47, she married William Heelis, a respected local solicitor with an office in Hawkshead.", "Potter was also a prize-winning breeder of Herdwick sheep and a prosperous farmer keenly interested in land preservation.", "She continued to write and illustrate, and to design spin-off merchandise based on her children's books for British publisher Warne until the duties of land management and her diminishing eyesight made it difficult to continue.Potter died of pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at her home in Near Sawrey at the age of 77, leaving almost all her property to the National Trust.", "She is credited with preserving much of the land that now constitutes the Lake District National Park.", "Potter's books continue to sell throughout the world in many languages with her stories being retold in songs, films, ballet, and animations, and her life is depicted in two films and a television series." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life ===Potter aged eight, Potter's family on both sides were from the Manchester area.", "They were English Unitarians, associated with dissenting Protestant congregations, influential in 19th century Britain, that affirmed the oneness of God and that rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.", "Potter's paternal grandfather, Edmund Potter, from Glossop in Derbyshire, owned what was then the largest calico printing works in England, and later served as a Member of Parliament.Potter's father, Rupert William Potter (1832–1914), was educated at Manchester College by the Unitarian philosopher James Martineau.", "He then trained as a barrister in London.", "Rupert practised law, specialising in equity law and conveyancing.", "He married Helen Leech (1839–1932) on 8 August 1863 at Hyde Unitarian Chapel, Gee Cross.", "Helen was the daughter of Jane Ashton (1806–1884) and John Leech, a wealthy cotton merchant and shipbuilder from Stalybridge.", "Helen's first cousins were siblings Harriet Lupton (''née'' Ashton) and Thomas Ashton, 1st Baron Ashton of Hyde.", "It was reported in July 2014 that Potter had personally given a number of her own original hand-painted illustrations to the two daughters of Arthur and Harriet Lupton, who were cousins to both Beatrix Potter and Catherine, Princess of Wales.springer spaniel, SpotPotter's parents lived comfortably at 2 Bolton Gardens, West Brompton, London, where Helen Beatrix was born on 28 July 1866 and her brother Walter Bertram on 14 March 1872.The house was destroyed in the Blitz.", "Bousfield Primary School now stands where the house once was.", "A blue plaque on the school building testifies to the former site of the Potter home.", "Both parents were artistically talented, and Rupert was an adept amateur photographer.", "Rupert had invested in the stock market, and by the early 1890s, he was extremely wealthy.Beatrix Potter was educated by three governesses, the last of whom was Annie Moore (''née'' Carter), just three years older than Potter, who tutored Potter in German as well as acting as lady's companion.", "She and Potter remained friends throughout their lives, and Annie's eight children were the recipients of many of Potter's picture letters.", "It was Annie who later suggested that these letters might make good children's books.Potter, aged 16, stayed at Wray Castle in 1882 on a family vacation, thus began her long association with the English Lake DistrictShe and her younger brother Walter Bertram (1872–1918) grew up with few friends outside their large extended family.", "Her parents were artistic, interested in nature, and enjoyed the countryside.", "As children, Potter and Bertram had numerous small animals as pets which they observed closely and drew endlessly.", "In their schoolroom, Potter and Bertram kept a variety of small pets—mice, rabbits, a hedgehog and some bats, along with collections of butterflies and other insects—which they drew and studied.", "Potter was devoted to the care of her small animals, often taking them with her on long holidays.", "In most of the first fifteen years of her life, Potter spent summer holidays at Dalguise, an estate on the River Tay in Perthshire, Scotland.", "There she sketched and explored an area that nourished her imagination and her observation.", "Her first sketchbook from those holidays, kept at age 8, and dated 1875, is held at and has been digitised by the Victoria & Albert Museum, London.", "Potter and her brother were allowed great freedom in the country, and both children became adept students of natural history.", "In 1882, when Dalguise was no longer available, the Potters took their first summer holiday in the Lake District, at Wray Castle near Lake Windermere.", "Here Potter met Hardwicke Rawnsley, vicar of Wray and later the founding secretary of the National Trust, whose interest in the countryside and country life inspired the same in Potter and who was to have a lasting impact on her life.At about the age of 14, Potter began to keep a diary, written in a simple substitution cipher of her own devising.", "Her ''Journal'' was important to the development of her creativity, serving as both sketchbook and literary experiment.", "In tiny handwriting, she reported on society, recorded her impressions of art and artists, recounted stories and observed life around her.", "The ''Journal'', deciphered and transcribed by Leslie Linder in 1958, does not provide an intimate record of her personal life, but it is an invaluable source for understanding a vibrant part of British society in the late 19th century.", "It describes Potter's maturing artistic and intellectual interests, her often amusing insights into the places she visited, and her unusual ability to observe nature and to describe it.", "Started in 1881, her journal ends in 1897 when her artistic and intellectual energies were absorbed in scientific study and in efforts to publish her drawings.", "Precocious but reserved and often bored, she was searching for more independent activities and wished to earn some money of her own while dutifully taking care of her parents, dealing with her especially demanding mother, and managing their various households.===Scientific illustrations and work in mycology===Beatrix Potter: reproductive system of ''Hygrocybe coccinea'', 1897Beatrix Potter's parents did not discourage higher education.", "As was common in the Victorian era, women of her class were privately educated and rarely went to university.Beatrix Potter was interested in every branch of natural science except astronomy.", "Botany was a passion for most Victorians and nature study was a popular enthusiasm.", "She collected fossils, studied archaeological artefacts from London excavations, and was interested in entomology.", "In all these areas, she drew and painted her specimens with increasing skill.", "By the 1890s, her scientific interests centred on mycology.", "First drawn to fungi because of their colours and evanescence in nature and her delight in painting them, her interest deepened after meeting Charles McIntosh, a revered naturalist and amateur mycologist, during a summer holiday in Dunkeld in Perthshire in 1892.He helped improve the accuracy of her illustrations, taught her taxonomy, and supplied her with live specimens to paint during the winter.", "Rebuffed by William Thiselton-Dyer, the Director at Kew, because of her sex and her amateur status, Potter wrote up her conclusions and submitted a paper, ''On the Germination of the Spores of the Agaricineae'', to the Linnean Society in 1897.It was introduced by Massee because, as a woman, Potter could not attend proceedings or read her paper.", "She subsequently withdrew it, realising that some of her samples were contaminated, but continued her microscopic studies for several more years.", "Her work is only now being properly evaluated.", "Potter later gave her other mycological and scientific drawings to the Armitt Museum and Library in Ambleside, where mycologists still refer to them to identify fungi.", "There is also a collection of her fungus paintings at the Perth Museum and Art Gallery in Perth, Scotland, donated by Charles McIntosh.", "In 1967, the mycologist W. P. K. Findlay included many of Potter's beautifully accurate fungus drawings in his ''Wayside & Woodland Fungi'', thereby fulfilling her desire to one day have her fungus drawings published in a book.", "In 1997, the Linnean Society issued a posthumous apology to Potter for the sexism displayed in its handling of her research.===Artistic and literary career===First edition, 1902Potter's artistic and literary interests were deeply influenced by fairy tales and fantasy.", "She was a student of the classic fairy tales of Western Europe.", "As well as stories from the Old Testament, John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' and Harriet Beecher Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', she grew up with ''Aesop's Fables'', the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, Charles Kingsley's ''The Water Babies'', the folk tales and mythology of Scotland, the German Romantics, Shakespeare, and the romances of Sir Walter Scott.", "As a young child, before the age of eight, Edward Lear's ''A Book of Nonsense,'' including the much loved ''The Owl and the Pussycat'', and Lewis Carroll's ''Alice in Wonderland'' had made their impression, although she later said of ''Alice'' that she was more interested in Tenniel's illustrations than what they were about.The ''Brer Rabbit'' stories of Joel Chandler Harris had been family favourites, and she later studied his ''Uncle Remus'' stories and illustrated them.", "She studied book illustration from a young age and developed her own tastes, but the work of the picture book triumvirate Walter Crane, Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott, the last an illustrator whose work was later collected by her father, was a great influence.", "When she started to illustrate, she chose first the traditional rhymes and stories, \"Cinderella\", \"Sleeping Beauty\", \"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves\", \"Puss-in-boots\", and \"Red Riding Hood\".", "However, most often her illustrations were fantasies featuring her own pets: mice, rabbits, kittens, and guinea pigs.In her teenage years, Potter was a regular visitor to the art galleries of London, particularly enjoying the summer and winter exhibitions at the Royal Academy in London.", "Her ''Journal'' reveals her growing sophistication as a critic as well as the influence of her father's friend, the artist Sir John Everett Millais, who recognised Potter's talent of observation.", "Although Potter was aware of art and artistic trends, her drawing and her prose style were uniquely her own.Potter illustration, \"Toad's Tea Party\", , which appears in her ''Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes'', 1917As a way to earn money in the 1890s, Potter printed Christmas cards of her own design, as well as cards for special occasions.", "These were her first commercially successful works as an illustrator.", "Mice and rabbits were the most frequent subject of her fantasy paintings.", "In 1890, the firm of Hildesheimer and Faulkner bought several of the drawings of her rabbit Benjamin Bunny to illustrate verses by Frederic Weatherly titled ''A Happy Pair''.", "In 1893, the same printer bought several more drawings for Weatherly's ''Our Dear Relations'', another book of rhymes, and the following year Potter sold a series of frog illustrations and verses for ''Changing Pictures'', a popular annual offered by the art publisher Ernest Nister.", "Potter was pleased by this success and determined to publish her own illustrated stories.Whenever Potter went on holiday to the Lake District or Scotland, she sent letters to young friends, illustrating them with quick sketches.", "Many of these letters were written to the children of her former governess Annie Carter Moore, particularly to Moore's eldest son Noel, who was often ill.", "In September 1893, Potter was on holiday at Eastwood in Dunkeld, Perthshire.", "She had run out of things to say to Noel, and so she told him a story about \"four little rabbits whose names were Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail and Peter\".", "It became one of the most famous children's letters ever written and the basis of Potter's future career as a writer-artist-storyteller.Potter's dummy manuscripts of three of her books – designed to see how the printed book would lookIn 1900, Potter revised her tale about the four little rabbits, and fashioned a dummy book of it – it has been suggested, in imitation of Helen Bannerman's 1899 bestseller ''The Story of Little Black Sambo''.", "Unable to find a buyer for the work, she published it for family and friends at her own expense in December 1901.It was drawn in black and white with a coloured frontispiece.", "Rawnsley had great faith in Potter's tale, recast it in didactic verse, and made the rounds of the London publishing houses.", "Frederick Warne & Co had previously rejected the tale but, eager to compete in the booming small format children's book market, reconsidered and accepted the \"bunny book\" (as the firm called it) following the recommendation of their prominent children's book artist L. Leslie Brooke.", "The firm declined Rawnsley's verse in favour of Potter's original prose, and Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations, choosing the new Hentschel three-colour process to reproduce her watercolours.Potter used many real locations for her book illustrations.", "The Tower Bank Arms, Near Sawrey appears in ''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck''.On 2 October 1902, ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' was published and was an immediate success.", "It was followed the next year by ''The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin'' and ''The Tailor of Gloucester'', which had also first been written as picture letters to the Moore children.", "Working with Norman Warne as her editor, Potter published two or three little books each year: 23 books in all.", "The last book in this format was ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'' in 1922, a collection of favourite rhymes.", "Although ''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'' was not published until 1930, it had been written much earlier.", "Potter continued creating her little books until after the First World War when her energies were increasingly directed toward her farming, sheep-breeding and land conservation.The immense popularity of Potter's books was based on the lively quality of her illustrations, the non-didactic nature of her stories, the depiction of the rural countryside, and the imaginative qualities she lent to her animal characters.Potter was also a canny businesswoman.", "As early as 1903, she made and patented a Peter Rabbit doll.", "It was followed by other \"spin-off\" merchandise over the years, including painting books, board games, wall-paper, figurines, baby blankets and china tea-sets.", "All were licensed by Frederick Warne & Co and earned Potter an independent income, as well as immense profits for her publisher.In 1905, Potter and Norman Warne became unofficially engaged.", "Potter's parents objected to the match because Warne was \"in trade\" and thus not socially suitable.", "The engagement lasted only one month—Warne died of pernicious anaemia at age 37.That same year, Potter used some of her income and a small inheritance from an aunt to buy Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, located west of Lake Windermere in the English Lake District.", "Potter and Warne may have hoped that Hill Top Farm would be their holiday home, but after Warne's death, Potter went ahead with its purchase as she had always wanted to own that farm and live in \"that charming village\".===Country life and marriage===Hill Top in Near Sawrey – Potter's home from 1905 until her death in 1943, now owned by the National Trust and preserved as it was when she lived and wrote her stories there.Japanese tourists (pictured at Hill Top) are among the frequent visitors to Potter's home.", "Merchandisers in Japan estimate that 80% of the population have heard of Peter Rabbit.The tenant farmer John Cannon and his family agreed to stay on to manage the farm for her while she made physical improvements and learned the techniques of fell farming and of raising livestock, including pigs, cows and chickens; the following year she added sheep.", "Realising she needed to protect her boundaries, she sought advice from W.H.", "Heelis & Son, a local firm of solicitors with offices in nearby Hawkshead.", "With William Heelis acting for her, she bought contiguous pasture, and in 1909 the Castle Farm across the road from Hill Top Farm.", "She visited Hill Top at every opportunity, and her books written during this period (such as ''The Tale of Ginger and Pickles'', about the local shop in Near Sawrey and ''The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse'', a wood mouse) reflect her increasing participation in village life and her delight in country living.Owning and managing these working farms required routine collaboration with the widely respected William Heelis.", "By the summer of 1912, Heelis had proposed marriage and Potter had accepted; although she did not immediately tell her parents, who once again disapproved because Heelis was only a country solicitor.", "Potter and Heelis were married on 15 October 1913 in London at St Mary Abbots in Kensington.", "The couple moved immediately to Near Sawrey, residing at Castle Cottage, the renovated farmhouse on Castle Farm, which was 34 acres large.", "Hill Top remained a working farm but was now remodelled to allow for the tenant family and Potter's private studio and workshop.", "At last her own woman, Potter settled into the partnerships that shaped the rest of her life: her country solicitor husband and his large family, her farms, the Sawrey community and the predictable rounds of country life.", "''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck'' and ''The Tale of Tom Kitten'' are representative of Hill Top Farm and her farming life and reflect her happiness with her country life.Rupert Potter died in 1914 and, with the outbreak of World War I, Potter, now a wealthy woman, persuaded her mother to move to the Lake District and found a property for her to rent in Sawrey.", "Finding life in Sawrey dull, Helen Potter soon moved to Lindeth Howe (now a 34-bedroomed hotel), a large house the Potters had previously rented for the summer in Bowness, on the other side of Lake Windermere.", "Potter continued to write stories for Frederick Warne & Co and fully participated in country life.", "She established a Nursing Trust for local villages and served on various committees and councils responsible for footpaths and other rural issues.===Sheep farming===Soon after acquiring Hill Top Farm, Potter became keenly interested in the breeding and raising of Herdwick sheep, the indigenous fell sheep.", "In 1923 she bought a large sheep farm in the Troutbeck Valley called Troutbeck Park Farm, formerly a deer park, restoring its land with thousands of Herdwick sheep.", "This established her as one of the major Herdwick sheep farmers in the county.", "She was admired by her shepherds and farm managers for her willingness to experiment with the latest biological remedies for the common diseases of sheep, and for her employment of the best shepherds, sheep breeders, and farm managers.By the late 1920s, Potter and her Hill Top farm manager Tom Storey had made a name for their prize-winning Herdwick flock, which took many prizes at the local agricultural shows, where Potter was often asked to serve as a judge.", "In 1942 she became President-elect of the Herdwick Sheepbreeders' Association, the first time a woman had been elected, but died before taking office.===Welsh language===In one of her diary entries whilst travelling through Wales, Potter complained about the Welsh language.", "She wrote \"Machynlleth, wretched town, hardly a person could speak English\", continuing \"Welsh seem a pleasant intelligent race, but I should think awkward to live with... the language is past description.\"" ], [ "Lake District conservation", "Lake District in North West EnglandPotter had been a disciple of the land conservation and preservation ideals of her long-time friend and mentor, Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, the first secretary and founding member of the National Trust.", "According to the National Trust, \"she supported the efforts of the National Trust to preserve not just the places of extraordinary beauty but also those heads of valleys and low grazing lands that would be irreparably ruined by development.\"", "Potter was also an authority on the traditional Lakeland crafts and period furniture, as well as local stonework.", "She restored and preserved the farms that she bought or managed, making sure that each farm house had in it a piece of antique Lakeland furniture.", "Potter was interested in preserving not only the Herdwick sheep but also the way of life of fell farming.", "In 1930 the Heelises became partners with the National Trust in buying and managing the fell farms included in the large Monk Coniston Estate.The estate was composed of many farms spread over a wide area of north-western Lancashire, including the Tarn Hows.", "Potter was the ''de facto'' estate manager for the Trust for seven years until the National Trust could afford to repurchase most of the property from her.", "Potter's stewardship of these farms earned her full regard, but she was not without her critics, not the least of which were her contemporaries who felt she used her wealth and the position of her husband to acquire properties in advance of their being made public.", "She was notable in observing the problems of afforestation, preserving the intact grazing lands, and husbanding the quarries and timber on these farms.", "All her farms were stocked with Herdwick sheep and frequently with Galloway cattle." ], [ "Later life", "\"This Little Piggy\" illustration by Potter from her ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'', 1922Potter continued to write stories and to draw, although mostly for her own pleasure.", "In 1922, ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'', a collection of traditional English nursery rhymes, was published.", "Her books in the late 1920s included the semi-autobiographical ''The Fairy Caravan'', a fanciful tale set in her beloved Troutbeck fells.", "It was published only in the US during Potter's lifetime, and not until 1952 in the UK.", "''Sister Anne'', Potter's version of the story of Bluebeard, was written for her American readers, but illustrated by Katharine Sturges.", "A final folktale, ''Wag by Wall'', was published posthumously by ''The Horn Book Magazine'' in 1944.Potter was a generous patron of the Girl Guides, whose troops she allowed to make their summer encampments on her land, and whose company she enjoyed as an older woman.Potter and William Heelis enjoyed a happy marriage of thirty years, continuing their farming and preservation efforts throughout the hard days of World War II.", "Although they were childless, Potter played an important role in William's large family, particularly enjoying her relationship with several nieces whom she helped educate, and giving comfort and aid to her husband's brothers and sisters.Potter died of complications from pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at Castle Cottage, and her remains were cremated at Carleton Crematorium, Blackpool.", "She left nearly all her property to the National Trust, including over of land, sixteen farms, cottages and herds of cattle and Herdwick sheep.", "Hers was the largest gift at that time to the National Trust, and it enabled the preservation of the land now included in the Lake District National Park and the continuation of fell farming.", "The central office of the National Trust in Swindon was named \"Heelis\" in 2005 in her memory.", "William Heelis continued his stewardship of their properties and of her literary and artistic work for the twenty months he survived her.", "When he died in August 1945, he left the remainder to the National Trust." ], [ "Legacy", "Goody and Mrs. Hackee, illustration to ''The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes'', 1911Potter left almost all the original illustrations for her books to the National Trust.", "The copyright to her stories and merchandise was then given to her publisher Frederick Warne & Co, now a division of the Penguin Group.", "On 1 January 2014, the copyright expired in the UK and other countries with a 70-years-after-death limit.", "Hill Top Farm was opened to the public by the National Trust in 1946; her artwork was displayed there until 1985 when it was moved to William Heelis's former law offices in Hawkshead, also owned by the National Trust as the Beatrix Potter Gallery.Potter gave her folios of mycological drawings to the Armitt Library and Museum in Ambleside before her death.", "''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' is owned by Warne, ''The Tailor of Gloucester'' by the Tate Gallery, and ''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'' by the British Museum.In 1903, Potter created the first Peter Rabbit soft toy and registered him at the Patent Office in London, making Peter the oldest licensed fictional character.", "Merchandise of Peter and other Potter characters have been sold at Harrods department store in London since at least 1910 when the range first appeared in their catalogues.", "Along with her writing Potter would continue to oversee merchandising and licensing opportunities for her characters.", "On her legacy, Nicholas Tucker in ''The Guardian'' writes, \"she was the first author to license fictional characters to a range of toys and household objects still on sale today\".", "In an article by the ''Smithsonian'' magazine titled, ''How Beatrix Potter Invented Character Merchandising'', Joy Lanzendorfer writes, \"Potter was also an entrepreneur and a pioneer in licensing and merchandising literary characters.", "Potter built a retail empire out of her “bunny book” that is worth $500 million today.", "In the process, she created a system that continues to benefit all licensed characters, from Mickey Mouse to Harry Potter.", "\"The largest public collection of her letters and drawings is the Leslie Linder Bequest and Leslie Linder Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.", "(Linder was the collector who—after five years of work—finally transcribed Potter's early journal, originally written in code.)", "In the United States, the largest public collections are those in the Rare Book Department of the Free Library of Philadelphia, and the Cotsen Children's Library at Princeton University.In 2015 a manuscript for an unpublished book was discovered by Jo Hanks, a publisher at Penguin Random House Children's Books, in the Victoria and Albert Museum archive.", "The book ''The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots'', with illustrations by Quentin Blake, was published 1 September 2016, to mark the 150th anniversary of Potter's birth.", "Also in 2016, Peter Rabbit was depicted on the reverse of a British fifty pence coin, and Peter along with other Potter characters featured on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail.In 2017, ''The Art of Beatrix Potter: Sketches, Paintings, and Illustrations'' by Emily Zach was published after San Francisco publisher Chronicle Books decided to mark the 150th anniversary of Beatrix Potter's birth by showing that she was \"far more than a 19th-century weekend painter.", "She was an artist of astonishing range.", "\"In December 2017, the asteroid 13975 Beatrixpotter, discovered by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst in 1992, was named in her memory.", "In 2022, an exhibition ''Beatrix Potter: Drawn to Nature'' was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum.", "Research for the exhibition identified the man's court waistcoat c. 1780s, which inspired Potter's sketch in 'The Tailor of Gloucester'." ], [ "Analysis", "There are many interpretations of Potter's literary work, the sources of her art, and her life and times.", "These include critical evaluations of her corpus of children's literature and Modernist interpretations of Humphrey Carpenter and Katherine Chandler.", "Judy Taylor, ''That Naughty Rabbit: Beatrix Potter and Peter Rabbit'' (rev.", "2002) tells the story of the first publication and many editions.Potter's country life, her farming and role as a landscape preservationist are discussed in the work of Matthew Kelly, ''The Women Who Saved the English Countryside'' (2022).", "See also Susan Denyer and authors in the publications of The National Trust, such as ''Beatrix Potter at Home in the Lake District'' (2004).Potter's work as a scientific illustrator and her work in mycology are discussed in Linda Lear's books ''Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature'' (2006) and ''Beatrix Potter: The Extraordinary Life of a Victorian Genius'' (2008)." ], [ "Adaptations", "In 1971, a ballet film was released, ''The Tales of Beatrix Potter'', directed by Reginald Mills, set to music by John Lanchbery with choreography by Frederick Ashton, and performed in character costume by members of the Royal Ballet and the Royal Opera House orchestra.", "The ballet of the same name has been performed by other dance companies around the world.In 1992, Potter's children's book ''The Tale of Benjamin Bunny'' was featured in the film ''Lorenzo's Oil''.Potter is also featured in Susan Wittig Albert's series of light mysteries called ''The Cottage Tales of Beatrix Potter''.", "The first of the eight-book series is ''Tale of Hill Top Farm'' (2004), which deals with Potter's life in the Lake District and the village of Near Sawrey between 1905 and 1913." ], [ "In film", "Renée Zellweger (who starred as Beatrix Potter) at the premiere of ''Miss Potter'' in December 2006In 1982, the BBC produced ''The Tale of Beatrix Potter''.", "This dramatization of her life was written by John Hawkesworth, directed by Bill Hayes, and starred Holly Aird and Penelope Wilton as the young and adult Potter, respectively.", "''The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends'', a TV series based on nine of her twenty-four stories, starred actress Niamh Cusack as Beatrix Potter.In 1993, Weston Woods Studios made an almost hour non-story film called \"Beatrix Potter: Artist, Storyteller, and Countrywoman\" with narration by Lynn Redgrave.", "In 2006, Chris Noonan directed ''Miss Potter'', a biographical film of Potter's life focusing on her early career and romance with her editor Norman Warne.", "The film stars Renée Zellweger as Beatrix Potter, Ewan McGregor as Norman Warne, and Emily Watson as Warne's sister.On 9 February 2018, Columbia Pictures released ''Peter Rabbit'', directed by Will Gluck, based on the work by Potter.", "The character Bea, played by Rose Byrne, is a re-imagined version of Potter.", "A sequel to the film titled ''Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway'' was released in 2021.On 24 December 2020, Sky One premiered ''Roald & Beatrix: The Tail of the Curious Mouse'', a made-for-television drama film inspired by the true story of a six-year-old Roald Dahl meeting his idol Potter.", "Set in 1922, the movie was written by Abigail Wilson, directed by David Kerr and starred Dawn French as Beatrix Potter, Rob Brydon as William Heelis and Jessica Hynes as Sofie Dahl.", "Filming took place in Wales, the birthland of Dahl, French and Brydon.", "This production incorporates live action, stop motion and puppetry.", "The DVD was released on 26 April 2021." ], [ "Publications", "=== The 23 Tales ===#''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' (privately printed, 250 copies, 1901)#*''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' (1902)#''The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin'' (1903)#''The Tailor of Gloucester'' (1903)#''The Tale of Benjamin Bunny'' (1904)#''The Tale of Two Bad Mice'' (1904)#''The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle'' (1905)#''The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan'' (1905)#''The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher'' (1906)#''The Story of a Fierce Bad Rabbit'' (1906)#''The Story of Miss Moppet'' (1906)#''The Tale of Tom Kitten'' (1907)#''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck'' (1908)#''The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or, The Roly-Poly Pudding'' (1908)#''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'' (1909)#''The Tale of Ginger and Pickles'' (1909)#''The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse'' (1910)#''The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes'' (1911)#''The Tale of Mr. Tod'' (1912)#''The Tale of Pigling Bland'' (1913)#''Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes'' (1917)#''The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse'' (1918)#''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'' (1922)#''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'' (1930)===Other books===#''Peter Rabbit's Painting Book'' (1911)#''Tom Kitten's Painting Book'' (1917)#''Jemima Puddle-Duck's Painting Book'' (1925)#''Peter Rabbit's Almanac for 1929'' (1928)#''The Fairy Caravan'' (1929)#''Sister Anne'' (illustrated by Katharine Sturges) (1932)#''Wag-by-Wall'' (decorations by J. J. Lankes) (1944)#''The Tale of the Faithful Dove'' (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1955, 1970)#''The Sly Old Cat'' (written 1906; first published 1971)#''The Tale of Tuppenny'' (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1973)#''The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots'' (2016) (Illustrated by Quentin Blake.", ")#''Red Riding Hood'' (2019) (Illustrated by Helen Oxenbury.)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Letters, journals and writing collections===***** Potter, Beatrix.", "(rev.", "1989).", "''The Journal of Beatrix Potter, 1881–1897'', transcribed from her code writings by Leslie Linder.", "F. Warne & Co. *===Art studies===*****===Biographical studies===*****************" ], [ "External links", "* * Beatrix Potter's fossils and her interest in geology – B. G. Gardiner* * * * * Beatrix Potter at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy* Collection of Potter materials at Victoria and Albert Museum* Beatrix Potter online feature at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences* Beatrix Potter Society, UK* Exhibition of Beatrix Potter's Picture Letters at the Morgan Library* Beatrix Potter Collection (digitized images from the Free Library of Philadelphia)" ] ]

[ [ "Liberal Party (UK)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Liberal Party''' was one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, along with the Conservative Party, in the 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Beginning as an alliance of Whigs, free trade–supporting Peelites, and reformist Radicals in the 1850s, by the end of the 19th century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone.", "Despite being divided over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to government in 1905 and won a landslide victory in the 1906 general election.Under prime ministers Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1905–1908) and H. H. Asquith (1908–1916), the Liberal Party passed reforms that created a basic welfare state.", "Although Asquith was the party leader, its dominant figure was David Lloyd George.", "Asquith was overwhelmed by the wartime role of coalition prime minister and Lloyd George replaced him in late 1916, but Asquith remained as Liberal Party leader.", "The split between Lloyd George's breakaway faction and Asquith's official Liberal Party badly weakened the party.The coalition government of Lloyd George was increasingly dominated by the Conservative Party, which finally deposed him in 1922.By the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives' main rival.", "The Liberal Party went into decline after 1918, and, by the 1950s, the party had won as few as six seats at general elections.", "Apart from notable by-election victories, its fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981.At the 1983 general election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, but only 23 of the 650 seats it contested.", "At the 1987 general election, its share of the vote fell below 23% and the Liberals and the SDP merged in 1988 to form the Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD), who the following year were renamed the Liberal Democrats.", "A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989.Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, and social planner William Beveridge.", "Winston Churchill authored ''Liberalism and the Social Problem'' (1909), which was praised by Henry William Massingham as \"an impressive and convincing argument\" and is widely considered the movement's bible." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===Viscount PalmerstonThe Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II and the early 19th century Radicals.", "The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown and increasing the power of Parliament.", "Although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake.", "The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox (died 1806) and his disciple and successor Earl Grey.", "After decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832.The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it also brought about the Whigs' demise.", "The admission of the middle classes to the franchise and to the House of Commons led eventually to the development of a systematic middle-class liberalism and the end of Whiggery, although for many years reforming aristocrats held senior positions in the party.", "In the years after Grey's retirement, the party was led first by Lord Melbourne, a fairly traditional Whig, and then by Lord John Russell, the son of a Duke but a crusading radical, and by Lord Palmerston, a renegade Irish Tory and essentially a conservative, although capable of radical gestures.As early as 1839, Russell had adopted the name of \"Liberals\", but in reality, his party was a loose coalition of Whigs in the House of Lords and Radicals in the Commons.", "The leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act.", "They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England (many Liberals were Nonconformists), avoidance of war and foreign alliances (which were bad for business) and above all free trade.", "For a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals.In 1841, the Liberals lost office to the Conservatives under Sir Robert Peel, but their period in opposition was short because the Conservatives split over the repeal of the Corn Laws, a free trade issue; and a faction known as the Peelites (but not Peel himself, who died soon after) aligned to the Liberal side on the issue of free trade.", "This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s.", "A leading Peelite was William Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments.", "The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 when the remaining Peelites, Radicals and Whigs agreed to vote down the incumbent Conservative government.", "This meeting was held at the Willis' rooms in London on 6 June 1859.This led to Palmerston's second government.However, the Whig-Radical amalgam could not become a true modern political party while it was dominated by aristocrats and it was not until the departure of the \"Two Terrible Old Men\", Russell and Palmerston, that Gladstone could become the first leader of the modern Liberal Party.", "This was brought about by Palmerston's death in 1865 and Russell's retirement in 1868.After a brief Conservative government (during which the Second Reform Act was passed by agreement between the parties), Gladstone won a huge victory at the 1868 election and formed the first Liberal government.", "The establishment of the party as a national membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877.The philosopher John Stuart Mill was also a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868.=== Gladstone era ===William GladstoneFor the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous.", "William Gladstone served as prime minister four times (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, and 1892–94).", "His financial policies, based on the notion of balanced budgets, low taxes and ''laissez-faire'', were suited to a developing capitalist society, but they could not respond effectively as economic and social conditions changed.", "Called the \"Grand Old Man\" later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class.", "Deeply religious, Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics, with his evangelical sensibility and his opposition to aristocracy.", "His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents (including Queen Victoria), and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal Party.In foreign policy, Gladstone was in general against foreign entanglements, but he did not resist the realities of imperialism.", "For example, he ordered the occupation of Egypt by British forces in the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War.", "His goal was to create a European order based on co-operation rather than conflict and on mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion; the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest.", "This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms.As prime minister from 1868 to 1874, Gladstone headed a Liberal Party which was a coalition of Peelites like himself, Whigs and Radicals.", "He was now a spokesman for \"peace, economy and reform\".", "One major achievement was the Elementary Education Act of 1870, which provided England with an adequate system of elementary schools for the first time.", "He also secured the abolition of the purchase of commissions in the British Army and of religious tests for admission to Oxford and Cambridge; the introduction of the secret ballot in elections; the legalization of trade unions; and the reorganization of the judiciary in the Judicature Act.Regarding Ireland, the major Liberal achievements were land reform, where he ended centuries of landlord oppression, and the disestablishment of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland through the Irish Church Act 1869.In the 1874 general election Gladstone was defeated by the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli during a sharp economic recession.", "He formally resigned as Liberal leader and was succeeded by the Marquess of Hartington, but he soon changed his mind and returned to active politics.", "He strongly disagreed with Disraeli's pro-Ottoman foreign policy and in 1880 he conducted the first outdoor mass-election campaign in Britain, known as the Midlothian campaign.", "The Liberals won a large majority in the 1880 election.", "Hartington ceded his place and Gladstone resumed office.==== Ireland and Home Rule ====Among the consequences of the Third Reform Act (1884) was the giving of the vote to many Irish Catholics.", "In the 1885 general election the Irish Parliamentary Party held the balance of power in the House of Commons and demanded Irish Home Rule as the price of support for a continued Gladstone ministry.", "Gladstone personally supported Home Rule, but a strong Liberal Unionist faction led by Joseph Chamberlain, along with the last of the Whigs, Hartington, opposed it.", "The Irish Home Rule bill proposed to offer all owners of Irish land a chance to sell to the state at a price equal to 20 years' purchase of the rents and allowing tenants to purchase the land.", "Irish nationalist reaction was mixed, Unionist opinion was hostile, and the election addresses during the 1886 election revealed English radicals to be against the bill also.", "Among the Liberal rank and file, several Gladstonian candidates disowned the bill, reflecting fears at the constituency level that the interests of the working people were being sacrificed to finance a costly rescue operation for the landed élite.", "Further, Home Rule had not been promised in the Liberals' election manifesto, and so the impression was given that Gladstone was buying Irish support in a rather desperate manner to hold on to power.The result was a catastrophic split in the Liberal Party, and heavy defeat in the 1886 election at the hands of Lord Salisbury, who was supported by the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party.", "There was a final weak Gladstone ministry in 1892, but it also was dependent on Irish support and failed to get Irish Home Rule through the House of Lords.==== Newcastle Programme ====Historically, the aristocracy was divided between Conservatives and Liberals.", "However, when Gladstone committed to home rule for Ireland, Britain's upper classes largely abandoned the Liberal party, giving the Conservatives a large permanent majority in the House of Lords.", "Following the Queen, High Society in London largely ostracized home rulers and Liberal clubs were badly split.", "Joseph Chamberlain took a major element of upper-class supporters out of the Party and into a third party called Liberal Unionism on the Irish issue.", "It collaborated with and eventually merged into the Conservative party.", "The Gladstonian liberals in 1891 adopted The Newcastle Programme that included home rule for Ireland, disestablishment of the Church of England in Wales, tighter controls on the sale of liquor, major extension of factory regulation and various democratic political reforms.", "The Programme had a strong appeal to the nonconformist middle-class Liberal element, which felt liberated by the departure of the aristocracy.==== Relations with trade unions ====A major long-term consequence of the Third Reform Act was the rise of Lib-Lab candidates.", "The Act split all county constituencies (which were represented by multiple MPs) into single-member constituencies, roughly corresponding to population patterns.", "With the foundation of the Labour Party not to come till 1906, many trade unions allied themselves with the Liberals.", "In areas with working class majorities, in particular coal-mining areas, Lib-Lab candidates were popular, and they received sponsorship and endorsement from trade unions.", "In the first election after the Act was passed (1885), thirteen were elected, up from two in 1874.The Third Reform Act also facilitated the demise of the Whig old guard; in two-member constituencies, it was common to pair a Whig and a radical under the Liberal banner.", "After the Third Reform Act, fewer former Whigs were selected as candidates.==== Reform policies ====A broad range of interventionist reforms were introduced by the 1892–1895 Liberal government.", "Amongst other measures, standards of accommodation and of teaching in schools were improved, factory inspection was made more stringent, and ministers used their powers to increase the wages and reduce the working hours of large numbers of male workers employed by the state.Historian Walter L. Arnstein concludes:=== After Gladstone ===Gladstone finally retired in 1894.Gladstone's support for Home Rule deeply divided the party, and it lost its upper and upper-middle-class base, while keeping support among Protestant nonconformists and the Celtic fringe.", "Historian R. C. K. Ensor reports that after 1886, the main Liberal Party was deserted by practically the entire whig peerage and the great majority of the upper-class and upper-middle-class members.", "High prestige London clubs that had a Liberal base were deeply split.", "Ensor notes that, \"London society, following the known views of the Queen, practically ostracized home rulers.", "\"The new Liberal leader was the ineffectual Lord Rosebery.", "He led the party to a heavy defeat in the 1895 general election.=== Liberal factions ===The Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906.It contained numerous contradictory and hostile factions, such as imperialists and supporters of the Boers; near-socialists and laissez-faire classical liberals; suffragettes and opponents of women's suffrage; antiwar elements and supporters of the military alliance with France.", "Nonconformists – Protestants outside the Anglican fold – were a powerful element, dedicated to opposing the established church in terms of education and taxation.", "However, the non-conformists were losing support amid society at large and played a lesser role in party affairs after 1900.The party, furthermore, also included Irish Catholics, and secularists from the labour movement.", "Many Conservatives (including Winston Churchill) had recently protested against high tariff moves by the Conservatives by switching to the anti-tariff Liberal camp, but it was unclear how many old Conservative traits they brought along, especially on military and naval issues.The middle-class business, professional and intellectual communities were generally strongholds, although some old aristocratic families played important roles as well.", "The working-class element was moving rapidly toward the newly emerging Labour Party.", "One uniting element was widespread agreement on the use of politics and Parliament as a device to upgrade and improve society and to reform politics.", "All Liberals were outraged when Conservatives used their majority in the House of Lords to block reform legislation.", "In the House of Lords, the Liberals had lost most of their members, who in the 1890s \"became Conservative in all but name.\"", "The government could force the unwilling king to create new Liberal peers, and that threat did prove decisive in the battle for dominance of Commons over Lords in 1911.=== Rise of New Liberalism ===The late nineteenth century saw the emergence of New Liberalism within the Liberal Party, which advocated state intervention as a means of guaranteeing freedom and removing obstacles to it such as poverty and unemployment.", "The policies of the New Liberalism are now known as social liberalism.Liberal politicians David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill enacted the 1909 People's Budget which specifically aimed at the redistribution of wealth.The New Liberals included intellectuals like L. T. Hobhouse, and John A. Hobson.", "They saw individual liberty as something achievable only under favourable social and economic circumstances.", "In their view, the poverty, squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish.", "New Liberals believed that these conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented, and interventionist state.After the historic 1906 victory, the Liberal Party introduced multiple reforms on range of issues, including health insurance, unemployment insurance, and pensions for elderly workers, thereby laying the groundwork for the future British welfare state.", "Some proposals failed, such as licensing fewer pubs, or rolling back Conservative educational policies.", "The People's Budget of 1909, championed by David Lloyd George and fellow Liberal Winston Churchill, introduced unprecedented taxes on the wealthy in Britain and radical social welfare programmes to the country's policies.", "In the Liberal camp, as noted by one study, \"the Budget was on the whole enthusiastically received.\"", "It was the first budget with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the public.", "It imposed increased taxes on luxuries, liquor, tobacco, high incomes, and land – taxation that fell heavily on the rich.", "The new money was to be made available for new welfare programmes as well as new battleships.", "In 1911 Lloyd George succeeded in putting through Parliament his National Insurance Act, making provision for sickness and invalidism, and this was followed by his Unemployment Insurance Act.Historian Peter Weiler argues:Contrasting Old Liberalism with New Liberalism, David Lloyd George noted in a 1908 speech the following:=== Liberal zenith ===1906 electionLiberal poster c. 1905–1910, clockwise from the left: Joseph Chamberlain (satirised as an unmarried mother leaving her baby at a Foundling hospital) abandons his commitment to old age pensions after failing to reach agreement with the Friendly Societies; Chancellor Austen Chamberlain threatens duties on consumer items which had been removed by Gladstone (in the picture on the wall); Chinese indentured labour in South Africa; John Bull contemplates his vote; and Joseph Chamberlain and Arthur Balfour (who favoured retaliatory tariffs) wearing top hats.", "The heading \"ratepayers money for sectarian schools\" refers to the Education Act 1902.The Liberals languished in opposition for a decade while the coalition of Salisbury and Chamberlain held power.", "The 1890s were marred by infighting between the three principal successors to Gladstone, party leader William Harcourt, former prime minister Lord Rosebery, and Gladstone's personal secretary, John Morley.", "This intrigue finally led Harcourt and Morley to resign their positions in 1898 as they continued to be at loggerheads with Rosebery over Irish home rule and issues relating to imperialism.", "Replacing Harcourt as party leader was Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman.", "Harcourt's resignation briefly muted the turmoil in the party, but the beginning of the Second Boer War soon nearly broke the party apart, with Rosebery and a circle of supporters including important future Liberal figures H. H. Asquith, Edward Grey and Richard Burdon Haldane forming a clique dubbed the Liberal Imperialists that supported the government in the prosecution of the war.", "On the other side, more radical members of the party formed a Pro-Boer faction that denounced the conflict and called for an immediate end to hostilities.", "Quickly rising to prominence among the Pro-Boers was David Lloyd George, a relatively new MP and a master of rhetoric, who took advantage of having a national stage to speak out on a controversial issue to make his name in the party.", "Harcourt and Morley also sided with this group, though with slightly different aims.", "Campbell-Bannerman tried to keep these forces together at the head of a moderate Liberal rump, but in 1901 he delivered a speech on the government's \"methods of barbarism\" in South Africa that pulled him further to the left and nearly tore the party in two.", "The party was saved after Salisbury's retirement in 1902 when his successor, Arthur Balfour, pushed a series of unpopular initiatives such as the Education Act 1902 and Joseph Chamberlain called for a new system of protectionist tariffs.Campbell-Bannerman was able to rally the party around the traditional liberal platform of free trade and land reform and led them to the greatest election victory in their history.", "This would prove the last time the Liberals won a majority in their own right.", "Although he presided over a large majority, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman was overshadowed by his ministers, most notably H. H. Asquith at the Exchequer, Edward Grey at the Foreign Office, Richard Burdon Haldane at the War Office and David Lloyd George at the Board of Trade.", "Campbell-Bannerman retired in 1908 and died soon after.", "He was succeeded by Asquith, who stepped up the government's radicalism.", "Lloyd George succeeded Asquith at the Exchequer and was in turn succeeded at the Board of Trade by Winston Churchill, a recent defector from the Conservatives.One observer, the leading American liberal politician William Jennings Bryan, was enthusiastic about the new Liberal administration, writing that: Great Britain has recently experienced one of the greatest political revolutions she has ever known.", "The conservative party, with Mr. Balfour, one of the ablest of modern scholars, at its head, and with Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, a powerful orator and a forceful political leader, as its most conspicuous champion, had won a sweeping victory after the Boer war, and this victory, following a long lease of power, led the Conservatives to believe themselves invincible.", "They assumed, as parties made confident by success often do, that they are indispensable to the nation and paid but little attention to the warnings and threats of the Liberals.", "One mistake after another, however, alienated the voters and the special elections two years ago began to show a falling off in the Conservative strength, and when the general election was held last fall the Liberals rolled up a majority of something like two hundred in the House of Commons.", "A new ministry was formed from among the ablest men of the party — a ministry of radical and progressive men seldom equaled in moral purpose and intellectual strength.H.", "H. AsquithThe 1906 general election also represented a shift to the left by the Liberal Party.", "According to Rosemary Rees, almost half of the Liberal MPs elected in 1906 were supportive of the 'New Liberalism' (which advocated government action to improve people's lives),) while claims were made that \"five-sixths of the Liberal party are left wing.\"", "Other historians, however, have questioned the extent to which the Liberal Party experienced a leftward shift; according to Robert C. Self however, only between 50 and 60 Liberal MPs out of the 400 in the parliamentary party after 1906 were Social Radicals, with a core of 20 to 30.Nevertheless, important junior offices were held in the cabinet by what Duncan Tanner has termed \"genuine New Liberals, Centrist reformers, and Fabian collectivists,\" and much legislation was pushed through by the Liberals in government.", "This included the regulation of working hours, National Insurance and welfare.Cartoonist John Bernard Partridge depicts Lloyd George as a giant with a cudgel labelled \"Budget\" in reference to his People's Budget while \"a plutocrat\" cowers beneath the table, ''Punch'' 28 April 1909.The caption, not shown, reads \"Fee Fi Fo Phat, I smell the blood of a plutocrat.", "Be he alive or be he dead, I'll grind his bones to make my bread,\"A political battle erupted over the People's Budget, which was rejected by the House of Lords and for which the government obtained an electoral mandate at the January 1910 election.", "The election resulted in a hung parliament, with the government left dependent on the Irish Nationalists.", "Although the Lords now passed the budget, the government wished to curtail their power to block legislation.", "Asquith was required by King George V to fight a second general election in December 1910 (whose result was little changed from that in January) before he agreed, if necessary, to create hundreds of Liberals peers.", "Faced with that threat, the Lords voted to give up their veto power and allowed the passage of the Parliament Act 1911.As the price of Irish support, Asquith was now forced to introduce a third Home Rule bill in 1912.Since the House of Lords no longer had the power to block the bill, but only to delay it for two years, it was due to become law in 1914.The Unionist Ulster Volunteers, led by Sir Edward Carson, launched a campaign of opposition that included the threat of a provisional government and armed resistance in Ulster.", "The Ulster Protestants had the full support of the Conservatives, whose leader, Bonar Law, was of Ulster-Scots descent.", "Government plans to deploy troops into Ulster had to be cancelled after the threat of mass resignation of their commissions by army officers in March 1914 (''see Curragh Incident'').", "Ireland seemed to be on the brink of civil war when the First World War broke out in August 1914.Asquith had offered the Six Counties (later to become Northern Ireland) an opt out from Home Rule for six years (i.e., until after two more general elections were likely to have taken place) but the Nationalists refused to agree to permanent Partition of Ireland.", "Historian George Dangerfield has argued that the multiplicity of crises in 1910 to 1914, political and industrial, so weakened the Liberal coalition before the war broke out that it marked the ''Strange Death of Liberal England''.", "However, most historians date the collapse to the crisis of the First World War.=== Decline ===The Liberal Party might have survived a short war, but the totality of the Great War called for measures that the Party had long rejected.", "The result was the permanent destruction of the ability of the Liberal Party to lead a government.", "Historian Robert Blake explains the dilemma:Blake further notes that it was the Liberals, not the Conservatives who needed the moral outrage of Belgium to justify going to war, while the Conservatives called for intervention from the start of the crisis on the grounds of ''realpolitik'' and the balance of power.", "However, Lloyd George and Churchill were zealous supporters of the war, and gradually forced the old peace-orientated Liberals out.Asquith was blamed for the poor British performance in the first year.", "Since the Liberals ran the war without consulting the Conservatives, there were heavy partisan attacks.", "However, even Liberal commentators were dismayed by the lack of energy at the top.", "At the time, public opinion was intensely hostile, both in the media and in the street, against any young man in civilian garb and labeled as a slacker.", "The leading Liberal newspaper, the ''Manchester Guardian'' complained:Asquith's Liberal government was brought down in , due in particular to a crisis in inadequate artillery shell production and the protest resignation of Admiral Fisher over the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign against Turkey.", "Reluctant to face doom in an election, Asquith formed a new coalition government on 25 May, with the majority of the new cabinet coming from his own Liberal party and the Unionist (Conservative) party, along with a token Labour representation.", "The new government lasted a year and a half and was the last time Liberals controlled the government.", "The analysis of historian A. J. P. Taylor is that the British people were so deeply divided over numerous issues, but on all sides, there was growing distrust of the Asquith government.", "There was no agreement whatsoever on wartime issues.", "The leaders of the two parties realized that embittered debates in Parliament would further undermine popular morale and so the House of Commons did not once discuss the war before May 1915.Taylor argues:The 1915 coalition fell apart at the end of 1916, when the Conservatives withdrew their support from Asquith and gave it instead to Lloyd George, who became prime minister at the head of a new coalition largely made up of Conservatives.", "Asquith and his followers moved to the opposition benches in Parliament and the Liberal Party was deeply split once again.=== Lloyd George as a Liberal heading a Conservative coalition ===Lloyd George remained a Liberal all his life, but he abandoned many standard Liberal principles in his crusade to win the war at all costs.", "He insisted on strong government controls over business as opposed to the ''laissez-faire'' attitudes of traditional Liberals.", "in 1915–16 he had insisted on conscription of young men into the Army, a position that deeply troubled his old colleagues.", "That brought him and a few like-minded Liberals into the new coalition on the ground long occupied by Conservatives.", "There was no more planning for world peace or liberal treatment of Germany, nor discomfit with aggressive and authoritarian measures of state power.", "More deadly to the future of the party, says historian Trevor Wilson, was its repudiation by ideological Liberals, who decided sadly that it no longer represented their principles.", "Finally, the presence of the vigorous new Labour Party on the left gave a new home to voters disenchanted with the Liberal performance.The last majority Liberal Government in Britain was elected in 1906.The years preceding the First World War were marked by worker strikes and civil unrest and saw many violent confrontations between civilians and the police and armed forces.", "Other issues of the period included women's suffrage and the Irish Home Rule movement.", "After the carnage of 1914–1918, the democratic reforms of the Representation of the People Act 1918 instantly tripled the number of people entitled to vote in Britain from seven to twenty-one million.", "The Labour Party benefited most from this huge change in the electorate, forming its first minority government in 1924.David Lloyd GeorgeIn the 1918 general election, Lloyd George, hailed as \"the Man Who Won the War\", led his coalition into a khaki election.", "Lloyd George and the Conservative leader Bonar Law wrote a joint letter of support to candidates to indicate they were considered the official Coalition candidates—this \"coupon\", as it became known, was issued against many sitting Liberal MPs, often to devastating effect, though not against Asquith himself.", "The coalition won a massive victory: Labour increased their position slightly, but the Asquithian Liberals were decimated.", "Those remaining Liberal MPs who were opposed to the Coalition Government went into opposition under the parliamentary leadership of Sir Donald MacLean who also became Leader of the Opposition.", "Asquith, who had appointed MacLean, remained as overall Leader of the Liberal Party even though he lost his seat in 1918.Asquith returned to Parliament in 1920 and resumed leadership.", "Between 1919 and 1923, the anti-Lloyd George Liberals were called Asquithian Liberals, Wee Free Liberals or Independent Liberals.Lloyd George was increasingly under the influence of the rejuvenated Conservative party who numerically dominated the coalition.", "In 1922, the Conservative backbenchers rebelled against the continuation of the coalition, citing, in particular, Lloyd George's plan for war with Turkey in the Chanak Crisis, and his corrupt sale of honours.", "He resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by Bonar Law.At the 1922 and 1923 elections the Liberals won barely a third of the vote and only a quarter of the seats in the House of Commons as many radical voters abandoned the divided Liberals and went over to Labour.", "In 1922, Labour became the official opposition.", "A reunion of the two warring factions took place in 1923 when the new Conservative prime minister Stanley Baldwin committed his party to protective tariffs, causing the Liberals to reunite in support of free trade.", "The party gained ground in the 1923 general election but made most of its gains from Conservatives whilst losing ground to Labour—a sign of the party's direction for many years to come.", "The party remained the third largest in the House of Commons, but the Conservatives had lost their majority.", "There was much speculation and fear about the prospect of a Labour government and comparatively little about a Liberal government, even though it could have plausibly presented an experienced team of ministers compared to Labour's almost complete lack of experience as well as offering a middle ground that could obtain support from both Conservatives and Labour in crucial Commons divisions.", "However, instead of trying to force the opportunity to form a Liberal government, Asquith decided instead to allow Labour the chance of office in the belief that they would prove incompetent, and this would set the stage for a revival of Liberal fortunes at Labour's expense, but it was a fatal error.Share of the vote received by Conservatives (blue), Whigs/Liberals/Liberal Democrats (orange), Labour (red) and others (grey) in general elections since 1832 shows that following success as the successor to the Whig party, the party's share of the popular vote plummeted after the First World War as it lost votes to the new Labour party and fractured into groups such as the National and Coalition LiberalsLabour was determined to destroy the Liberals and become the sole party of the left.", "Ramsay MacDonald was forced into a snap election in 1924 and although his government was defeated, he achieved his objective of virtually wiping the Liberals out as many more radical voters now moved to Labour whilst moderate middle-class Liberal voters concerned about socialism moved to the Conservatives.", "The Liberals were reduced to a mere forty seats in Parliament, only seven of which had been won against candidates from both parties and none of these formed a coherent area of Liberal survival.", "The party seemed finished, and during this period some Liberals, such as Churchill, went over to the Conservatives while others went over to Labour.", "Several Labour ministers of later generations, such as Michael Foot and Tony Benn, were the sons of Liberal MPs.Asquith finally resigned as Liberal leader in 1926 (he died in 1928).", "Lloyd George, now party leader, began a drive to produce coherent policies on many key issues of the day.", "In the 1929 general election, he made a final bid to return the Liberals to the political mainstream, with an ambitious programme of state stimulation of the economy called ''We Can Conquer Unemployment!", "'', largely written for him by the Liberal economist John Maynard Keynes.", "The Liberal Party stood in Northern Ireland for the first and only time in the 1929 general election, gaining 17% of the vote, but won no seats.", "Nationally the Liberals gained ground, but once again it was at the Conservatives' expense whilst also losing seats to Labour.", "Indeed, the urban areas of the country suffering heavily from unemployment, which might have been expected to respond the most to the radical economic policies of the Liberals, instead gave the party its worst results.", "By contrast, most of the party's seats were won either due to the absence of a candidate from one of the other parties or in rural areas on the Celtic fringe, where local evidence suggests that economic ideas were at best peripheral to the electorate's concerns.", "The Liberals now found themselves with 59 members, holding the balance of power in a Parliament where Labour was the largest party but lacked an overall majority.", "Lloyd George offered a degree of support to the Labour government in the hope of winning concessions, including a degree of electoral reform to introduce the alternative vote, but this support was to prove bitterly divisive as the Liberals increasingly divided between those seeking to gain what Liberal goals they could achieve, those who preferred a Conservative government to a Labour one and vice versa.=== Splits over the National Government ===Herbert SamuelA group of Liberal MPs led by Sir John Simon opposed the Liberal Party's support for the minority Labour government.", "They preferred to reach an accommodation with the Conservatives.", "In 1931 MacDonald's Labour government fell apart in response to the Great Depression.", "Macdonald agreed to lead a National Government of all parties, which passed a budget to deal with the financial crisis.", "When few Labour MPs backed the National government, it became clear that the Conservatives had the clear majority of government supporters.", "They then forced MacDonald to call a general election.", "Lloyd George called for the party to leave the National Government but only a few MPs and candidates followed.", "The majority, led by Sir Herbert Samuel, decided to contest the elections as part of the government.", "The bulk of Liberal MPs supported the government, – the Liberal Nationals (officially the \"National Liberals\" after 1947) led by Simon, also known as \"Simonites\", and the \"Samuelites\" or \"official Liberals\", led by Samuel who remained as the official party.", "Both groups secured about 34 MPs but proceeded to diverge even further after the election, with the Liberal Nationals remaining supporters of the government throughout its life.", "There were to be a succession of discussions about them rejoining the Liberals, but these usually foundered on the issues of free trade and continued support for the National Government.", "The one significant reunification came in 1946 when the Liberal and Liberal National party organisations in London merged.", "The National Liberals, as they were called by then, were gradually absorbed into the Conservative Party, finally merging in 1968.The official Liberals found themselves a tiny minority within a government committed to protectionism.", "Slowly they found this issue to be one they could not support.", "In early 1932 it was agreed to suspend the principle of collective responsibility to allow the Liberals to oppose the introduction of tariffs.", "Later in 1932 the Liberals resigned their ministerial posts over the introduction of the Ottawa Agreement on Imperial Preference.", "However, they remained sitting on the government benches supporting it in Parliament, though in the country local Liberal activists bitterly opposed the government.", "Finally in late 1933 the Liberals crossed the floor of the House of Commons and went into complete opposition.", "By this point their number of MPs was severely depleted.", "In the 1935 general election, just 17 Liberal MPs were elected, along with Lloyd George and three followers as independent Liberals.", "Immediately after the election the two groups reunited, though Lloyd George declined to play much of a formal role in his old party.", "Over the next ten years there would be further defections as MPs deserted to either the Liberal Nationals or Labour.", "Yet there were a few recruits, such as Clement Davies, who had deserted to the National Liberals in 1931 but now returned to the party during World War II and who would lead it after the war.=== Near extinction ===Samuel had lost his seat in the 1935 election and the leadership of the party fell to Sir Archibald Sinclair.", "With many traditional domestic Liberal policies now regarded as irrelevant, he focused the party on opposition to both the rise of Fascism in Europe and the appeasement foreign policy of the National Government, arguing that intervention was needed, in contrast to the Labour calls for pacifism.", "Despite the party's weaknesses, Sinclair gained a high profile as he sought to recall the Midlothian Campaign and once more revitalise the Liberals as the party of a strong foreign policy.In 1940, they joined Churchill's wartime coalition government, with Sinclair serving as Secretary of State for Air, the last British Liberal to hold Cabinet rank office for seventy years.", "However, it was a sign of the party's lack of importance that they were not included in the War Cabinet; some leading party members founded Radical Action, a group which called for liberal candidates to break the war-time electoral pact.", "At the 1945 general election, Sinclair and many of his colleagues lost their seats to both Conservatives and Labour and the party returned just 12 MPs to Westminster, but this was just the beginning of the decline.", "In 1950, the general election saw the Liberals return just nine MPs.", "Another general election was called in 1951 and the Liberals were left with just six MPs and all but one of them were aided by the fact that the Conservatives refrained from fielding candidates in those constituencies.In 1957, this total fell to five when one of the Liberal MPs died and the subsequent by-election was lost to the Labour Party, which selected the former Liberal Deputy Leader Megan Lloyd George as its own candidate.", "The Liberal Party seemed close to extinction.", "During this low period, it was often joked that Liberal MPs could hold meetings in the back of one taxi.=== Liberal revival ===Through the 1950s and into the 1960s the Liberals survived only because a handful of constituencies in rural Scotland and Wales clung to their Liberal traditions, whilst in two English towns, Bolton and Huddersfield, local Liberals and Conservatives agreed to each contest only one of the town's two seats.", "Jo Grimond, for example, who became Leader of the Liberal Party in 1956, was MP for the remote Orkney and Shetland islands.", "Under his leadership a Liberal revival began, marked by the Orpington by-election of March 1962 which was won by Eric Lubbock.", "There, the Liberals won a seat in the London suburbs for the first time since 1935.The Liberals became the first of the major British political parties to advocate British membership of the European Economic Community.", "Grimond also sought an intellectual revival of the party, seeking to position it as a non-socialist radical alternative to the Conservative government of the day.", "In particular he canvassed the support of the young post-war university students and recent graduates, appealing to younger voters in a way that many of his recent predecessors had not, and asserting a new strand of Liberalism for the post-war world.The new middle-class suburban generation began to find the Liberals' policies attractive again.", "Under Grimond (who retired in 1967) and his successor, Jeremy Thorpe, the Liberals regained the status of a serious third force in British politics, polling up to 20% of the vote, but unable to break the duopoly of Labour and Conservative and win more than fourteen seats in the Commons.", "An additional problem was competition in the Liberal heartlands in Scotland and Wales from the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru who both grew as electoral forces from the 1960s onwards.", "Although Emlyn Hooson held on to the seat of Montgomeryshire, upon Clement Davies death in 1962, the party lost five Welsh seats between 1950 and 1966.In September 1966, the Welsh Liberal Party formed their own state party, moving the Liberal Party into a fully federal structure.In local elections, Liverpool remained a Liberal stronghold, with the party taking the plurality of seats on the elections to the new Liverpool Metropolitan Borough Council in 1973.On 26 July 1973, the party won two by-elections on the same day, in the Isle of Ely (with Clement Freud), and Ripon (with David Austick).", "In the February 1974 general election, the Conservative government of Edward Heath won a plurality of votes cast, but the Labour Party gained a plurality of seats.", "The Conservatives were unable to form a government due to the Ulster Unionist MPs refusing to support the Conservatives after the Northern Ireland Sunningdale Agreement.", "The Liberals obtained 6.1 million votes, the most it would ever achieve, and now held the balance of power in the Commons.", "Conservatives offered Thorpe the Home Office if he would join a coalition government with Heath.", "Thorpe was personally in favour of it, but the party insisted it would only agree pending a clear government commitment to introducing proportional representation (PR) and a change of prime minister.", "The former was unacceptable to Heath's cabinet and the latter to Heath personally, so the talks collapsed.", "Instead, a minority Labour government was formed under Harold Wilson but with no formal support from Thorpe.", "In the October 1974 general election, the Liberals total vote slipped back slightly (and declined in each of the next three) and the Labour government won a wafer-thin majority.Thorpe was subsequently forced to resign after allegations that he attempted to have his homosexual lover murdered by a hitman.", "The party's new leader, David Steel, negotiated the Lib-Lab pact with Wilson's successor as prime minister, James Callaghan.", "According to this pact, the Liberals would support the government in crucial votes in exchange for some influence over policy.", "The agreement lasted from 1977 to 1978, but proved mostly fruitless, for two reasons: the Liberals' key demand of PR was rejected by most Labour MPs, whilst the contacts between Liberal spokespersons and Labour ministers often proved detrimental, such as between Treasury spokesperson John Pardoe and Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis Healey, who were mutually antagonistic.=== Alliance, Liberal Democrats and reconstituted Liberal Party ===The Conservative Party under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher won the 1979 general election, placing the Labour Party back in opposition, which served to push the Liberals back into the margins.In 1981, defectors from a moderate faction of the Labour Party, led by former Cabinet ministers Roy Jenkins, David Owen and Shirley Williams, founded the Social Democratic Party (SDP).", "The new party and the Liberals quickly formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance, which for a while polled as high as 50% in the opinion polls and appeared capable of winning the next general election.", "Indeed, Steel was so confident of an Alliance victory that he told the 1981 Liberal conference, \"Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!", "\".However, the Alliance was overtaken in the polls by the Tories in the aftermath of the Falkland Islands War and at the 1983 general election the Conservatives were re-elected by a landslide, with Labour once again forming the opposition.", "While the SDP–Liberal Alliance came close to Labour in terms of votes (a share of more than 25%), it only had 23 MPs compared to Labour's 209.The Alliance's support was spread out across the country, and was not concentrated in enough areas to translate into seats.In the 1987 general election, the Alliance's share of the votes fell slightly and it now had 22 MPs.", "In the election's aftermath Steel proposed a merger of the two parties.", "Most SDP members voted in favour of the merger, but SDP leader David Owen objected and continued to lead a \"rump\" SDP.In March 1988, the Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party merged to create the Social and Liberal Democrats, renamed the Liberal Democrats in October 1989.Over two-thirds of Liberal members joined the merged party, along with all sitting MPs.", "Steel and SDP leader Robert Maclennan served briefly as interim leaders of the merged party.A group of Liberal opponents of the merger with the Social Democrats, including Michael Meadowcroft (the former Liberal MP for Leeds West) and Paul Wiggin (who served on Peterborough City Council as a Liberal), continued with a new party organisation under the name of the 'Liberal Party'.", "Meadowcroft joined the Liberal Democrats in 2007, but the Liberal Party as reconstituted in 1989 continues to hold council seats and field candidates in Westminster Parliamentary elections.", "None of the nineteen Liberal candidates in 2019 achieved 5% of the votes, resulting in all losing their deposits." ], [ "Ideology", "A crowd waits outside Leeds Town Hall to see them elect a Liberal Party candidate during the 1880 general elections.During the 19th century, the Liberal Party was broadly in favour of what would today be called classical liberalism, supporting ''laissez-faire'' economic policies such as free trade and minimal government interference in the economy (this doctrine was usually termed Gladstonian liberalism after the Victorian era Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone).", "The Liberal Party favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England (many of them were nonconformists) and an extension of the electoral franchise.", "Sir William Harcourt, a prominent Liberal politician in the Victorian era, said this about liberalism in 1872: If there be any party which is more pledged than another to resist a policy of restrictive legislation, having for its object social coercion, that party is the Liberal party.", "(Cheers.)", "But liberty does not consist in making others do what you think right, (Hear, hear.)", "The difference between a free Government and a Government which is not free is principally this—that a Government which is not free interferes with everything it can, and a free Government interferes with nothing except what it must.", "A despotic Government tries to make everybody do what it wishes; a Liberal Government tries, as far as the safety of society will permit, to allow everybody to do as he wishes.", "It has been the tradition of the Liberal party consistently to maintain the doctrine of individual liberty.", "It is because they have done so that England is the place where people can do more what they please than in any other country in the world.", "...", "It is this practice of allowing one set of people to dictate to another set of people what they shall do, what they shall think, what they shall drink, when they shall go to bed, what they shall buy, and where they shall buy it, what wages they shall get and how they shall spend them, against which the Liberal party have always protested.The political terms of \"modern\", \"progressive\" or \"new\" Liberalism began to appear in the mid to late 1880s and became increasingly common to denote the tendency in the Liberal Party to favour an increased role for the state as more important than the classical liberal stress on self-help and freedom of choice.By the early 20th century, the Liberals stance began to shift towards \"New Liberalism\", what would today be called social liberalism, namely a belief in personal liberty with a support for government intervention to provide social welfare.", "This shift was best exemplified by the Liberal government of H. H. Asquith and his Chancellor David Lloyd George, whose Liberal reforms in the early 1900s created a basic welfare state.David Lloyd George adopted a programme at the 1929 general election entitled ''We Can Conquer Unemployment!", "'', although by this stage the Liberals had declined to third-party status.", "The Liberals as expressed in the ''Liberal Yellow Book'' now regarded opposition to state intervention as being a characteristic of right-wing extremists.After nearly becoming extinct in the 1940s and the 1950s, the Liberal Party revived its fortunes somewhat under the leadership of Jo Grimond in the 1960s by positioning itself as a radical centrist, non-socialist alternative to the Conservative and Labour Party governments of the time.=== Religious alignment ===Since 1660, nonconformist Protestants have played a major role in English politics.", "Relatively few MPs were Dissenters.", "However the Dissenters were a major voting bloc in many areas, such as the East Midlands.", "They were very well organised and highly motivated and largely won over the Whigs and Liberals to their cause.", "Down to the 1830s, Dissenters demanded removal of political and civil disabilities that applied to them (especially those in the Test and Corporation Acts).", "The Anglican establishment strongly resisted until 1828.Numerous reforms of voting rights, especially that of 1832, increased the political power of Dissenters.", "They demanded an end to compulsory church rates, in which local taxes went only to Anglican churches.", "They finally achieved the end of religious tests for university degrees in 1905.Gladstone brought the majority of Dissenters around to support for Home Rule for Ireland, putting the dissenting Protestants in league with the Irish Roman Catholics in an otherwise unlikely alliance.", "The Dissenters gave significant support to moralistic issues, such as temperance and sabbath enforcement.", "The nonconformist conscience, as it was called, was repeatedly called upon by Gladstone for support for his moralistic foreign policy.", "In election after election, Protestant ministers rallied their congregations to the Liberal ticket.", "In Scotland, the Presbyterians played a similar role to the Nonconformist Methodists, Baptists and other groups in England and Wales.By the 1820s, the different Nonconformists, including Wesleyan Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists and Unitarians, had formed the Committee of Dissenting Deputies and agitated for repeal of the highly restrictive Test and Corporation Acts.", "These Acts excluded Nonconformists from holding civil or military office or attending Oxford or Cambridge, compelling them to set up their own Dissenting Academies privately.", "The Tories tended to be in favour of these Acts and so the Nonconformist cause was linked closely to the Whigs, who advocated civil and religious liberty.", "After the Test and Corporation Acts were repealed in 1828, all the Nonconformists elected to Parliament were Liberals.", "Nonconformists were angered by the Education Act 1902, which integrated Church of England denominational schools into the state system and provided for their support from taxes.", "John Clifford formed the National Passive Resistance Committee and by 1906 over 170 Nonconformists had gone to prison for refusing to pay school taxes.", "They included 60 Primitive Methodists, 48 Baptists, 40 Congregationalists and 15 Wesleyan Methodists.The political strength of Dissent faded sharply after 1920 with the secularisation of British society in the 20th century.", "The rise of the Labour Party reduced the Liberal Party strongholds into the nonconformist and remote \"Celtic Fringe\", where the party survived by an emphasis on localism and historic religious identity, thereby neutralising much of the class pressure on behalf of the Labour movement.", "Meanwhile, the Anglican Church was a bastion of strength for the Conservative Party.", "On the Irish issue, the Anglicans strongly supported unionism.", "Increasingly after 1850, the Roman Catholic element in England and Scotland was composed of recent emigrants from Ireland who largely voted for the Irish Parliamentary Party until its collapse in 1918." ], [ "Liberal leaders", "=== Liberal Leaders in the House of Lords ===* Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville (1859–1865)* John Russell, 1st Earl Russell (1865–1868)* Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville (1868–1891)* John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (1891–1894)* Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery (1894–1896)* John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (1896–1902)* John Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer (1902–1905)* George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon (1905–1908)* Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe (1908–1923)* Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon (1923–1924)* William Lygon, 7th Earl Beauchamp (1924–1931)* Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading (1931–1936)* Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe (1936–1944)* Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel (1944–1955)* Philip Rea, 2nd Baron Rea (1955–1967)* Frank Byers, Baron Byers (1967–1984)* Nancy Seear, Baroness Seear (1984–1989)=== Liberal Leaders in the House of Commons ===* Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston (1859–1865)* William Gladstone (1865–1875)* Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire (1875–1880)* William Gladstone (1880–1894)* Sir William Harcourt (1894–1898)* Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1899–1908)* H. H. Asquith (1908–1916)=== Leaders of the Liberal Party ===* H. H. Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith, 1925 (1916–1926)** Donald Maclean, Acting Leader (1919–1920)* David Lloyd George (1926–1931)* Sir Herbert Samuel (1931–1935)* Sir Archibald Sinclair (1935–1945)* Clement Davies (1945–1956)* Jo Grimond (1956–1967)* Jeremy Thorpe (1967–1976)* Jo Grimond, Interim Leader (1976)* David Steel (1976–1988)=== Deputy Leaders of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons ===* Herbert Samuel (1929–1931)* Archibald Sinclair (1931–1935)* Post vacant (1935–1940)* Percy Harris (1940–1945)* Post vacant (1945–1949)* Megan Lloyd George (1949–1951)* Post vacant (1951–1962)* Donald Wade (1962–1964)* Post vacant (1964–1979)* John Pardoe (1976–1979)* Post vacant (1979–1985)* Alan Beith (1985–1988)=== Deputy Leaders of the Liberal Party in the House of Lords ===* Eric Drummond, 16th Earl of Perth (1946–1951)* Walter Layton, 1st Baron Layton (1952–1955)* Post vacant (1955–1965)* Gladwyn Jebb, 1st Baron Gladwyn (1965–1988)=== Liberal Party front bench team members ===* 1945–1956* 1956–1967* 1967–1976" ], [ "Electoral performance", "+Parliament of the United KingdomElectionLeaderVotesSeatsPositionGovernmentNo.%No.±1865Henry John Temple508,82159.5 13 1st1868William Gladstone1,428,77661.5 18 1st18741,281,15952.0 145 2nd1880Spencer Cavendish1,836,42354.2 110 1st1885William Gladstone2,199,19847.4 33 1st18861,353,58145.5 128 2nd18922,088,01945.4 80 1st1895Archibald Primrose1,765,26645.7 95 2nd1900Henry Campbell-Bannerman1,572,32344.7 6 2nd19062,565,64448.9 214 1stJanuary 1910H.", "H. Asquith2,712,51143.5 123 1stDecember 19102,157,25643.2 2 1st19181,355,39813.0 235 5th19222,601,48618.9 26 3rd19234,129,92229.7 96 3rd19242,818,71717.8 118 3rd1929David Lloyd George5,104,63823.6 19 3rd1931Herbert Samuel1,346,5716.5 29 4th19351,414,0106.7 12 4th1945Archibald Sinclair2,177,9389.0 9 3rd1950Clement Davies2,621,4879.1 3 6th1951730,5462.5 3 4th1955722,4022.7 0 3rd1959Jo Grimond1,640,7605.9 0 3rd19643,099,28311.2 3 3rd19662,327,5338.5 3 3rd1970Jeremy Thorpe2,117,0357.5 6 3rdFebruary 19746,059,51919.3 8 3rdOctober 19745,346,70418.3 1 3rd1979David Steel4,313,80413.8 2 3rd19834,273,14625.4 6 3rd19874,170,84922.6 0 3rd; Notes" ], [ "See also", "Leeds and County Liberal Club blue plaque* :Category:Liberal Party (UK) MPs* List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs* Liberalism in the United Kingdom* Liberal Democrats* List of United Kingdom Liberal Party Leaders* List of United Kingdom Whig and allied party leaders (1801–59)* List of Liberal Chief Whips* President of the Liberal Party* List of UK Liberal Party general election manifestos" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adelman, Paul.", "''The decline of the Liberal Party 1910–1931'' (2nd ed.", "Routledge, 2014).", "* Bentley, Michael ''The Climax of Liberal Politics: British Liberalism in Theory and Practice, 1868–1918'' (1987).", "* * Brack, Duncan; Ingham, Robert; Little, Tony, eds.", "''British Liberal Leaders'' (2015).", "* Campbell, John ''Lloyd George, The Goat in the Wilderness, 1922–31'' (1977).", "* Clarke, P. F. \"The Electoral Position of the Liberal and Labour Parties, 1910–1914.\"", "''English Historical Review'' 90.357 (1975): 828–836.in JSTOR.", "* Cook, Chris.", "''A Short History of the Liberal Party, 1900–2001'' (6th edition).", "Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002..* Cregier, Don M. \"The Murder of the British Liberal Party,\" ''The History Teacher'' 3#4 (1970), pp.", "27–36 online edition* Cross, Colin.", "''The Liberals in Power, 1905–1914'' (1963).", "* David, Edward.", "“The Liberal Party Divided 1916–1918.” ''Historical Journal'' 13#3 (1970, pp.", "509–32, online* Dangerfield, George.", "''The Strange Death of Liberal England'' (1935), a famous classic online free.", "* Dutton, David.", "''A History of the Liberal Party Since 1900'' (2nd ed.", "Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).", "* Fairlie, Henry.", "\"Oratory in Political Life,\" ''History Today'' (Jan 1960) 10#1 pp 3–13.A survey of political oratory in Britain from 1730 to 1960.", "* Fahey, David M. “Temperance and the Liberal Party – Lord Peel's Report, 1899.” ''Journal of British Studies'' 20#3 (1971), pp.", "132–59, online.", "* Gilbert, Bentley Brinkerhoff.", "''David Lloyd George: A Political Life: The Architect of Change 1863–1912'' (1987)' ''David Lloyd George: A Political Life: Organizer of Victory, 1912–1916'' (1992).", "* Goodlad, Graham D. “The Liberal Party and Gladstone's Land Purchase Bill of 1886.” ''Historical Journal'' 32#3 (1989), pp.", "627–41, online.", "* Hammond, J. L. and M. R. D. Foot. ''", "Gladstone and Liberalism'' (1952)* Häusermann, Silja, Georg Picot, and Dominik Geering.", "\"Review article: Rethinking party politics and the welfare state–recent advances in the literature\".", "''British Journal of Political Science'' 43#1 (2013): 221–240.online.", "* Hazlehurst, Cameron.", "\"Asquith as Prime Minister, 1908–1916,\" ''The English Historical Review'' 85#336 (1970), pp.", "502–531 in JSTOR.", "* Heyck, Thomas William.", "“Home Rule, Radicalism, and the Liberal Party, 1886–1895.” ''Journal of British Studies'' 13#2 (1974), pp.", "66–91, online.", "* Hughes, K. M. “A Political Party and Education: Reflections on the Liberal Party's Educational Policy, 1867–1902.” ''British Journal of Educational Studies'' 8#2, (1960), pp.", "112–26, online.", "* Jenkins, Roy.", "\"From Gladstone to Asquith: The Late Victorian Pattern of Liberal Leadership,\" ''History Today'' (July 1964) 14#7 pp 445–452.", "* Jenkins, Roy.", "''Asquith: portrait of a man and an era'' (1964).", "* Jenkins, T. A.", "“Gladstone, the Whigs and the Leadership of the Liberal Party, 1879–1880.” ''Historical Journal'' 27#2 (1984), pp.", "337–60, online.", "* Jones, Thomas.", "''Lloyd George'' (1951), short biography* Kellas, James G. “The Liberal Party in Scotland 1876–1895.” ''Scottish Historical Review'' 44#137, (1965), pp.", "1–16, online* Laybourn, Keith.", "\"The rise of Labour and the decline of Liberalism: the state of the debate.\"", "''History'' 80.259 (1995): 207–226, historiography.", "* Lubenow, W. C. “Irish Home Rule and the Social Basis of the Great Separation in the Liberal Party in 1886.” ''Historical Journal'' 28#1 (1985), pp.", "125–42, online.", "* Lynch, Patricia.", "''The Liberal Party in Rural England, 1885–1910: Radicalism and Community'' (2003).", "* MacAllister, Iain, et al., \"Yellow fever?", "The political geography of Liberal voting in Great Britain,\" ''Political Geography'' (2002) 21#4 pp. 421–447.", "* McEwen, John M. “The Liberal Party and the Irish Question during the First World War.” ''Journal of British Studies,'' 12#1, (1972), pp.", "109–31, online.", "* McGill, Barry.", "“Francis Schnadhorst and Liberal Party Organization.” ''Journal of Modern History'' 34#1 (1962), pp.", "19–39, online.", "* Machin, G. I. T. \"Gladstone and Nonconformity in the 1860s: The Formation of an Alliance.\"", "''Historical Journal'' 17, no.", "2 (1974): 347–64.online.", "* McCready, H. W. “Home Rule and the Liberal Party, 1899–1906.” ''Irish Historical Studies'' 13#52, (1963), pp.", "316–48, online.", "* * Mowat, Charles Loch.", "''Britain between the Wars, 1918–1940'' (1955) 694 pp.", "scholarly survey online* Packer, Ian.", "''Liberal government and politics, 1905–15'' (Springer, 2006).", "* Parry, Jonathan.", "''The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain'' (Yale, 1993) .", "* Poe, William A.", "“Conservative Nonconformists: Religious Leaders and the Liberal Party in Yorkshire/Lancashire.” ''Nineteenth Century Studies'', vol.", "2, (1988), pp.", "63–72, online.", "* Pugh, Martin D. \"Asquith, Bonar Law and the First Coalition.\"", "''Historical Journal'' 17.4 (1974): 813–836.", "* Pugh, Martin.", "“The Liberal Party and the Popular Front.” ''English Historical Review'' 121#494, (2006), pp.", "1327–50, online.", "* Rossi, John P. “The Transformation of the British Liberal Party: A Study of the Tactics of the Liberal Opposition, 1874–1880.” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 68#8, (1978), pp.", "1–133, online.", "* Rossi, John P. “English Catholics, the Liberal Party, and the General Election of 1880.” ''Catholic Historical Review,'' 63#3, (1977), pp.", "411–27, online.", "* Russell, A.K.", "''Liberal Landslide: The General Election of 1906'' (David & Charles, 1973).", "* Searle, G. R. “The Edwardian Liberal Party and Business.” ''English Historical Review'' 98#386, (1983), pp.", "28–60, online.", "* Searle, G. R. ''A New England?", "Peace and war, 1886–1918'' (Oxford University Press, 2004), wide-ranging scholarly survey* Thorpe, Andrew.", "\"Labour Leaders and the Liberals, 1906–1924\", ''Cercles'' 21 (2011), pp. 39–54.online.", "* Tregidga, Garry.", "“Turning of the Tide?", "A Case Study of the Liberal Party in Provincial Britain in the Late 1930s.” ''History'' 92#3 (2007), pp.", "347–66, online.", "* Weiler, Peter.", "''The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Wilson, Trevor.", "''The Downfall of the Liberal Party: 1914–1935'' (1966).===Historiography===* St. John, Ian.", "''The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli'' (Anthem Press, 2016) 402 pp.", "excerpt.", "* Thompson, J.", "A.", "“The Historians and the Decline of the Liberal Party.” ''Albion' 22#1, (1990), pp.", "65–83, online.=== Primary sources ===* ''Liberal Magazine 1901'' in-depth coverage of 1900.", "* ''Liberal Magazine 1900'' in-depth coverage of 1899.", "* Biographies and voting returns since 1880s.", "* Craig, Frederick Walter Scott, ed.", "(1975).", "''British General Election Manifestos, 1900–74''.", "Springer." ], [ "External links", "* Liberal Democrat History Group.", "* Catalogue of the Liberal Party papers (mostly dating from after 1945) at LSE Archives.", "* The Liberal Magazine Volume 2 1895.", "* Liberal Magazine A Periodical for the Use of Liberal Speakers, Writers and Canvassers Volume 1 1893.", "* Facts for Liberal Politicians By John Noble 1879.", "* Proceedings in Connection with the Annual Meeting of the National Liberal Federation with the Annual Report By National Liberal Federation, 1881.", "* Election Address and Speeches By Samuel Smith, 1882.", "* Annual Report Presented at a Meeting of the Council By National Liberal Federation, 1887.", "* Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Council By National Liberal Federation, 1895.", "* Five Years of Liberal Policy and Conservative Opposition By George Charles Brodrick, 1874.", "* Leaflets published by the Liberal Publication Department for the General Election of 1906, 1906.", "* The Liberal year book for 1908.", "* The Government's record, 1906–1913 : seven years of Liberal legislation and administration By Liberal Publication Dept.", "(Great Britain).", "* The Yale Review Volume 4 1895.", "* The Age of Lloyd George The Liberal Party and British Politics, 1890–1929 By Kenneth O. Morgan, 2021." ] ]

[ [ "Bank of England" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bank of England''' is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based.", "Established in 1694 to act as the English Government's banker and debt manager, and still one of the bankers for the Government of the United Kingdom, it is the world's eighth-oldest bank.", "The Bank was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946 by the Attlee ministry.", "In 1998 it became an independent public organisation, wholly owned by the Treasury Solicitor on behalf of the government, with a mandate to support the economic policies of the government of the day, but independence in maintaining price stability.", "In the 21st century the Bank took on increased responsibility for maintaining and monitoring financial stability in the UK, and it increasingly functions as a statutory regulator.The bank's headquarters have been in London's main financial district, the City of London, since 1694, and on Threadneedle Street since 1734.It is sometimes known as \"The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street\", a name taken from a satirical cartoon by James Gillray in 1797.The road junction outside is known as Bank Junction.The Bank, among other things, is custodian to the official gold reserves of the United Kingdom (and those of around 30 other countries).", ", the bank held around of gold, worth £141 billion.", "These estimates suggest that the vault could hold as much as 3% of the 171,300 tonnes of gold mined throughout human history." ], [ "Functions", "According to its strapline, the Bank's core purpose is 'promoting the good of the people of the United Kingdom by maintaining monetary and financial stability'.", "This is achieved in a variety of ways: ===Monetary stability===Stable prices and secure forms of payment are the two main criteria for monetary stability.", "====Stable prices====Stable prices are maintained by seeking to ensure that price increases meet the Government's inflation target.", "The bank aims to meet this target by adjusting the base interest rate (known as the bank rate), which is decided by the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC).", "(The MPC has devolved responsibility for managing monetary policy; HM Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee \"if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances\", but Parliament must endorse such orders within 28 days.", ")As of 2024 the inflation target is 2%; if this target is missed the Governor is required to write an open letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining the situation and proposing remedies.", "Other than setting the base interest rate, the main tool at the Bank's disposal in this regard is quantitative easing.", "====Secure forms of payment====The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales and regulates the issuance of banknotes by commercial banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland.", "(Scottish and Northern Irish banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one-for-one with deposits at the bank, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in 1845.)", "In addition the Bank supervises other payment systems, acting as a settlement agent and operating Real-time gross settlement systems including CHAPS.", "In 2024 the Bank was settling around £500 billion worth of payments between banks each day.===Financial stability===Maintaining financial stability involves protecting the UK's savers, investors and borrowers against threats to the financial system as a whole.", "Threats are detected by the bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions, and dealt with through financial and other operations (both at home and abroad).", "The majority of these safeguards were put in place in the wake of the 2008 global financial crisis:====Regulation====In 2011 the Bank's Prudential Regulation Authority was established to regulate and supervise all major banks, building societies, credit unions, insurers and investment firms in the UK ('microprudential regulation').", "The Bank also has a statutory supervisory role in relation to financial market infrastructures.====Risk management====At the same time, the bank's Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was set up to identify and monitor risks in the financial system, and to take appropriate action where necessary ('macroprudential regulation').", "The FPC publishes its findings (and actions taken) in a biannual Financial Stability Report.====Banking services====The Bank provides wholesale banking services to the UK Government (and to over a hundred overseas central banks).", "It manages the UK's Exchange Equalisation Account on behalf of HM Treasury and it maintains the government's Consolidated Fund account.", "It also manages the country's foreign exchange reserves and is custodian of the UK's (and others') gold reserves.", "The Bank also offers 'liquidity support and other services to banks and other financial institutions'.", "Commercial banks customarily keep a sizeable proportion of their cash reserves on deposit at the Bank of England.", "These central bank reserves are used by the banks to settle payments with one another; (for this reason the Bank of England is sometimes called 'the bankers' bank').", "In exceptional circumstances, the Bank may act as the lender of last resort by extending credit when no other institution will.As a regulator and central bank, the Bank of England has not offered consumer banking services for many years, but it still does manage some public-facing services (such as exchanging superseded bank notes).", "====Resolution====Under the terms of the Banking Act 2009 the Bank is the UK's Resolution Authority for any bank or building society judged 'too big to fail'; as such it is empowered to act in the event of a bank failure 'to protect the UK’s vital financial services and financial stability'.", "===Historic services and responsibilities===Between 1715 and 1998, the Bank of England managed Government Stocks (which formed the bulk of the national debt): the Bank was responsible for issuing stocks to stockholders, paying dividends and maintaining a register of transfers; however in 1998, following the decision to grant the bank operational independence, responsibility for government debt management was transferred to a new Debt Management Office, which also took over Exchequer cash management and responsibility for issuing Treasury bills from the Bank in 2000.Computershare took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (gilt-edged securities or 'gilts') from the bank at the end of 2004.The Bank, however, continues to act as settlement agent for the Debt Management Office and custodian of its securities.Ever since its foundation in 1694, the Bank had provided a retail banking service for the Government; however in 2008 it decided to withdraw from offering these services, which are now provided by a range of other financial institutions and managed by the Government Banking Service.Until 2016, the bank provided personal banking services as a privilege for employees.", "Previously, the Bank had maintained private and commercial accounts for all sorts of customers, including individuals, small businesses and public organisations; but a change of policy following the First World War saw the Bank increasingly withdraw from this type of business to focus more clearly on its central banking role." ], [ "History", "===Founding===Handwritten banknote dated 1697, signed 'for the Governor and Company of the Bank of England' by 2nd Cashier Robert Hedges.England's crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, became the catalyst for England to rebuild itself as a global power.", "William III's government wanted to build a naval fleet that would rival that of France; however, the ability to construct this fleet was hampered both by a lack of available public funds and the low credit of the English government in London.", "This lack of credit made it impossible for the English government to borrow the £1.5m that it wanted to construct the fleet.====Concept====In 1691, William Paterson had proposed establishing a national bank as a means of bolstering public finances.", "As he later wrote in his pamphlet ''A Brief Account of the Intended Bank of England'' (1694): While his scheme was not immediately acted upon, it did provide the basis for the Bank's first Charter and the legislation which made its establishment possible.", "Two other key figures in the Bank's creation were Charles Montagu, the Member of Parliament for Maldon, who played a crucial role in steering the proposals through Parliament (and was afterwards appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer); and Michael Godfrey, who helped persuade City financiers of its benefits (and was subsequently chosen to be the Bank's first Deputy Governor).", "It has also been claimed (by W. R. Scott, among others) that William Phips played a timely, if incidental, role: his successful expedition to retrieve booty from a sunken Spanish galleon (the ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'') helped create an ideal market for the Bank's foundation: flooding the market with bullion and creating an enthusiasm for joint-stock ventures.", "====Legislation====Charles Montagu played a key role in devising the legislation for establishing the Bank and steering it through the House of Commons.Paterson's proposal required the Government to set up a fund from which interest would be paid to the subscribers.", "It was decided that this would be provided for by income from tonnage, and certain other shipping duties routinely levied by HM Exchequer; therefore Parliament approved the Bank's establishment by means of the Tonnage Act 1694 ('An Act for granting to theire Majesties severall Rates and Duties upon Tunnage of Shipps and Vessells and upon Beere Ale and other Liquors for secureing certaine Recompenses and Advantages in the said Act mentioned to such Persons as shall voluntarily advance the summe of Fifteen hundred thousand Pounds towards the carrying on the Warr against France').", "To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the '''Governor and Company of the Bank of England'''.", "Public finances were in such dire condition at the time that the terms of the loan (as laid down in the Act of Parliament) were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum; there was also a service charge of £4,000 per annum payable to the Bank for the management of the loan.The Act limited the subscribers' investment to a maximum of £10,000 each in the first instance, and £1,200,000 in total (it was envisaged that the Exchequer would raise the remaining £300,000 through other forms of borrowing).====Incorporation====''Sealing of the Bank of England Charter (1694)'', by Lady Jane Lindsay, 1905The royal charter of the Bank of England was granted on 27 July 1694, three months after the passing of the Act.In the end the £1.2 million was raised in 12 days; 1,268 people subscribed.", "Their holdings were known as Bank Stock (Bank Stock continued to be held in private ownership until 1946 when the Bank of England was nationalised).", "The majority of the original subscribers were of 'the mercantile middle classes of London' (though tradesmen and artisans also subscribed).", "Most (more than two-thirds) contributed less than £1,000.As a proportion of the total amount raised, 25% came from 'esquires', 21% from merchants and 15% from titled aristocrats.", "Twelve per cent of the original subscribers were women.", "King William and Queen Mary (jointly) invested £10,000, the maximum permitted sum, as did a handful of others (including Sir John Houblon).Investment in the navy duly took place.", "As a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed (including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy) started to transform the economy.", "This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain – England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 – to become powerful.", "The power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.====Governance====The first Governor of the Bank was John Houblon, and the first Deputy Governor Michael Godfrey.", "(330 years later, in 1994, the Bank would issue a £50 note depicting Houblon to mark its tercentenary.)", "An early Bank of England note, with Britannia emblem, signed by the Chief Cashier, Thomas Madockes, and dated 1699.Governance was vested in the Governor, his Deputy and a 'Court' of 24 Directors (most of whom were merchant bankers recruited from the City); the Directors were elected annually by a 'General Court' of all the Bank's registered stockholders (collectively known as 'the Proprietors').", "The common seal of the Court of Directors, adopted on 30 July 1694, depicted 'Britannia sitting and looking on a Bank of mony'; Britannia has been the Bank's emblem ever since.", "The Court appointed three senior officers who, alongside the Governor and Deputy Governor, were responsible for its day-to-day running of the Bank: the Secretary and Sollicitor, the First Accomptant and the First Cashier.", "(Their successors, the Secretary, Chief Accountant and Chief Cashier, continued to head up the main divisions of the Bank's operations for the next 250 years: the Chief Cashier and the Chief Accountant had oversight of the 'cash side' and the 'stock side' of the Bank, respectively, while the Secretary oversaw its internal administration.)", "Besides these officers, the Bank in 1694 was staffed by seventeen clerks and two doorkeepers.====Premises====The bank initially did not have its own building, first opening on 1 August 1694 in Mercers' Hall on Cheapside.", "This however was found to be too small and from 31 December 1694 the bank operated from Grocers' Hall (located then on Poultry), where it would remain for almost 40 years.", "(Houblon had served as Master of the Grocers' Company in 1690-1691.", ")====Operation====The Act of Parliament prohibited the Bank from trading in goods or merchandise of any kind, though it was allowed to deal in gold and silver bullion, and in bills of exchange.", "Before very long, the Bank was maximising its profits by issuing banknotes, taking deposits and lending on mortgages.In its early days the Bank made significant losses, not least by accepting clipped coins in exchange for its banknotes.", "The establishment of a Land Bank (by John Asgill and Nicholas Barbon) in 1695, and a currency shortage occasioned by the Great Recoinage of 1696, both threatened the Bank's position; but Parliament intervened, passing another Act that year, which authorised the Bank to increase its capital to over £2.2 million through the enlarging of its stock by new subscriptions.", "===18th century===''Dividend Day at the Bank, 1770''.", "The Pay Hall of 1732 was one of the Bank's first buildings on Threadneedle Street.", "(At one time shareholders were required to attend in person for the payment of Government dividends; the practice was abolished in 1910).In 1700, the Hollow Sword Blade Company was purchased by a group of businessmen who wished to establish a competing English bank (in an action that would today be considered a \"back door listing\").", "The Bank of England's initial monopoly on English banking was due to expire in 1710.However, it was instead renewed, and the Sword Blade company failed to achieve its goal.", "The idea and reality of the national debt came about at around this time, and this was also largely managed by the bank.", "Through the 1715 Ways and Means Act, Parliament authorised the Bank to receive subscriptions for a government issue of 5% annuities, designed to raise £910,000; this marked the start of the Bank's role in managing Government Stocks, which were a means for people to invest in government debt (previously Government borrowing had been administered directly by the Exchequer).", "The Bank was obliged by the Act to pay half-yearly dividends and to keep a book record of all transfers (as it was already accustomed to do with regard to its own Bank Stock).The Bank did not have a monopoly on lending to the government, however: the South Sea Company had been established in 1711, and in 1720 it too became responsible for part of the UK's national debt, becoming a major competitor to the Bank of England.", "While the \"South Sea Bubble\" disaster soon ensued, the company continued managing part of the UK national debt until 1853.The East India Company too was a lender of choice for the government.In 1734 there were ninety-six members of staff at the bank.", "The bank's charter was renewed in 1742, and again in 1764.By the 1742 Act the Bank became the only joint-stock company allowed to issue bank notes in the metropolis.", "====Threadneedle Street====''A Perspective View of the Bank of England'' (published 1756): the bank initially occupied a narrow site behind the front on Threadneedle Street.The Bank of England moved to its current location, on the site of Sir John Houblon's house and garden in Threadneedle Street (close by the church of St Christopher le Stocks), in 1734.", "(The estate had been purchased ten years earlier; Houblon had died in 1712, but his widow lived on in the house until her death in 1731, after which the house was demolished and work on the bank began.)", "The newly-built premises, designed by George Sampson, occupied a narrow plot (around wide) extending north from Threadneedle Street.", "The front building contained transfer offices on the first floor, beneath which was an entrance arch leading to a courtyard.", "Facing the entrance was the 'main building' of the bank: a large Hall () in which bank notes were issued and exchanged, and where deposits and withdrawals could be made.", "(Sampson's Great Hall, later known as the Pay Hall, remained ''in situ'' and in use until Herbert Baker's comprehensive rebuilding in the late 1920s.)", "Beyond the Hall was a quadrangle of buildings enclosing a 'spacious and commodious Court-yard' (later known as Bullion Court).", "On the south side of the quadrangle were the Court Room and Committee Room, on the north side was a large Accountants' Office; on either side were arcaded walkways, with rooms for the senior officers, while the upper floors contained offices and apartments.", "Beneath the quadrangle were the vaults ('that have very strong Walls and Iron Gates, for the Preservation of the Cash'); access to the courtyard was provided, by way of a passage leading to a 'grand Gateway' on Bartholomew Lane, for the coaches and waggons 'that come frequently loaded with Gold and Silver Bullion'.", "The pediment above the entrance to the main Hall was decorated with a carved ''alto relievo'' figure of Britannia (who had appeared on the common seal of the Bank since 30 July 1694); the sculptor was Robert Taylor, who went on to be appointed Architect, in succession to Sampson, in 1764.Inside, the east end of the Hall was dominated by a large statue by John Cheere of King William III, lauded in an accompanying Latin inscription as the Bank's founder (''conditor''); at the opposite end, a large Venetian window looked out on St Christopher's churchyard.", "====Expansion====The Threadneedle Street front in 1773, after the addition of Taylor's east wing but before the demolition of St Christopher le Stocks (left).In the second half of the 18th century the Bank gradually acquired neighbouring plots of land to enable it to expand, and after 1765 new buildings began to be added by the Bank's newly-appointed architect Robert Taylor.", "North-west of the Pay Hall, overlooking St Christopher's churchyard to the south, Taylor built a suite of rooms for the Directors of the bank centred on a new (much larger) Court Room and Committee Room (When the Bank was rebuilt in the 1920s-30s, these rooms were removed from their original ground-floor location and reconstructed on the first floor; they continue to be used for meetings of the bank's Court of Directors and Monetary Policy Committee respectively.).", "East of the Pay Hall, Taylor built a suite of halls and offices dedicated to the management of stocks and dividends, which more or less doubled the size of the Bank's footprint (extending it as far as Bartholomew Lane).", "These rooms were centred on a large Rotunda, also known as the Brokers' Exchange, where dealing in Government Stock took place; around it were arranged four sizeable Transfer Offices, each corresponding with a different fund (as described in the 1820s: 'In each office under the several letters of the alphabet, are arranged the books on which the names of all persons having property in the funds are registered, as well as the particulars of their respective interests').", "All these offices were top-lit, to avoid the need for windows in the external walls.", "The bank in 1797: matching east and west wings by Sir Robert Taylor flank Sampson's centrepiece of 1733.In 1782 the church of St Christopher le Stocks was demolished, allowing the Bank to expand westwards along Threadneedle Street.", "The new west wing was completed to Taylor's design in 1786 (its frontage matching that of Taylor's earlier east wing): it housed the Reduced Annuities Office, the Cheque Office and the Dividend Warrant Office (among others).", "Immediately to the north lay the former churchyard of St Christopher le Stocks, which was preserved within the complex of buildings as a garden (known as the 'Garden Court').", "North of Bullion Court, Taylor built a new four-storey Library, to house the Bank's expanding collection of archives.", "====The Bank Picquet====The church's demolition had been prompted by the 1780 Gordon Riots, during which rioters reportedly climbed on the church to throw projectiles at the buildings of the Bank.", "During the riots, in June 1780, the Lord Mayor of London petitioned the Secretary of State to send a military guard to protect the Bank and the Mansion House.", "Thenceforward a nightly guard (the 'Bank Picquet') was provided by soldiers of the Household Brigade (a practice which continued until 1973).", "To house the guard Taylor built a Barracks (accessed from a separate entrance on Princes Street) in the north-west corner of the site.====John Soane's rebuilding====The Dividend Office as rebuilt by John Soane.Sir Robert Taylor died in 1788 and in his place the Bank appointed John Soane as Architect and Surveyor (he would remain in post until 1827).", "Under his direction, the bank was further expanded and partially rebuilt, bit by bit but to a cohesive plan.", "A survey of the buildings, undertaken at the start of his tenure, identified some problems, which were promptly remedied by Soane: for example in 1795 he rebuilt the Rotunda and two of the adjacent Transfer Offices (the Bank Stock Office and the Four Per Cent Office), replacing Taylor's timber roofs, which were leaking, with more durable stonework.", "At the same time Soane was tasked with purchasing properties to the north-east, so as to enable the bank to expand in that direction as far as Lothbury.", "Between 1794 and 1800 he designed a cohesive set of buildings within the new irregularly-shaped site: he reconfigured Bullion Court and provided a new entrance route for vehicles from the north, which was named Lothbury Court; to the west of this he built a new Chief Cashier's office, and rooms for the Secretary and Chief Accountant; to the east he constructed a new Library block and added a fifth Transfer Office (the Consols Transfer Office) to the north of the other four.====The Brokers' Exchange in the Bank====Soane's Rotunda, when still in use as a trading floor (1804).In the late 18th and early 19th century, prior to the establishment of the London Stock Exchange, the Rotunda in the Bank of England was used as a trading floor 'where stock-brokers, stock-jobbers, and other persons, meet for the purpose of transacting business in public funds'.", "Branching off from the Rotunda were 'offices appropriated to the management of each particular stock' containing books listing every individual's registered interest in the fund.", "The use of the Rotunda for trading ceased in 1838, but it continued to be used for the cashing of fundholders' dividend warrants.====Conflicts and credit crises====Satirical cartoon protesting against the introduction of paper money, by James Gillray, 1797.The \"Old Lady of Threadneedle St\" (the bank personified) is ravished by William Pitt the Younger.The credit crisis of 1772 has been described as the first modern banking crisis faced by the Bank of England.", "The whole City of London was in uproar when Alexander Fordyce was declared bankrupt.", "In August 1773, the Bank of England assisted the EIC with a loan.", "The strain upon the reserves of the Bank of England was not eased until towards the end of the year.During the American War of Independence, business for the bank was so good that George Washington remained a shareholder throughout the period.By the bank's charter renewal in 1781, it was also the bankers' bank – keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until 26 February 1797 when war had so diminished gold reserves that – following an invasion scare caused by the Battle of Fishguard days earlier – the government prohibited the bank from paying out in gold by the passing of the bank Restriction Act 1797.This prohibition lasted until 1821.In 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars, a Corps of Bank Volunteers was formed (of between 450 and 500 men) to defend the Bank in the event of an invasion.", "It was disbanded in 1802, but promptly re-formed the following year at the start of the Napoleonic Wars.", "Its soldiers were trained, in the event of an invasion, to remove the gold and silver from the vaults to a remote location, along with the banknote printing presses and certain important records.", "An armoury was provided on site at Threadneedle Street for their arms and accoutrements.", "The Corps was finally disbanded in 1814.===19th century===''View of the Bank of England taken from the north-west angle as erected in 1805'' (J. M. Gandy, 1825).At the start of the 19th century a plan was enacted by John Soane for the further extension of the Bank's premises, this time to the north-west (necessitating the rerouting of Princes Street, to form the new western boundary of the site).", "Much of the area of the new extension was taken up with steam-powered presses for the printing of banknotes (notes continued to be printed on site until the First World War, when the former St Luke's Hospital was acquired and converted into the Bank's printing works).", "Soane continued in post until 1833; in the last years before his retirement he completed his rebuilding of Taylor's east wing and reconfigured Sampson and Taylor's street-facing façades to make the entire perimeter of the complex a coherent whole.In 1811, an 'ingeniously-contrived clock' by Thwaites & Co. was installed above the Pay Hall: as well as chiming the hours and quarters, it conveyed the time remotely (by means of brass rods extending a total of in length) to dials located in sixteen different offices around the site.The Pay Hall (where notes were exchanged for coins, and vice-versa) pictured in 1866.The 'panic of 1825' highlighted risks inherent in the Bank's three-way split loyalties: to its stockholders, to the Government (and thereby to the public), and to its commercial banking customers.", "In 1825–26 the bank was able to avert a liquidity crisis when Nathan Mayer Rothschild succeeded in supplying it with gold; nevertheless in the wake of the crisis many country and provincial banks failed prompting numerous commercial bankruptcies.", "The passing of the Country Bankers Act 1826 allowed the Bank to open provincial branches for the better distribution of its banknotes (at the time small country banks, some of which were significantly undercapitalised, issued their own notes); by the end of the following year eight Bank of England branches had been set up around the country.Bank Stock of the Bank of England, issued 25 January 1876The Bank Charter Act 1844 tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the Bank of England sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes in England.", "Private banks that had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside London and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued; but they were offered inducements to relinquish this right.", "(The last private bank in England to issue its own notes was Thomas Fox's Fox, Fowler and Company bank in Wellington, which rapidly expanded until it merged with Lloyds Bank in 1927.They remained legal tender until 1964.", "(There are nine notes left in circulation; one is housed at Tone Dale House, Wellington.", "))The bank acted as lender of last resort for the first time in the panic of 1866.===20th century===The Bank's classic white five pound note remained in circulation until 1957.Until 1931 Britain was on the gold standard, meaning the value of sterling was fixed by the price of gold.", "That year, the Bank of England had to take Britain off the gold standard due to the effects of Great Depression spreading to Europe.====1913 attempted bombing==== Two suffragette bombs on display at the City of London Police Museum in 2019.The bomb on the left was used in an attempted bombing outside the bank on 4 April 1913, an attack that likely would have caused many casualties had it not been foiled.A terrorist bombing was attempted outside the Bank of England building on 4 April 1913.A bomb was discovered smoking and ready to explode next to railings outside the building.", "The bomb had been planted as part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, in which the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) launched a series of politically motivated bombing and arson attacks nationwide as part of their campaign for women's suffrage.", "The bomb was defused before it could detonate, in what was then one of the busiest public streets in the capital, which likely prevented many civilian casualties.", "The bomb had been planted the day after WSPU leader Emmeline Pankhurst was sentenced to three years' imprisonment for carrying out a bombing on the home of politician David Lloyd George.The remains of the bomb, which was built into a milk churn, are now on display at the City of London Police Museum.====Restructuring and rebuilding====During the governorship of Montagu Norman, from 1920 to 1944, the bank made deliberate efforts to move away from commercial banking and become a central bank.", "A later Governor, Robin Leigh-Pemberton, described it as 'a time of rapid change, in which we began to move away from the clerical traditions of 200 years ... and to accept specialisation, mechanisation and modern management disciplines'.", "Economists and statisticians began to be employed at the Bank in increasing number.", "In 1931 the 'Peacock Committee', set up to advise on organisational improvements, published recommendations which included the appointment of paid executive Directors (alongside the traditional non-executive members of the Court).", "It also recommended reconfiguration of the Bank's traditional departmental structures.", "Baker's rebuilt bank stands behind Soane's part-preserved curtain wall.The work of the Bank had significantly increased since the end of the First World War, and the decision was taken to expand.", "Between 1925 and 1939 the Bank's headquarters on Threadneedle Street were comprehensively rebuilt by Herbert Baker.", "(This involved the demolition of most of Sir John Soane's buildings, an act described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as \"the greatest architectural crime, in the City of London, of the twentieth century\".)", "Initially the plan had been to retain Soane's banking halls behind the curtain wall, but this proved challenging so they were instead demolished and rebuilt in facsimile.", "The demolition and rebuilding took place in stages, with staff moving from one part of the building to another (or, in some cases, into temporary accommodation at Finsbury Circus).", "The bullion and securities remained on site throughout.", "During reconstruction human remains pertaining to the old churchyard of St Christopher le Stocks were exhumed and reburied at Nunhead Cemetery.", "Ariel by Charles Wheeler.Baker's steel-framed building stands seven storeys high, with a further three vault storeys extending below ground level.", "It is decorated with sculpture and bronze work by Charles Wheeler, plasterwork by Joseph Armitage and mosaics by Boris Anrep.", "The Bank today is a Grade I listed building.1939 saw the introduction of Exchange Controls in the United Kingdom at the outbreak of the Second World War; these were administered by the Bank.", "During WWII, over 10% of the face value of circulating Pound Sterling banknotes were forgeries produced by Germany.A number of the Bank's operations and staff were relocated to Hampshire for the duration of the war, including the printing works (which moved to Overton), the Accountant's Department (which went to Hurstbourne Park) and various other offices.", "Those who remained at Threadneedle Street, including the Directors, moved their offices into the underground vaults.====Post-war nationalisation====In 1946, shortly after the end of Montagu Norman's tenure, the bank was nationalised by the Labour government.", "At the same time the number of Directors was reduced to sixteen (four of whom were full-time Executive Directors).The bank pursued the multiple goals of Keynesian economics after 1945, especially \"easy money\" and low-interest rates to support aggregate demand.", "It tried to keep a fixed exchange rate and attempted to deal with inflation and sterling weakness by credit and exchange controls.Bank of England New Change (bottom right) as seen from St Paul's.After the war, the very large Accountant's Department (which managed the stock side of the Bank) moved back to London from Hampshire.", "Its designated office-space at Threadneedle Street, however, had in the meantime been taken over by the Exchange Control office.", "The Department was instead provided with temporary accommodation (once more in Finsbury Circus), pending construction of a new building, which would occupy a two-acre bombsite immediately to the east of St Paul's Cathedral.", "'Bank of England New Change' was designed by Victor Heal and opened in 1957 (at the time it was London's biggest post-war rebuilding project); the new building contained several staff amenities alongside the office accommodation and, at street level, retail units were let to an assortment of businesses.", "The bank had the building on a 200-year lease; but with the advent of computerisation staff numbers were drastically reduced in the 1980s-90s; parts of the building were let to other firms (most notably the law firm Allen & Overy).", "The Bank sold the building in 2000 and in 2007 it was demolished; One New Change now stands on the site.The bank's \"10 bob note\" was withdrawn from circulation in 1970 in preparation for Decimal Day in 1971.United Kingdom bonds In 1977 the Bank set up a wholly owned subsidiary called Bank of England Nominees Limited (BOEN), a now-defunct private limited company, with two of its hundred £1 shares issued.", "According to its memorandum of association, its objectives were: \"To act as Nominee or agent or attorney either solely or jointly with others, for any person or persons, partnership, company, corporation, government, state, organisation, sovereign, province, authority, or public body, or any group or association of them\".", "Bank of England Nominees Limited was granted an exemption by Edmund Dell, Secretary of State for Trade, from the disclosure requirements under Section 27(9) of the Companies Act 1976, because \"it was considered undesirable that the disclosure requirements should apply to certain categories of shareholders\".", "The Bank of England is also protected by its royal charter status and the Official Secrets Act.", "BOEN was a vehicle for governments and heads of state to invest in UK companies (subject to approval from the Secretary of State), providing they undertake \"not to influence the affairs of the company\".", "In its later years, BOEN was no longer exempt from company law disclosure requirements.", "Although a dormant company, dormancy does not preclude a company actively operating as a nominee shareholder.", "BOEN had two shareholders: the Bank of England, and the Secretary of the Bank of England.The reserve requirement for banks to hold a minimum fixed proportion of their deposits as reserves at the Bank of England was abolished in 1981: see for more details.", "The contemporary transition from Keynesian economics to Chicago economics was analysed by Nicholas Kaldor in ''The Scourge of Monetarism''.The handing over of monetary policy to the bank became a key plank of the Liberal Democrats' economic policy for the 1992 general election.", "Conservative MP Nicholas Budgen had also proposed this as a private member's bill in 1996, but the bill failed as it had the support of neither the government nor the opposition.The UK government left the expensive-to-maintain European Exchange Rate Mechanism in September 1992, in an action that cost HM Treasury over £3 billion.", "This led to closer communication between the government and the bank.UK inflation history since 1960 In 1993, the bank produced its first ''Inflation Report'' for the government, detailing inflationary trends and pressures.", "This annually produced report remains one of the bank's major publications.", "The success of inflation targeting in the United Kingdom has been attributed to the bank's focus on transparency.", "The Bank of England has been a leader in producing innovative ways of communicating information to the public, especially through its Inflation Report, which many other central banks have emulated.The bank celebrated its three-hundredth birthday in 1994.In 1996, the bank produced its first ''Financial Stability Review''.", "This annual publication became known as the ''Financial Stability Report'' in 2006.Also that year, the bank set up its real-time gross settlement (RTGS) system to improve risk-free settlement between UK banks.On 6 May 1997, following the 1997 general election that brought a Labour government to power for the first time since 1979, it was announced by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, that the bank would be granted operational independence over monetary policy.", "Under the terms of the Bank of England Act 1998 (which came into force on 1 June 1998) the bank's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's Retail Prices Index (RPI) inflation target of 2.5%.", "The target has changed to 2% since the Consumer Price Index (CPI) replaced the Retail Prices Index as the Treasury's inflation index.", "If inflation overshoots or undershoots the target by more than 1% the Governor has to write a letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation.Independent central banks that adopt an inflation target are known as Friedmanite central banks.", "This change in Labour's politics was described by Skidelsky in ''The Return of the Master'' as a mistake and as an adoption of the rational expectations hypothesis as promulgated by Alan Walters.", "Inflation targets combined with central bank independence have been characterised as a \"starve the beast\" strategy creating a lack of money in the public sector.in June 1998 responsibility for the regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries was transferred from the Bank to the Financial Services Authority.", "A memorandum of understanding described the terms under which the bank, the Treasury, and the FSA would work toward the common aim of increased financial stability.", "(Ten years later, however, in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, new banking legislation transferred the responsibility for regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries back to the Bank of England).===21st century===2013: since the 18th century the bank's gatekeepers have worn 'pinks' (a livery associated with Sir John Houblon).The bank decided to sell its banknote-printing operations to De La Rue in December 2002, under the advice of Close Brothers Corporate Finance Ltd.Mervyn King became the Governor of the Bank of England on 30 June 2003.In 2009, a request made to HM Treasury under the Freedom of Information Act sought details about the 3% Bank of England stock owned by unnamed shareholders whose identity the bank is not at liberty to disclose.", "In a letter of reply dated 15 October 2009, HM Treasury explained that \"Some of the 3% Treasury stock which was used to compensate former owners of Bank stock has not been redeemed.", "However, interest is paid out twice a year and it is not the case that this has been accumulating and compounding.", "\"UK bond ratesIn 2010, the incoming Chancellor announced his intention to merge the Financial Services Authority back into the bank.", "In 2011 an interim Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was created (as a mirror committee to the Monetary Policy Committee) to spearhead the bank's new mandate on financial stability.", "The Financial Services Act 2012 gave the bank additional functions and bodies, including an independent FPC, the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA), and more powers to supervise financial market infrastructure providers.", "It also created the independent Financial Conduct Authority.", "These bodies are responsible for macroprudential regulation of all UK banks and insurance companies.Canadian Mark Carney assumed the post of Governor of the Bank of England on 1 July 2013.He served an initial five-year term rather than the typical eight.", "He became the first Governor not to be a United Kingdom citizen but has since been granted citizenship.", "At Government request, his term was extended to 2019, then again to 2020., the bank also had four Deputy Governors.BOEN was dissolved, following liquidation, in July 2017.Andrew Bailey succeeded Carney as the Governor of the Bank of England on 16 March 2020.===Asset purchase facility ===The bank has operated, since January 2009, an Asset Purchase Facility (APF) to buy \"high-quality assets financed by the issue of Treasury bills and the DMO's cash management operations\" and thereby improve liquidity in the credit markets.", "It has, since March 2009, also provided the mechanism by which the bank's policy of quantitative easing (QE) is achieved, under the auspices of the MPC.", "Along with managing the QE funds, which were £895 bn at peak, the APF continues to operate its corporate facilities.", "Both are undertaken by a subsidiary company of the Bank of England, the Bank of England Asset Purchase Facility Fund Limited (BEAPFF).QE was primarily designed as an instrument of monetary policy.", "The mechanism required the Bank of England to purchase government bonds on the secondary market, financed by creating new central bank money.", "This would have the effect of increasing the asset prices of the bonds purchased, thereby lowering yields and dampening longer-term interest rates.", "The policy's aim was initially to ease liquidity constraints in the sterling reserves system but evolved into a wider policy to provide economic stimulus.QE was enacted in six tranches between 2009 and 2020.At its peak in 2020, the portfolio totalled £895 billion, comprising £875 billion of UK government bonds and £20 billion of high-grade commercial bonds.In February 2022, the Bank of England announced its intention to commence winding down the QE portfolio.", "Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.In August 2022, the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind-down through active bond sales.", "This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022.Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn.", "In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September." ], [ "Banknote issues", "A £1 note dated 1797 (and marked as having been paid in 1928).The bank has issued banknotes since 1694.Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone.", "Notes were fully printed from 1855.Until 1928 all notes were \"White Notes\", printed in black and with a blank reverse.", "In the 18th and 19th centuries, White Notes were issued in £1 and £2 denominations.", "During the 20th century, White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000.Until the passing of the Gold Standard Act 1925 the bank was obliged to pay on demand the value of the note in gold coin to its bearer.In 1724 the bank entered into a contract with Henry Portal of Whitchurch, Hampshire to provide high-quality paper for the printing of banknotes.", "The printing itself was undertaken by private printing firms; the copper plates were kept in the vault, and accompanied during their time at the printer by a bank clerk (who would record the number of copies made); once dry they would be delivered to the bank.", "The printing operation was brought within the bank's premises (albeit still under private contract) in 1791; in 1808 it was brought fully in-house.Guinea banknote, issued by the Gloucester Old Bank in 1813.Until the mid-19th century, commercial banks were allowed to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation.", "The Bank Charter Act 1844 began the process of restricting note issue to the bank; new banks were prohibited from issuing their own banknotes, and existing note-issuing banks were not permitted to expand their issue.", "As provincial banking companies merged to form larger banks, they lost their right to issue notes, and the English private banknote eventually disappeared, leaving the bank with a monopoly of note issues in England and Wales.", "The last private bank to issue its own banknotes in England and Wales was Fox, Fowler and Company in 1921.However, the limitations of the 1844 Act only affected banks in England and Wales, and today three commercial banks in Scotland and four in Northern Ireland continue to issue their own banknotes, regulated by the bank.John Bradbury.At the start of the First World War, the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914 was passed, which granted temporary powers to HM Treasury for issuing banknotes to the values of £1 and 10/- (ten shillings).", "Treasury notes had full legal tender status and were not convertible into gold through the bank; they replaced the gold coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling and to enable raw material purchases for armament production.", "These notes featured an image of King George V (Bank of England notes did not begin to display an image of the monarch until 1960).", "The wording on each note was:Treasury notes were issued until 1928 when the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1928 returned note-issuing powers to the banks.", "The Bank of England issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time on 22 November 1928.An 'Operation Bernhard' £50 note, forged by prisoners at Sachsenhausen concentration camp.During the Second World War, the German Operation Bernhard attempted to counterfeit denominations between £5 and £50, producing 500,000 notes each month in 1943.The original plan was to parachute the money into the UK in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe.", "Although most fell into Allied hands at the end of the war, forgeries frequently appeared for years afterward, which led banknote denominations above £5 to be removed from circulation.In 2006, over £53 million in banknotes belonging to the bank was stolen from a depot in Tonbridge, Kent.In 1917 the bank had moved its printing operation into St Luke's Printing Works, a former hospital; in 1958 it moved out to Debden.", "Modern banknotes are printed by contract with De La Rue Currency in Loughton, Essex." ], [ "Branch offices", "Bank of England, King Street, Leeds: one of a number of new brutalist branch buildings opened in the early 1970s.For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the Bank had a number of branches in London and other English cities.", "The first branches opened in 1826 (with impetus provided by the passing of the Country Bankers Act, which for the first time permitted the establishment of joint-stock banks outside London).", "The Bank envisaged that the new network of branches would 'increase the circulation of Bank Notes, give the Bank much more complete control over the whole paper circulation, and protect the Bank against the competition of larger banking Companies'.", "Each branch was overseen by an Agent (a person of 'commercial knowledge, with local experience').", "By 1829 there were eleven branches operating (ten in England and one in Wales).", "Some of the less profitable branches were relatively short-lived, but others continued operating into the 1990s.", "In 1997 the five last remaining branches closed; the Agents, however, were retained, with a structure of Regional Agencies created (across the UK), some of which were based in former branch buildings.===List of Bank of England Branches=== Branch Opened Closed Notes Photo Birmingham 1827 1997 Opened in Union Street (in the former banking house of Gibbins, Smith & Goode); moved in 1838 to the former Bank of Birmingham building on Bennett's Hill, and then into the former Staffordshire Joint Stock Bank premises at 1 Temple Row in 1890.In 1970 it moved into a new building (pictured) at No.", "55.100px Bristol 1827 1997 Opened on Bridge Street.", "Moved into purpose-built premises on Broad Street (by C. R. Cockerell) in 1847; and thence to a new building on the High Street in 1963.100px Exeter 1827 1834 Opened in a house at 18 Southernhay Place; closed seven years later due to trading losses (the business was transferred to Plymouth).", "100px Gloucester 1826 1849 Opened in a former provincial bank premises (Turner, Turner & Morris) in Northgate Street; when it closed due to trading losses the business was taken over by the Bristol branch.", "Hull 1829 1939 Opened in Salthouse Lane (pictured); moved into a new building (by Philip Hardwick) in Whitefriargate in 1856.Closed after the premises were judged to be in poor repair and inconveniently located.", "100px Leeds 1827 1997 Opened in rented property in Boar Lane; relocated to Albion Street in 1835.The premises in Park Row (pictured), designed by Philip Hardwick, were opened in 1847; the branch moved into a new building in King Street in 1971.100px Leicester 1844 1872 Opened in 10 Gallowtree Gate (former premises of defunct banking house Clarke, Mitchell & Co.); when it closed due to trading losses the business was merged into that of the Birmingham branch.", "Liverpool 1827 1986 Opened in Hanover Street; moved in 1849 into purpose-built premises by C. R. Cockerell.", "100px London 'Law Courts' branch 1881 1975 Opened to facilitate links with the adjacent law courts and the Public Trustee office.", "100px London 'Western' branch 1855 1930 Operated largely as a commercial bank; when the Bank was disengaging from such activity, the building (and much of the business) was sold to the Royal Bank of Scotland.", "100px Manchester 1826 1997 Opened in King Street.", "Moved into new premises designed by C. R. Cockerell on an adjacent site in 1847; then to a new building in Portland Street in 1971.100px Newcastle-upon-Tyne 1828 1997 Opened in two converted houses on Clavering Place (later demolished for railway improvements).", "Moved to a new building in Grey Street (the Bank's first purpose-built branch) in 1838, where it remained until a new building was opened on Pilgrim Street in 1971.100px Norwich 1829 1852 Closed due to trading losses.", "100px Plymouth 1834 1949 Opened to facilitate supply of money to the Royal Navy Dockyards.", "(The branch building, in George Street, was bomb-damaged in the Second World War and subsequently closed).", "Portsmouth 1834 1914 Opened in the High Street to facilitate supply of money to the Naval Dockyards.", "Closed eighty years later due to declining business (cash by this time being more easily procured from London).", "Southampton 1940 1986 Opened on the High Street (in premises designed by A. V. Heal) to facilitate the shipping of gold and currency, as well as to serve the south of England.", "100px Swansea 1826 1859 Housed in the 'Old Bank' premises of Gibbins & Eaton in Temple Street, this was the only branch to have opened outside England.", "It closed due to trading losses and business was transferred to the Bristol branch." ], [ "Governance of the Bank of England", "===Governors===Following is a list of the governors of the Bank of England since the beginning of the 20th century: Name Period Samuel Gladstone 1899–1901 Augustus Prevost 1901–1903 Samuel Morley 1903–1905 Alexander Wallace 1905–1907 William Campbell 1907–1909 Reginald Eden Johnston 1909–1911 Alfred Cole 1911–1913 Walter Cunliffe 1913–1918 Brien Cokayne 1918–1920 Montagu Norman 1920–1944 Thomas Catto 1944–1949 Cameron Cobbold 1949–1961 Rowland Baring (3rd Earl of Cromer) 1961–1966 Leslie O'Brien 1966–1973 Gordon Richardson 1973–1983 Robert Leigh-Pemberton 1983–1993 Edward George 1993–2003 Mervyn King 2003–2013 Mark Carney 2013–2020 Andrew Bailey 2020–present===Court of Directors===The Court of Directors is a unitary board that is responsible for setting the organisation's strategy and budget and making key decisions on resourcing and appointments.", "It consists of five executive members from the bank (the Governor and the four Deputy Governors, each of whom oversees a different area of the Bank’s work), plus up to 9 non-executive members, all of whom are appointed by the Crown.", "The Chancellor selects the Chairman of the Court from among the non-executive members.", "The Court is required to meet at least seven times a year.The Governor serves for a period of eight years, the Deputy Governors for five years, and the non-executive members for up to four years.+ Court of Directors (2024) Name Function David Roberts Chair, Court of Directors Andrew Bailey Governor, Bank of England Benjamin Broadbent Deputy Governor, Monetary Policy Sarah Breeden Deputy Governor, Financial Stability Sam Woods Deputy Governor, Prudential Regulation and Chief Executive of the Prudential Regulation Authority Sir Dave Ramsden Deputy Governor, Markets and Banking Jonathan Bewes Non-Executive Director Sabine Chalmers Non-Executive Director Jitesh Gadhia Non-Executive Director Anne Glover Non-Executive Director Sir Ron Kalifa Non-Executive Director and Senior Independent Director Diana Noble Non-Executive Director and Deputy Chair Frances O'Grady Non-Executive Director Tom Shropshire Non-Executive Director===Other staff===The Secretary of the Bank of England is today responsible for the banks governance and ethics: 'He is responsible for ensuring the organisation is well run and advises our Court of Directors ...", "He is also our conflicts officer and supports the Government when it makes appointments to our policy committees and Court of Directors'.Since 2013, the bank has had a chief operating officer (COO) with the status and remuneration of a Deputy Governor.", ", the bank's COO is Ben Stimson; he is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the Bank, including Human Resources, Property, IT and Security.Some twenty Executive Directors work alongside the Governors, forming 'the wider executive management team'.", "Among their number are the Bank's chief economist (Huw Pill since 2021), and chief cashier." ], [ "See also", "* List of British currencies* Bank of England Act* Coins of the pound sterling* Financial Sanctions Unit* Commonwealth banknote-issuing institutions* Bank of England Museum* Deputy Governor of the Bank of England* List of directors of the Bank of England* List of central banks" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* , on nationalisation 1945–50, pp 43–76* Capie, Forrest.", "''The Bank of England: 1950s to 1979'' (Cambridge University Press, 2010).", "xxviii + 890 pp.", "excerpt and text search* * Fforde, John.", "''The Role of the Bank of England, 1941–1958'' (1992) excerpt and text search* Francis, John.", "''History of the Bank of England: Its Times and Traditions'' excerpt and text search* Hennessy, Elizabeth.", "''A Domestic History of the Bank of England, 1930–1960'' (2008) excerpt and text search* Kynaston, David.", "2017.Till Time's Last Sand: A History of the Bank of England, 1694–2013.Bloomsbury.", "* Lane, Nicholas.", "\"The Bank of England in the Nineteenth Century.\"", "''History Today'' (Aug 1960) 19#8 pp 535–541.", "* O'Brien, Patrick K.; Palma, Nuno (2022). \"", "Not an ordinary bank but a great engine of state: The Bank of England and the British economy, 1694–1844\".", "''The Economic History Review.", "''* Roberts, Richard, and David Kynaston.", "''The Bank of England: Money, Power and Influence 1694–1994'' (1995)* Sayers, R. S. ''The Bank of England, 1891–1944'' (1986) excerpt and text search* Schuster, F. ''The Bank of England and the State''* Wood, John H. ''A History of Central Banking in Great Britain and the United States'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005)" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Bakelite" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bakelite''' ( ), formally '''''', is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde resin, formed from a condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde.", "The first plastic made from synthetic components, it was developed by Leo Baekeland in Yonkers, New York, in 1907, and patented on December 7, 1909.Bakelite was one of the first plastic-like materials to be introduced into the modern world and was popular because it could be moulded and then hardened into any shape.Because of its electrical nonconductivity and heat-resistant properties, it became a great commercial success.", "It was used in electrical insulators, radio and telephone casings, and such diverse products as kitchenware, jewelry, pipe stems, children's toys, and firearms.The retro appeal of old Bakelite products has made them collectible.The creation of a synthetic plastic was revolutionary for the chemical industry, which at the time made most of its income from cloth dyes and explosives.", "Bakelite's commercial success inspired the industry to develop other synthetic plastics.", "As the world's first commercial synthetic plastic, Bakelite was named a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society." ], [ "History", "Bakelite was produced for the first time in 1872 by Adolf von Baeyer, though its use as a commercial product was not considered at the time.Leo Baekeland was already wealthy due to his invention of Velox photographic paper when he began to investigate the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde in his home laboratory.", "Chemists had begun to recognize that many natural resins and fibers were polymers.", "Baekeland's initial intent was to find a replacement for shellac, a material in limited supply because it was made naturally from the secretion of lac insects (specifically ''Kerria lacca'').", "He produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called Novolak, but it was not a market success, even though it is still used to this day (e.g., as a photoresist).He then began experimenting on strengthening wood by impregnating it with a synthetic resin rather than coating it.", "By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he produced a hard moldable material that he named Bakelite, after himself.", "It was the first synthetic thermosetting plastic produced, and Baekeland speculated on \"the thousand and one ... articles\" it could be used to make.", "He considered the possibilities of using a wide variety of filling materials, including cotton, powdered bronze, and slate dust, but was most successful with wood and asbestos fibers, though asbestos was gradually abandoned by all manufacturers due to stricter environmental laws.Baekeland filed a substantial number of related patents.", "Bakelite, his \"method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde\", was filed on July 13, 1907, and granted on December 7, 1909.He also filed for patent protection in other countries, including Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Russia, and Spain.", "He announced his invention at a meeting of the American Chemical Society on February 5, 1909.The first semi-commercial Bakelizer, from Baekeland's laboratory, 1935Baekeland started semi-commercial production of his new material in his home laboratory, marketing it as a material for electrical insulators.", "In the summer of 1909, he licensed the continental European rights to Rütger AG.", "The subsidiary formed at that time, Bakelite AG, was the first to produce Bakelite on an industrial scale.By 1910, Baekeland was producing enough material in the US to justify expansion.", "He formed the General Bakelite Company of Perth Amboy, New Jersey, as a U.S. company to manufacture and market his new industrial material, and made overseas connections to produce it in other countries.The Bakelite Company produced \"transparent\" cast resin (which did not include filler) for a small market during the 1910s and 1920s.", "Blocks or rods of cast resin, also known as \"artificial amber\", were machined and carved to create items such as pipe stems, cigarette holders, and jewelry.", "However, the demand for molded plastics led the company to concentrate on molding rather than cast solid resins.The Bakelite Corporation was formed in 1922 after patent litigation favorable to Baekeland, from a merger of three companies: Baekeland's General Bakelite Company; the Condensite Company, founded by J. W. Aylesworth; and the Redmanol Chemical Products Company, founded by Lawrence V. Redman.", "Under director of advertising and public relations Allan Brown, who came to Bakelite from Condensite, Bakelite was aggressively marketed as \"the material of a thousand uses\".", "A filing for a trademark featuring the letter B above the mathematical symbol for infinity was made August 25, 1925, and claimed the mark was in use as of December 1, 1924.A wide variety of uses were listed in their trademark applications.", "Color chart for Bakelite \"jewel\" quality colors (cast resin or \"Clear Material\"), 1924The first issue of ''Plastics'' magazine, October 1925, featured Bakelite on its cover and included the article \"Bakelite – What It Is\" by Allan Brown.", "The range of colors that were available included \"black, brown, red, yellow, green, gray, blue, and blends of two or more of these\".", "The article emphasized that Bakelite came in various forms.In a 1925 report, the United States Tariff Commission hailed the commercial manufacture of synthetic phenolic resin as \"distinctly an American achievement\", and noted that \"the publication of figures, however, would be a virtual disclosure of the production of an individual company\".In England, Bakelite Limited, a merger of three British phenol formaldehyde resin suppliers (Damard Lacquer Company Limited of Birmingham, Mouldensite Limited of Darley Dale and Redmanol Chemical Products Company of London), was formed in 1926.A new Bakelite factory opened in Tyseley, Birmingham, around 1928.It was the \"heart of Bakelite production in the UK\" until it closed in 1987.A factory to produce phenolic resins and precursors opened in Bound Brook, New Jersey, in 1931.In 1939, the companies were acquired by Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation.In 2005, German Bakelite manufacturer Bakelite AG was acquired by Borden Chemical of Columbus, Ohio, now Hexion Inc.In addition to the original Bakelite material, these companies eventually made a wide range of other products, many of which were marketed under the brand name \"Bakelite plastics\".", "These included other types of cast phenolic resins similar to Catalin, and urea-formaldehyde resins, which could be made in brighter colors than .Once Baekeland's heat and pressure patents expired in 1927, Bakelite Corporation faced serious competition from other companies.", "Because molded Bakelite incorporated fillers to give it strength, it tended to be made in concealing dark colors.", "In 1927, beads, bangles, and earrings were produced by the Catalin company, through a different process which enabled them to introduce 15 new colors.", "Translucent jewelry, poker chips and other items made of phenolic resins were introduced in the 1930s or 1940s by the Catalin company under the Prystal name.", "The creation of marbled phenolic resins may also be attributable to the Catalin company." ], [ "Synthesis", "Making Bakelite is a multi-stage process.", "It begins with the heating of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of a catalyst such as hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride, or the base ammonia.", "This creates a liquid condensation product, referred to as ''Bakelite A'', which is soluble in alcohol, acetone, or additional phenol.", "Heated further, the product becomes partially soluble and can still be softened by heat.", "Sustained heating results in an \"insoluble hard gum\".", "However, the high temperatures required to create this tend to cause violent foaming of the mixture when done at standard atmospheric pressure, which results in the cooled material being porous and breakable.", "Baekeland's innovative step was to put his \"last condensation product\" into an egg-shaped \"Bakelizer\".", "By heating it under pressure, at about , Baekeland was able to suppress the foaming that would otherwise occur.", "The resulting substance is extremely hard and both infusible and insoluble.File:Weigh Room Liquid Materials 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p12.tif | Weigh roomFile:Still room 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p12.tif | Still roomFile:Bakelite Cooling Room 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p13.tif | Cooling roomFile:Resin and Varnish inspection laboratory 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p17.tif | Resin and varnish inspection laboratoryFile:Test samples 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p17.tif | Testing resin samplesFile:Resin and Varnish Development Laboratory 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p17.tif | Development laboratory===Compression molding===A combustion engine's spark distributor rotor made of BakeliteMolded Bakelite forms in a condensation reaction of phenol and formaldehyde, with wood flour or asbestos fiber as a filler, under high pressure and heat in a time frame of a few minutes of curing.", "The result is a hard plastic material.", "Asbestos was gradually abandoned as filler because many countries banned the production of asbestos.Bakelite's molding process had a number of advantages.", "Bakelite resin could be provided either as powder or as preformed partially cured slugs, increasing the speed of the casting.", "Thermosetting resins such as Bakelite required heat and pressure during the molding cycle but could be removed from the molding process without being cooled, again making the molding process faster.", "Also, because of the smooth polished surface that resulted, Bakelite objects required less finishing.", "Millions of parts could be duplicated quickly and relatively cheaply.===Phenolic sheet===Another market for Bakelite resin was the creation of phenolic sheet materials.", "A phenolic sheet is a hard, dense material made by applying heat and pressure to layers of paper or glass cloth impregnated with synthetic resin.", "Paper, cotton fabrics, synthetic fabrics, glass fabrics, and unwoven fabrics are all possible materials used in lamination.", "When heat and pressure are applied, polymerization transforms the layers into thermosetting industrial laminated plastic.Bakelite phenolic sheet is produced in many commercial grades and with various additives to meet diverse mechanical, electrical, and thermal requirements.", "Some common types include:* Paper reinforced NEMA XX per MIL-I-24768 PBG.", "Normal electrical applications, moderate mechanical strength, continuous operating temperature of .", "* Canvas-reinforced NEMA C per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBM NEMA CE per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBG.", "Good mechanical and impact strength with a continuous operating temperature of .", "* Linen-reinforced NEMA L per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBI NEMA LE per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FEI.", "Good mechanical and electrical strength.", "Recommended for intricate high-strength parts.", "Continuous operating temperature .", "* Nylon reinforced NEMA N-1 per MIL-I-24768 TYPE NPG.", "Superior electrical properties under humid conditions, fungus resistant, continuous operating temperature of ." ], [ "Properties", "Bakelite has a number of important properties.", "It can be molded very quickly, decreasing production time.", "Moldings are smooth, retain their shape, and are resistant to heat, scratches, and destructive solvents.", "It is also resistant to electricity, and prized for its low conductivity.", "It is not flexible.Phenolic resin products may swell slightly under conditions of extreme humidity or perpetual dampness.", "When rubbed or burnt, Bakelite has a distinctive, acrid, sickly-sweet or fishy odor." ], [ "Applications and uses", "The characteristics of Bakelite made it particularly suitable as a molding compound, an adhesive or binding agent, a varnish, and a protective coating, as well as for the emerging electrical and automobile industries because of its extraordinarily high resistance to electricity, heat, and chemical action.The earliest commercial use of Bakelite in the electrical industry was the molding of tiny insulating bushings, made in 1908 for the Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation by Richard W. Seabury of the Boonton Rubber Company.", "Bakelite was soon used for non-conducting parts of telephones, radios, and other electrical devices, including bases and sockets for light bulbs and electron tubes (vacuum tubes), supports for any type of electrical components, automobile distributor caps, and other insulators.", "By 1912, it was being used to make billiard balls, since its elasticity and the sound it made were similar to ivory.During World War I, Bakelite was used widely, particularly in electrical systems.", "Important projects included the Liberty airplane engine, the wireless telephone and radio phone, and the use of micarta-bakelite propellers in the NBS-1 bomber and the DH-4B aeroplane.Bakelite's availability and ease and speed of molding helped to lower the costs and increase product availability so that telephones and radios became common household consumer goods.", "It was also very important to the developing automobile industry.", "It was soon found in myriad other consumer products ranging from pipe stems and buttons to saxophone mouthpieces, cameras, early machine guns, and appliance casings.", "Bakelite was also very commonly used in making molded grip panels on handguns, as furniture for submachine guns and machineguns, the classic Bakelite magazines for Kalashnikov rifles, as well as numerous knife handles and \"scales\" through the first half of the 20th century.Beginning in the 1920s, it became a popular material for jewelry.", "Designer Coco Chanel included Bakelite bracelets in her costume jewelry collections.", "Designers such as Elsa Schiaparelli used it for jewelry and also for specially designed dress buttons.", "Later, Diana Vreeland, editor of ''Vogue'', was enthusiastic about Bakelite.", "Bakelite was also used to make presentation boxes for Breitling watches.By 1930, designer Paul T. Frankl considered Bakelite a \"Materia Nova\", \"expressive of our own age\".", "By the 1930s, Bakelite was used for game pieces like chess pieces, poker chips, dominoes, and mahjong sets.", "Kitchenware made with Bakelite, including canisters and tableware, was promoted for its resistance to heat and to chipping.", "In the mid-1930s, Northland marketed a line of skis with a black \"Ebonite\" base, a coating of Bakelite.", "By 1935, it was used in solid-body electric guitars.", "Performers such as Jerry Byrd loved the tone of Bakelite guitars but found them difficult to keep in tune.Charles Plimpton patented BAYKO in 1933 and rushed out his first construction sets for Christmas 1934.He called the toy Bayko Light Constructional Sets, the words \"Bayko Light\" being a pun on the word \"Bakelite\".During World War II, Bakelite was used in a variety of wartime equipment including pilots' goggles and field telephones.", "It was also used for patriotic wartime jewelry.", "In 1943, the thermosetting phenolic resin was even considered for the manufacture of coins, due to a shortage of traditional material.", "Bakelite and other non-metal materials were tested for usage for the one cent coin in the US before the Mint settled on zinc-coated steel.During World War II, Bakelite buttons were part of British uniforms.", "These included brown buttons for the Army and black buttons for the RAF.In 1947, Dutch art forger Han van Meegeren was convicted of forgery, after chemist and curator Paul B. Coremans proved that a purported Vermeer contained Bakelite, which van Meegeren had used as a paint hardener.Bakelite was sometimes used in the pistol grip, hand guard, and buttstock of firearms.", "The AKM and some early AK-74 rifles are frequently mistakenly identified as using Bakelite, but most were made with AG-4S.By the late 1940s, newer materials were superseding Bakelite in many areas.", "Phenolics are less frequently used in general consumer products today due to their cost and complexity of production and their brittle nature.", "They still appear in some applications where their specific properties are required, such as small precision-shaped components, molded disc brake cylinders, saucepan handles, electrical plugs, switches and parts for electrical irons, printed circuit boards, as well as in the area of inexpensive board and tabletop games produced in China, Hong Kong, and India.", "Items such as billiard balls, dominoes and pieces for board games such as chess, checkers, and backgammon are constructed of Bakelite for its look, durability, fine polish, weight, and sound.", "Common dice are sometimes made of Bakelite for weight and sound, but the majority are made of a thermoplastic polymer such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).Bakelite continues to be used for wire insulation, brake pads and related automotive components, and industrial electrical-related applications.", "Bakelite stock is still manufactured and produced in sheet, rod, and tube form for industrial applications in the electronics, power generation, and aerospace industries, and under a variety of commercial brand names.Phenolic resins have been commonly used in ablative heat shields.", "Soviet heatshields for ICBM warheads and spacecraft reentry consisted of asbestos textolite, impregnated with Bakelite.", "Bakelite is also used in the mounting of metal samples in metallography.File:Ericsson bakelittelefon 1931.jpg|Ericsson Bakelite telephone, c. 1931File:Bakelite letter opener.jpg|Bakelite letter opener c. 1920File:Bakelite radio.jpg|Bakelite radio at Bakelite museumFile:Old Bakelit light switches and socket.jpg|Old tumbler switch composed of BakeliteFile:Bakelite Domino (5467420994).jpg|A Bakelite domino" ], [ "Collectible status", "Bracelets made of BakeliteBakelite items, particularly jewelry and radios, have become popular collectibles.The term ''Bakelite'' is sometimes used in the resale market as a catch-all for various types of early plastics, including Catalin and Faturan, which may be brightly colored, as well as items made of true Bakelite material." ], [ "Patents", "The United States Patent and Trademark Office granted Baekeland a patent for a \"Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde\" on December 7, 1909.Producing hard, compact, insoluble, and infusible condensation products of phenols and formaldehyde marked the beginning of the modern plastics industry." ], [ "Similar plastics", "* Catalin is also a phenolic resin, similar to Bakelite, but contains different mineral fillers that allow the production of light colors.", "* Condensites are similar thermoset materials having much the same properties, characteristics, and uses.", "* Crystalate is an early plastic.", "* Faturan is a phenolic resin, also similar to Bakelite, that turns red over time, regardless of its original color.", "* Galalith is an early plastic derived from milk products.", "* Micarta is an early composite insulating plate that used Bakelite as a binding agent.", "It was developed in 1910 by Westinghouse Elec.", "& Mfg Co.* Novotext is a brand name for cotton textile-phenolic resin." ], [ "See also", "* Ericsson DBH 1001 telephone* Prodema, a construction material with a bakelite core.", "* Lacquer, including antique Asian lacquerware.", "Many layers of lacquer may make up most of an object, though there is core of e.g.", "wood." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''All Things Bakelite: The Age of Plastic''—trailer for a film by John Maher, with additional video & resources* Amsterdam Bakelite Collection* Large Bakelite Collection* Bakelite: The Material of a Thousand Uses* Virtual Bakelite Museum of Ghent 1907–2007" ] ]

[ [ "Bean" ], [ "Introduction", "Bean pods on a plantBean plantA '''bean''' is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food.", "They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes throughout the world." ], [ "Terminology", "The word \"bean\" and its Germanic cognates (e.g.", "German ''Bohne'') have existed in common use in West Germanic languages since before the 12th century, referring to broad beans, chickpeas, and other pod-borne seeds.", "This was long before the New World genus ''Phaseolus'' was known in Europe.", "With the Columbian exchange of domestic plants between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of ''Phaseolus'', such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus ''Vigna''.", "The term has long been applied generally to many other seeds of similar form, such as Old World soybeans, peas, other vetches, and lupins, and even to those with slighter resemblances, such as coffee beans, vanilla beans, castor beans, and cocoa beans.", "Thus the term \"bean\" in general usage can refer to a host of different species.Seeds called \"beans\" are often included among the crops called \"pulses\" (legumes), although the words are not always interchangeable (usage varies by plant variety and by region).", "Both terms, ''beans'' and ''pulses'', are usually reserved for grain crops and thus exclude those legumes that have tiny seeds and are used exclusively for non-grain purposes (forage, hay, and silage), such as clover and alfalfa.", "The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization defines \"BEANS, DRY\" (item code 176) as applicable only to species of ''Phaseolus''.", "This is one of various examples of how narrower word senses enforced in trade regulations or botany often coexist in natural language with broader senses in culinary use and general use; other common examples are the narrow sense of the word ''nut'' and the broader sense of the word ''nut'', and the fact that tomatoes are fruit, botanically speaking, but are often treated as vegetables in culinary and general usage.", "Relatedly, another detail of usage is that several species of plants that are sometimes called beans, including ''Vigna angularis'' (azuki bean), ''mungo'' (black gram), ''radiata'' (green gram), and ''aconitifolia'' (moth bean), were once classified as ''Phaseolus'' but later reclassified—but the taxonomic revision does not entirely stop the use of well-established senses in general usage." ], [ "Cultivation", "''Vicia faba'' ready for harvestUnlike the closely related pea, beans are a summer crop that needs warm temperatures to grow.", "Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation and hence need less fertiliser than most plants.", "Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest.", "As the bean pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour.", "Many beans are vines, as such the plants need external support, which may take the form of special \"bean cages\" or poles.", "Native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash (the so-called Three Sisters), with the tall cornstalks acting as support for the beans.In more recent times, the so-called \"bush bean\" has been developed which does not require support and has all its pods develop simultaneously (as opposed to pole beans which develop gradually).", "This makes the bush bean more practical for commercial production." ], [ "History", "''Acacia farnesiana'' Beans in a podBaked beans on toast (with egg)''The Beaneater'' (1580–1590) by Annibale CarracciBeans were an important source of protein throughout Old and New World history, and still are today.Beans are one of the longest-cultivated plants in history.", "Broad beans, also called fava beans, are in their wild state the size of a small fingernail, and were first gathered in Afghanistan and the Himalayan foothills.", "An early cultivated form were grown in Thailand from the early seventh millennium BCE, predating ceramics.", "Beans were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt.", "Not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean region, Iberia, and transalpine Europe.", "In the ''Iliad'' (8th century BCE), there is a passing mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor.The oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, an archaeological site in Peru, and dated to around the second millennium BCE.", "However, genetic analyses of the common bean ''Phaseolus'' show that it originated in Mesoamerica, and subsequently spread southward, along with maize and squash, traditional companion crops.Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genus ''Phaseolus'', which originated in the Americas.", "The first European to encounter them was Christopher Columbus, while exploring what may have been the Bahamas, and saw them growing in fields.", "Five kinds of ''Phaseolus'' beans were domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples: common beans (''P.", "vulgaris'') grown from Chile to the northern part of what is now the United States; and lima and sieva beans (''P.", "lunatus''); as well as the less widely distributed teparies (''P.", "acutifolius''), scarlet runner beans (''P.", "coccineus''), and polyanthus beans.One well-documented use of beans by pre-Columbian people as far north as the Atlantic seaboard is the \"Three Sisters\" method of companion plant cultivation: Many tribes would grow beans together with maize (corn), and squash.", "The corn would not be planted in rows as is done by European agriculture, but in a checkerboard/hex fashion across a field, in separate patches of one to six stalks each.Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew.", "All American beans at that time were vine plants; \"bush beans\" were cultivated more recently.", "The cornstalks would work as a trellis for the bean plants, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn.", "Squash would be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field.", "They would be provided slight shelter from the sun by the corn, would shade the soil and reduce evaporation, and would deter many animals from attacking the corn and beans because their coarse, hairy vines and broad, stiff leaves are difficult or uncomfortable for animals such as deer and raccoons to walk through, crows to land on, and are a deterrent to other animals as well.Beans were cultivated across Chile in Pre-Hispanic times, likely as far south as Chiloé Archipelago.Dry beans come from both Old World varieties of broad beans (fava beans) and New World varieties (kidney, black, cranberry, pinto, navy/haricot)." ], [ "Common genera and species", "alt=Types of beans in a marketMost of the foods we call \"beans\", \"legumes\", \"lentils\" and \"pulses\" belong to the same family, Fabaceae (\"leguminous\" plants), but are from different genera and species, native to different homelands and distributed worldwide depending on their adaptability.", "Many varieties are eaten both fresh (the whole pod, and the immature beans may or may not be inside) or shelled (immature seeds, mature and fresh seeds, or mature and dried seeds).", "Numerous legumes look similar, and have become naturalized in locations across the world, which often lead to similar names for different species.+GenusSpecies and Common VarietiesProbable HomelandDistribution, Cultivation and ClimateNotesPhaseolus''P.", "vulgaris'': Kidney Bean, Pinto Bean, Navy Bean (Cannellini, Haricot Beans/French Beans/Pole Beans/Bush Beans), Black Beans, Borlotti Beans''P.", "lunatus'': Lima Beans''P.", "coccineus'': Runner Beans, Flat Beans''P.", "acutifolius'': Tepary BeanThe AmericasTropical, Subtropical, Warm TemperateCertain varieties contain high levels of toxic phytohemagglutinin.", "Requires soaking and then cooking at or above 100C for a minimum of 30 minutes, and ideally much longer.Pisum''P.", "sativum'': Green Peas/Garden Peas, White Peas, Yellow Peas, Field Peas, Snow Peas, Snap Peas MediterraneanSubtropical, Temperate, Occasionally Cool TropicalVigna''V.", "radiata'': Mung Bean''V.", "mungo'': Urad''V.", "unguiculata (Cowpeas)'': Yardlong bean, Black-eyed Peas''V.", "aconitifolia'': Moth bean''V.", "angularis'': Adzuki beans Mostly South AsiaEquatorial, Pantropical, Warm Subtropical, Hot TemperateCajanus''C.", "cajan'': Pigeon PeaIndian SubcontinentPantropical, EquatorialLens''L.", "culinaris'' (Lentils): Red Lentil, Green Lentil, Puy LentilNear East/LevantTemperate, Subtropical, Cool TropicalCicer''C.", "arietinum'': Chickpeas (Garbanzo Beans)Turkey/Levant/Near EastTemperate, Subtropical, Cool TropicalVicia''V.", "faba'': Fava Beans (Broad Beans)''V.", "ervilia'': Bitter vetch''V.", "sativa'': Common vetchNear EastSubtropical, TemperateCauses Favism in those susceptible.", "Arachis''A.", "hypogaea:'' Peanut (Groundnut)South AmericaWarm Subtropical, Cool TropicalGlycine''G.", "max'': SoybeanEast AsiaHot Temperate, Subtropical, Cool TropicalMacrotyloma''M.", "uniflorum'': HorsegramSouth AsiaTropical, SubtropicalMucuna''M.", "pruriens:'' Velvet BeanTropical Asia and AfricaTropical, Warm SubtropicalContains L-DOPA, and smaller amounts of other psychoactive compounds.", "Can also cause itching and rashes on contact.Lupinus''L.", "albus'': White Lupin''L.", "mutabilis'': Tarwi/Andean LupinThe Mediterranean, Balkans, Levant (albinus), The Andes (mutabilis) Subtropical, TemperateRequires prolonged soaking in the correct way to reduce toxic compounds.Ceratonia''C.", "siliqua'': Carob beanMediterranean, Middle EastSubtropical, Arid Subtropical, Hot TemperateCanavalia''C.", "gladiata:'' Sword Bean''C.", "ensiformis'': Jack BeansSouth Asia or Africa (C. gladiata), Brazil and South America (C. Ensiformis) TropicalCyamopsis''C.", "tetragonoloba'': Guar Bean Africa or South AsiaTropical, Semi-AridSource of Guar gumLablab''L.", "purpureus'': Hyacinth Bean/Lablab BeanSouth Asia, Indian Subcontinent or AfricaTropicalPsophocarpus''P.", "tetranoglobulus:'' Winged BeanNew GuineaTropical, EquatorialClitoria''C.", "ternatea'': Butterfly PeaEquatorial and Tropical AsiaTropical, SubtropicalFlowers used as a natural food colouringLathyrus''L.", "sativus'': Grass Pea''L.", "tuberosus:'' Tuberous Pea Balkans, India or AsiaSubtropicalCan cause Lathyrism if used as staple.Trifolium''T.", "repens'': White Clover''T.", "pratense'': Red Clover Europe and Central AsiaSubtropical, TemperateMedicago''M.", "sativa'': AlfalfaCentral AsiaSubtropical, TemperateMelilotus''M.", "officinalis'': Sweet CloverEurope and Central AsiaSubtropical, TemperateContains Coumarins, an important class of perfume ingredients.", "Coumarin is also a blood thinner.", "Tamarindus''T.", "indica:'' TamarindAfricaTropical, Subtropical===Bean seed storage===As of 2023, the Norwegian Svalbard Global Seed Vault holds more than 40,000 accessions of ''Phaseolus'' bean species." ], [ "Properties", "===Nutrition===Raw green beans are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contain negligible fat (table).", "In a reference serving, raw green beans supply 31 calories of food energy, and are a moderate source (10-19% of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (15% DV) and vitamin B6 (11% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table).===Antinutrients===Many types of bean like kidney bean contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body.", "Phytic acid and phytates, present in grains, nuts, seeds and beans, interfere with bone growth and interrupt vitamin D metabolism.", "Pioneering work on the effect of phytic acid was done by Edward Mellanby from 1939.===Health concerns=======Toxins====Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful, tasteless toxin: the lectin phytohaemagglutinin, which must be removed by cooking.", "Red kidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks of food poisoning.", "Many types of beans contain lectins, and kidney beans have the highest concentrations – especially red kidney beans.", "As few as 4 or 5 raw beans can cause severe stomachache, vomiting and diarrhoea.", "A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; under-cooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans.Cooking beans, without bringing them to a boil, in a slow cooker at a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins.", "A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, and shallow fried.Bean poisoning is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available.", "In the case of the UK National Poisons Information Service, available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged .Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to improve the nutritional value of beans by removing toxins.", "Inexpensive fermentation improves the nutritional impact of flour from dry beans and improves digestibility, according to research co-authored by Emire Shimelis, from the Food Engineering Program at Addis Ababa University.", "Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.====Bacterial infection from bean sprouts====It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked.", "There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by ''salmonella'', ''listeria'', and ''Escherichia coli'', of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked, some causing significant mortality." ], [ "Flatulence", "Many edible beans, including broad beans, navy beans, kidney beans and soybeans, contain oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose), a type of sugar molecule also found in cabbage.", "An anti-oligosaccharide enzyme is necessary to properly digest these sugar molecules.", "As a normal human digestive tract does not contain any anti-oligosaccharide enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are typically digested by bacteria in the large intestine.", "This digestion process produces gases, such as methane as a byproduct, which are then released as flatulence." ], [ "Production", "Lablab in West Bengal|alt=Lablab bean and bean flower cultivated in West BengalThe production data for legumes are published by FAO in three categories:# Pulses dry: all mature and dry seeds of leguminous plants except soybeans and groundnuts.# Oil crops: soybeans and groundnuts.# Fresh vegetable: immature green fresh fruits of leguminous plants.The following is a summary of FAO data.+ Production of legumes (million metric tons) CropsFAO code19611981200120152016Ratio2016 /1961RemarksTotal pulses (dry) 172640.7841.6356.2377.5781.802.01 Per capita production had decreased.", "(Population increase was 2.4×)Oil crops (dry)Soybeans 23626.8888.53177.02323.20334.8912.46 Drastic increase driven by the demand for animal feeds and oil.Groundnuts, with shell 24214.1320.5835.8245.0843.983.11Fresh vegetables (80–90% water)Beans, green 4142.634.0910.9223.1223.608.96Peas, green 4173.795.6612.4119.4419.885.25Main crops of \"Pulses, Total (dry)\" are \"Beans, dry 176\" 26.83 million tons, \"Peas, dry 187\" 14.36 million tons, \"Chick peas 191\" 12.09 million tons, \"Cow peas 195\" 6.99 million tons, \"Lentils 201\" 6.32 million tons, \"Pigeon peas 197\" 4.49 million tons, \"Broad beans, horse beans 181\" 4.46 million tons.", "In general, the consumption of pulses per capita has been decreasing since 1961.Exceptions are lentils and cowpeas.Jamalpur|alt=Flower in Jamalpur+ Top producers, pulses, total 1726(million metric tons)Country2016ShareRemarksTotal81.80100%1India17.5621.47%2Canada8.2010.03%3Myanmar6.578.03%4China4.235.17%5Nigeria3.093.78%6Russia2.943.60%7Ethiopia2.733.34%8Brazil2.623.21%9Australia2.523.09%10USA2.442.98%11Niger2.062.51%12Tanzania2.002.45%Others24.8230.34%The world leader in production of dry beans (''Phaseolus'' spp), is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil.", "In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania.+ Top ten dry beans (Phaseolus spp) producers, 2020 Country Production(tonnes) Footnote 5,460,000F 3,053,012 3,035,290A 1,495,180* 1,281,586 1,267,648F 1,056,071 774,366F 633,823* 603,980 '''World''''''27,545,942''''''A'''No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = unofficial/semi-official/mirror data, C = calculated figure A = aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates)''Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)''" ], [ "See also", "* Baked beans* Jelly beans* Mexican jumping bean* List of bean soups** Fassoulada – a bean soup* List of edible seeds* List of legume dishes* Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Everett H. Bickley Collection, 1919–1980 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.", "* Discovery Online: The Skinny On Why Beans Give You Gas* Fermentation improves nutritional value of beans* Cook's Thesaurus on Beans" ] ]

[ [ "Breast" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''breast''' is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of a primate's torso.", "Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues.In females, it serves as the mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed infants.", "Subcutaneous fat covers and envelops a network of ducts that converge on the nipple, and these tissues give the breast its size and shape.", "At the ends of the ducts are lobules, or clusters of alveoli, where milk is produced and stored in response to hormonal signals.", "During pregnancy, the breast responds to a complex interaction of hormones, including estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin, that mediate the completion of its development, namely lobuloalveolar maturation, in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding.Humans are the only animals with permanent breasts.", "At puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause permanent breast growth in female humans.", "This happens only to a much lesser extent in other primates—breast development in other primates generally only occurs with pregnancy.", "Along with their major function in providing nutrition for infants, female breasts have social and sexual characteristics.", "Breasts have been featured in ancient and modern sculpture, art, and photography.", "They can figure prominently in the perception of a woman's body and sexual attractiveness.", "A number of cultures associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts in public as immodest or indecent.", "Breasts, especially the nipples, are an erogenous zone." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "The English word ''breast'' derives from the Old English word ('breast, bosom') from Proto-Germanic (breast), from the Proto-Indo-European base '''' (to swell, to sprout).", "The ''breast'' spelling conforms to the Scottish and North English dialectal pronunciations.", "The ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' states that \"Middle English , comes from Old English ; akin to Old High German ..., Old Irish belly, and Russian \"; the first known usage of the term was before the 12th century.A large number of colloquial terms for breasts are used in English, ranging from fairly polite terms to vulgar or slang.", "Some vulgar slang expressions may be considered to be derogatory or sexist to women." ], [ "Evolutionary development", "Humans are the only mammals whose breasts become permanently enlarged after sexual maturity (known in humans as puberty).", "The reason for this evolutionary change is unknown.", "Several hypotheses have been put forward:A link has been proposed to processes for synthesizing the endogenous steroid hormone precursor dehydroepiandrosterone which takes place in fat rich regions of the body like the buttocks and breasts.", "These contributed to human brain development and played a part in increasing brain size.", "Breast enlargement may for this purpose have occurred as early as ''Homo ergaster'' (1.7–1.4 MYA).", "Other breast formation hypotheses may have then taken over as principal drivers.It has been suggested by zoologists Avishag and Amotz Zahavi that the size of the human breasts can be explained by the handicap theory of sexual dimorphism.", "This would see the explanation for larger breasts as them being an honest display of the women's health and ability to grow and carry them in her life.", "Prospective mates can then evaluate the genes of a potential mate for their ability to sustain her health even with the additional energy demanding burden she is carrying.The zoologist Desmond Morris describes a sociobiological approach in his science book ''The Naked Ape''.", "He suggests, by making comparisons with the other primates, that breasts evolved to replace swelling buttocks as a sex signal of ovulation.", "He notes how humans have, relatively speaking, large penises as well as large breasts.", "Furthermore, early humans adopted bipedalism and face-to-face coitus.", "He therefore suggested enlarged sexual signals helped maintain the bond between a mated male and female even though they performed different duties and therefore were separated for lengths of time.The study ''The evolution of the human breast'' (2001) proposed that the rounded shape of a woman's breast evolved to prevent the sucking infant offspring from suffocating while feeding at the teat; that is, because of the human infant's small jaw, which did not project from the face to reach the nipple, they might block the nostrils against the mother's breast if it were of a flatter form (cf.", "common chimpanzee).", "Theoretically, as the human jaw receded into the face, the woman's body compensated with round breasts.Ashley Montague (1965) proposed that breasts came about as an adaptation for infant feeding for a different reason, as early human ancestors adopted bipedalism and the loss of body hair.", "Human upright stance meant infants must be carried at the hip or shoulder instead of on the back as in the apes.", "This gives the infant less opportunity to find the nipple or the purchase to cling on to the mother's body hair.", "The mobility of the nipple on a large breast in most human females gives the infant more ability to find grasp it and feed.Other suggestions include simply that permanent breasts attracted mates, that \"pendulous\" breasts gave infants something to cling to, or that permanent breasts shared the function of a camel's hump, to store fat as an energy reserve." ], [ "Anatomy", "The breast: cross-section scheme of the mammary gland.", "In women, the breasts overlie the pectoralis major muscles and extend on average from the level of the second rib to the level of the sixth rib in the front of the rib cage; thus, the breasts cover much of the chest area and the chest walls.", "At the front of the chest, the '''breast tissue''' can extend from the clavicle (collarbone) to the middle of the sternum (breastbone).", "At the sides of the chest, the breast tissue can extend into the axilla (armpit), and can reach as far to the back as the latissimus dorsi muscle, extending from the lower back to the humerus bone (the bone of the upper arm).", "As a mammary gland, the breast is composed of differing layers of tissue, predominantly two types: adipose tissue; and glandular tissue, which affects the lactation functions of the breasts.Morphologically, the breast is tear-shaped.", "The superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is separated from the skin by 0.5–2.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue).", "The suspensory Cooper's ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope.", "The female adult breast contains 14–18 irregular lactiferous lobes that converge at the nipple.", "The 2.0–4.5 mm milk ducts are immediately surrounded with dense connective tissue that support the glands.", "Milk exits the breast through the nipple, which is surrounded by a pigmented area of skin called the areola.", "The size of the areola can vary widely among women.", "The areola contains modified sweat glands known as Montgomery's glands.", "These glands secrete oily fluid that lubricate and protect the nipple during breastfeeding.", "Volatile compounds in these secretions may also serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn's appetite.The dimensions and weight of the breast vary widely among women.", "A small-to-medium-sized breast weighs 500 grams (1.1 pounds) or less, and a large breast can weigh approximately 750 to 1,000 grams (1.7 to 2.2 pounds) or more.", "In terms of composition, the breasts are about 80 to 90% stromal tissue (fat and connective tissue), while epithelial or glandular tissue only accounts for about 10 to 20% of the volume of the breasts.", "The tissue composition ratios of the breast also vary among women.", "Some women's breasts have a higher proportion of glandular tissue than of adipose or connective tissues.", "The fat-to-connective-tissue ratio determines the density or firmness of the breast.", "During a woman's life, her breasts change size, shape, and weight due to hormonal changes during puberty, the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menopause.===Glandular structure===Normal histology of the breast.The breast is an apocrine gland that produces the milk used to feed an infant.", "The nipple of the breast is surrounded by the areola (nipple-areola complex).", "The areola has many sebaceous glands, and the skin color varies from pink to dark brown.", "The basic units of the breast are the terminal duct lobular units (TDLUs), which produce the fatty breast milk.", "They give the breast its offspring-feeding functions as a mammary gland.", "They are distributed throughout the body of the breast.", "Approximately two-thirds of the lactiferous tissue is within 30 mm of the base of the nipple.", "The terminal lactiferous ducts drain the milk from TDLUs into 4–18 lactiferous ducts, which drain to the nipple.", "The milk-glands-to-fat ratio is 2:1 in a lactating woman, and 1:1 in a non-lactating woman.", "In addition to the milk glands, the breast is also composed of connective tissues (collagen, elastin), white fat, and the suspensory Cooper's ligaments.", "Sensation in the breast is provided by the peripheral nervous system innervation by means of the front (anterior) and side (lateral) cutaneous branches of the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth intercostal nerves.", "The T-4 nerve (Thoracic spinal nerve 4), which innervates the dermatomic area, supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.===Lymphatic drainage===Approximately 75% of the lymph from the breast travels to the axillary lymph nodes on the same side of the body, whilst 25% of the lymph travels to the parasternal nodes (beside the sternum bone).", "A small amount of remaining lymph travels to the other breast and to the abdominal lymph nodes.", "The subareolar region has a lymphatic plexus known as the \"subareolar plexus of Sappey\".", "The axillary lymph nodes include the pectoral (chest), subscapular (under the scapula), and humeral (humerus-bone area) lymph-node groups, which drain to the central axillary lymph nodes and to the apical axillary lymph nodes.", "The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is especially relevant to oncology because breast cancer is common to the mammary gland, and cancer cells can metastasize (break away) from a tumour and be dispersed to other parts of the body by means of the lymphatic system.===Shape, texture, and support===The morphologic variations in the size, shape, volume, tissue density, pectoral locale, and spacing of the breasts determine their natural shape, appearance, and position on a woman's chest.", "Breast size and other characteristics do not predict the fat-to-milk-gland ratio or the potential for the woman to nurse an infant.", "The size and the shape of the breasts are influenced by normal-life hormonal changes (thelarche, menstruation, pregnancy, menopause) and medical conditions (e.g.", "virginal breast hypertrophy).", "The shape of the breasts is naturally determined by the support of the suspensory Cooper's ligaments, the underlying muscle and bone structures of the chest, and by the skin envelope.", "The suspensory ligaments sustain the breast from the clavicle (collarbone) and the clavico-pectoral fascia (collarbone and chest) by traversing and encompassing the fat and milk-gland tissues.", "The breast is positioned, affixed to, and supported upon the chest wall, while its shape is established and maintained by the skin envelope.", "In most women, one breast is slightly larger than the other.", "More obvious and persistent asymmetry in breast size occurs in up to 25% of women.While it is a common belief that breastfeeding causes breasts to sag, researchers have found that a woman's breasts sag due to four key factors: cigarette smoking, number of pregnancies, gravity, and weight loss or gain.The base of each breast is attached to the chest by the deep fascia over the pectoralis major muscles.", "The space between the breast and the pectoralis major muscle, called retromammary space, gives mobility to the breast.", "The chest (thoracic cavity) progressively slopes outwards from the thoracic inlet (atop the breastbone) and above to the lowest ribs that support the breasts.", "The inframammary fold, where the lower portion of the breast meets the chest, is an anatomic feature created by the adherence of the breast skin and the underlying connective tissues of the chest; the IMF is the lower-most extent of the anatomic breast.", "Normal breast tissue typically has a texture that feels nodular or granular, to an extent that varies considerably from woman to woman." ], [ "Development", "The breasts are principally composed of adipose, glandular, and connective tissues.", "Because these tissues have hormone receptors, their sizes and volumes fluctuate according to the hormonal changes particular to thelarche (sprouting of breasts), menstruation (egg production), pregnancy (reproduction), lactation (feeding of offspring), and menopause (end of menstruation).===Puberty===Breast development in puberty is measured with the five-stage Tanner scaleThe morphological structure of the human breast is identical in males and females until puberty.", "For pubescent girls in thelarche (the breast-development stage), the female sex hormones (principally estrogens) in conjunction with growth hormone promote the sprouting, growth, and development of the breasts.", "During this time, the mammary glands grow in size and volume and begin resting on the chest.", "These development stages of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair, etc.)", "are illustrated in the five-stage Tanner scale.During thelarche, the developing breasts are sometimes of unequal size, and usually the left breast is slightly larger.", "This condition of asymmetry is transitory and statistically normal in female physical and sexual development.", "Medical conditions can cause overdevelopment (e.g., virginal breast hypertrophy, macromastia) or underdevelopment (e.g., tuberous breast deformity, micromastia) in girls and women.Approximately two years after the onset of puberty (a girl's first menstrual cycle), estrogen and growth hormone stimulate the development and growth of the glandular fat and suspensory tissues that compose the breast.", "This continues for approximately four years until the final shape of the breast (size, volume, density) is established at about the age of 21.Mammoplasia (breast enlargement) in girls begins at puberty, unlike all other primates in which breasts enlarge only during lactation.===Changes during the menstrual cycle===During the menstrual cycle, the breasts are enlarged by premenstrual water retention and temporary growth.===Pregnancy and breastfeeding===Normal histology of the breast during lactation.The breasts reach full maturity only when a woman's first pregnancy occurs.", "Changes to the breasts are among the first signs of pregnancy.", "The breasts become larger, the nipple-areola complex becomes larger and darker, the Montgomery's glands enlarge, and veins sometimes become more visible.", "Breast tenderness during pregnancy is common, especially during the first trimester.", "By mid-pregnancy, the breast is physiologically capable of lactation and some women can express colostrum, a form of breast milk.Pregnancy causes elevated levels of the hormone prolactin, which has a key role in the production of milk.", "However, milk production is blocked by the hormones progesterone and estrogen until after delivery, when progesterone and estrogen levels plummet.===Menopause===Breast with visible stretch marksAt menopause, breast atrophy occurs.", "The breasts can decrease in size when the levels of circulating estrogen decline.", "The adipose tissue and milk glands also begin to wither.", "The breasts can also become enlarged from adverse side effects of combined oral contraceptive pills.", "The size of the breasts can also increase and decrease in response to weight fluctuations.", "Physical changes to the breasts are often recorded in the stretch marks of the skin envelope; they can serve as historical indicators of the increments and the decrements of the size and volume of a woman's breasts throughout the course of her life." ], [ "Breastfeeding", "A baby breastfeedingThe primary function of the breasts, as mammary glands, is the nourishing of an infant with breast milk.", "Milk is produced in milk-secreting cells in the alveoli.", "When the breasts are stimulated by the suckling of her baby, the mother's brain secretes oxytocin.", "High levels of oxytocin trigger the contraction of muscle cells surrounding the alveoli, causing milk to flow along the ducts that connect the alveoli to the nipple.Full-term newborns have an instinct and a need to suck on a nipple, and breastfed babies nurse for both nutrition and for comfort.", "Breast milk provides all necessary nutrients for the first six months of life, and then remains an important source of nutrition, alongside solid foods, until at least one or two years of age." ], [ "Clinical significance", "The breast is susceptible to numerous benign and malignant conditions.", "The most frequent benign conditions are puerperal mastitis, fibrocystic breast changes and mastalgia.Lactation unrelated to pregnancy is known as galactorrhea.", "It can be caused by certain drugs (such as antipsychotic medications), extreme physical stress, or endocrine disorders.", "Lactation in newborns is caused by hormones from the mother that crossed into the baby's bloodstream during pregnancy.===Breast cancer===Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer death among women and it is one of the leading causes of death among women.", "Factors that appear to be implicated in decreasing the risk of breast cancer are regular breast examinations by health care professionals, regular mammograms, self-examination of breasts, healthy diet, exercise to decrease excess body fat, and breastfeeding.===Male breasts===Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues.", "Anatomically, male breasts do not normally contain lobules and acini that are present in females.", "In rare instances, it is possible for very few lobules to be present, this makes it possible for some men to develop lobular carcinoma of the breast.", "Normally, males produce lower levels of estrogens and higher levels of androgens, namely testosterone, which suppress the effects of estrogens in developing excessive breast tissue.", "In boys and men, abnormal breast development is manifested as gynecomastia, the consequence of a biochemical imbalance between the normal levels of estrogen and testosterone in the male body.", "Around 70% of boys temporarily develop breast tissue during adolescence.", "The condition usually resolves by itself within two years.", "When male lactation occurs, it is considered a symptom of a disorder of the pituitary gland.===Plastic surgery===Conventional mastectomy ''(top)''; skin sparing mastectomy and latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap reconstruction, prior to nipple reconstruction and tattooing ''(bottom)''.Plastic surgery can be performed to augment or reduce the size of breasts, or reconstruct the breast in cases of deformative disease, such as breast cancer.", "Breast augmentation and breast lift (mastopexy) procedures are done only for cosmetic reasons, whereas breast reduction is sometimes medically indicated.", "In cases where a woman's breasts are severely asymmetrical, surgery can be performed to either enlarge the smaller breast, reduce the size of the larger breast, or both.Breast augmentation surgery generally does not interfere with future ability to breastfeed.", "Breast reduction surgery more frequently leads to decreased sensation in the nipple-areola complex, and to low milk supply in women who choose to breastfeed.", "Implants can interfere with mammography (breast x-rays images)." ], [ "Society and culture", "===General===In Christian iconography, some works of art depict women with their breasts in their hands or on a platter, signifying that they died as a martyr by having their breasts severed; one example of this is Saint Agatha of Sicily.Femen member participating in a protestFemen is a feminist activist group which uses topless protests as part of their campaigns against sex tourism religious institutions, sexism, and homophobia.", "Femen activists have been regularly detained by police in response to their protests.There is a long history of female breasts being used by comedians as a subject for comedy fodder (e.g., British comic Benny Hill's burlesque/slapstick routines).===Art history===In European pre-historic societies, sculptures of female figures with pronounced or highly exaggerated breasts were common.", "A typical example is the so-called Venus of Willendorf, one of many Paleolithic Venus figurines with ample hips and bosom.", "Artifacts such as bowls, rock carvings and sacred statues with breasts have been recorded from 15,000 BC up to late antiquity all across Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.Many female deities representing love and fertility were associated with breasts and breast milk.", "Figures of the Phoenician goddess Astarte were represented as pillars studded with breasts.", "Isis, an Egyptian goddess who represented, among many other things, ideal motherhood, was often portrayed as suckling pharaohs, thereby confirming their divine status as rulers.", "Even certain male deities representing regeneration and fertility were occasionally depicted with breast-like appendices, such as the river god Hapy who was considered to be responsible for the annual overflowing of the Nile.Cretan snake goddess from the Minoan civilization,  BCFemale breasts were also prominent in Minoan art in the form of the famous Snake Goddess statuettes, and a few other pieces, though most female breasts are covered.", "In Ancient Greece there were several cults worshipping the \"Kourotrophos\", the suckling mother, represented by goddesses such as Gaia, Hera and Artemis.", "The worship of deities symbolized by the female breast in Greece became less common during the first millennium.", "The popular adoration of female goddesses decreased significantly during the rise of the Greek city states, a legacy which was passed on to the later Roman Empire.During the middle of the first millennium BC, Greek culture experienced a gradual change in the perception of female breasts.", "Women in art were covered in clothing from the neck down, including female goddesses like Athena, the patron of Athens who represented heroic endeavor.", "There were exceptions: Aphrodite, the goddess of love, was more frequently portrayed fully nude, though in postures that were intended to portray shyness or modesty, a portrayal that has been compared to modern pin ups by historian Marilyn Yalom.", "Although nude men were depicted standing upright, most depictions of female nudity in Greek art occurred \"usually with drapery near at hand and with a forward-bending, self-protecting posture\".", "A popular legend at the time was of the Amazons, a tribe of fierce female warriors who socialized with men only for procreation and even removed one breast to become better warriors (the idea being that the right breast would interfere with the operation of a bow and arrow).", "The legend was a popular motif in art during Greek and Roman antiquity and served as an antithetical cautionary tale.===Body image===Many women regard their breasts as important to their sexual attractiveness, as a sign of femininity that is important to their sense of self.", "A woman with smaller breasts may regard her breasts as less attractive.===Clothing===Himba woman of northern Namibia wears a traditional headdress and skirtBecause breasts are mostly fatty tissue, their shape can—within limits—be molded by clothing, such as foundation garments.", "Bras are commonly worn by about 90% of Western women, and are often worn for support.", "The social norm in most Western cultures is to cover breasts in public, though the extent of coverage varies depending on the social context.", "Some religions ascribe a special status to the female breast, either in formal teachings or through symbolism.", "Islam forbids free women from exposing their breasts in public.Many cultures, including Western cultures in North America, associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts as immodest or indecent.", "In some cultures, like the Himba in northern Namibia, bare-breasted women are normal.", "In some African cultures, for example, the thigh is regarded as highly sexualised and never exposed in public, but breast exposure is not taboo.", "In a few Western countries and regions female toplessness at a beach is acceptable, although it may not be acceptable in the town center.Social attitudes and laws regarding breastfeeding in public vary widely.", "In many countries, breastfeeding in public is common, legally protected, and generally not regarded as an issue.", "However, even though the practice may be legal or socially accepted, some mothers may nevertheless be reluctant to expose a breast in public to breastfeed due to actual or potential objections by other people, negative comments, or harassment.", "It is estimated that around 63% of mothers across the world have publicly breast-fed.", "Bare-breasted women are legal and culturally acceptable at public beaches in Australia and much of Europe.", "Filmmaker Lina Esco made a film entitled ''Free the Nipple'', which is about \"...laws against female toplessness or restrictions on images of female, but not male, nipples\", which Esco states is an example of sexism in society.===Sexual characteristic===In some cultures, breasts play a role in human sexual activity.", "Breasts and especially the nipples are among the various human erogenous zones.", "They are sensitive to the touch as they have many nerve endings; and it is common to press or massage them with hands or orally before or during sexual activity.", "During sexual arousal, breast size increases, venous patterns across the breasts become more visible, and nipples harden.", "Compared to other primates, human breasts are proportionately large throughout adult females' lives.", "Some writers have suggested that they may have evolved as a visual signal of sexual maturity and fertility.Many people regard bare female breasts to be aesthetically pleasing or erotic, and they can elicit heightened sexual desires in men in many cultures.", "In the ancient Indian work the ''Kama Sutra'', light scratching of the breasts with nails and biting with teeth are considered erotic.", "Some people show a sexual interest in female breasts distinct from that of the person, which may be regarded as a breast fetish.", "A number of Western fashions include clothing which accentuate the breasts, such as the use of push-up bras and decollete (plunging neckline) gowns and blouses which show cleavage.", "While U.S. culture prefers breasts that are youthful and upright, some cultures venerate women with drooping breasts, indicating mothering and the wisdom of experience.Research conducted at the Victoria University of Wellington showed that breasts are often the first thing men look at, and for a longer time than other body parts.", "The writers of the study had initially speculated that the reason for this is due to endocrinology with larger breasts indicating higher levels of estrogen and a sign of greater fertility, but the researchers said that \"Men may be looking more often at the breasts because they are simply aesthetically pleasing, regardless of the size.", "\"Some women report achieving an orgasm from nipple stimulation, but this is rare.", "Research suggests that the orgasms are genital orgasms, and may also be directly linked to \"the genital area of the brain\".", "In these cases, it seems that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix.", "Nipple stimulation may trigger uterine contractions, which then produce a sensation in the genital area of the brain.===Anthropomorphic geography===There are many mountains named after the breast because they resemble it in appearance and so are objects of religious and ancestral veneration as a fertility symbol and of well-being.", "In Asia, there was \"Breast Mountain\", which had a cave where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Da Mo) spent much time in meditation.", "Other such breast mountains are Mount Elgon on the Uganda–Kenya border; and the Maiden Paps in Scotland; the ('Maiden's breast mountains') in Talim Island, Philippines, the twin hills known as the Paps of Anu ( or 'the breasts of Anu'), near Killarney in Ireland; the 2,086 m high or in the , Spain; in Thailand, in Puerto Rico; and the Breasts of Aphrodite in Mykonos, among many others.", "In the United States, the Teton Range is named after the French word for 'nipple'." ], [ "Measurement", "The maturation and size of the breasts can be measured by a variety of different methods.", "These include Tanner staging, bra cup size, breast volume, breast–chest difference, the breast unit, breast hemicircumference, and breast circumference, among other measures." ], [ "See also", "* Udder" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * Morris, Desmond ''The Naked Ape: a zoologist's study of the human animal'' Bantam Books, Canada.", "1967* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Baghdad" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Baghdad''' ( or ; ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo.", "It is located on the Tigris river.", "In 762 AD, Baghdad was chosen as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, and became its most notable major development project.", "Within a short time, the city evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center of the Muslim world.", "This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the \"Center of Learning\".For much of the Abbasid era, during the Islamic Golden Age, Baghdad was the largest city in the world.", "Its population peaked at more than one million people.", "The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires.", "With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1932, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture, with a population variously estimated at 6 or over 7 million.", "Compared to its large population, it has a small area at just 673 square kilometers (260 sq mi).The city has faced severe infrastructural damage due to the Iraq War, which began with the United States-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 and lasted until 2011, and the subsequent insurgency and renewed war that lasted until 2017, resulting in a substantial loss of cultural heritage and historical artifacts.", "During this period, Baghdad had one of the highest rates of terrorist attacks in the world.", "However, terrorist attacks have gradually been on the decline since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State militant group in Iraq in 2017." ], [ "Name", "The name Baghdad is pre-Islamic, and its origin is disputed.", "The site where the city of Baghdad developed has been populated for millennia.", "Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Baghdad was occupied by various peoples long before the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in 637 CE, and several ancient empires had capitals located in the surrounding area.Arab authors, realizing the pre-Islamic origins of Baghdad's name, generally looked for its roots in Middle Persian.", "They suggested various meanings, the most common of which was \"bestowed by God\".", "Modern scholars generally tend to favor this etymology, which views the word as a Persian compound of ''bagh'' (25px) \"god\" and ''dād'' (30px) \"given\".", "In Old Persian the first element can be traced to ''boghu'' and is related to Indo-Iranian ''bhag'' and Slavic ''bog'' \"god.\"", "A similar term in Middle Persian is the name ''Mithradāt'' (''Mehrdad'' in New Persian), known in English by its borrowed Hellenistic form ''Mithridates'', meaning \"Given by Mithra\" (''dāt'' is the more archaic form of ''dād'', related to Sanskrit ''dāt'', Latin ''dat'' and English ''donor''), ultimately borrowed from Persian ''Mehrdad''.", "There are a number of other locations whose names are compounds of the Middle Persian word ''bagh'', including Baghlan and Bagram in Afghanistan, Baghshan in Iran itself, and Baghdati in Georgia, which likely share the same etymological Iranic origins.Other authors have suggested older origins for the name, in particular the name ''Bagdadu'' or ''Hudadu'' that existed in Old Babylonian (spelled with a sign that can represent both ''bag'' and ''hu''), and the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic name of a place called ''Baghdatha'' ().", "Some scholars suggested Aramaic derivations.", "In Hindu Puranas, It is mentioned that the city was named after King Bhagadatta.Another view, suggested by Christophe Wall-Romana, is that name of \"Baghdad\" is derived from \"Akkad\", as the cuneiform logogram for Akkad (𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠) is pronounced \"''a-ga-dè''KI\" (\"Agade\") and its resemblance to \"Baghdad\" is compelling.When the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name \"City of Peace\" (), which now refers to the Round City of Baghdad proper.", "This was the official name on coins, weights, and other official usage, although the common people continued to use the old name.", "By the 11th century, ''Baghdad'' became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis.Christophe Wall-Romana has suggested that al-Mansur's choice to found his \"new city\" at Baghdad because of its strategic location was the same criteria which influenced Sargon's choice to found the original city of Akkad in the exact same location." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===An 1808 picture of Baghdad from the print collection in ''Travels in Asia and Africa, etc.''", "(ed.", "J. P. Berjew, British Library)After the fall of the Umayyads, the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital from which they could rule.", "They chose a site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, and on 30 July 762 the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city.", "It was built under the guidance of the Barmakids.", "Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic Empire under the Abbasids.", "The Muslim historian al-Tabari reported an ancient prediction by Christian monks that a lord named Miklas would one day build a spectacular city around the area of Baghdad.", "When Mansur heard the story, he became very joyful, for legend has it, he was called Miklas as a child.", "Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying: \"This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward\".Dirham of Harun al-Rashid circa 807 BaghdadThe city's growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors: it had control over strategic and trading routes along the Tigris, and it had an abundance of water in a dry climate.", "Water exists on both the north and south ends of the city, allowing all households to have a plentiful supply, which was quite uncommon during this time.", "The city of Baghdad quickly became so large that it had to be divided into three judicial districts: Madinat al-Mansur (the Round City), al-Sharqiyya (Karkh) and Askar al-Mahdi (on the West Bank).Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sassanians, which was located some to the southeast.", "Today, all that remains of Ctesiphon is the shrine town of Salman Pak, just to the south of Greater Baghdad which is where Salman the Persian is believed to have been buried.", "Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia, the first capital of the Seleucid Empire, which had earlier replaced the city of Babylon.An 1468 painting of Floods in Baghdad by ShirwanAccording to the traveler Ibn Battuta, Baghdad was one of the largest cities, not including the damage it has received.", "The residents are mostly Hanbalis.", "Baghdad is also home to the grave of Abu Hanifa where there is a cell and a mosque above it.", "The Sultan of Baghdad, Abu Said Bahadur Khan, was a Tatar king who embraced Islam.In its early years, the city was known as a deliberate reminder of an expression in the Qur'an, when it refers to Paradise.", "It took four years to build (764–768).", "Mansur assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructionists from around the world to come together and draw up plans for the city.", "Over 100,000 construction workers came to survey the plans; many were distributed salaries to start the building of the city.", "July was chosen as the starting time because two astrologers, Naubakht Ahvazi and Mashallah, believed that the city should be built under the sign of the lion, Leo.", "Leo is associated with fire and symbolizes productivity, pride, and expansion and Leo's connection symbolically to Mithra.The bricks used to make the city were on all four sides.", "Abu Hanifah was the counter of the bricks and he developed a canal, which brought water to the work site for both human consumption and the manufacture of the bricks.", "Marble was also used to make buildings throughout the city, and marble steps led down to the river's edge.The Round City of Baghdad between 767 and 912 ADBaghdad Museum is a local history museum.", "It features 70 scenes from different periods using lifesize models presenting Baghdad lifeThe basic framework of the city consists of two large semicircles about in diameter.", "The inner city connecting them was designed as a circle about in diameter, leading it to be known as the \"Round City\".", "The original design shows a single ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring inside the first.", "Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas, and promenades.", "There was a large sanitation department, many fountains and public baths, and unlike contemporary European cities at the time, streets were frequently washed free of debris and trash.", "In fact, by the time of Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad had a few thousand hammams.", "These baths increased public hygiene and served as a way for the religious to perform ablutions as prescribed by Islam.", "Moreover, entry fees were usually so low that almost everyone could afford them.", "In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as headquarters for guards.", "The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown.", "The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Persian Sasanian urban design.", "The Sasanian city of Gur in Fars, built 500 years before Baghdad, is nearly identical in its general circular design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the center of the city.", "This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles.Baghdad was a hectic city during the day and had many attractions at night.", "There were cabarets and taverns, halls for backgammon and chess, live plays, concerts, and acrobats.", "On street corners, storytellers engaged crowds with tales such as those later told in Arabian Nights.", ";Surrounding wallsContemporary sketch of Baghdad published by Carsten Niebuhr in 1778The four surrounding walls of Baghdad were named Kufa, Basra, Khurasan, and Syria; named because their gates pointed in the directions of these destinations.", "The distance between these gates was a little less than .", "Each gate had double doors that were made of iron; the doors were so heavy it took several men to open and close them.", "The wall itself was about 44 m thick at the base and about 12 m thick at the top.", "Also, the wall was 30 m high, which included merlons, a solid part of an embattled parapet usually pierced by embrasures.", "This wall was surrounded by another wall with a thickness of 50 m. The second wall had towers and rounded merlons, which surrounded the towers.", "This outer wall was protected by a solid glacis, which is made out of bricks and quicklime.", "Beyond the outer wall was a water-filled moat.", ";Golden Gate PalaceThe Golden Gate Palace, the residence of the caliph and his family, was in the heart of Baghdad, in the central square.", "In the central part of the building, there was a green dome that was 39m high.", "Surrounding the palace was an esplanade, a waterside building, in which only the caliph could come riding on horseback.", "In addition, the palace was near other mansions and officer's residences.", "Near the Gate of Syria, a building served as the home for the guards.", "It was made of brick and marble.", "The palace governor lived in the latter part of the building and the commander of the guards in the front.", "In 813, after the death of caliph Al-Amin, the palace was no longer used as the home for the caliph and his family.", "The roundness points to the fact that it was based on Arabic script.", "The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, a Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah, a Jew from Khorasan, Iran.===Center of learning (8th–9th centuries)===Mustansiriya madrasa, established in 1227, was one of the oldest universities in the world.", "Its building survived the Mongol invasion of 1258.The modern Mustansiriyah University was established in 1963.Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce.", "The city flourished into an unrivaled intellectual center of science, medicine, philosophy, and education, especially with the Abbasid translation movement began under the second caliph Al-Mansur and thrived under the seventh caliph Al-Ma'mun.", "''Baytul-Hikmah'' or the \"House of Wisdom\" was among the most well known academies, and had the largest selection of books in the world by the middle of the 9th century.", "Notable scholars based in Baghdad during this time include translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq, mathematician al-Khwarizmi, and philosopher Al-Kindi.", "Although Arabic was used as the international language of science, the scholarship involved not only Arabs, but also Persians, Syriacs, Nestorians, Jews, Arab Christians, and people from other ethnic and religious groups native to the region.", "These are considered among the fundamental elements that contributed to the flourishing of scholarship in the Medieval Islamic world.", "Baghdad was also a significant center of Islamic religious learning, with Al-Jahiz contributing to the formation of Mu'tazili theology, as well as Al-Tabari culminating in the scholarship on the Quranic exegesis.", "Baghdad is likely to have been the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it tied with Córdoba.", "Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak.", "Many of the ''One Thousand and One Nights'' tales, widely known as the ''Arabian Nights'', are set in Baghdad during this period.", "It would surpass even Constantinople in prosperity and size.Khan Murjan, built in the 14th century as a caravanseraiAmong the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries.", "Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature.", "Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale.", "Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character.", "Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period.", "The earliest was that of the famous Al-Ma'mun, who was caliph from 813 to 833.Another was established by Sabur ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy.", "This second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established.", "This was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society.", "The last two were examples of ''madrasa'' or theological college libraries.", "The Nezamiyeh was founded by the Persian Nizam al-Mulk, who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans.", "It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258.The Mustansiriyah ''madrasa'', which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by Al-Mustansir, the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242.This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad.===Stagnation and invasions (10th–16th centuries)===Al-Khulafa mosque retains an Abbasid-era minaretZumurrud Khatun Tomb in Baghdad (built in 1202 AD)By the 10th century, the city's population was between 1.2 million and 2 million.", "Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135).The Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks from Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam.", "In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad.", "The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that had ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad.", "They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime).", "Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs.Sieges and wars in which Baghdad was involved are listed below:*Siege of Baghdad (812–813), Fourth Fitna (Caliphal Civil War)*Siege of Baghdad (865), Abbasid civil war (865–866)*Battle of Baghdad (946), Buyid–Hamdanid War*Siege of Baghdad (1157), Abbasid–Seljuq Wars*Siege of Baghdad (1258), Mongol conquest of Baghdad*Siege of Baghdad (1393), by Tamerlane*Siege of Baghdad (1401), by Tamerlane*Capture of Baghdad (1534), Ottoman–Safavid Wars*Capture of Baghdad (1623), Ottoman–Safavid Wars*Capture of Baghdad (1638), Ottoman–Safavid WarsIn 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh.", "Not long before the arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf.", "It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid ''da'i'', al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil, Wāsit and Kufa.", "Soon after, by December 1058, a Shi'i ''adhān'' (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a ''khutbah'' (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph.", "Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor.Conquest of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 CEOn 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Chingiz Khan (Genghis Khan), during the siege of Baghdad.", "Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting.", "The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city.", "The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed.", "During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies.", "The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate.", "It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilization never fully recovered.Central Asian Turko-Mongol conqueror Timur sacked the city and spared almost no oneAt this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran.", "In August 1393, Baghdad was occupied by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur (\"Tamerlane\"), by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz.", "Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys.", "Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned.In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by Timur.", "When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads.", "Baghdad became a provincial capital controlled by the Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties.===Ottoman and mamluks (16th–19th centuries)===In 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Empire.", "Under the Ottomans, Baghdad continued into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids, which did not accept the Sunni control of the city.", "Between 1623 and 1638, it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands.", "Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East.", "The city saw relative revival in the latter part of the 18th century, under Mamluk government.", "Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831.From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire by Mehmed Namık Pasha.", "The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.File:Baghdad Eyalet, Ottoman Empire (1609).png|Baghdad Eyalet in 1609File:Baghdad Vilayet, Ottoman Empire (1900).png|Baghdad Vilayet in 1900File:Market-Place of Bagdad.jpeg|Souk in Baghdad, 1876===Modern era===Al-Shabandar Café in Baghdad, 1923Baghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1917, when they were captured by the British during World War I.", "In 1920, Baghdad became the capital of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, with several architectural and planning projects commissioned to reinforce this administration.", "After receiving independence in 1932, the city became capital of the Kingdom of Iraq.During this period, the substantial Jewish community (probably exceeding 100,000 people) comprised between a quarter and a third of the city's population.", "On 1 April 1941, members of the \"Golden Square\" and Rashid Ali staged a coup in Baghdad.", "Rashid Ali installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abd al-Ilah.", "On 31 May, after the resulting Anglo-Iraqi War and after Rashid Ali and his government had fled, the Mayor of Baghdad surrendered to British and Commonwealth forces.", "On 1–2 June, during the ensuing power vacuum, Jewish residents were attacked following rumors they had aided the British.", "In what became known as the Farhud, over 180 Jews were killed, 1,000 injured and hundreds of Jewish properties were ransacked.", "Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.Iraqi Levies, who volunteered in 1946 for service as ground crew with the Royal Air Force, look over the side of the ORBITA as it pulls into the docks at Liverpool.", "Left to right, they are: Sergeant Macko Shmos, Lance Corporal Adoniyo Odisho and Corporal Yoseph Odisho.The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950.On 14 July 1958, members of the Iraqi Army, under Abd al-Karim Qasim, staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq.", "King Faisal II, former Prime Minister Nuri al-Said, former Regent Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup.", "Many of the victim's bodies were then dragged through the streets of Baghdad.During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum, Iraq's main export.", "New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, and highway facilities were built during this period.", "The masterplans of the city (1967, 1973) were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice.", "However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted by Saddam Hussein to the army and thousands of residents were killed.", "Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for Saddam Hussein's continuous bombardments of Tehran's residential districts.", "In 1991 and 2003, the Gulf War and the US invasion of Iraq caused significant damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure as the US-led coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults in the city in the two wars.", "Also in 2003, a minor riot in the city (which took place on 21 July) caused some disturbance in the population.", "The historic \"Assyrian Quarter\" of the city, Dora, which boasted a population of 150,000 Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then.", "The community has been subject to kidnappings, death threats, vandalism, and house burnings by al-Qaeda and other insurgent groups.", "As of the end of 2014, only 1,500 Assyrians remained in Dora.", "The Iraq War took place from 2003 to 2011, but an Islamist insurgency lasted until 2013.It was followed by another war from 2013 to 2017 and a low-level insurgency from 2017, which included suicide bombings in January 2018 and January 2021.Priceless collection of artifacts in the National Museum of Iraq was looted by Iraqi citizens during the 2003 US-led invasion.", "Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed.In December 2015, Baghdad was selected by UNESCO as the first Arab city of the center of literary creativity.Baghdad gained significance on 3 January 2020, when Iranian major general Qasem Soleimani was killed in a U.S. drone strike at Baghdad International Airport.===Reconstruction efforts===Most Iraqi reconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure.", "More visible efforts at reconstruction through private development, like architect and urban designer Hisham N. Ashkouri's Baghdad Renaissance Plan and the Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center have also been made.", "A plan was proposed by a Government agency to rebuild a tourist island in 2008.Investors were sought to develop a \"romantic island\" on the River Tigris that was once a popular honeymoon spot for newlyweds.", "The project would include a six-star hotel, spa, an 18-hole golf course and a country club.", "In addition, the go-ahead has been given to build numerous architecturally unique skyscrapers along the Tigris that would develop the city's financial center in Kadhehemiah.", "In late 2009, a construction plan was proposed to rebuild the heart of Baghdad, but the plan was never realized because corruption was involved in it.View of downtown Baghdad, March 2017The Baghdad Eye Ferris wheel, proposed in August 2008, was installed at the Al-Zawraa Park in March 2011.In May 2010, a new large scale residential and commercial project called Baghdad Gate was announced.In August 2010, Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid, was appointed to design a new headquarters for the Central Bank in Baghdad.", "Initial talks about the project were held in Istanbul, Turkey, on 14 August 2010, in the presence of the Central Bank Governor Sinan al-Shabibi.", "On 2 February 2012, Zaha Hadid joined Sinan al-Shabibi at a ceremony in London to sign the agreement between the Central Bank of Iraq and Zaha Hadid Architects for the design stages of the new CBI Headquarters building.", "The construction was postponed in 2015 due to economical problems, but started again in 2019." ], [ "Climate", "Baghdad has a hot desert climate (Köppen ''BWh''), featuring extremely hot, prolonged, dry summers and mild to cool, slightly wet, short winters.", "In the summer, from June through August, the average maximum temperature is as high as and accompanied by sunshine.", "Rainfall has been recorded on fewer than half a dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded .", "Even at night, temperatures in summer are seldom below .", "Baghdad's record highest temperature of was reached on 28 July 2020.The humidity is typically under 50% in summer due to Baghdad's distance from the marshy southern Iraq and the coasts of Persian Gulf, and dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer.Winter temperatures are typical of hot desert climates.", "From December through February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging , though highs above are not unheard of.", "Lows below freezing occur a couple of times per year on average.Annual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November through March, averages approximately , but has been as high as and as low as .", "On 11 January 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in 100 years.", "Snowfall was again reported on 11 February 2020, with accumulations across the city." ], [ "Geography", "The city is located on a vast plain bisected by the Tigris river.", "The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called \"Risafa\" and the Western half known as \"Karkh\".", "The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of quaternary alluvial origin due to the periodic large floods which have occurred on the river." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Baghdad as seen from the International Space StationAdministratively, Baghdad Governorate is divided into districts which are further divided into sub-districts.", "Municipally, the governorate is divided into 9 municipalities, which have responsibility for local issues.", "Regional services, however, are coordinated and carried out by a mayor who oversees the municipalities.", "The governorate council is responsible for the governorate-wide policy.", "These official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centers for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function.", "Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these.", "The process initially focused on the election of neighborhood councils in the official neighborhoods, elected by neighborhood caucuses.", "The CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighborhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbors to subsequent meetings.", "Each neighborhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighborhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbors to vote for them.", "Once all 88 (later increased to 89) neighborhood councils were in place, each neighborhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils.", "The number of neighborhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighborhood's population.", "The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council.", "This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighborhood, through the district, and up to the city council.", "The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself.", "There, local councils were elected from 20 neighborhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada).", "As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council.", "The first step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council.", "As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent.", "The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected.", "This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome; however, Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people.", "At the lowest level, the neighborhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people.", "The nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows:*Adhamiyah*Karkh (Green Zone)*Karrada*Kadhimiya*Mansour*Sadr City (Thawra)*Al Rashid*Rusafa*New Baghdad (Tisaa Nissan) (9 April)The nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of the districts above.", "The following is a ''selection'' (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods:*Al-Ghazaliya*Al-A'amiriya*Dora*Karrada*Al-Jadriya*Al-Hebnaa*Zayouna*Al-Saydiya*Al-Sa'adoon*Al-Shu'ala*Al-Mahmudiyah*Bab Al-Moatham**Al-Baya'*Al-Za'franiya*Hayy Ur*Sha'ab*Hayy Al-Jami'a*Al-Adel*Al Khadhraa*Hayy Al-Jihad*Hayy Al-A'amel*Hayy Aoor*Al-Hurriya*Haydar-Khana*Hayy Al-Shurtta*Yarmouk*Jesr Diyala*Abu Disher*Al-Maidan*Raghiba Khatoun*Arab Jibor*Al-Fathel*Al-Ubedy*Al-Washash*Al-Wazireya" ], [ "Notable streets", "Abu Nuwas Street*Haifa Street*Hilla Road – Runs from the north into Baghdad via Yarmouk (Baghdad)*Caliphs Street – site of historical mosques and churches*Al-Sa'doun Street – stretching from Liberation Square to Masbah*Abu Nuwas Street – runs along the Tigris from the Jumhouriya Bridge to 14 July Suspended Bridge*Damascus Street – goes from Damascus Square to the Baghdad Airport Road*Mutanabbi Street – A street with numerous bookshops, named after the 10th century Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi*Rabia Street*14th July Street (Mosul Road)*Muthana al-Shaibani Street*Bor Saeed (Port Said) Street*Thawra Street*Al-Qanat Street – runs through Baghdad north-south*Al-Khat al-Sare'a – Mohammed al-Qasim (high speed lane) – runs through Baghdad, north–south*Industry Street runs by the University of Technology – center of the computer trade in Baghdad*Al Nidhal Street*Al-Rasheed Street – city center Baghdad*Al-Jumhuriya Street – city center Baghdad*Falastin Street*Tariq al-Muaskar – (Al-Rasheed Camp Road)*Akhrot street*Baghdad Airport Road" ], [ "Demographics", "=== Ethnicity ===The vast majority of Baghdad's population are Iraqi Arabs.", "Minority ethnic groups include Feyli Kurds, Turkmen, Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriacs and Armenians.", "The city was also home to a large Jewish community and regularly visited by Sikh pilgrims.=== Religion ===Baghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015.The city historically has a predominantly Sunni population, but by the early 21st century around 52% of the city's population were Iraqi Shi'ites.", "At the beginning of the 21st century, some 1.5 million people migrated to Baghdad.", "Sunni Muslims make up 29–34% of Iraq's population and they are still a majority in west and north Iraq.", "As early as 2003, about 20 percent of the population of the city was the result of mixed marriages between Shi'ites and Sunnis.", "Following the civil war between the Sunni and Shia militia groups during the U.S. occupation of Iraq, the population of Sunnis significantly decreased as they were pushed out of many neighborhoods.", "The War in Iraq following the Islamic State's invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city." ], [ "Religion", "Baghdad is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups with an Arab majority, as well as Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Yazidis, Shabakis, Armenians and Mandaeans.", "The majority of the citizens are Muslims with minorities of Christians, Yezidis and Mandeans also present.", "There are many religious centers distributed around the city including mosques, churches and Mashkhannas cultic huts.Masjid Al-Kadhimain is a shrine that is located in the Kādhimayn suburb of Baghdad.", "It contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Twelver Shi'ite Imams, Musa al-Kadhim and Muhammad at-Taqi respectively, upon whom the title of ''Kādhimayn'' (\"Two who swallow their anger\") was bestowed.", "Many Shi'ites travel to the mosque from far away places to commemorate those imams.File:Al-Kadhimiya Mosque 1.jpg|Al-Kadhimiya MosqueFile:مبنى كنيسة الارمن.jpg|Armenian Orthodox Church of BaghdadFile:Al- Saray Mosque جامع السراي.jpg|Al-Sarai MosqueFile:جامع الخلاني.jpg|Khilani MosqueIn the Kadhimiya district of Baghdad, was the house of Baháʼu'lláh''',''' (Prophet Founder of the Baha'i Faith) also known as the \"Most Great House\" (Bayt-i-Azam) and the \"House of God,\" where Baháʼu'lláh mostly resided from 1853 to 1863.It is considered a holy place and a place of pilgrimage by Baha'i's according to their \"Most Holy Book\".", "On 23 June 2013, the house was destroyed under unclear circumstances." ], [ "Economy", "Al-Ma'mun's Telecommunication Center in downtown BaghdadBaghdad accounts for 22.2% of Iraq's population and 40% of the country's gross domestic product (PPP).=== Tourism ===Baghdad was once one of the main destinations in the country and the region with a wealth of cultural attractions.", "Tourism has diminished since the Iraq-Iran war and later during the US invasion, but in recent years Baghdad has become a main tourist destination although it is still facing challenges.There are numerous historic, scientific and artistic museums in Baghdad which include, Iraq Museum, Baghdadi Museum, Natural History Museum and several others.Baghdad is known for its famous Mutanabbi street which is well established for bookselling and has often been referred to as the heart and soul of the Baghdad literary and intellectual community.", "The annual International Book Fair in Baghdad is well known to the international publishing world as a promising publishing event in the region after years of instability.", "File:Inbound3876607660648875635احد ابواب القصر العباسي.jpg|Abbasid PalaceFile:بناية المتحف البغدادي.jpg|Baghdadi MuseumFile:Iraqi Museum.jpg|Iraq National MuseumFile:Al-Zawra'a Park.png|Al-Zawra'a ParkFile:Al Salam Palace Iraq.jpg|Al-Salam Palace File:DJK 8850tm.jpg|Al-Faw Palace" ], [ "Transport", "Baghdad lacks substantial public transportation, and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city.", "Roads in Baghdad are noted to be especially congested.Iraqi Airways, the national airline of Iraq, has its headquarters on the grounds of Baghdad International Airport in Baghdad.=== Proposed elevated metro ===The Baghdad Metro is a proposed metro system repeatedly proposed since the reign of Saddam Hussein.", "The current proposal for the metro, this time in the form of an elevated railway to ease congestion in the city center, is set to begin construction in 2023 and per Iraqi officials is presumed to be primarily built by Hyundai and Alstom.", "The first phase is predicted to have 14 stations." ], [ "Education", "The House of Wisdom was a major academy and public center in Baghdad.", "The Mustansiriya Madrasa was established in 1227 by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir.", "The name was changed to al-Mustansiriya University in 1963.The University of Baghdad is the largest university in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab world.", "Prior to the Gulf War, multiple international schools operated in Baghdad, including:*École française de Bagdad*Deutsche Schule Bagdad*Baghdad Japanese School (バグダッド日本人学校), a nihonjin gakko===Universities===*University of Baghdad*Mustansiriya University*Iraqi University*Nahrain University*Albayan University*University of Technology, Iraq*American University of Iraq – Baghdad*Al-Turath University College*Dijlah University College" ], [ "Culture", "The Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra performing in July 2007The National Ballet performing in 2007Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady of SorrowsThe Baghdad Convention CenterBaghdad has always played a significant role in the broader Arab cultural sphere, contributing several significant writers, musicians and visual artists.", "Famous Arab poets and singers such as Nizar Qabbani, Umm Kulthum, Fairuz, Salah Al-Hamdani, Ilham al-Madfai and others have performed for the city.", "The dialect of Arabic spoken in Baghdad today differs from that of other large urban centers in Iraq, having features more characteristic of nomadic Arabic dialects (Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'').", "It is possible that this was caused by the repopulating of the city with rural residents after the multiple sackings of the late Middle Ages.", "For poetry written about Baghdad, see Reuven Snir (ed.", "), ''Baghdad: The City in Verse'' (Harvard, 2013).", "Baghdad joined the UNESCO Creative Cities Network as a City of Literature in December 2015.Some of the important cultural institutions in the city include the National Theater, which was looted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but efforts are underway to restore the theater.", "The live theater industry received a boost during the 1990s, when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films.", "As many as 30 movie theaters were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.", "Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include The Music and Ballet School of Baghdad and the Institute of Fine Arts Baghdad.", "The Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra is a government funded symphony orchestra in Baghdad.", "The INSO plays primarily classical European music, as well as original compositions based on Iraqi and Arab instruments and music.", "Baghdad is also home to a number of museums which housed artifacts and relics of ancient civilization; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after United States forces entered the city.During US occupation of Iraq, AFN Iraq (\"Freedom Radio\") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations.", "There is also a private radio station called \"Dijlah\" (named after the Arabic word for the Tigris River) that was created in 2004 as Iraq's first independent talk radio station.", "Radio Dijlah offices, in the Jamia neighborhood of Baghdad, have been attacked on several occasions." ], [ "Sights of interest", "*The National Museum of Iraq whose collection of artifacts was looted during the 2003 US invasion, and the iconic Hands of Victory arches.", "Multiple Iraqi parties are in discussions as to whether the arches should remain as historical monuments or be dismantled.", "Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed under Saddam's command.", "*Mutanabbi Street is located near the old quarter of Baghdad; at Al-Rasheed Street.", "It is the historic center of Baghdadi book-selling, a street filled with bookstores and outdoor book stalls.", "It was named after the 10th-century classical Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi.", "This street is well established for bookselling and has often been referred to as the heart and soul of the Baghdad literacy and intellectual community.", "*Baghdad Zoo used to be the largest zoological park in the Middle East.", "Within eight days following the 2003 invasion, however, only 35 of the 650 animals in the facility survived.", "This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food.", "Conservationist Lawrence Anthony and some of the zoo keepers cared for the animals and fed the carnivores with donkeys they had bought locally.", "Eventually Paul Bremer, Director of the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq after the invasion, ordered protection for the zoo and enlisted U.S. engineers to help reopen the facility.", "*Grand Festivities Square is the main square where public celebrations are held and is also the home to three important monuments commemorating Iraqi's fallen soldiers and victories in war; namely Al-Shaheed Monument, the Victory Arch and the Unknown Soldier's Monument.", "*Al-Shaheed Monument, also known as the Martyr's Memorial, is a monument dedicated to the Iraqi soldiers who died in the Iran–Iraq War.", "However, now it is generally considered by Iraqis to be for all of the martyrs of Iraq, especially those allied with Iran and Syria fighting ISIS, not just of the Iran–Iraq War.", "The monument was opened in 1983, and was designed by the Iraqi architect Saman Kamal and the Iraqi sculptor and artist Ismail Fatah Al Turk.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, Saddam Hussein's government spent a lot of money on new monuments, which included the al-Shaheed Monument.Qushla Square*Qushla or Qishla is a public square and the historical complex located in al-Rusafa neighborhood at the riverbank of Tigris.", "Qushla and its surroundings is where the historical features and cultural capitals of Baghdad are concentrated, from the Mutanabbi Street, Abbasid-era palace and bridges, Ottoman-era mosques to the Mustansariyah Madrasa.", "The square developed during the Ottoman era as a military barracks.", "Today, it is a place where the citizens of Baghdad find leisure such as reading poetry in gazebos.", "It is characterized by the iconic clock tower which was donated by George V. The entire area is submitted to the UNESCO World Heritage Site Tentative list.", "*A'dhamiyyah is a predominantly Sunni area with a Mosque that is associated with the Sunni Imam Abu Hanifa.", "The name of ''Al-Aʿẓamiyyah'' is derived from Abu Hanifa's title, ''al-Imām al-Aʿẓam'' (the Great Imam).", "*Firdos Square is a public open space in Baghdad and the location of two of the best-known hotels, the Palestine Hotel and the Sheraton Ishtar, which are both also the tallest buildings in Baghdad.", "The square was the site of the statue of Saddam Hussein that was pulled down by U.S.-led coalition forces in a widely televised event during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "*Al-Rasheed Street is one of the most significant landmarks in Baghdad.", "Located in al-Rusafa area, the street was an artistic, intellectual and cultural center for many Baghdadis.", "It also included many prominent theaters and nightclubs such as the Crescent Theatre where Egyptian Singer Umm Kulthum sang during her visit in 1932 as well as the Chakmakji Company that recorded the music of various Arab singers.", "The street also contains famous and well-known landmarks including the ancient Haydar-Khana Mosque as well as numerous well-known cafés such as al-Zahawi Café and the Brazilian Café.", "The Street is also notable for its architecture and aesthetic which was inspired by Renaissance architecture and also includes the famous Iraqi shanasheel." ], [ "Sport", "Baghdad is home to some of the most successful football (soccer) teams in Iraq, the biggest being Al-Shorta (Police), Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya (Air Force), Al-Zawraa, and Al-Talaba (Students).", "The largest stadium in Baghdad is Al-Shaab Stadium, which was opened in 1966.In recent years, the capital has seen the building of several football stadiums which are meant be opened in near future.", "The city has also had a strong tradition of horse racing ever since World War I, known to Baghdadis simply as 'Races'.", "There are reports of pressures by the Islamists to stop this tradition due to the associated gambling.+ClubFoundedLeagueAl-Quwa Al-Jawiya SC1931Iraq Stars LeagueAl-Shorta SC1932Iraq Stars LeagueAl-Zawraa SC1969Iraq Stars LeagueAl-Talaba SC1969Iraq Stars League" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "* Cairo, Egypt* Pyongyang, North Korea* Tehran, Iran" ], [ "See also", "*Iraqi art*List of mosques in Baghdad*List of places in Iraq*History of the Jews in Baghdad*Battle of Baghdad (2003)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Articles===* A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu &   format)* By Desert Ways to Baghdad, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins), 1908 (1909 ed) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu &   format)* Miastoprojekt goes abroad: the transfer of architectural labour from socialist Poland to Iraq (1958–1989) by Lukasz Stanek, ''The Journal of Architecture'', Volume 17, Issue 3, 2012===Books===*Caecilia Pieri, Bagdad, la construction d'une capitale moderne, 1914–1960, Presses de l'Ifpo, 2015, 440 pages, about 800 illustrations (ISBN 978-2-35159-399-8) (ISSN 2225-7578).", "*Mina Marefat, Caecilia Pieri, Gilles Ragot, Le Corbusier's Gymnasium in Bagdad, 2014, Éditions du patrimoine, collection Regards (French and English versions), Presses de l'Ifpo (Arabic version) (ISBN 2757703013).", "**\"Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-135\" by Ibn Battuta.", "*\"Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914.\"", "by Bell Gertrude Lowthian, and O'Brien, Rosemary.", "*\"Historic Cities of the Islamic World\".", "by Bosworth, Clifford Edmund.", "*\"Ottoman administration of Iraq, 1890–1908.\"", "by Cetinsaya, Gokhan.", "*\"Naked in Baghdad.\"", "by Garrels, Anne, and Lawrence, Vint.", "*\"A memoir of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson.\"", "by Rawlinson, George.", "*Stanek, Łukasz (2020).", "''Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War''.", "Princeton.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Amanat/Mayoralty of Baghdad* Map of Baghdad * Iraq Image – Baghdad Satellite Observation* National Commission for Investment in Iraq* Interactive map* Iraq – Urban Society* – Baghdad government websites * Envisioning Reconstruction In Iraq* Description of the original layout of Baghdad* Ethnic and sectarian map of Baghdad – Healingiraq* UAE Investors Keen On Taking Part In Baghdad Renaissance Project* Man With A Plan: Hisham Ashkouri* Behind Baghdad's 9/11* Iraq Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit Reports, maps and assessments of Iraq from the UN Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit*" ] ]

[ [ "Outline of biology" ], [ "Introduction", "''Drosophila melanogaster'', commonly used as a model organism'''Biology''' – The natural science that studies life.", "Areas of focus include structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy." ], [ "History of biology", "*History of anatomy*History of biochemistry*History of biotechnology*History of ecology*History of genetics*History of evolutionary thought:**The eclipse of Darwinism – Catastrophism – Lamarckism – Orthogenesis – Mutationism – Structuralism – Vitalism**Modern (evolutionary) synthesis**History of molecular evolution**History of speciation*History of medicine*History of model organisms*History of molecular biology*Natural history*History of plant systematics" ], [ "Overview", "*Biology**Science**Life***Properties: Adaptation – Energy processing – Growth – Order – Regulation – Reproduction – Response to environment**Biological organization: atom – molecule – cell – tissue – organ – organ system – organism – population – community – ecosystem – biosphere ***Approach: Reductionism – emergent property – mechanistic*Biology as a science: **Natural science**Scientific method: observation – research question – hypothesis – testability – prediction – experiment – data – statistics**Scientific theory – scientific law*Research method**List of research methods in biology*Scientific literature**List of biology journals: peer review" ], [ "Chemical basis", "Outline of biochemistry*Atoms and molecules**matter – element – atom – proton – neutron – electron– Bohr model – isotope – chemical bond – ionic bond – ions – covalent bond – hydrogen bond – molecule*Water:**properties of water – solvent – cohesion – surface tension – Adhesion – pH*Organic compounds:**carbon – carbon-carbon bonds – hydrocarbon – monosaccharide – amino acids – nucleotide – functional group – monomer – adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – lipids – oil – sugar – vitamins – neurotransmitter – wax*Macromolecules:**polysaccharide: cellulose – carbohydrate – chitin – glycogen – starch**proteins: primary structure – secondary structure – tertiary structure – conformation – native state – protein folding – enzyme – receptor – transmembrane receptor – ion channel – membrane transporter – collagen – pigments: chlorophyll – carotenoid – xanthophyll – melanin – prion**lipids: cell membrane – fats – phospholipids**nucleic acids: DNA – RNA" ], [ "Cells", "Outline of cell biology*Cell structure:**Cell coined by Robert Hooke**Techniques: cell culture – microscope – light microscope – electron microscopy – SEM – TEM** Organelles: Cytoplasm – Vacuole – Peroxisome – Plastid*** Cell nucleus**** Nucleoplasm – Nucleolus – Chromatin – Chromosome*** Endomembrane system**** Nuclear envelope – Endoplasmic reticulum – Golgi apparatus – Vesicles – Lysosome*** Energy creators: Mitochondrion and Chloroplast**Biological membranes:*** Plasma membrane – Mitochondrial membrane – Chloroplast membrane**Other subcellular features: Cell wall – pseudopod – cytoskeleton – mitotic spindle – flagellum – cilium*** Cell transport: Diffusion – Osmosis – isotonic – active transport – phagocytosis***Cellular reproduction: cytokinesis – centromere – meiosis***Nuclear reproduction: mitosis – interphase – prophase – metaphase – anaphase – telophase***programmed cell death – apoptosis – cell senescence*Metabolism: ***enzyme - activation energy - proteolysis – cooperativity*Cellular respiration*** Glycolysis – Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex – Citric acid cycle – electron transport chain – fermentation*Photosynthesis*** light-dependent reactions – Calvin cycle*Cell cycle **mitosis – chromosome – haploid – diploid – polyploidy – prophase – metaphase – anaphase – cytokinesis – meiosis" ], [ "Genetics", "Outline of Genetics*Inheritance**heredity – Mendelian inheritance – gene – locus – trait – allele – polymorphism – homozygote – heterozygote – hybrid – hybridization – dihybrid cross – Punnett square – inbreeding**genotype–phenotype distinction – genotype – phenotype – dominant gene – recessive gene**genetic interactions – Mendel's law of segregation – genetic mosaic – maternal effect – penetrance – complementation – suppression – epistasis – genetic linkage**Model organisms: ''Drosophila'' – ''Arabidopsis'' – ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' – mouse – ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' – ''Escherichia coli'' – Lambda phage – ''Xenopus'' – chicken – zebrafish – ''Ciona intestinalis'' – amphioxus**Techniques: genetic screen – linkage map – genetic map*DNA**Nucleic acid double helix**Nucleobase: adenine (A) – cytosine (C) – guanine (G) – thymine (T) – uracil (U)**DNA replication – mutation – mutation rate – proofreading – DNA mismatch repair – point mutation – crossover – recombination – plasmid – transposon*Gene expression**Central dogma of molecular biology: nucleosome – genetic code – codon – transcription factor – transcription – translation – RNA – histone – telomere**heterochromatin – promoter – RNA polymerase**Protein biosynthesis – ribosomes*Gene regulation**operon – activator – repressor – corepressor – enhancer – alternative splicing*Genomes**DNA sequencing – high throughput sequencing – bioinformatics**Proteome – proteomics – metabolome – metabolomics**DNA paternity testing *Biotechnology (see also Outline of biochemical techniques and Molecular biology): **DNA fingerprinting – genetic fingerprint – microsatellite – gene knockout – imprinting – RNA interference Genomics – computational biology – bioinformatics – gel electrophoresis – transformation – PCR – PCR mutagenesis – primer – chromosome walking – RFLP – restriction enzyme – sequencing – shotgun sequencing – cloning – culture – DNA microarray – electrophoresis – protein tag – affinity chromatography – x-ray diffraction – Proteomics – mass spectrometry*Genes, development, and evolution**Apoptosis**French flag model**Pattern formation**Evo-devo gene toolkit**Transcription factor" ], [ "Evolution", "Outline of evolution (see also evolutionary biology) *Evolutionary processes**evolution **microevolution: adaptation – selection – natural selection – directional selection – sexual selection – genetic drift – sexual reproduction – asexual reproduction – colony – allele frequency – neutral theory of molecular evolution – population genetics – Hardy–Weinberg principle*Speciation**Species*Phylogeny**Lineage (evolution) – evolutionary tree – cladistics – species – taxon – clade – monophyletic – polyphyly – paraphyly – heredity – phenotypic trait – nucleic acid sequence – synapomorphy – homology – molecular clock – outgroup (cladistics) – maximum parsimony (phylogenetics) – Computational phylogenetics **Linnaean taxonomy: Carl Linnaeus – domain (biology) – kingdom (biology) – phylum – class (biology) – order (biology) – family (biology) – genus – species**Three-domain system: archaea – bacteria – eukaryote – protist – fungi – plant – animal **Binomial nomenclature: scientific classification – ''Homo sapiens''*History of life**Origin of life – hierarchy of life – Miller–Urey experiment**Macroevolution: adaptive radiation – convergent evolution – extinction – mass extinction – fossil – taphonomy – geologic time – plate tectonics – continental drift – vicariance – Gondwana – Pangaea – endosymbiosis" ], [ "Diversity", "*Bacteria and Archaea*Protists*Plant diversity** Green algae*** Chlorophyta*** Charophyta** Bryophytes*** Marchantiophyta*** Anthocerotophyta*** Moss** Pteridophytes*** Lycopodiophyta*** Polypodiophyta** Seed plants*** Cycadophyta*** Ginkgophyta*** Pinophyta*** Gnetophyta*** Magnoliophyta*Fungi**Yeast – mold (fungus) – mushroom*Animal diversity**Invertebrates: ***sponge – cnidarian – coral – jellyfish – Hydra (genus) – sea anemone***flatworms – nematodes***arthropods: crustacean – chelicerata – myriapoda – arachnids – insects – annelids – molluscs**Vertebrates: ***fishes: – agnatha – chondrichthyes – osteichthyes***Tiktaalik***tetrapods****amphibians****reptiles****birds*****flightless birds – Neognathae – dinosaurs****mammals*****placental: primates*****marsupial*****monotreme*Viruses**DNA viruses – RNA viruses – retroviruses" ], [ "Plant form and function", "*Plant body**Organ systems: root – shoot – stem – leaf – flower*Plant nutrition and transport**Vascular tissue – bark (botany) – Casparian strip – turgor pressure – xylem – phloem – transpiration – wood – trunk (botany)*Plant development**tropism – taxis**seed – cotyledon – meristem – apical meristem – vascular cambium – cork cambium**alternation of generations – gametophyte – antheridium – archegonium – sporophyte – spore – sporangium*Plant reproduction**angiosperms – flower – reproduction – sperm – pollination – self-pollination – cross-pollination – nectar – pollen *Plant responses**Plant hormone – ripening – fruit – Ethylene as a plant hormone – toxin – pollinator – phototropism – skototropism – phototropin – phytochrome – auxin – photoperiodism – gravity" ], [ "Animal form and function", "*General features: morphology (biology) – anatomy – physiology – biological tissues – organ (biology) – organ systems*Water and salt balance**Body fluids: osmotic pressure – ionic composition – volume***Diffusion – osmosis) – Tonicity – sodium – potassium – calcium – chloride**Excretion*Nutrition and digestion**Digestive system: stomach – intestine – liver – nutrition – primary nutritional groups metabolism – kidney – excretion*Breathing**Respiratory system: lungs *Circulation**Circulatory system: heart – artery – vein – capillary – Blood – blood cell**Lymphatic system: lymph node*Muscle and movement**Skeletal system: bone – cartilage – joint – tendon**Muscular system: muscle – actin – myosin – reflex*Nervous system**Neuron – dendrite – axon – nerve – electrochemical gradient – electrophysiology – action potential – signal transduction – synapse – receptor – **Central nervous system: brain – spinal cord ***limbic system – memory – vestibular system**Peripheral nervous system **Sensory nervous system: eye – vision – audition – proprioception – olfaction –*Integumentary system: skin cell*Hormonal control**Endocrine system: hormone*Animal reproduction**Reproductive system: testes – ovary – pregnancy***Fish#Reproductive system***Mammalian reproductive system****Human reproductive system****Mammalian penis*****Os penis*****Penile spines****Genitalia of bottlenose dolphins****Genitalia of marsupials****Equine reproductive system****Even-toed ungulate#Genitourinary system****Bull#Reproductive anatomy****Carnivora#Reproductive system*****Fossa (animal)#External genitalia*****Female genitalia of spotted hyenas*****Cat anatomy#Genitalia*****Genitalia of dogs******Canine penis*******Bulbus glandis*Animal development**stem cell – blastula – gastrula – egg (biology) – fetus – placenta - gamete – spermatid – ovum – zygote – embryo – cellular differentiation – morphogenesis – homeobox*Immune system**antibody – host – vaccine – immune cell – AIDS – T cell – leucocyte*Animal behavior**Behavior: mating – animal communication – seek shelter – migration (ecology)**Fixed action pattern **Altruism (biology)" ], [ "Ecology", "Outline of ecology*Ecosystems: **Ecology – Biodiversity – habitat – plankton – thermocline – saprobe **Abiotic component: water – light – radiation – temperature – humidity – atmosphere – acidity **Microbe – biomass – organic matter – decomposer – decomposition – carbon – nutrient cycling – solar energy – topography – tilt – Windward and leeward – precipitation Temperature – biome*Populations**Population ecology: organism – geographical area – sexual reproduction – population density – population growth – birth rate – death Rate – immigration rate – exponential growth – carrying capacity – logistic function – natural environment – competition (biology) – mating – biological dispersal – endemic (ecology) – growth curve (biology) – habitat – drinking water – resource – human population – technology – Green revolution*Communities**Community (ecology) – ecological niche – keystone species – mimicry – symbiosis – pollination – mutualism – commensalism – parasitism – predation – invasive species – environmental heterogeneity – edge effect**Consumer–resource interactions: food chain – food web – autotroph – heterotrophs – herbivore – carnivore – trophic level*Biosphere**lithosphere – atmosphere – hydrosphere**biogeochemical cycle: nitrogen cycle – carbon cycle – water cycle **Climate change: Fossil fuel – coal – oil – natural gas – World energy consumption – Climate change feedback – Albedo – water vapor Carbon sink*Conservation**Biodiversity – habitats – Ecosystem services – biodiversity loss – extinction – Sustainability – Holocene extinction" ], [ "Branches", "* Anatomy – study of form in animals, plants and other organisms, or specifically in humans.", "Simply, the study of internal structure of living organisms.", "** Comparative anatomy – the study of evolution of species through similarities and differences in their anatomy.", "** Osteology – study of bones.", "** Osteomyoarthrology – the study of the movement apparatus, including bones, joints, ligaments and muscles.", "** Viscerology – the study of organs** Neuroanatomy – the study of the nervous system.", "** Histology – also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, the branch of biology which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues.", "* Astrobiology – study of origin, early-evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.", "Also known as exobiology, and bioastronomy.", "* Bioarchaeology – study of human and animal remains from archaeological sites.", "* Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level.", "* Biocultural anthropology – the study of the relations between human biology and culture.", "* Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally.", "* Biolinguistics – study of biology and the evolution of language.", "* Biological economics – an interdisciplinary field in which the interaction of human biology and economics is studied.", "* Biophysics – study of biological processes through the methods traditionally used in the physical sciences.", "** Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings.", "** Neurophysics – study of the development of the nervous system on a molecular level.", "** Quantum biology – application of quantum mechanics and theoretical chemistry to biological objects and problems.", "** Virophysics – study of mechanics and dynamics driving the interactions between virus and cells.", "* Biotechnology – new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology.", "** Bioinformatics – use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data.", "** Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology.", "** Synthetic biology – research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological functions not found in nature.", "* Botany – study of plants.", "** Photobiology – scientific study of the interactions of light (technically, non-ionizing radiation) and living organisms.", "The field includes the study of photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, bioluminescence, and ultraviolet radiation effects.", "** Phycology – scientific study of algae.", "** Plant physiology – subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants.", "* Cell biology – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell.", "** Histology – study of the anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals using microscopy.", "* Chronobiology – field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms.", "** Dendrochronology – study of tree rings, using them to date the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in natural history.", "* Developmental biology – study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure** Embryology – study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth).", "** Gerontology – study of aging processes.", "* Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment.", "* Epidemiology – major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations.", "* Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time.", "** Evolutionary developmental biology – field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved.", "** Paleobiology – discipline which combines the methods and findings of the life sciences with the methods and findings of the earth science, paleontology.", "*** Paleoanthropology – the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.", "*** Paleobotany – study of fossil plants.", "*** Paleontology – study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life.", "*** Paleopathology – the study of pathogenic conditions observable in bones or mummified soft tissue, and on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived biomechanic stress.", "* Genetics – study of genes and heredity.", "** Quantitative genetics – study of phenotypes that vary continuously (in characters such as height or mass)—as opposed to discretely identifiable phenotypes and gene-products (such as eye-colour, or the presence of a particular biochemical).", "* Geobiology – study of the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere.", "* Marine biology – study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings.", "* Microbiology – study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things.", "** Bacteriology – study of bacteria** Immunology – study of immune systems in all organisms.", "** Mycology – study of fungi** Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism.", "** Virology – study of viruses* Molecular biology – study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, with some cross over from biochemistry.", "** Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules.", "* Neuroscience – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and emergent proprieties.", "** Behavioral neuroscience – study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.", "** Cellular neuroscience – study of neurons at a cellular level.", "** Cognitive neuroscience – study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a focus on the neural substrates of mental processes.", "** Computational neuroscience – study of the information processing functions of the nervous system, and the use of digital computers to study the nervous system.", "** Developmental neuroscience – study of the cellular basis of brain development and addresses the underlying mechanisms.", "** Molecular neuroscience – studies the biology of the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry and related methodologies.", "** Neuroanatomy – study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system.", "** Neuroendocrinology – studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, that is how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body.", "** Neuroethology – study of animal behavior and its underlying mechanistic control by the nervous system.", "** Neuroimmunology – study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system.", "** Neuropharmacology – study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system.", "** Neurophysiology – study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system.", "** Systems neuroscience – studies the function of neural circuits and systems.", "It is an umbrella term, encompassing a number of areas of study concerned with how nerve cells behave when connected together to form neural networks.", "* Physiology – study of the internal workings of organisms.", "** Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system.", "** Oncology – study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation, oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings.", "* Systems biology – computational modeling of biological systems.", "* Theoretical Biology – the mathematical modeling of biological phenomena.", "* – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior.", "Subbranches include:** Arthropodology – biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs.", "*** Acarology – study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks.", "*** Arachnology – scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids.", "*** Entomology – study of insects.", "**** Coleopterology – study of beetles.", "**** Lepidopterology – study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans).", "**** Myrmecology – scientific study of ants.", "*** Carcinology – study of crustaceans.", "*** Myriapodology – study of centipedes, millipedes, and other myriapods.", "** – scientific study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions.", "** Helminthology – study of worms, especially parasitic worms.", "** Herpetology – study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras).", "*** Batrachology – subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone.", "** Ichthyology – study of fishes.", "This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fishes (Agnatha).", "** Malacology – branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods.", "***Teuthology – branch of Malacology which deals with the study of cephalopods.", "** Mammalogy – study of mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems.", "Mammalogy has also been known as \"mastology,\" \"theriology,\" and \"therology.\"", "There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals.", "*** Cetology – branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea.", "*** Primatology – scientific study of primates*** Human biology – interdisciplinary field studying the range of humans and human populations via biology/life sciences, anthropology/social sciences, applied/medical sciences*** Biological anthropology – subfield of anthropology that studies the physical morphology, genetics and behavior of the human genus, other hominins and hominids across their evolutionary development**** Human behavioral ecology – the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology).", "It focuses on human adaptive responses (physiological, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses.", "** Nematology – scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms.", "** Ornithology – scientific study of birds." ], [ "Biologists", "; Lists of notable biologists* List of notable biologists* List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine* Lists of biologists by author abbreviation** List of authors of names published under the ICZN; Lists of biologists by subject* List of biochemists* List of ecologists* List of neuroscientists* List of physiologists" ], [ "See also", "* Bibliography of biology* Earliest known life forms* Invasion biology terminology* List of omics topics in biology'''Related outlines'''* Outline of life forms* Outline of zoology* Outline of engineering* Outline of technology* List of social sciences'''Journals'''* Biology journals" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* OSU's Phylocode* ''The Tree of Life'': A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.", "* MIT video lecture series on biology* A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT.", "* Biology and Bioethics.", "* Biology online wiki dictionary.", "* Biology Video Sharing Community.", "* What is Biotechnology : a voluntary program as Biotech for Beginners." ] ]

[ [ "British thermal unit" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''British thermal unit''' ('''BTU''') is a measure of heat, which is a form of energy.", "It was originally defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.", "It is also part of the United States customary units.", "The SI unit for energy is the joule (J); one BTU equals about 1,055 J (varying within the range of 1,054–1,060 J depending on the specific definition; see below).While units of heat are often supplanted by energy units in scientific work, they are still used in some fields.", "For example, in the United States the price of natural gas is quoted in dollars per the amount of natural gas that would give 1 million BTUs (1 \"MMBtu\") of heat energy if burned." ], [ "Definitions", "A BTU was originally defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 avoirdupois pound of liquid water by 1 degree Fahrenheit at a constant pressure of one atmospheric unit.", "There are several different definitions of the BTU that differ slightly.", "This reflects the fact that the temperature change of a mass of water due to the addition of a specific amount of heat (calculated in energy units, usually joules) depends slightly upon the water's initial temperature.", "As seen in the table below, definitions of the BTU based on different water temperatures vary by up to 0.5%.", "Variant Energy (J) Notes Thermochemical ≈1,054.35 Originally, the thermochemical BTU was defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from its freezing point to its boiling point, divided by 180 (the temperature change being 180 °F).", "The basis for its modern definition in terms of SI units is the conceptually similar ''thermochemical calorie'', originally defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from freezing to boiling divided by 100 (the temperature change being 100 °C).", "The thermochemical calorie is exactly 4.184 J by definition of the International Standards Organization.", "The thermochemical BTU is calculated by converting from grams to pounds and from Celsius to Fahrenheit.", "≈1,054.80 Used for American natural gas pricing.", "≈1,054.68 Mainly Canadian.", "≈1,059.67 Uses the calorie value of water at its maximum density ().", "IT ≈1,055.06 An early effort to define heat units directly in terms of energy units, and hence to remove the direct association with the properties of water, was taken by the International Steam Table Conferences.", "These conferences originally adopted the simplified definition that 860 \"IT\" calories corresponded to exactly 1 international watt-hour (not the same as a modern watt-hour).", "This definition ultimately became the statement that 1 IT calorie is exactly 4.1868 J.", "The BTU is then calculated from the calorie as is done for the thermochemical definitions of the BTU and the calorie, as in International standard ISO 31-4 ''Quantities and units—Part 4: Heat'' and British Standard BS 350:Part 1:1974 ''Conversion factors and tables''.===Prefixes===Units of kBtu are used in building energy use tracking and heating system sizing.", "Energy Use Index (EUI) represents kBtu per square foot of conditioned floor area.", "\"k\" stands for 1,000.The unit '''Mbtu''' is used in natural gas and other industries to indicate 1,000 BTUs.", "However, there is an ambiguity in that the metric system (SI) uses the prefix \"M\" to indicate 'Mega-', one million (1,000,000).", "Even so, \"MMbtu\" is often used to indicate one million BTUs particularly in the oil and gas industry.Energy analysts accustomed to the metric \"k\" ('kilo-') for 1,000 are more likely to use MBtu to represent one million, especially in documents where M represents one million in other energy or cost units, such as MW, MWh and $.The unit 'therm' is used to represent 100,000 BTUs.", "A decatherm is 10 therms or one MMBtu (million Btu).", "The unit ''quad'' is commonly used to represent one quadrillion (1015) BTUs." ], [ "Conversions", "One Btu is approximately:* (kilojoules)* (watt hours)* (calories)* (kilocalories)* 25,031 to 25,160 ft⋅pdl (foot-poundal)* (foot-pounds-force)* 5.40395 (lbf/in2)⋅ft3A Btu can be approximated as the heat produced by burning a single wooden kitchen match or as the amount of energy it takes to lift a weight .=== For natural gas ===* In natural gas pricing, the Canadian definition is that ≡ .", "* The energy content (high or low heating value) of a volume of natural gas varies with the composition of the natural gas, which means there is no universal conversion factor for energy to volume.", "of average natural gas yields ≈ 1,030 Btu (between 1,010 Btu and 1,070 Btu, depending on quality, when burned)* As a coarse approximation, of natural gas yields ≈ ≈ .", "* For natural gas price conversion ≈ 36.9 million Btu and ≈ ===BTU/h===The SI unit of power for heating and cooling systems is the watt.", "Btu ''per hour'' (Btu/h) is sometimes used in North America and the United Kingdom - the latter for air conditioning mainly, though \"Btu/h\" is sometimes abbreviated to just \"Btu\".", "''MBH''—thousands of Btus per hour—is also common.", "* 1 W is approximately * 1,000 Btu/h is approximately * 1 hp is approximately" ], [ "Associated units", "* 1 ''ton of cooling'', a common unit in North American refrigeration and air conditioning applications, is .", "It is the rate of heat transfer needed to freeze of water into ice in 24 hours.", "* In the United States and Canada, the R-value that describes the performance of thermal insulation is typically quoted in square foot degree Fahrenheit hours per British thermal unit (ft2⋅°F⋅h/Btu).", "For one square foot of the insulation, one BTU per hour of heat flows across the insulator for each degree of temperature difference across it.", "* 1 ''therm'' is defined in the United States and European Union as 100,000 BTU—but the U.S. uses the while the EU uses the BTUIT.", "United Kingdom regulations were amended to replace therms with joules with effect from 1 January 2000.the therm is still used in natural gas pricing in the United Kingdom.", "* 1 ''quad'' (short for quadrillion Btu) is 1015 Btu, which is about 1 exajoule ().", "Quads are used in the United States for representing the annual energy consumption of large economies: for example, the U.S. economy used 99.75 quads in 2005.One quad/year is about 33.43 gigawatts.The Btu should not be confused with the Board of Trade Unit (BTU), an obsolete UK synonym for kilowatt hour ().The Btu is often used to express the conversion-efficiency of heat into electrical energy in power plants.", "Figures are quoted in terms of the quantity of heat in Btu required to generate 1 kW⋅h of electrical energy.", "A typical coal-fired power plant works at , an efficiency of 32–33%.The centigrade heat unit (CHU) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one Celsius degree.", "It is equal to 1.8 BTU or 1,899 joules.", "In 1974, this unit was \"still sometimes used\" in the United Kingdom as an alternative to BTU.Another legacy unit for energy in the metric system is the calorie, which is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius." ], [ "See also", "*Conversion of units*Latent heat*Metrication*Ton of refrigeration" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Bugatti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Automobiles Ettore Bugatti''' was a German then French manufacturer of high-performance automobiles.", "The company was founded in 1909 in the then-German city of Molsheim, Alsace, by the Italian-born industrial designer Ettore Bugatti.", "The cars were known for their design beauty and numerous race victories.", "Famous Bugatti automobiles include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 \"Royale\", the Type 57 \"Atlantic\" and the Type 55 sports car.The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be a severe blow to the marque, and the death of his son Jean in 1939 meant that there was no successor to lead the factory with no more than about 8,000 cars made.", "The company struggled financially, and it released one last model in the 1950s before eventually being purchased for its airplane parts business in 1963.In 1987, an Italian entrepreneur bought the brand name and revived it as '''Bugatti Automobili S.p.A.'''" ], [ "Under Ettore Bugatti", "leftThe founder Ettore Bugatti was born in Milan, Italy, and the automobile company that bears his name was founded in 1909 in Molsheim located in the Alsace region which was part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1919.The company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettore's family (his father, Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer).===World War I and its aftermath===alt=During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris, but as soon as hostilities had been concluded he returned to his factory at Molsheim.", "Less than four months after the Versailles Treaty formalised the transfer of Alsace from Germany to France, Bugatti was able to obtain, at the last minute, a stand at the 15th Paris motor show in October 1919.He exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1,368cc engine with four valves per cylinder.", "Smallest of the three was a \"Type 13\" with a racing body (constructed by the Bugatti themselves) and using a chassis with a wheelbase.", "The others were a \"Type 22\" and a \"Type 23\" with wheelbases of respectively.===Racing successes===alt=The company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing: in 1929, a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix.", "Bugatti's racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice (in 1937 with Robert Benoist and in 1939 with Pierre Veyron).Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing.", "The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race.", "The 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is one of the most successful racing cars - developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car's first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon.", "Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929.Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.", "named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour.", "But it was the final racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car and meagre resources.alt====Aeroplane racing===leftIn the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane, hoping to beat the Germans in the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize.", "This would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew.", "It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his \"Type 7.5\" lifting body.===Railcar===Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the ''Autorail Bugatti''.===Family tragedy===The death of Ettore Bugatti's son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a turning point in the company's fortunes as he died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory.alt=" ], [ "After World War II", "World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property.", "During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois, a northwestern suburb of Paris.", "After the war, Bugatti designed and planned to build a series of new cars, including the Type 73 road car and Type 73C single seat racing car, but in all Bugatti built only five Type 73 cars.Development of a 375 cc supercharged car was stopped when Ettore Bugatti died on 21 August 1947.Following his death, the business declined further and made its last appearance as a business in its own right at a Paris Motor Show in October 1952.After a long decline, the original incarnation of Bugatti ceased operations in 1952.Bugatti Type 49 Engine (alt=" ], [ "Design", "Bugattis are recognized for their focus on design.", "Engine blocks were hand scraped to ensure that the surfaces were flat so that gaskets were not required for sealing, and many of the exposed surfaces of the engine compartment featured ''guilloché'' finishes on them.", "Safety wires were threaded through most fasteners in intricately laced patterns.", "Rather than bolt the springs to the axles as most manufacturers did, Bugatti's axles were forged such that the spring passed through an opening in the axle, a much more elegant solution requiring fewer parts.", "Bugatti himself described his competitor Bentley's cars as \"the world's fastest lorries\" for focusing on durability.", "According to Bugatti, \"weight was the enemy\".===Important models built=== Prototypes Racing cars Road cars* 1900–1901 Type 2* 1903 Type 5* 1908 Type 10 \"''Petit Pur Sang''\"* 1925 Type 36* 1929–1930 Type 45/47* Type 56 (electric car)* 1939 Type 64 (coupe)* 1943/1947 Type 73C* 1957–1962 Type 252 (2-seat sports convertible)* 1910–1914 Type 13/Type 15/17/22* 1912 Type 16 \"''Bébé''\"* 1922–1926 Type 29 \"''Cigare''\"* 1923 Type 32 \"Tank\"* 1924–1930 Type 35/35A/35B/35T/35C/37/39 \"Grand Prix\"* 1927–1930 Type 52 (electric racer for children)* 1936–1939 Type 57G \"Tank\"* 1937–1939 Type 50B* 1931–1936 Type 53* 1931–1936 Type 51/51A/54GP/59* 1955–1956 Type 251* 1910 Type 13* 1912–1914 Type 18* 1913–1914 Type 23/Brescia Tourer (roadster)* 1922–1934 Type 30/38/40/43/44/49 (touring car)* 1927–1933 Type 41 \"Royale\"* 1929–1939 Type 46/50/50T (touring car)* 1932–1935 Type 55 (roadster)* 1934–1940 Type 57/57S/Type 57SC (touring car)* 1951–1956 Type 101 (coupe)" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Bugatti 1913.JPG|1913 Bugatti 22, 3 seat VinetFile:Bugatti Type 50 i.jpg|Bugatti Type 50 iFile:RL 1938 Bugatti 57SC Atlantic 34 2.jpg|1938 Type 57SC Atlantic from the Ralph Lauren collectionFile:1933 Bugatti Type 59 Grand Prix 34 rear.jpg|1933 Type 59 Grand Prix racer from the Ralph Lauren collectionFile:Bugatti 43 Cockpit.jpg|Bugatti Type 43 Cockpit===Notable finds in the modern era===Relatives of Harold Carr found a rare 1937 Bugatti Type 57S Atalante when cataloguing the doctor's belongings after his death in 2009.Carr's Type 57S is notable because it was originally owned by British race car driver Earl Howe.", "Because much of the car's original equipment is intact, it can be restored without relying on replacement parts.On 10 July 2009, a 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 which had lain at the bottom of Lake Maggiore on the border of Switzerland and Italy for 75 years was recovered from the lake.", "The Mullin Museum in Oxnard, California bought it at auction for $351,343 at Bonham's Rétromobile sale in Paris in 2010." ], [ "Attempts at revival", "The company attempted a comeback under Roland Bugatti in the mid-1950s with the mid-engined Type 251 race car.", "Designed with help from Gioacchino Colombo, the car failed to perform to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted.In the 1960s, Virgil Exner designed a Bugatti as part of his \"Revival Cars\" project.", "A show version of this car was actually built by Ghia using the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis, and was shown at the 1965 Turin Motor Show.", "Finance was not forthcoming, and Exner then turned his attention to a revival of Stutz.Bugatti continued manufacturing airplane parts and was sold to Hispano-Suiza, also a former auto maker turned aircraft supplier, in 1963.Snecma took over Hispano-Suiza in 1968.After acquiring Messier, Snecma merged Messier and Bugatti into Messier-Bugatti in 1977." ], [ "Modern revivals", "===Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. (1987–1995)===View of the assembly line building of the Bugatti Automobili factory in CampogallianoBugatti EB110 (1996)Italian entrepreneur Romano Artioli acquired the Bugatti brand in 1987, and established '''Bugatti Automobili S.p.A.'''.", "Artioli commissioned architect Giampaolo Benedini to design the factory which was built in Campogalliano, Modena, Italy.", "Construction of the plant began in 1988, alongside the development of the first model, and it was inaugurated two years later—in 1990.By 1989, the plans for the new Bugatti revival were presented by Paolo Stanzani and Marcello Gandini, designers of the Lamborghini Miura and Lamborghini Countach.The first production vehicle was the Bugatti EB110 GT which featured a 3.5-litre, 5-valve per cylinder, quad-turbocharged 60° V12 engine, a six-speed gearbox, and four-wheel drive.", "Stanzani proposed an aluminium honeycomb chassis, which was used for all early prototypes.", "He and president Artioli clashed over engineering decisions so Stanzani left the project and Artioli sought Nicola Materazzi to replace him in June 1990.Materazzi, who had been the chief designer for the Ferrari 288 GTO and Ferrari F40 replaced the aluminium chassis with a carbon fibre one manufactured by Aerospatiale and also altered the torque distribution of the car from 40:60 to 27:73.He remained Director until late 1992.Racing car designer Mauro Forghieri served as Bugatti's technical director from 1993 through 1994.On 27 August 1993, through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, Romano Artioli purchased Lotus Cars from General Motors.", "Plans were made to list Bugatti shares on international stock exchanges.Bugatti presented a prototype large saloon called the EB112 in 1993.Perhaps the most famous Bugatti EB110 owner was seven-time Formula One World Champion racing driver Michael Schumacher who purchased an EB110 in 1994.Schumacher sold his EB110, which had been repaired after a severe 1994 crash, to Modena Motorsport, a Ferrari service and race preparation garage in Germany.By the time the EB110 came to market, the North American and European economies were in recession.", "Poor economic conditions forced the company to fail and operations ceased in September 1995.A model specific to the US market called the \"Bugatti America\" was in the preparatory stages when the company ceased operations.Bugatti's liquidators sold Lotus Cars to Proton of Malaysia.", "German firm Dauer Racing purchased the EB110 licence and remaining parts stock in 1997 in order to produce five more EB110 SS vehicles.", "These five SS versions of the EB110 were greatly refined by Dauer.", "The Campogalliano factory was sold to a furniture-making company, which became defunct prior to moving in, leaving the building unoccupied.", "After Dauer stopped producing cars in 2011, Toscana-Motors GmbH of Germany purchased the remaining parts stock from Dauer.Ex vice-president Jean-Marc Borel and ex-employees Federico Trombi, Gianni Sighinolfi and Nicola Materazzi established the B Engineering company and designed and built the Edonis using the chassis and engine from the Bugatti EB110 SS, but simplifying the turbocharging system and driveline (from 4WD to 2WD).===Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.", "(1998–present)=======Pre-Veyron====Bugatti Veyron 16.4Volkswagen Group acquired the Bugatti brand in 1998.Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.", "commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to produce Bugatti Automobiles's first concept vehicle, the EB118, a coupé that debuted at the 1998 Paris Auto Show.", "The EB118 concept featured a , W-18 engine.", "After its Paris debut, the EB118 concept was shown again in 1999 at the Geneva Auto Show and the Tokyo Motor Show.", "Bugatti introduced its next concepts, the EB 218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show and the 18/3 Chiron at the 1999 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA).====Veyron era (2005–2015)====Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.", "began assembling its first regular-production vehicle, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 (the 1001 PS super car with an 8-litre W-16 engine with four turbochargers) in September 2005 at the Bugatti Molsheim, France assembly \"studio\".", "On 23 February 2015, Bugatti sold its last Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse, which was named La Finale.====Chiron era (2016–present)====Bugatti ChironThe Bugatti Chiron is a mid-engined, two-seated sports car, designed by Achim Anscheidt, developed as the successor to the Bugatti Veyron.", "The Chiron was first revealed at the Geneva Motor Show on March 1, 2016." ], [ "See also", "* Musée National de l'Automobile de Mulhouse, home of the Schlumpf Collection of Bugatti cars" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.", "* Bugatti bibliography* The Bugatti Trust* Bugatti at LeMans" ] ]

[ [ "Benchmark" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benchmark''' may refer to:" ], [ "Business and economics", "* Benchmarking, evaluating performance within organizations* Benchmark price* Benchmark (crude oil), oil-specific practices" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Benchmark (surveying), a point of known elevation marked for the purpose of surveying* Benchmarking (geolocating), an activity involving finding benchmarks* Benchmark (computing), the result of running a computer program to assess performance* Benchmark, a best-performing, or gold standard test in medicine and statistics" ], [ "Companies", "* Benchmark Electronics, an electronics manufacturer* Benchmark (venture capital firm), a venture capital firm* Benchmark Recordings, a music label with CDs by the Fabulous Thunderbirds and Mike Bloomfield" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Benchmarking'' (journal), a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal relating to the field of quality management* McAfee's Benchmark, a brand of bourbon* ''Benchmark'' (game show), on UK Channel 4" ], [ "See also", "* Specification (technical standard)" ] ]

[ [ "Band" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Band''' or '''BAND''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "*Bánd, a village in Hungary*Band, Iran, a village in Urmia County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran*Band, Mureș, a commune in Romania*Band-e Majid Khan, a village in Bukan County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran" ], [ "People", "*Band (surname), various people with the surname" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Music===*Musical ensemble, a group of people who perform instrumental or vocal music**Band (rock and pop), a small ensemble that plays rock or pop**Concert band, an ensemble of woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments**Dansband, band playing popular music for a partner-dancing audience**Jazz band, a musical ensemble that plays jazz music**Marching band, a group of instrumental musicians who generally perform outdoors**School band, a group of student musicians who rehearse and perform instrumental music*The Band, a Canadian-American rock and roll group**''The Band'' (album), The Band's eponymous 1969 album*\"Bands\" (song), by American rapper Comethazine*\"The Band\", a 2002 single by Mando Diao===Other uses in arts, entertainment and media===*Band, nickname of Brazilian television network Rede Bandeirantes*''The Band'' (film), a 1978 Israeli film*''The Band'' (musical), a 2017 musical by Tim Firth with the music of Take That" ], [ "Clothing, jewelry, and accessories", "*Armband or arm band**Smart band a band with electronic component***Microsoft Band, a smart band with smartwatch features from the software giant*Bandolier or bandoleer, an ammunition belt*Bands (neckwear), two pieces of cloth fitted around the neck as part of formal clothing for clergy, academics, and lawyers*Belt (clothing), a flexible band or strap, typically made of leather or heavy cloth, and worn around the waist*Strap, an elongated flap or ribbon, usually of fabric or leather*Wedding band, a metal ring indicating the wearer is married" ], [ "Military", "*Bands (Italian Army irregulars), 19th- and 20th-century military units in the service of the Italian \"Regio Esercito\"*Female order of the Band, a medieval military order native to Spain*Order of the Band, a medieval military order native to Spain" ], [ "Science and technology", "*Band (algebra), an idempotent semigroup*Band (order theory), a solid subset of an ordered vector space that contains its supremums*Band (radio), a range of frequencies or wavelengths in radio and radar, specifically:**Frequency band**LTE frequency bands used for cellphone data**Shortwave bands**UMTS frequency bands used for cellphones*BAND (software), a mobile app that facilitates group communication*Band cell, a type of white blood cell*Bird banding, placing a numbered metal band on a bird's leg for identification*Electronic band structure of electrons in solid-state physics*Gastric band, a human weight-control measure*Signaling (telecommunications):**In-band signaling**Out-of-band*Birds Are Not Dinosaurs, or BAND, a controversial stance on the origin of birds" ], [ "Society and government", "*Band (First Nations Canada), the primary unit of First Nations Government in Canada*Band society, a small group of humans in a simple form of society*Tribe (Native American), a tribe, band, nation, or other group or community of Indigenous peoples in the United States" ], [ "Other uses", "*Rubber band*The Band (professional wrestling), the Total Nonstop Wrestling name for the professional wrestling stable New World Order" ], [ "See also", "***Band of Brothers (disambiguation)*Bandage*Banding (disambiguation)*Bandy (disambiguation)*Bend (disambiguation)*Drum and bugle corps (disambiguation)*Herd, a social grouping of certain animals of the same species*Ribbon (disambiguation)*Stripe (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Black Death" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Black Death''' was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Europe from 1346 to 1353.One of the most fatal pandemics in human history, as many as people perished, perhaps 50% of Europe’s 14th century population.", "Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium ''Yersinia pestis'' and spread by fleas.", "One of the most significant events in European history, the Black Death had far-reaching population, economic, and cultural impacts.The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic.", "The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history.The origin of the Black Death is disputed.", "Genetic analysis points to the evolution of ''Yersinia pestis'' in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago.", "The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remain unclear, with some evidence pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and Europe.", "The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347.From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia, and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily, and the Italian Peninsula.", "There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread from person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague.", "In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated.The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the European population, as well as approximately 33% of the population of the Middle East.", "There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, also due to other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its 14th century level until the 16th century.", "Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century." ], [ "<span id=\"Etymology\"></span><span id=\"Name\"></span><span id=\"Naming\"></span>Names", "European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as or ; ; .", "In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the \"pestilence\" or \"great pestilence\", \"the plague\" or the \"great death\".", "Subsequent to the pandemic \"the ''furste moreyn''\" (first murrain) or \"first pestilence\" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague.The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as \"black\" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression \"black death\" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand.", "\"Black death\" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated .", "This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: , , and .", "Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the .The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old.", "Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths \"full of black Death\" ().", "Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', () but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease.", "The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used '''' to refer to a \"pestilential fever\" () in his work ''On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases'' ().", "The phrase , was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem \"On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn\" (), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn.", "His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease.The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been \"some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague\".", "In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name '''' for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: \"Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death\" ('''')." ], [ "Previous plague epidemics", "''Yersinia pestis'' (200 × magnification), the bacterium that causes plagueResearch from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age.", "Research in 2018 found evidence of ''Yersinia pestis'' in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the \"Neolithic decline\" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly.", "This ''Y.", "pestis'' may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara.The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I.", "In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–549 CE, with recurrences until 750) was ''Y''.", "''pestis''.", "This is known as the first plague pandemic.", "In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a \"malignant bubo\" \"coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue.\"", "The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a \"malignant bubo\" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou).", "Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600." ], [ "14th-century plague", "=== Causes ======= Early theory ====A report by the Medical Faculty of Paris stated that a conjunction of planets had caused \"a great pestilence in the air\" (miasma theory).", "Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a \"martyrdom and mercy\" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise.", "For non-believers, it was a punishment.", "Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God.", "Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans.", "These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks.==== Predominant modern theory ====Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease.", "The plague disease, caused by the bacterium ''Yersinia pestis'', is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States.''Y.", "pestis'' was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission.", "The mechanism by which ''Y.", "pestis'' is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating ''Y.", "pestis'' several days after feeding on an infected host.", "This blockage starves the fleas, drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour, and causes them to try and clear the blockage via regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria flushing into the feeding site and infecting the host.", "The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance.", "When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic.==== DNA evidence ====Skeletons in a mass grave from 1720 to 1721 in Martigues, near Marseille in southern France, yielded molecular evidence of the ''orientalis'' strain of ''Yersinia pestis'', the organism responsible for bubonic plague.", "The second pandemic of bubonic plague was active in Europe from 1347, the beginning of the Black Death, until 1750.Definitive confirmation of the role of ''Y.", "pestis'' arrived in 2010 with a publication in ''PLOS Pathogens'' by Haensch et al.", "They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for ''Y.", "pestis'' from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences.", "The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, \"ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that ''Y.", "pestis'' was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages\".", "In 2011 these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England.", "Schuenemann et al.", "concluded in 2011 \"that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of ''Y.", "pestis'' that may no longer exist\".Later in 2011, Bos et al.", "reported in ''Nature'' the first draft genome of ''Y.", "pestis'' from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of ''Y.", "pestis''.Later genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the ''Y.", "pestis'' strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics—including the third plague pandemic—and the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian.", "In addition, plague genomes from prehistory have been recovered.DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London showed that plague is a strain of ''Y.", "pestis'' almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013.Further DNA evidence also proves the role of ''Y.", "pestis'' and traces the source to the Tian Shan mountains in Kyrgyzstan.==== Alternative explanations ====Researchers are hampered by a lack of reliable statistics from this period.", "Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, where estimates of overall population at the start of the plague vary by over 100%, as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377.Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy.Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission.", "In 2018 researchers suggested an alternative model in which ''\"the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people\".''", "The second model claims to better fit the trends of the plague's death toll, as the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, contradicting historical death data.Lars Walløe argued that these authors \"take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of ''Yersinia pestis'' infection could spread\".", "Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London, and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that ''Y.", "pestis'' was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person.", "This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic.==== Summary ====Academic debate continues, but no single alternative explanation for the plague's spread has achieved widespread acceptance.", "Many scholars arguing for ''Y.", "pestis'' as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections.", "In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic and pneumonic forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms.", "In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.", "Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of ''Y.", "pestis'' bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations.=== Transmission ======= Lack of hygiene ====The importance of hygiene was not recognized until the 19th century and the germ theory of disease.", "Until then streets were usually unhygienic, with live animals and human parasites facilitating the spread of transmissible disease.By the early 14th century, so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste.", "In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for \"shit\".", "There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi.", "Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris.Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were careless.", "William E. Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without, received a complaint alleging that \"men could not pass by his house for the stink of .", ".", ".", "horse dung and horse piss.", "\"One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden \"stinking and putrid\", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, \"making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near.\"", "In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, \"Look out below!\"", "three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street.Early Christians considered bathing a temptation.", "With this danger in mind, St. Benedict declared, \"To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted.\"", "St. Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing.==== Territorial origins ====According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman, ''Yersinia pestis'' \"evolved in or near China\" over 2,600 years ago.", "Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko placed its origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China.", "However more recent research notes that the previous sampling contained East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of ''Y.", "pestis'' in the Caucasus region previously thought to be restricted to China.", "There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China.", "As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day.", "According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years.", "The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s.Nestorian gravesites dating from 1338 to 1339 near Issyk-Kul have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of ''Y.", "pestis'' DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to \"pestilence\" as the cause of death.", "Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347.According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact.", "According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak.", "Additionally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death; Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making its role in the spread of plague less likely.", "There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346.Others still favor an origin in China.", "The theory of Chinese origin implicates the Silk Road, the disease possibly spreading alongside Mongol armies and traders, or possibly arriving via ship—however, this theory is still contested.", "It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa.Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions.", "Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea.Monica H. Green suggests that other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague, because there were actually four strains of ''Yersinia pestis'' that became predominant in different parts of the world.", "Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague.", "Another theory is that the plague originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China.", "Other historians, such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw, believe the plague likely originated in Europe or the Middle East, and never reached China.", "Norris specifically argues for an origin in Kurdistan rather than Central Asia.==== European outbreak ====Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347.During a protracted siege of the city in 1345–1346, the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg—whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease—catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is also likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants.", "As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347.The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities.", "Nicephorus Gregoras, while writing to Demetrios Kydones, described the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens.", "The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400.Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island.", "Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point into northern Italy.", "Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles.From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal, and England by June 1348, then spreading east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350.It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen).", "Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351.Plague was less common in parts of Europe with less-established trade relations, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent.According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavorable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations, forcing their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean and during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region.", "Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, pre-existing malnutrition weakened the immune response, contributing to an immense decline in European population.==== Western Asian and North African outbreak ====The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures.", "By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople via a single merchant ship carrying slaves.", "By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural center of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died.", "The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex.", "The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites; plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries.During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo.", "That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected.", "In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch.", "The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey.", "Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa.The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily.", "Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus.Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj.", "In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home.", "During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease.=== Signs and symptoms ===acral gangrene of the fingers due to bubonic plague causes the skin and flesh to die and turn blackAn inguinal bubo on the upper thigh of a person infected with bubonic plague.", "Swollen lymph nodes (''buboes'') often occur in the neck, armpit and groin (''inguinal'') regions of plague victims.==== Bubonic plague ====Symptoms of the plague include fever of , headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise.", "Left untreated, 80% of victims die within eight days.Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise.", "The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or ''gavocciolos'') in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened.", "Boccaccio's description:This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood.", "Most people died two to seven days after initial infection.", "Freckle-like spots and rashes, which may have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague.==== Pneumonic plague ====Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems.", "Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum.", "As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red.", "Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90–95%.==== Septicemic plague ====Septicemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%.", "Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation).", "In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.=== Consequences ======= Deaths ====Inspired by the Black Death, ''The Dance of Death'', or ''Danse Macabre'', an allegory on the universality of death, was a common painting motif in the late medieval period.There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality.", "Urban centers with higher populations suffered longer periods of abnormal mortality.", "Some estimate that it may have killed between 75,000,000 and 200,000,000 people in Eurasia.", "A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe from 1250 to 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death.", "The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland.", "The authors concluded that \"the pandemic was immensely destructive in some areas, but in others it had a far lighter touch ... the study methodology invalidates histories of the Black Death that assume Y. pestis was uniformly prevalent, or nearly so, across Europe and that the pandemic had a devastating demographic impact everywhere.", "\"The Black Death killed, by various estimations, from 25 to 60% of Europe's population.", "Robert S. Gottfried writes that as early as 1351, \"agents for Pope Clement VI calculated the number of dead in Christian Europe at 23,840,000.With a preplague population of about 75 million, Clement's figure accounts for mortality of 31%-a rate about midway between the 50% mortality estimated for East Anglia, Tuscany, and parts of Scandinavia, and the less-than-15% morbidity for Bohemia and Galicia.", "And it is unerringly close to Froissart's claim that \"a third of the world died,\" a measurement probably drawn from St. John's figure of mortality from plague in the Book of Revelation, a favorite medieval source of information.\"", "Ole J. Benedictow proposes 60% mortality rate for Europe as a whole based on available data, with up to 80% based on poor nutritional conditions in the 14th century.", "According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague.The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of ''Y.", "pestis'' plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities.The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons.", "The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death.In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that nearly a third of the European population perished before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins.", "In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die.", "Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died.", "In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351.At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, leaving a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353.Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348.Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450.The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion.", "Plague did not appear in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland.", "Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people ill with the plague.Citizens of Tournai bury plague victimsIn 1382 the physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–1348, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his treatise ''On Epidemics'' ().", "In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived.", "By the 1380s in Europe, the plague predominantly affected children.", "Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he was never able to effect a cure.The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century.The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population.", "The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population.", "In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months.", "By the 18th century, the population of Cairo was halved from its numbers in 1347.Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:==== Economic ====It has been suggested that the Black Plague, like other outbreaks through history, disproportionately affected the poorest people and those already in worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens.", "But along with population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a subsequent labor shortage.", "Many laborers, artisans and craftsmen—those living from money-wages alone—suffered a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation.", "Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labor services in an effort to keep tenants.==== Environmental ====A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation.", "This may have led to the Little Ice Age.==== Persecutions ====burned at the stake in 1349.Miniature from a 14th-century manuscript ''Antiquitates Flandriae'' by Gilles Li MuisisRenewed religious fervor and fanaticism increased in the wake of the Black Death.", "Some Europeans targeted \"various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims\", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis.", "Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe.Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks.", "Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness.There were many attacks against Jewish communities.", "In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered.", "In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated.", "By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed.", "During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great.==== Social ====Pieter Bruegel's ''The Triumph of Death'' reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague, which devastated medieval Europe.One theory that has been advanced is that the Black Death's devastation of Florence, between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy that ultimately led to the Renaissance.", "Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and the resulting familiarity with death may have caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife.", "It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century; the Renaissance's emergence was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars after the fall of the Byzantine Empire.", "As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom.", "To answer the increased need for labor, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically.Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states frequently managed by the Catholic Church.", "The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled.", "The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably contributed to the destabilization of feudalism.The word \"quarantine\" has its roots in this period, though the practice of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older.", "In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas.", "The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name \"quarantino\" from the Italian word for \"forty\"." ], [ "Recurrences", "=== Second plague pandemic ===The Great Plague of London, in 1665, killed up to 100,000 people.A plague doctor and his typical apparel during the 17th-century outbreak.The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.", "According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671 (although some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data).", "The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–1363; 1374; 1400; 1438–1439; 1456–1457; 1464–1466; 1481–1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667.Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the plague's retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century).Historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s.", "However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa.According to historian Geoffrey Parker, \"France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31.\"", "In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1.7 million people in Italy.", "More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain.The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.", "Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850.Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions.", "Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa.", "Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s.", "Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century.", "Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800.Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died.=== Third plague pandemic ===Worldwide distribution of plague-infected animals, 1998The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.", "The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, for whom the pathogen was named.Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney.", "This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus ''Yersinia pestis''.The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.=== Modern-day ===Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine.", "It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat.", "One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995.Another outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014.In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern plague, after the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions." ], [ "See also", "* Black Death in England* Flagellant* Globalization and disease" ], [ "Footnotes", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1st editions 1969.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Black Death at BBC" ] ]

[ [ "Biotechnology" ], [ "Introduction", "Faculty of Food Engineering and Biotechnology'''Biotechnology''' is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services.", "The term ''biotechnology'' was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919 to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.", "The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances.Biotechnology had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to environmental science.", "One of the key techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering, which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes.", "This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, and consequently, create new traits or modifying existing ones.Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in the lab for research and medical purposes, and fermentation, which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese.The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of essential products like life-saving drugs, biofuels, genetically modified crops, and innovative materials.", "It has also been used to address environmental challenges, such as developing biodegradable plastics and using microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites.Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around genetic modification and intellectual property rights.", "As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields." ], [ "Definition", "The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of the plants, and \"improvements\" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization.", "Modern usage also includes genetic engineering, as well as cell and tissue culture technologies.", "The American Chemical Society defines ''biotechnology'' as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms, such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.", "As per the European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.", "Biotechnology is based on the basic biological sciences (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry, cell biology, embryology, genetics, microbiology) and conversely provides methods to support and perform basic research in biology.Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products).", "The utilization of biological processes, organisms or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology.By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials ''directly'') for interfacing with and utilizing living things.", "Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules.", "This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals.", "Relatedly, biomedical engineering is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies ''biotechnology'' (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or chemical engineering such as tissue engineering, biopharmaceutical engineering, and genetic engineering." ], [ "History", "Brewing was an early application of biotechnology.Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of \"utilizing a biotechnological system to make products\".", "Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution.", "Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with the highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population.", "As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests.", "Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants — one of the first forms of biotechnology.These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer.", "These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, and still use the same basic biological methods.", "In brewing, malted grains (containing enzymes) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer.", "In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol.", "Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation, which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce.", "Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread.", "Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.Before the time of Charles Darwin's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding.", "Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species.", "These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve the production of crops and livestock to use them for food.", "In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics.", "For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products.", "In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using ''Clostridium acetobutylicum,'' to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics.", "In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold ''Penicillium''.", "His work led to the purification of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as penicillin.", "In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success.", "Herbert W. Boyer (Univ.", "Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced.", "The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of ''Diamond v. Chakrabarty''.", "Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had modified a bacterium (of the genus ''Pseudomonas'') capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.", "(Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the ''Pseudomonas'' bacterium).The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962.Biosensor MOSFETs were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.", "The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970.It is a special type of MOSFET, where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference electrode.", "The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology.By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).", "By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030.The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought.", "By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production." ], [ "Examples", "Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products).", "Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching.", "Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:* Bioinformatics (also called \"gold biotechnology\") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible.", "The field may also be referred to as ''computational biology'', and can be defined as, \"conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale\".", "Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.", "* Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and industrial applications.", "This branch of biotechnology is the most used for the industries of refining and combustion principally on the production of bio-oils with photosynthetic micro-algae.", "* Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes.", "An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation.", "Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals.", "One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture.", "An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides.", "An example of this would be Bt corn.", "Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.", "It is commonly considered as the next phase of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant, towards biotic and abiotic stress, plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly fertilizers and the use of biopesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of agriculture.", "On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste.", "* Red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical and pharmaceutical industries, and health preservation.", "This branch involves the production of vaccines and antibiotics, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics of diseases.", "As well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests.", "* White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes.", "An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical.", "Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals.", "White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.", "* \"Yellow biotechnology\" refers to the use of biotechnology in food production (food industry), for example in making wine (winemaking), cheese (cheesemaking), and beer (brewing) by fermentation.", "It has also been used to refer to biotechnology applied to insects.", "This includes biotechnology-based approaches for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various other approaches.", "* Gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of biodiversity and the remotion of pollutants.", "* Brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and deserts.", "One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.", "* Violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around biotechnology.", "* Cerulean Biotechnology has been proposed for the rapidly emerging area of biotechnology applications in space and microgravity* Dark biotechnology is the color associated with bioterrorism or biological weapons and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops.===Medicine===In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as pharmaceutical drug discoveries and production, pharmacogenomics, and genetic testing (or genetic screening).", "In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in Oncology with Neurology and Rare Diseases being the other two big applications.", "DNA microarray chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once.", "Pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.", "Researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity.", "The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects.", "Such approaches promise the advent of \"personalized medicine\"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc bindingBiotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics.", "Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply.", "The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases.", "To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium ''Escherichia coli''.", "Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle or pigs).", "The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.", "Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy.", "The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the Human Genome Project) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well.Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry.", "In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders.", "Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins.", "Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders.", "The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder.", "As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use.", "Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling.===Agriculture===Genetically modified crops (\"GM crops\", or \"biotech crops\") are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques.", "In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new trait that does not occur naturally in the species.", "Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture.", "Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology.Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g.", "resistance to a herbicide), reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.", "Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.Farmers have widely adopted GM technology.", "Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from to 1,600,000 km2 (395 million acres).", "10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain.Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their DNA with the methods of genetic engineering.", "These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.", "Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato.", "To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil.", "These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles.", "GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on the market, but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption.There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.", "Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.", "The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess.", "Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole.", "However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security.", "Crops like Golden rice are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives.", "Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture.", "Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food.", "Transgenic biofortification in cereals has been considered as a promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries.===Industrial===Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation.", "It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms, or components of cells like enzymes, to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels.", "In the current decades, significant progress has been done in creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology.", "By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy.Synthetic biology is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector.", "Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with nature-friendly features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based.", "Synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms, such as ''Escherichia coli'', by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels.", "For instance, ''E.", "coli'' and ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' in a consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel by applying the metabolic engineering in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes.Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of ''E.", "coli'' by CRISPR and CRISPRi systems toward the production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol, which is used in fiber manufacturing.", "In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the ''Escherichia coli'' by CRISPR to induce point mutation in the ''glt''A gene, knockout of the ''sad'' gene, and knock-in six genes (''cat''1, ''suc''D, ''4hbd'', ''cat''2, ''bld'', and ''bdh'').", "Whereas CRISPRi system used to knockdown the three competing genes (''gab''D, ''ybg''C, and ''tes''B) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol.", "Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L.===Environmental===Environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing environmentally safe processes, such as biofiltration and biodegradation.", "The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely.", "Vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., bioremediation is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively.", "Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of environmental biotechnology; whereas loss of biodiversity or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology.Many cities have installed CityTrees, which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres.===Regulation===The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish.", "There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.", "Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering.", "For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.", "The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing.", "While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.", "The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops.", "Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ.===Database for the GMOs used in the EU===The EUginius (European GMO Initiative for a Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the European Union.", "The information is provided in English." ], [ "Learning", "In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training.", "Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs).", "Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed.", "Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during the course of their PhD thesis work.", "Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs.", "Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges." ], [ "References and notes" ], [ "External links", "* What is Biotechnology?", "– A curated collection of resources about the people, places and technologies that have enabled biotechnology" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Poitiers" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Poitiers''' was fought on 19September 1356 between a French army commanded by King JohnII and an Anglo-Gascon force under Edward, the Black Prince, during the Hundred Years' War.", "It took place in western France, south of Poitiers, when approximately 14,000 to 16,000 French attacked a strong defensive position held by 6,000 Anglo-Gascons.Nineteen years after the start of the war, the Black Prince, eldest son and heir of the English King, set out on a major campaign in south-west France.", "His army marched from Bergerac to the River Loire, which they were unable to cross.", "John gathered a large and unusually mobile army and pursued Edward's forces.", "The Anglo-Gascons had by this point established a strong defensive position near Poitiers, and after unsuccessful negotiations between the two sides, were attacked by the French.The first assault included two units of heavily armoured cavalry, a strong force of crossbowmen as well as many infantry and dismounted men-at-arms.", "They were driven back by the Anglo-Gascons, who were fighting entirely on foot.", "A second French attack by 4,000 men-at-arms on foot under John's son and heir Charles, the Dauphin, followed.", "After a prolonged fight this was also repulsed.", "As the Dauphin's division recoiled there was confusion in the French ranks: about half the men of their third division, under Philip, Duke of Orléans, left the field, taking with them all four of John's sons.", "Some of those who did not withdraw with Philip launched a weak and unsuccessful third assault.", "Those Frenchmen remaining gathered around the King and launched a fourth assault against the by now exhausted Anglo-Gascons, again all as infantry.", "The French sacred banner, the , was unfurled, the signal that no prisoners were to be taken.", "Battle was again joined, with the French slowly getting the better of it.", "Then a small, mounted, Anglo-Gascon force of 160 men, who had been sent earlier to threaten the French rear, appeared behind the French.", "Believing themselves surrounded, some Frenchmen fled, which panicked others, and soon the entire French force collapsed.John was captured, as was one of his sons and between 2,000 and 3,000 men-at-arms.", "Approximately 2,500 French men-at-arms were killed.", "Additionally, either 1,500 or 3,800 French common infantry were killed or captured.", "The surviving French dispersed, while the Anglo-Gascons continued their withdrawal to Gascony.", "The following spring a two-year truce was agreed and the Black Prince escorted John to London.", "Populist revolts broke out across France.", "Negotiations to end the war and ransom John dragged out.", "In response Edward launched a further campaign in 1359.During this, both sides compromised and the Treaty of Brétigny was agreed in 1360 by which vast areas of France were ceded to England, to be ruled by the Black Prince, and John was ransomed for three million gold écu.", "At the time this seemed to end the war, but the French resumed hostilities in 1369 and recaptured most of the lost territory.", "The war eventually ended with a French victory in 1453." ], [ "Background", "Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France.", "By the first quarter of the fourteenth century, the only significant French possession still held by the English in France was Gascony in the south-west.", "But Gascony was disproportionately important: duty levied by the English Crown on wine from Bordeaux, the capital of Gascony, totalled more than all other English customs duties combined and was by far the largest source of state income.", "Bordeaux had a population of more than 50,000, greater than London's, and Bordeaux was possibly richer.", "Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France () and Edward III of England (), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council agreed that the lands held by EdwardIII in France should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that EdwardIII was in breach of his obligations as a vassal.", "This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.Although Gascony was the cause of the war, EdwardIII was able to spare few resources for its defence.", "In most campaigning seasons the Gascons had to rely on their own resources and had been hard-pressed by the French.", "Typically the Gascons could field 3,000 to 6,000 men, the large majority infantry, although up to two-thirds of them would be tied down in garrisoning their fortifications.", "In 1345 and 1346 Henry, Earl of Lancaster, led a series of successful Anglo-Gascon campaigns in Aquitaine and was able to push the focus of the fighting away from the heart of Gascony.The French port of Calais fell to the English in August 1347 after the Crécy campaign.", "Shortly after this the Truce of Calais was signed, partially the result of both countries being financially exhausted.", "The same year the Black Death reached northern France and southern England and is estimated to have killed a third of the population of Western Europe; the death rate was over 40% in southern England.", "This catastrophe, which lasted until 1350, temporarily halted the fighting.", "The treaty was extended repeatedly over the years; this did not stop ongoing naval clashes, nor small-scale fightingwhich was especially fierce in south-west Francenor occasional fighting on a larger scale.A treaty to end the war was negotiated at Guînes and signed on 6 April 1354.However, the composition of the inner council of the French king, JohnII (), changed and sentiment turned against its terms.", "John decided not to ratify it, and it was clear that from the summer of 1355 both sides would be committed to full-scale war.", "In April 1355 EdwardIII and his council, with the treasury in an unusually favourable financial position, decided to launch offensives that year in both northern France and Gascony.", "John attempted to strongly garrison his northern towns and fortifications against the expected descent by EdwardIII, at the same time as assembling a field army; he was unable to, largely because of a lack of money.===Black Prince arrives===In 1355 EdwardIII's eldest son, Edward of Woodstock, later commonly known as the Black Prince, was given the Gascon command and began assembling men, shipping and supplies.", "He arrived in Bordeaux on 20September accompanied by 2,200 English soldiers.", "The next day he was formally acknowledged as the king's lieutenant in Gascony, with plenipotentiary powers, by the Gascon officials and dignitaries.", "Gascon nobles reinforced him to a strength of somewhere between 5,000 and 6,000 and provided a bridging train and a substantial supply train.Edward set out on 5October on a , which was a large-scale mounted raid.", "The Anglo-Gascon force marched from Bordeaux to Narbonnealmost on the Mediterranean coast and deep in French-held territoryand back to Gascony.", "They devastated a wide swathe of French territory and sacked many French towns on the way.", "John, Count of Armagnac, who commanded the local French forces, avoided battle, and there was little fighting.", "While no territory was captured, enormous economic damage was done to France; the modern historian Clifford Rogers concluded \"the importance of the economic attrition aspect of the can hardly be exaggerated.\"", "The expedition returned to Gascony on 2December having marched .===1356===The English troops resumed the offensive from Gascony after Christmas to great effect.", "More than 50 French-held towns or fortifications were captured during the following four months, including strategically important towns close to the borders of Gascony, and others more than away.", "Local French commanders did not attempt countermeasures.", "Several members of the local French nobility changed allegiance to the English; the Black Prince received homage from them on 24April 1356.Money and enthusiasm for the war were running low in France.", "The modern historian Jonathan Sumption describes the French national administration as \"falling apart in jealous acrimony and recrimination\".", "A contemporary chronicler recorded \"the King of France was severely hated in his own realm\".", "The town of Arras rebelled and killed loyalists.", "The major nobles of Normandy refused to pay taxes.", "On 5April 1356 John arrested the notoriously treacherous CharlesII, king of Navarre, one of the largest landholders in Normandy and nine more of his more outspoken critics; four were summarily executed.", "The Norman nobles who had not been arrested turned to Edward for assistance.Seeing an opportunity, Edward III diverted an expedition planned for Brittany under Henry of Lancaster to Normandy in late June.", "Lancaster set off with 2,300 men and pillaged and burnt his way eastward across Normandy.", "King John moved to Rouen with a much stronger force, hoping to intercept Lancaster.", "After relieving and re-victualling the besieged fortifications of Breteuil and Pont-Audemer the English stormed and sacked the town of Verneuil.", "John pursued, but bungled several opportunities to bring the English to battle and they escaped.", "In three weeks the expedition had, with few casualties, seized a large amount of loot including many horses, cemented new alliances, and damaged the French economy and prestige.", "The French King returned to Breteuil and re-established the siege, where he continued to be distracted from the English preparations for a greater from south-west France." ], [ "Prelude", "===Manoeuvres===On 4August 1356 a combined force of 6,000 Gascon and English fighting men headed north from Bergerac.", "They were accompanied by approximately 4,000 non-combatants.", "All of the fighting men were mounted, including those who would always fight on foot, such as the archers.", "On 14August the Anglo-Gascon army separated into three divisions, which moved north abreast of each other and began to systematically devastate the countryside.", "There would be approximately between the flanking units, enabling them to devastate a band of French territory more than wide, yet be able to unite to face an enemy at approximately a day's notice.", "They advanced slowly, to facilitate their tasks of looting and destruction.", "The modern historian David Green describes the progress of the Black Prince's army as \"deliberately destructive, extremely brutal... methodical and sophisticated.\"", "Several strong castles were assaulted and captured.", "The populaces of most towns fled, or surrendered at the first sight of Anglo-Gascon troops.", "Overall, there was little French resistance.", "If a French field army had been in the area, the Anglo-Gascon forces would have had to stay relatively close together, ready to support each other if attacked.", "The absence of any such French force enabled the Prince's formations to disperse widely to maximise their destructive effect on the French countryside.The main French army remained in Normandy.", "Despite it being clear that Breteuil could be neither stormed nor starved, John felt unable to abandon its siege as this would undermine his prestige as a warrior-king.", "He declined to march against the Black Prince, declaring that the garrison of Breteuil posed a more serious threat.", "At some point in August an unusually large belfry, or mobile siege tower, was pushed up to the walls of Breteuil and a full-scale assault launched.", "The defenders set fire to the belfry and repulsed the attack.", "Sumption describes the French losses in this attack as \"terrible\" and the entire second siege as \"a pointless endeavour\".", "The historian Kenneth Fowler describes the siege as \"magnificent but archaic\".", "Eventually John had to give way to the pressure to do something to prevent the destruction being inflicted in south-west France.", "Sometime around 20August he offered the garrison of Breteuil free passage, a huge bribe and permission to take with them their valuables and goods, which persuaded them to vacate the town.", "The French army promptly marched south, as all available forces were concentrated against the Black Prince.Hearing on 28August that John was marching on Tours and was prepared to give battle, the Black Prince moved his three divisions closer together and ordered them to move towards Tours.", "He was also willing to fight an open battle, if he could do so under the right circumstances.", "He still hoped to cross the Loire River, both to be able to come to grips with the French army and to link up with either Edward III's or Lancaster's army, if they were in the area.", "The French royal army from Breteuil had moved to Chartres, where it received reinforcements, particularly of men-at-arms.", "John sent home nearly all of the infantry contingents, which reduced the French wage bill and left an entirely mounted force that had the mobility and speed to match that of the Black Prince's all-mounted army.", "Two hundred Scottish picked men-at-arms under William, Lord of Douglas, joined John at Chartres.", "Once John felt he had an overwhelmingly strong force it set off south towards the Loire, and then south-west along its north bank.", "Early on 8September the Black Prince's army reached Tours, where he received news that Lancaster was not far to the east, on the other side of the Loire, and hoped to join him soon.", "The Anglo-Gascons prepared for battle and expected the imminent arrival of the French.", "But John had crossed the Loire at Blois, to the east of Tours, on 10September, where he was joined by the army of his son John, Count of Poitiers.Meanwhile, the anticipated support from England failed to materialise.", "In early August an Aragonese galley fleet, which had sailed from Barcelona in April, arrived in the English Channel.", "The fleet hired by the French only contained nine galleys, but it caused panic among the English.", "Edward's attempts to raise an army to send to France were still underway and shipping was being assembled.", "The troops gathered were split up to guard the coast and the ships sailing to Southampton to transport the army were ordered to remain in port until the galleys had left.", "At some point in August Lancaster marched south from eastern Brittany with an army of 2,500 men or more.", "The unusual height of the Loire and the French control of its bridges meant Lancaster was unable to cross and effect a junction.", "In early September he abandoned the attempt to force a crossing at Les Ponts-de-Cé and returned to Brittany where he laid siege to its capital, Rennes.=== Strategy ===The Anglo-Gascon army was treading a balance.", "While there were no large French forces facing them they spread out to loot and despoil the land.", "But their primary objective was to use the threat of devastation to force, or perhaps persuade, the French army to attack them.", "The Anglo-Gascons were confident that fighting defensively on ground of their choosing they could defeat a numerically superior French force.", "In the event of the French being too numerous they were equally confident that they could avoid battle by manoeuvring.", "The French, aware of this approach, usually attempted to isolate English forces against a river or the sea, where the threat of starvation would force them to take the tactical offensive and attack the French in a prepared position.", "Once he crossed the Loire, John repeatedly attempted to interpose his army between the Anglo-Gascons and Gascony, so they would be forced to try and fight their way out.", "Meanwhile, the Black Prince did not wish to rapidly retreat to the safety of Gascony, but to manoeuvre in the vicinity of the French army so as to persuade it to attack on unfavourable terms, without himself becoming cut off.", "He was aware that John had been eager to fight Lancaster's force in Normandy in June and anticipated this enthusiasm for battle would continue.=== Movement to contact ===Once he had crossed the Loire on 10September and been reinforced John moved to cut off the Anglo-Gascon line of retreat.", "Hearing of this, and losing hope that Lancaster would be able to join him, the Black Prince moved his army some south to Montbazon where he took up a fresh defensive position on 12September.", "The same day John's son and heir, Charles, the Dauphin, entered Tours, having travelled from Normandy with 1,000 men-at-arms, and Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord, Cardinal of Périgord, arrived at the Black Prince's camp to attempt to negotiate a two-day truce on behalf of Pope Innocent VI.", "According to differing sources this was to be followed by peace negotiations or an arranged battle.", "The Black Prince dismissed Talleyrand and, happy to do battle, but concerned that a two-day delay would leave his army with its back to the Loire in an area with few supplies, marched hard and crossed the River Creuse at La Haye on 13September, to the south.", "John, aware he outnumbered the Anglo-Gascons, was also eager to wipe them out in battle and so similarly ignored Talleyrand.", "The French army continued to march south parallel to the English, rather than moving directly towards them, with the aim of cutting their lines of retreat and supply.", "On 14September the English marched south-west to Châtellerault on the Vienne.At Châtellerault the Black Prince felt there were no geographical barriers against which the French could pin his army and that he was occupying an advantageous defensive position.", "He arrived there on 14September, the day Talleyrand had proposed for the two armies to engage in battle, and waited for the French to come to him.", "Two days later his scouts reported that John had bypassed his position and was about to cross the Vienne at Chauvigny.", "At this point the French had lost track of the Anglo-Gascon army and were unaware of its position, but were about to position themselves south of the Anglo-Gascons and directly in their path back to friendly territory.", "The Black Prince saw an opportunity to attack the French while they were on the march, or possibly even while crossing the Vienne, and so set off at first light on 17September to intercept them, leaving his baggage train behind to follow on as best it could.When the Anglo-Gascon vanguard reached Chauvigny most of the French army had already crossed and marched on towards Poitiers.", "A force of 700 men-at-arms of the French rearguard was intercepted near Savigny-Lévescault.", "Contemporary accounts note that they were not wearing helmets, suggesting they were completely unarmoured and not expecting battle.", "They were rapidly routed with 240 killed or captured, including 3 counts taken prisoner.", "Many Anglo-Gascons pursued the remaining, fleeing, French, although the Black Prince held back most of his army, not wishing to scatter it in the close vicinity of the enemy, and camped at Savigny-Lévescault.", "In response, John drew up his army outside Poitiers in battle order.=== Negotiations ===On 18September the Anglo-Gascons marched towards Poitiers arrayed for battle.", "They took up a strong, carefully selected position south of Poitiers on a wooded hill in the and began preparing it for a defensive battle: digging pits to impede the French advance (especially that of mounted troops) and trenches, and forming barricades to fight behind.", "They hoped that the French would launch an impromptu assault.", "Instead, Talleyrand rode up to negotiate.", "The Black Prince was initially disinclined to delay any battle.", "He was persuaded to discuss terms after Talleyrand pointed out that the two armies were now so close that if the French declined to attack, the Anglo-Gascons would find it almost impossible to withdraw.", "If they attempted to the French would attack, aiming to defeat them in detail, and if they stood their position they would run out of supplies before the French.", "The Anglo-Gascons needed to stay concentrated in the presence of the French army and several days' hard marching had reduced the opportunities to forage.", "Because of this, food was almost exhausted.", "Unknown to Talleyrand the Anglo-Gascons were already unable to find sufficient water for their horses.After lengthy negotiations the Black Prince agreed extensive concessions in exchange for free passage to Gascony.", "However, they were dependent on the agreement being ratified by his father, EdwardIII.", "Unknown to Talleyrand or the French, Edward had given his son written permission to, in such circumstances, \"help himself by making a truce or armistice, or in any other way that seems best to him.\"", "This has caused modern historians to doubt the Prince's sincerity.", "The French discussed these proposals at length, with John in favour.", "Several senior advisers felt it would be humiliating to, as they saw it, have at their mercy the Anglo-Gascon army which had devastated so much of France and to tamely allow it to escape.", "John was persuaded and Talleyrand informed the Black Prince he could expect a battle.", "Attempts to agree a site for the battle failed, as the French wished the Anglo-Gascons to move out of their strong defensive position and the English wished to remain there.", "At dawn on 19September Talleyrand again attempted to arrange a truce, but as his army's supplies were already running out the Black Prince rejected this." ], [ "Opposing forces", "===Anglo-Gascon army===The Anglo-Gascon army is generally considered by modern historians to have consisted of 6,000 men: 3,000 men-at-arms, 2,000 English and Welsh longbowmen and 1,000 Gascon infantry.", "The latter included many equipped with either crossbows or javelins, both classed as light infantry.", "Some contemporary accounts give lower numbers of 4,800 or 5,000.The division of the men-at-arms between English and Gascons is not recorded, but the previous year, when campaigning with a similarly sized army, 1,000 of the Prince's men-at-arms had been English.", "All of the Anglo-Gascons travelled on horses, but all or nearly all of them dismounted to fight.The men-at-arms of both armies were, broadly, knights or knights in training.", "They were drawn from the landed gentry and ranged from great lords to the relatives and attendants of minor landowners.", "They needed to be able to equip themselves with a full suit of armour and a warhorse.", "They wore a quilted gambeson under chain mail which covered the body and limbs.", "This was supplemented by varying amounts of plate armour on the body and limbs, more so for wealthier and more experienced men.", "Heads were protected by bascinets: open-faced military iron or steel helmets, with mail attached to the lower edge of the helmet to protect the throat, neck and shoulders.", "A moveable visor (face guard) protected the face.", "Heater shields, typically made from thin wood overlaid with leather, were carried.", "The English men-at-arms were all dismounted.", "The weapons they used are not recorded, but in similar battles they used their lances as pikes, cut them down to use as short spears, or fought with swords and battle-axes.The longbow used by the English and Welsh archers was unique to them; it took up to ten years to master and an experienced archer could discharge up to ten arrows per minute well over .", "Computer analysis by Warsaw University of Technology in 2017 demonstrated that heavy bodkin point arrows could penetrate typical plate armour of the time at .", "The depth of penetration would be slight at that range; predicted penetration increased as the range closed or against armour of less than the best quality available at the time.", "At short range longbow arrows could pierce any practicable thickness of plate armour if they struck at the correct angle.", "Archers carried one quiver of 24 arrows as standard.", "There may have been a resupply of ammunition from the wagons to the rear during the battle to at least some longbowmen; the archers also ventured forward during pauses in the fighting to retrieve arrows.The Anglo-Gascons were divided into three divisions or \"battles\".", "The one on the left was commanded by Thomas, Earl of Warwick, marshal of England and a veteran of the Battle of Crecy, where he had been guardian to the Black Prince.", "He had as deputies John, Earl of Oxford, and the Gascon lord Jean, Captal de Buch; they were assisted by mostly Gascon lords.", "As well as 1,000 men-at-arms, Warwick's division contained approximately 1,000 archers.", "The archers were positioned to the left of the men-at-arms.", "The right flank was under William, Earl of Salisbury, deputised by Robert, Earl of Suffolk, and Maurice, Baron Berkeley.", "Salisbury's division, like Warwick's, consisted of about 1,000 men-at-arms and 1,000 Welsh and English longbowmen.", "Again the archers were positioned on the flank of the men-at-arms, in this case the right.", "The Black Prince took command of the centre division, which consisted of men-at-arms and Gascon infantry: about 1,000 of each, only the flanking divisions contained longbowmen.", "He had two veteran campaigners, John Chandos and James Audley, as his deputies.", "Initially the Prince's force was held back behind the other two divisions as a reserve.", "Each division deployed four to five men deep.", "It is possible a further, small, reserve was held back behind the Prince's division.===French army===The French army was made up of between 14,000 and 16,000 men: 10,000 to 12,000 were men-at-arms, 2,000 were crossbowmen and 2,000 were infantrymen who were not classed as men-at-arms.", "Although most or all of the French had travelled mounted, they all fought dismounted at Poitiers except for two small groups of mounted knights, totalling either 300 or 500.These were selected from the Frenchmen who had the best armour, especially on their horses; horse armour is known as barding and the use of plate armour for this was a recent innovation in Western Europe.", "Their riders were equipped as the dismounted men-at-arms, apart from the superior quality of their armour.", "They wielded wooden lances, usually ash, tipped with iron and approximately long; their dismounted colleagues retained their lances, but cut them down to in order to use them as short spears.", "The crossbowmen wore metal helmets, brigandines (thick leather jerkins with varying amounts of small pieces of plate armour sewn to them) and possibly chain-mail hauberks.", "Crossbowmen usually fought from behind pavisesvery large shields with their own bearers, behind each of which three crossbowmen could shelter.", "A trained crossbowman could shoot his weapon approximately twice a minute and had a shorter effective range than a longbowman of about .The French army was divided into four battles.", "The foremost division was led by the constable of France, Walter, Count of Brienne.", "As well as a large core of French men-at-arms it included 200 Scottish men-at-arms under William Douglas, most of the French infantry and crossbowmen and all of their cavalry.", "The two small groups of cavalry were each led by one of the two marshals of France: Arnoul d'Audrehem and Jean de Clermont.", "The leading French were approximately from the English.", "Behind this was a division led jointly by John's 19-year-old son and heir and John's uncle: Charles, the Dauphin, and Peter, Duke of Bourbon, respectively; Charles was experiencing his first taste of war.", "This formation consisted entirely of dismounted men-at-arms, 4,000 of them.", "The third division was led by John's younger brother, Philip, Duke of Orléans, also inexperienced in war, and was made up of approximately 3,200 men-at-arms.", "The rearmost division, of 2,000 men-at-arms and an uncertain number of crossbowmen, was commanded by the king himself." ], [ "Battle", "===First attack===The English had slept in or near their defensive positions and just after dawnwhich would have been at 5:40 amthe French drew themselves up in battle order with their leading men about from the English positions.", "After the two armies had been facing each other for about two hours the French detected movement among the English, and believed the Black Prince's personal standard was withdrawing.", "There is modern debate as to what movement took place.", "Some scholars have proposed that the movement was of wagons, escorted by cavalry from Warwick's division; the wagons may have been empty and returning to their laager in the rear, or full and moving to a safer position away from the front line, or both and the start of a staged withdrawal by the English.", "If the latter their escort may have been most or all of Warwick's division and the movement of the standard was possibly his being mistaken for the Prince's or the Prince moving back as the second part of the disengagement.", "Another proposal is that the Black Prince deliberately had his troops move to simulate a withdrawal and provoke a French attack.", "The commanders of the leading French division took the movement to be a full-scale English withdrawal and ordered their men to advance, thinking this movement would effectively be a pursuit, thus starting the fighting.Audrehem's cavalry attacked Warwick's division on the English left, while Clermont charged Salisbury's on the right.", "In both cases the French plan was that they clear away the English archers, while given fire support by their own crossbowmen.", "However, the archers in Warwick's division were positioned in the edge of a marsh and this terrain prevented the French cavalry from getting to grips with them.", "The archers in turn found that the French armour and barding prevented them from firing effectively.", "To get close enough to penetrate the French armour, the longbowmen would have had to leave the protection of the marsh, which would have exposed them to the risk of being ridden down by the French.", "Instead, they turned their fire on the supporting crossbowmen and, having a superior rate of fire, were able to suppress them.", "Oxford realised the French horses were mostly only barded on their forequarters.", "He led some of the archers along the edge of the marsh to a position from which they could shoot into the horses' unprotected hindquarters.", "The French cavalry took heavy casualties and withdrew; Audrehem was captured.On the English right Clermont advanced more cautiously, not far ahead of Brienne's dismounted troops.", "He discovered that Salisbury's men were defending a thick hedge with a single passable gap, wide enough for four horses abreast.", "Already committed to the attack, the French attempted to smash through the men-at-arms defending the gap.", "The English archers positioned in trenches near and to the right of the hedge are calculated to have fired 50 arrows per second at Clermont's group of cavalry.", "Gascon crossbowmen joined in; although they had a much lower rate of fire, they could penetrate plate armour at longer ranges.", "Despite this fire, the cavalry were able to reach the gap in the hedge with few casualties.", "Here a fierce melee broke out.", "With the French now halted and at close range, the longbowmen were more effective against them.", "The French were also heavily outnumbered by the English men-at-arms and were forced back with heavy losses, including Clermont killed.The sources contain only details concerning the rest of the attack by the first French division, made up of a mixed force of French and foreign men-at-arms, and common heavy infantry.", "The bolts from their supporting crossbowmen were recorded as falling thickly, but with the cavalry repulsed the longbowmen turned against them and, having a superior rate of fire, were able to force them to withdraw despite their use of pavises.", "The division's leader, Brienne, the constable of France, was killed, as was one of Talleyrand's nephews, Robert of Durazzo, who had accompanied the Cardinal during his negotiations.", "Douglas either fled to save his life or was badly wounded and carried from the field.", "Given the heavy French casualties, it is assumed the attack was strongly pressed.", "As some contemporary sources summarise this phase of the fighting with \"the first French division was defeated by the arrows of the English\" it is also assumed by many modern historians that the longbowmen, still well supplied with ammunition able to punch straight through armour at close range, played a prominent part in the attack's repulse.", "The Black Prince was infuriated by the participation of Talleyrand's relatives and companions, and when told that a relative of the Cardinal, the châtelain d'Emposte, had been captured he ordered him beheaded; he was rapidly persuaded to withdraw the order by his advisers.===Second attack===There was no pursuit of the French survivors of the first attack as they retreated.", "The English were ordered to hold their positions and to take the opportunity to reform, as the next French division was already moving towards them.", "This, 4,000 strong, attacked vigorously.", "The French advanced against the steady fire of the English and Welsh archers, which caused many casualties, and were disordered by the retreating members of the first assault.", "The French had to force their way through the hedge the English were defending, which put them at a disadvantage, but they closed with the Anglo-Gascons in ferocious hand-to-hand fighting which went on for two hours.They massed against two gaps in the hedge, on one occasion succeeding in driving back their opponents and breaking through; a force of archers had been deployed to cover this position and their fire cut down the leading Frenchmen, giving the Anglo-Gascons the opportunity to counter-attack and reform their line.", "Suffolk, aged almost 60, rode behind the Anglo-Gascon line, shouting encouragement, directing reinforcements to threatened points and telling the archers where to direct their fire.", "Throughout the battle the experienced English and Gascon commanders were able to manoeuvre and redeploy their troops in a way the French were not.", "The French commanders, mostly, carried out their orders and their men fought with reckless bravery, but they were inflexible.", "The Anglo-Gascons were able to respond in the heat of battle to French threats.", "Sumption describes this as \"remarkable\", David Green refers to \"an extremely flexible tactical response\".", "The historian Peter Hoskins states that most of the Anglo-Gascons having served together for a year \"contributed to the discipline that the Anglo-Gascons displayed\" and suggests that the French attack was ineptly handled.A contemporary French chronicler described this second attack as \"more amazing, harder and more lethal than the others\".", "An English account states \"Man fought frenziedly against man, each one striving to bring death to his opponent so that he himself might live.\"", "As the fighting went on, the Black Prince was forced to commit almost all of his reserves to reinforce weak spots.", "Both sides suffered many casualties.", "Audley was noted for being wounded in the body, head and face, and fighting on for the English.", "One of the French joint commanders, Bourbon, was killed, and the Dauphin's standard-bearer was captured.", "The Dauphin was accompanied by two of his brothers, Louis and John, and the trio's advisers and bodyguards were perturbed by the intensity of the fighting in their vicinity and forced them to withdraw from the front line to a safer position.", "Seeing this, the rest of the division, exhausted after two hours fighting and already demoralised by the death of Bourbon and the loss of the Dauphin's standard, withdrew as well.", "There was no panic and the disengagement was orderly.", "The senior surviving commanders of the division confirmed the movement and the surviving men-at-arms marched away from the Anglo-Gascons.It is unclear if the Anglo-Gascons pursued the French, and if so, to what extent.", "Some modern historians state that the Anglo-Gascons again remained in their positions, as they had after the repulse of the first French division.", "Others write of a limited pursuit by individuals breaking ranks or of a full-blooded one by Warwick's division causing many French casualties.", "In any event, most of the Anglo-Gascons stood their ground, tended their wounded, knifed the French wounded and stripped their bodies and those of the already dead, and recovered what arrows they could find in the immediate vicinity, including those impaling dead and wounded Frenchmen.", "There were many English and Gascons wounded or dead and those still standing were exhausted from three hours of ferocious and near-continuous fighting.===Third attack===As the Dauphin's division recoiled there was confusion in the French ranks.", "The third French division contained 3,200 men-at-arms.", "Their commander, John's brother the Duke of Orléans, marched away from the battle with half of them and many of the survivors of the first two attacks.", "The contemporary sources contradict each other regarding the reasons for this.", "Orléans may have thought that the orderly withdrawal of the Dauphin's division marked a general retreat.", "There were official accounts after the battle that John had ordered Orléans to escort his four sons to safety, but these were widely disbelieved and rumoured to have been invented after the event to excuse the behaviour of Orléans and the men who had retreated with him.", "Three of John's four sons, including the Dauphin, did leave the field at this point; one, Philip, returned to his father's side and took part in the final attack.", "Of the 1,600 men who did not flee the scene, who included some from Orléans' inner circle, many joined the King's division behind.", "The rest advanced against the Anglo-Gascons and launched a feeble attack, which was repelled easily.In the aftermath of this failure a number, possibly a large number, of men from Warwick's division left their positions and pursued the French.", "One motivation for this would have been their intention to take prisoners, the ransoming of whom could be extremely lucrative.", "Many of the English and Welsh archers again scavenged longbow arrows from the immediate vicinity.", "Of those men-at-arms who did not pursue, the majority were carrying wounds of varying degrees of severity and treating them was a preoccupation.===Fourth attack===John's fourth French division had started the battle with 2,000 men-at-arms, including 400 picked men under his personal command.", "Many of the surviving men-at-arms of the first two attacks had rallied to the King, as had many of those from the third division who had not withdrawn with Orléans.", "Some survivors of the botched third assault also fell back to join the King.", "These reinforcements probably brought the number of men-at-arms in the division to about 4,000.John's division also had a large but unspecified number of crossbowmen attached to it, and they had been joined by many surviving crossbowmen from the first attack.", "Modern scholars differ as to whether the French or the Anglo-Gascons had more men at this stage of the battle.", "This very large division marched across the gap towards the by now exhausted Anglo-Gascons, again all as infantry.", "The King ordered the French sacred banner, the , to be unfurled, which signalled that no prisoners were to be taken, on pain of death.It was normal for medieval armies to form up in three divisions; having overcome three French divisions, many in the Anglo-Gascon army thought the battle was over.", "The sight of a further major force, under the royal standard and with the flying, dispirited them.", "One chronicler reports the Black Prince prayed aloud as this last division approached.", "The Prince harangued his exhausted men in an attempt to stiffen their morale, but they remained doubtful of their ability to repulse the approaching force.", "The Anglo-Gascon command group conferred.", "It seemed probable that if they stood to face a fourth attack they would be defeated.", "They decided to attempt a stratagem.", "Perhaps remembering a similar ploy by a French force at the 1349 Battle of Lunalonge it was agreed to send a small mounted group under the Gascon lord Jean, the Captal de Buch, on a circuitous march around the French flank in an attempt to launch a surprise attack on the French rear.", "The account by one contemporary chronicler that all of the Anglo-Gascon men-at-arms remounted at this point is generally discounted by modern historians.", "Some modern sources have a force of volunteers led by the wounded Audley mounting and being tasked with launching an attack against King John personally once the two forces came to battleonly 4 men by some modern accounts, 400 in others.", "The modern historian Michael Jones describes this as a \"suicide mission\".", "Other modern sources maintain that other than the Captal de Buch's small force all of the Anglo-Gascons remained dismounted.The sight of the Captal de Buch and his men making for the rear further disheartened the Anglo-Gascons, who believed that they were fearfully escaping an inevitable defeat.", "Some men fled.", "Concerned his army would break and rout in the face of the French assault, the Black Prince gave the order for a general advance.", "This bolstered Anglo-Gascon morale and shook the French.", "Discipline reasserted itself and the Anglo-Gascons moved forward, out of their defensive positions.", "The French crossbowmen advanced in front of their men-at-arms, and as the English longbowmen on the flanks of the Anglo-Gascon men-at-arms came within range they attempted to establish fire superiority.", "The French crossbow bolts are said to have \"darkened the sky\".", "The men firing them were able to shelter behind pavises and the English archers were running short of arrows after the desperate fighting of the morning.", "Nevertheless, the English were able to largely suppress this fire until the crossbowmen drew aside to let the French men-at-arms through for their final charge.", "As the English archers expended the last of their ammunition these 4,000 or so men-at-arms attempted to use their shields, ducked their heads against the arrows and charged home into the survivors of the 3,000 English and Gascon men-at-arms who had started the battle.", "The longbowmen threw their bows aside and joined the melee armed with swords and hand axes.Battle was again joined, with fierce fighting.", "The impetus of the Anglo-Gascon charge was halted by the French, who slowly got the better of the struggle.", "Rogers is of the opinion that the French would have won this fight if no other factors had intervened.", "The Anglo-Gascon line was starting to break when it was reinforced by men of Warwick's division returning from their pursuit.", "This heartened the Anglo-Gascons and discouraged the French.", "If it occurred, it was at this point that Audley led a cavalry charge aimed directly at the French king.", "The fighting continued, with the French focused on the opponents in front of them.", "With the battle in the balance, the Captal de Buch's 160 men arrived undetected in the French rear.", "His 100 archers dismounted and opened an effective fire into the French reara contemporary account states they \"greatly and horribly pierced\" the Frenchand his 60 mounted men-at-arms charged into the rear of the French line.The 2,000 men who had originally made up John's division were all assigned to its front line when it advanced.", "Men who joined after their original divisions had been defeated in the previous three attacks filled in behind them.", "They were more tired than those in the front ranks and, having already having taken part in a failed assault, their morale was brittle.", "Dismayed by Warwick's reinforcement and shocked by the Captal de Buch's sudden arrival behind them, some started to run from the field.", "Once this movement had started others copied them and the division fell apart.", "Most of the first to run were able to reach their horses and escape, as the Anglo-Gascons concentrated on dealing with their enemies who were still fighting.", "These were pushed back as the Anglo-Gascons were reinvigorated by the prospect of victory.", "The French still fighting around their King were forced into a loop of the River Miosson, known as the Champ d'Alexandre.", "By now they had been surrounded and split into small groups.Many of these men were the elite of the French army: John's personal bodyguards, senior nobles or members of the Order of the Star.", "(The latter had all sworn not to retreat from a battle.)", "The fighting was brutal as these men refused to surrender.", "Their cause was clearly hopeless and the Anglo-Gascons were eager to take them prisonerin order that they could be ransomedrather than kill them, so many were captured.", "The standard-bearer of the was killed and the sacred banner captured.", "Surrounded by enemies, John and his youngest son, Philip, surrendered.===Mopping up===Frenchmen who had fled soon after the Captal de Buch's force arrived generally reached their horses and were able to escape.", "Once John's division was clearly retreating many Anglo-Gascons mounted and pursued.", "A large number pursued the Frenchmen fleeing towards what they thought was the safety of Poitiers.", "Its citizens, fearing the Anglo-Gascons, had closed the gates and manned the walls, and refused access.", "The mounted Anglo-Gascons caught the French soldiers as they milled outside the gate and slaughtered them.", "The lack of mention of any quarter being offered suggests that the French were common soldiers, rather than men-at-arms whom it would have been financially advantageous to capture in order to hold for ransom.", "The French camp was overrun by Anglo-Gascon cavalry.", "Elsewhere the Anglo-Gascons spread out in a helter-skelter chase.", "French men-at-arms who failed to reach their horses were captured or, occasionally, killed.", "Those who did mount were frequently pursued: some were caught and captured, some fought off their pursuers, while most escaped.", "It was evening before the last Anglo-Gascons returned to their camp with their prisoners.===Casualties===According to different modern sources 2,000 to 3,000 French men-at-arms and either 500 or 800 common soldiers were taken prisoner during the battle.", "As well as the King and his youngest son they included the archbishop of Sens, one of the two marshals of France, and the seneschals of Saintonge, Tours and Poitou.", "Approximately 2,500 French men-at-arms were killed, as were 3,300 common soldiers according to English accounts or 700 by French ones.", "Among the slain were the French King's uncle; the grand constable of France; the other marshal; the Bishop of Châlons; and John's standard bearer, Geoffroi de Charny.", "A contemporary opined that the French had suffered \"a great harm, a great pity, and damage irreparable\".", "The Anglo-Gascons suffered many wounded but reported a mere 40 to 60 killed, of whom only 4 were men-at-arms.", "Hoskins comments that these \"seem improbably low\".", "Modern sources estimate Anglo-Gascon fatalities at about 40 men-at-arms and an uncertain but much larger number of bowmen and other infantry." ], [ "Aftermath", "===March to Bordeaux===The French were concerned the victorious Anglo-Gascons would attempt to storm Poitiers or other towns, or continue their devastation.", "The Black Prince was more concerned with getting his army with its prisoners and loot safely back to Gascony.", "He was aware many Frenchmen had survived the battle, but unaware of their state of cohesion or morale.", "The Anglo-Gascons moved south on 20September and tended the wounded, buried the dead, paroled some of their prisoners, and reorganised their formations.", "On 21September the Anglo-Gascons continued their interrupted march south, travelling slowly, overladen as they were with plunder and prisoners.", "On 2 October they entered Libourne and rested while a triumphal entrance was arranged at Bordeaux.", "Two weeks later the Black Prince escorted John into Bordeaux amid ecstatic scenes.===Peace===The Black Prince's is described by Rogers as \"the most important campaign of the Hundred Years' War\".", "In its aftermath English and Gascon forces raided widely across France, against little or no opposition.", "With no effective central authority France dissolved into near anarchy.", "In March 1357 a truce was agreed for two years.", "In April the Black Prince sailed for England, accompanied by his prisoner, John, and landed at Plymouth on 5 May.", "They proceeded to London and a rapturous reception.", "Protracted negotiations between John and Edward III led to the First Treaty of London in May 1358, which would have ended the war with a large transfer of French territory to England and the payment of a ransom for John's freedom.", "The French government was unenthusiastic and was anyway unable to raise the first instalment of the ransom, causing the treaty to lapse.", "A peasant revolt known as the broke out in northern France during the spring of 1358 and was bloodily put down in June.", "At length John and Edward agreed the Second Treaty of London, which was similar to the first except that even larger swathes of French territory would be transferred to the English.", "In May 1359 this was similarly rejected by the Dauphin and the Estates General.In October 1359 Edward III led another campaign in northern France.", "It was unopposed by French forces but was unable to take any strongly fortified places.", "Instead the English army spread out and for six months devastated much of the region.", "Both countries were finding it almost impossible to finance continued hostilities, but neither was inclined to change their attitude to the proposed peace terms.", "On 13 April 1360, near Chartres, a sharp fall in temperature and a heavy hail storm killed many English baggage horses and some soldiers.", "Taking this as a sign from God, Edward reopened negotiations, directly with the Dauphin.", "By 8 May the Treaty of Brétigny had been agreed, which largely replicated the First Treaty of London or the Treaty of Guînes.", "By this treaty vast areas of France were ceded to England, to be personally ruled by the Black Prince, and John was ransomed for three million gold écu.", "Rogers states \"Edward gained territories comprising a full third of France, to be held in full sovereignty, along with a huge ransom for the captive King Johnhis original war aims and much more.\"", "As well as John, sixteen of the more senior nobles captured at Poitiers were finally released with the sealing of this treaty.", "At the time it seemed this was the end of the war, but large-scale fighting broke out again in 1369 and the Hundred Years' War did not end until 1453, with a French victory which left only Calais in English hands." ], [ "Notes, citations and sources", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Backbone cabal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''backbone cabal''' was an informal organization of large-site news server administrators of the worldwide distributed newsgroup-based discussion system Usenet.", "It existed from about 1983 at least into the 2000s.The cabal was created in an effort to facilitate reliable propagation of new Usenet posts.", "While in the 1970s and 1980s many news servers only operated during night time to save on the cost of long-distance communication, servers of the backbone cabal were available 24 hours a day.", "The administrators of these servers gained sufficient influence in the otherwise anarchic Usenet community to be able to push through controversial changes, for instance the Great Renaming of Usenet newsgroups during 1987." ], [ "History", "Mary Ann Horton recruited membership in and designed the original physical topology of the Usenet Backbone in 1983.Gene \"Spaf\" Spafford then created an email list of the backbone administrators, plus a few influential posters.", "This list became known as the Backbone Cabal and served as a \"political (i.e.", "decision making) backbone\".", "Other prominent members of the cabal were Brian Reid, Richard Sexton, Chuq von Rospach and Rick Adams." ], [ "In internet culture", "During most of its existence, the cabal (sometimes capitalized) steadfastly denied its own existence; those involved would often respond \"There is no Cabal\" (sometimes abbreviated as \"TINC\"').The result of this policy was an aura of mystery, even a decade after the cabal mailing list disbanded in late 1988 following an internal fight." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Henry Edward Hardy, 1993.''", "The Usenet System'', ITCA Teleconferencing Yearbook 1993, ITCA Research Committee, International Teleconferencing Association, Washington, DC.", "pp 140–151, esp.", "subheading ''\"The Great Renaming\" and \"The Breaking of the Backbone Cartel\"''." ], [ "External links", "* Cabal Conspiracy FAQ (archived May 2013)* Lumber Cartel* The Eric Conspiracy* alt= ''This article incorporates text from the corresponding entry in the Jargon File, which is in the public domain according to its Introduction.''" ] ]

[ [ "Bongo (antelope)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''bongo''' ('''''Tragelaphus eurycerus''''') is a large, mostly nocturnal, forest-dwelling antelope, native to sub-Saharan Africa.", "Bongos are characterised by a striking reddish-brown coat, black and white markings, white-yellow stripes, and long slightly spiralled horns.", "It is the only tragelaphid in which both sexes have horns.", "Bongos have a complex social interaction and are found in African dense forest mosaics.", "They are the third-largest antelope in the world.The '''western''' or '''lowland bongo''', ''T.", "e. eurycerus'', faces an ongoing population decline, and the IUCN Antelope Specialist Group considers it to be Near Threatened on the conservation status scale.", "The '''eastern''' or''' mountain bongo''', ''T.", "e. isaaci'', of Kenya, has a coat even more vibrant than that of ''T.", "e. eurycerus''.", "The mountain bongo is only found in the wild in a few mountain regions of central Kenya.", "This bongo is classified by the IUCN Antelope Specialist Group as Critically Endangered, with fewer individuals in the wild than in captivity (where it breeds readily).", "In 2000, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in the USA (AZA) upgraded the bongo to a Species Survival Plan participant and in 2006 added the Bongo Restoration to Mount Kenya Project to its list of the Top Ten Wildlife Conservation Success Stories of the year.", "However, in 2013, it seems, these successes have been compromised by reports of possibly only 100 mountain bongos left in the wild due to logging and poaching." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The scientific name of the bongo is ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'', and it belongs to the genus ''Tragelaphus'' and family Bovidae.", "It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1837.The generic name ''Tragelaphus'' is composed of two Greek words: ''trag-'', meaning a goat; and ''elaphos'', meaning deer.", "The specific name ''eurycerus'' originated from the fusion of ''eurus'' (broad, widespread) and ''keras'' (an animal's horn).", "The common name \"bongo\" originated probably from the Kele language of Gabon.", "The first known use of the name \"bongo\" in English dates to 1861.Bongos are further classified into two subspecies: ''T.", "e. eurycerus'', the lowland or western bongo, and the far rarer ''T.", "e. isaaci'', the mountain or eastern bongo, restricted to the mountains of Kenya only.", "The eastern bongo is larger and heavier than the western bongo.", "Two other subspecies are described from West and Central Africa, but taxonomic clarification is required.", "They have been observed to live up to 19 years.A skeleton of the bongo exhibited at the Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo" ], [ "Appearance", "Bongos are one of the largest of the forest antelopes.", "In addition to the deep chestnut colour of their coats, they have bright white stripes on their sides to help with camouflage.Adults of both sexes are similar in size.", "Adult height is about at the shoulder and length is , including a tail of .", "Females weigh around , while males weigh about .", "Its large size puts it as the third-largest in the Bovidae tribe of Strepsicerotini, behind both the common and greater eland by about , and above the greater kudu by about .Both sexes have heavy spiral horns; those of the male are longer and more massive.", "All bongos in captivity are from the isolated Aberdare Mountains of central Kenya.===Coat and body===The side facial view of an eastern bongo The bongo sports a bright auburn or chestnut coat, with the neck, chest, and legs generally darker than the rest of the body, especially in males.", "Coats of male bongos become darker as they age until they reach a dark mahogany-brown colour.", "Coats of female bongos are usually more brightly coloured than those of males.", "The eastern bongo is darker in color than the western and this is especially pronounced in older males which tend to be chestnut brown, especially on the forepart of their bodies.The smooth coat is marked with 10–15 vertical white-yellow stripes, spread along the back from the base of the neck to the rump.", "The number of stripes on each side is rarely the same.", "It also has a short, bristly, brown ridge of dorsal hair from the shoulder to the rump; the white stripes run into this ridge.A white chevron appears between the eyes, with two large white spots on each cheek.", "Another white chevron occurs where the neck meets the chest.", "Bongos have no special secretion glands, so rely likely less on scent to find one another than do other similar antelopes.", "The lips of a bongo are white, topped with a black muzzle.===Horns===An eastern bongo's hornsBongos have two heavy and slightly spiralled horns that slope over their backs.", "Bongo males have larger backswept horns, while females have smaller, thinner, and more parallel horns.", "The size of the horns range between .", "The horns of bongos are spiraled, and share this trait with those of the related antelope species of nyalas, sitatungas, bushbucks, kudus, and elands.", "The horns of bongos twist once.Unlike deer, which have branched antlers shed annually, bongos and other antelopes have unbranched horns they keep throughout their lives.", "Like all other horns of antelopes, the core of a bongo's horn is hollow and the outer layer of the horn is made of keratin, the same material that makes up human fingernails, toenails, and hair.", "The bongo runs gracefully and at full speed through even the thickest tangles of lianas, laying its heavy spiralled horns on its back so the brush cannot impede its flight.", "Bongos are hunted for their horns by humans." ], [ "Social organization and behavior", "This female eastern bongo presents her hindquarters while looking over her shoulder to check for threats at Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy.Like other forest ungulates, bongos are seldom seen in large groups.", "Males, called bulls, tend to be solitary, while females with young live in groups of six to eight.", "Bongos have seldom been seen in herds of more than 20.Gestation is about 285 days (9.5 months), with one young per birth, and weaning occurs at six months.", "Sexual maturity is reached at 24–27 months.", "The preferred habitat of this species is so dense and difficult to operate in, that few Europeans or Americans observed this species until the 1960s.As young males mature and leave their maternal groups, they most often remain solitary, although rarely they join an older male.", "Adult males of similar size/age tend to avoid one another.", "Occasionally, they meet and spar with their horns in a ritualised manner and it is rare for serious fights to take place.", "However, such fights are usually discouraged by visual displays, in which the males bulge their necks, roll their eyes, and hold their horns in a vertical position while slowly pacing back and forth in front of the other male.", "They seek out females only during mating time.", "When they are with a herd of females, males do not coerce them or try to restrict their movements as do some other antelopes.Although mostly nocturnal, they are occasionally active during the day.", "However, like deer, bongos may exhibit crepuscular behaviour.", "Bongos are both timid and easily frightened; after a scare, a bongo moves away at considerable speed, even through dense undergrowth.", "Once they find cover, they stay alert and face away from the disturbance, but peek every now and then to check the situation.", "The bongo's hindquarters are less conspicuous than the forequarters, and from this position the animal can quickly flee.When in distress, the bongo emits a bleat.", "It uses a limited number of vocalisations, mostly grunts and snorts; females have a weak mooing contact-call for their young.", "Females prefer to use traditional calving grounds restricted to certain areas, while newborn calves lie in hiding for a week or more, receiving short visits by the mother to suckle.The calves grow rapidly and can soon accompany their mothers in the nursery herds.", "Their horns grow rapidly and begin to show in 3.5 months.", "They are weaned after six months and reach sexual maturity at about 20 months." ], [ "Ecology", "===Distribution and habitat===Bongos are found in tropical jungles with dense undergrowth up to an altitude of in Central Africa, with isolated populations in Kenya, and these West African countries: Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, South Sudan.A bongo drinks from a swamp.Historically, bongos are found in three disjunct parts of Africa: East, Central, and West.", "Today, all three populations' ranges have shrunk in size due to habitat loss for agriculture and uncontrolled timber cutting, as well as hunting for meat.Bongos favour disturbed forest mosaics that provide fresh, low-level green vegetation.", "Such habitats may be promoted by heavy browsing by elephants, fires, flooding, tree-felling (natural or by logging), and fallowing.", "Mass bamboo die-off provides ideal habitat in East Africa.", "They can live in bamboo forests.===Diet===A male bongo eating grass at Louisville ZooLike many forest ungulates, bongos are herbivorous browsers and feed on leaves, bushes, vines, bark and pith of rotting trees, grasses/herbs, roots, cereals, and fruits.Bongos require salt in their diets, and are known to regularly visit natural salt licks.", "Bongos are also known to eat burnt wood after a storm, as a rich source of salt and minerals.", "This behavior is believed to be a means of getting salts and minerals into their diets.", "This behavior has also been reported in the okapi.", "Another similarity to the okapi, though the bongo is unrelated, is that the bongo has a long prehensile tongue which it uses to grasp grasses and leaves.Suitable habitats for bongos must have permanent water available.", "As a large animal, the bongo requires an ample amount of food, and is restricted to areas with abundant year-round growth of herbs and low shrubs." ], [ "Population and conservation", "Few estimates of population density are available.", "Assuming average population densities of 0.25 animals per km2 in regions where it is known to be common or abundant, and 0.02 per km2 elsewhere, and with a total area of occupancy of 327,000 km2, a total population estimate of around 28,000 is suggested.", "Only about 60% are in protected areas, suggesting the actual numbers of the lowland subspecies may only be in the low tens of thousands.", "In Kenya, their numbers have declined significantly and on Mount Kenya, they were extirpated within the last decade due to illegal hunting with dogs.", "Although information on their status in the wild is lacking, lowland bongos are not presently considered endangered.Bongos are susceptible to diseases such as rinderpest, which almost exterminated the species during the 1890s.", "''Tragelaphus eurycerus'' may suffer from goitre.", "Over the course of the disease, the thyroid glands greatly enlarge (up to 10 x 20 cm) and may become polycystic.", "Pathogenesis of goiter in the bongo may reflect a mixture of genetic predisposition coupled with environmental factors, including a period of exposure to a goitrogen.", "Leopards and spotted hyenas are the primary natural predators (lions are seldom encountered due to differing habitat preferences); pythons sometimes eat bongo calves.", "Humans prey on them for their pelts, horns, and meat, with the species being a common local source for \"bush meat\".", "Bongo populations have been greatly reduced by hunting, poaching, and animal trapping, although some bongo refuges exist.Although bongos are quite easy for humans to catch using snares, many people native to the bongos' habitat believed that if they ate or touched bongo, they would have spasms similar to epileptic seizures.", "Because of this superstition, bongos were less harmed in their native ranges than expected.", "However, these taboos are said no longer to exist, which may account for increased hunting by humans in recent times.===Zoo programmes===Eastern bongo at Edinburgh Zoo An international studbook is maintained to help manage animals held in captivity.", "Because of its bright colour, it is very popular in zoos and private collections.", "In North America, over 400 individuals are thought to be held, a population that probably exceeds that of the mountain bongo in the wild.In 2000, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) upgraded the bongo to a Species Survival Plan participant, which works to improve the genetic diversity of managed animal populations.", "The target population for participating zoos and private collections in North America is 250 animals.", "Through the efforts of zoos in North America, a reintroduction to the population in Kenya is being developed.At least one collaborative effort for reintroduction between North American wildlife facilities has already been carried out.", "In 2004, 18 eastern bongos born in North American zoos gathered at White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida for release in Kenya.", "White Oak staff members traveled with the bongos to a Mount Kenya holding facility, where they stayed until being reintroduced.===Conservation===In the last few decades, a rapid decline in the numbers of wild mountain bongo has occurred due to poaching and human pressure on their habitat, with local extinctions reported in Cherangani and Chepalungu hills, Kenya.The Bongo Surveillance Programme, working alongside the Kenya Wildlife Service, have recorded photos of bongos at remote salt licks in the Aberdare Forests using camera traps, and, by analyzing DNA extracted from dung, have confirmed the presence of bongo in Mount Kenya, Eburru, and Mau forests.", "The programme estimate as few as 140 animals left in the wild – spread across four isolated populations.", "Whilst captive breeding programmes can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe and North America, the situation in the wild has been less promising.", "Evidence exists of bongo surviving in Kenya.", "However, these populations are believed to be small, fragmented, and vulnerable to extinction.Animal populations with impoverished genetic diversity are inherently less able to adapt to changes in their environments (such as climate change, disease outbreaks, habitat change, etc.).", "The isolation of the four remaining small bongo populations, which themselves would appear to be in decline, means a substantial amount of genetic material is lost each generation.", "Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater, so the establishment of a \"metapopulation management plan\" occurs concurrently with conservation initiatives to enhance ''in situ'' population growth, and this initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of mountain bongo in the wild.The western/lowland bongo faces an ongoing population decline as habitat destruction and hunting pressures increase with the relentless expansion of human settlement.", "Its long-term survival will only be assured in areas which receive active protection and management.", "At present, such areas comprise about 30,000 km2, and several are in countries where political stability is fragile.", "So, a realistic possibility exists whereby its status could decline to Threatened in the near future.As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the western/lowland bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by sport hunters during the 1990s.", "Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of populations.A young mountain bongo grazesTrophy hunting has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa, where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited.The eastern/mountain bongo's survival in the wild is dependent on more effective protection of the surviving remnant populations in Kenya.", "If this does not occur, it will eventually become extinct in the wild.", "The existence of a healthy captive population of this subspecies offers the potential for its reintroduction.===Groups supporting bongo conservation in Kenya===In 2004, Dr. Jake Veasey, the head of the Department of Animal Management and Conservation at Woburn Safari Park and a member of the European Association of Zoos and Aquariums Population Management Advisory Group, with the assistance of Lindsay Banks, took over responsibility for the management and coordination of the European Endangered Species Programme for the eastern bongo.", "This includes some 250 animals across Europe and the Middle East.Along with the Rothschild giraffe, the eastern bongo is arguably one of the most threatened large mammals in Africa, with recent estimates numbering less than 140 animals, below a minimum sustainable viable population.", "The situation is exacerbated because these animals are spread across four isolated populations.", "Whilst the bongo endangered species program can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe, it has not yet become actively involved in the conservation of this species in the wild in a coordinated fashion.", "The plan is to engage in conservation activities in Kenya to assist in reversing the decline of the eastern bongo populations and genetic diversity in Africa, and in particular, applying population management expertise to help ensure the persistence of genetic diversity in the free ranging wild populations.A baby eastern bongo at Louisville Zoo in KentuckyMountain bongos in captivity at the Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy (2019)To illustrate significance of genetic diversity loss, assume the average metapopulation size is 35 animals based on 140 animals spread across four populations (140/4=35).", "Assuming stable populations, these populations will lose 8% of their genetic diversity every decade.", "By managing all four populations as one, through strategic transfers, gene loss is reduced from 8% to 2% per decade, without any increase in bongo numbers in Kenya.", "By managing the European and African populations as one – by strategic exports from Europe combined with ''in situ'' transfers, gene loss is reduced to 0.72% every 100 years, with both populations remaining stable.", "If populations in Kenya are allowed to grow through the implementation of effective conservation, including strategic transfers, gene loss can be effectively halted in this species and its future secured in the wild.The initial aims of the project are: # Through faecal DNA analysis, estimate the genetic diversity of the remaining wild bongos and calculate the relatedness of the isolated wild populations.# More accurately estimate the total population of wild bongos through faecal DNA analysis, camera trapping, and transect surveying.# Through direct sampling, estimate the genetic diversity of the captive bongo population and calculate its relatedness with the remaining isolated wild populations.# Collect DNA samples from western bongos to calculate the relatedness of the two subspecies.# Fund rangers to collect the above data in Kenya, enhance the degree of protection afforded to and level of understanding of the eastern bongos' ecological needs.# To realise such a metapopulation management plan, work with local communities is essential to reverse the decline and allow for the implementation of a transfer strategy.", "A substantial proportion of wild genetic diversity likely will have already been lost.If effective protection were implemented immediately and bongo populations allowed to expand without transfers, then this would create a bigger population of genetically impoverished bongos.", "These animals would be less able to adapt to a dynamic environment.", "Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater.", "For this reason, the 'metapopulation management plan' must occur concurrently with conservation strategies to enhance ''in situ'' population growth.", "This initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of the mountain bongo in the wild.In 2013, SafariCom telecommunications donated money to the Bongo Surveillance Programme to try to keep tabs on what are thought to be the last 100 eastern bongos left in the wild in the Mau Eburu Forest in central Kenya, whose numbers are still declining due to logging of their habitat and illegal poaching.Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy runs a bongo rehabilitation program in collaboration with the Kenya Wildlife Service.", "The Conservancy aims to prevent extinction of the bongo through breeding and release back into the wild." ], [ "Status", "The IUCN Antelope Specialist Group considers the western or lowland bongo, ''T.", "e. eurycerus'', to be Lower Risk (Near Threatened) and the eastern or mountain bongo, ''T.", "e. isaaci'', of Kenya, to be Critically Endangered.", "These bongos may be endangered due to human environmental interaction, as well as hunting and illegal actions towards wildlife.CITES lists bongos as an Appendix III species, only regulating their exportation from a single country, Ghana.", "It is not protected by the US Endangered Species Act and is not listed by the USFWS." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*ARKive – images and movies of the bongo ''(Tragelaphus eurycerus)''* WWF* Tragelaphus eurycerus* East African Bongo* Bongos: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation* The Bongo Repatriation to Mount Kenya Project* The International Bongo Foundation* ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'' at Animal Diversity Web" ] ]

[ [ "Bunyip" ], [ "Introduction", "Illustration of a Bunyip by J. Macfarlane (1890)The '''bunyip''' is a creature from the aboriginal mythology of southeastern Australia, said to lurk in swamps, billabongs, creeks, riverbeds, and waterholes." ], [ "Name", "The origin of the word ''bunyip'' has been traced to the Wemba-Wemba or Wergaia language of the Aboriginal people of Victoria, in South-Eastern Australia.The word ''bunyip'' is usually translated by Aboriginal Australians today as \"devil\" or \"evil spirit\".", "This contemporary translation may not accurately represent the role of the bunyip in pre-contact Aboriginal mythology or its possible origins before written accounts were made.", "Some modern sources allude to a linguistic connection between the bunyip and Bunjil, \"a mythic 'Great Man' who made the mountains, rivers, man, and all the animals\".The word ''bahnyip'' first appeared in the ''Sydney Gazette'' in 1812.It was used by James Ives to describe \"a large black animal like a seal, with a terrible voice which creates terror among the blacks\"." ], [ "Distribution", "The bunyip is part of traditional Aboriginal beliefs and stories throughout Australia, while its name varies according to tribal nomenclature.", "In his 2001 book, writer Robert Holden identified at least nine regional variations of the creature known as the bunyip across Aboriginal Australia." ], [ "Characteristics", "''Bunyip'' (1935), by Gerald Markham Lewis, from the National Library of Australia digital collections, demonstrates the variety in descriptions of the legendary creature.The bunyip has been described as amphibious, almost entirely aquatic and there are no reports of the creature being sighted on land, inhabiting lakes, rivers, swamps, lagoons, billabongs, creeks, waterholes, sometimes \"particular waterholes in the riverbeds\".Physical descriptions of bunyips vary widely.", "George French Angus may have collected a description of a bunyip in his account of a \"water spirit\" from the Moorundi people of the Murray River before 1847, stating it is \"much dreaded by them ...", "It inhabits the Murray; but ... they have some difficulty describing it.", "Its most usual form ... is said to be that of an enormous starfish.\"", "The Challicum bunyip, an outline image of a bunyip carved by Aboriginal people into the bank of Fiery Creek, near Ararat, Victoria, was first recorded by ''The Australasian'' newspaper in 1851.According to the report, the bunyip had been speared after killing an Aboriginal man.", "Antiquarian Reynell Johns claimed that until the mid-1850s, Aboriginal people made a \"habit of visiting the place annually and retracing the outlines of the figure of the bunyip which is about 11 paces long and 4 paces in extreme breadth\".", "The outline image no longer exists.", "Robert Brough Smyth's ''Aborigines of Victoria'' (1878) devoted ten pages to the bunyip, but concluded \"in truth little is known among the blacks respecting its form, covering or habits; they appear to have been in such dread of it as to have been unable to take note of its characteristics\".", "Eugénie Louise McNeil recalled from her childhood memory in the 1890s that the bunyip supposedly had a snout like an owl (\"a mopoke\"), and was probably a nocturnal creature by her estimation.The bunyips presumably seen by witnesses, according to their descriptions, most commonly fit one of two categories: 60% of sightings resemble seals or swimming dogs, and 20% of sightings are of long-necked creatures with small heads; the remaining descriptions are ambiguous beyond categorisation.", "The seal-dog variety is most often described as being between 4 and 6 feet long with a shaggy black or brown coat.", "According to reports, these bunyips have round heads resembling a bulldog, prominent ears, no tail, and whiskers like a seal or otter.", "The long-necked variety is allegedly between 5 and 15 feet long, and is said to have black or brown fur, large ears, small tusks, a head like a horse or emu, an elongated, maned neck about three feet long and with many folds of skin, and a horse-like tail.", "The bunyip has been described by natives as amphibious, nocturnal, reclusive, and inhabiting lakes, rivers, and swamps.", "Bunyips, according to Aboriginal mythology, can swim swiftly with fins or flippers, have a loud, roaring call, and feed on crayfish, though some legends portray them as bloodthirsty predators of humans, particularly women and children.", "As a result, Aboriginal People purposely avoided unfamiliar bodies of water lest there were bunyips lurking in the depths.", "Bunyip eggs are allegedly laid in platypus nests.The bunyip appears in Ngarrindjeri dreaming as a water spirit called the Mulyawonk, which would get anyone who took more than their fair share of fish from the waterways, or take children if they got too close to the water.", "The stories taught practical means of ensuring long-term survival for the Ngarrindjeri, embodying care for country and its people." ], [ "Debate over origins", "There have been various attempts to understand and explain the origins of the bunyip as a physical entity over the past 150 years.", "Writing in 1933, Charles Fenner suggested that it was likely that the \"actual origin of the bunyip myth lies in the fact that from time to time seals have made their way up the Murray and Darling (Rivers)\".", "He provided examples of seals found as far inland as Overland Corner, Loxton, and Conargo and reminded readers that \"the smooth fur, prominent 'apricot' eyes, and the bellowing cry are characteristic of the seal\", especially southern elephant seals and leopard seals.Another suggestion is that the bunyip may be a cultural memory of extinct Australian marsupials such as the ''Diprotodon'', ''Zygomaturus'', ''Nototherium'', or ''Palorchestes''.", "This connection was first formally made by Dr George Bennett of the Australian Museum in 1871.In the early 1990s, palaeontologist Pat Vickers-Rich and geologist Neil Archbold also cautiously suggested that Aboriginal legends \"perhaps had stemmed from an acquaintance with prehistoric bones or even living prehistoric animals themselves ...", "When confronted with the remains of some of the now extinct Australian marsupials, Aborigines would often identify them as the bunyip.\"", "They also note that \"legends about the'' mihirung paringmal'' of western Victorian Aborigines ... may allude to the ... extinct giant birds the Dromornithidae.", "\"In a 2017 ''Australian Birdlife'' article, Karl Brandt suggested Aboriginal encounters with the southern cassowary inspired the myth.", "According to the first written description of the bunyip from 1845, the creature laid pale blue eggs of immense size, possessed deadly claws, powerful hind legs, a brightly coloured chest, and an emu-like head, characteristics shared with the Australian cassowary.", "As the creature's bill was described as having serrated projections, each \"like the bone of the stingray\", this bunyip was associated with the indigenous people of Far North Queensland, renowned for their spears tipped with stingray barbs and their proximity to the cassowary's Australian range.Another association to the bunyip is the shy Australasian bittern (''Botaurus poiciloptilus'').", "During the breeding season, the male call of this marsh-dwelling bird is a \"low pitched boom\"; hence, it is occasionally called the \"bunyip bird\"." ], [ "Early accounts of European settlers", "white childrenDuring the early settlement of Australia by Europeans, the notion became commonly held that the bunyip was an unknown animal that awaited discovery.", "Unfamiliar with the sights and sounds of the island continent's peculiar fauna, early Europeans believed that the bunyip described to them was one more strange Australian animal and they sometimes attributed unfamiliar animal calls or cries to it.", "Scholars suggest also that 19th-century bunyip lore was reinforced by imported European folklore, such as that of the Irish Púca.A large number of bunyip sightings occurred during the 1840s and 1850s, particularly in the southeastern colonies of Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, as European settlers extended their reach.", "The following is not an exhaustive list of accounts:=== First written use of the word ''bunyip'', 1845 ===In July 1845, ''The Geelong Advertiser'' announced the discovery of fossils found near Geelong, under the headline \"Wonderful Discovery of a new Animal\".", "This was a continuation of a story on 'fossil remains' from the previous issue.", "The newspaper continued, \"On the bone being shown to an intelligent black, he at once recognised it as belonging to the bunyip, which he declared he had seen.", "On being requested to make a drawing of it, he did so without hesitation.\"", "The account noted a story of an Aboriginal woman being killed by a bunyip and the \"most direct evidence of all\" – that of a man named Mumbowran \"who showed several deep wounds on his breast made by the claws of the animal\".The account provided this description of the creature:Shortly after this account appeared, it was repeated in other Australian newspapers.", "This appears to be the first use of the word ''bunyip'' in a written publication.=== Australian Museum's bunyip of 1847 ===The purported bunyip skullIn January 1846, a peculiar skull was taken by a settler from the banks of Murrumbidgee River near Balranald, New South Wales.", "Initial reports suggested that it was the skull of something unknown to science.", "The squatter who found it remarked, \"all the natives to whom it was shown called it a bunyip\".", "By July 1847, several experts, including W. S. Macleay and Professor Owen, had identified the skull as the deformed foetal skull of a foal or calf.", "At the same time, the purported bunyip skull was put on display in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days.", "Visitors flocked to see it, and ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' reported that many people spoke out about their \"bunyip sightings\".", "Reports of this discovery used the phrase 'Kine Pratie' as well as Bunyip.", "Explorer William Hovell, who examined the skull, also called it a 'katen-pai'.In March of that year \"a bunyip or an immense Platibus\" (Platypus) was sighted \"sunning himself on the placid bosom of the Yarra, just opposite the Custom House\" in Melbourne.", "\"Immediately a crowd gathered\" and three men set off by boat \"to secure the stranger\" which \"disappeared\" when they were \"about a yard from him\".=== William Buckley's account of bunyips, 1852 ===Another early written account is attributed to escaped convict William Buckley in his 1852 biography of thirty years living with the Wathaurong people.", "His 1852 account records \"in ... Lake Moodewarri now Lake Modewarre as well as in most of the others inland ... is a ... very extraordinary amphibious animal, which the natives call Bunyip.\"", "Buckley's account suggests he saw such a creature on several occasions.", "He adds, \"I could never see any part, except the back, which appeared to be covered with feathers of a dusky grey colour.", "It seemed to be about the size of a full grown calf ...", "I could never learn from any of the natives that they had seen either the head or tail.\"", "Buckley also claimed the creature was common in the Barwon River and cites an example he heard of an Aboriginal woman being killed by one.", "He emphasized the bunyip was believed to have supernatural powers.=== Stocqueler's sightings and drawings, 1857 ===In an article titled, 'The Bunyip', a newspaper reported on the drawings made by Edwin Stocqueler as he travelled on the Murray and Goulburn rivers: 'Amongst the latter drawings we noticed a likeness of the Bunyip, or rather a view of the neck and shoulders of the animal.", "Mr. Stocqueler informs us that the Bunyip is a large freshwater seal, having two small padules or fins attached to the shoulders, a long swan like neck, a head like a dog, and a curious bag hanging under the jaw, resembling the pouch of the pelican.", "The animal is covered with hair, like the platypus, and the colour is a glossy black.", "Mr. Stocqueler saw no less than six of these curious animals at different times; his boat was within thirty feet of one near M'Guire's punt on the Goulburn, and he fired at the Bunyip, but did not succeed in capturing him.", "The smallest appeared to be about five feet in length, and the largest exceeded fifteen feet.", "The head of the largest was the size of a bullock's head, and three feet out of water.", "After taking a sketch of the animal, Mr. Stocqueler showed it to several blacks of the Goulburn tribe, who declared that the picture was \"Bunyip's brother,\" meaning a duplicate or likeness of the bunyip.", "The animals moved against the current, at the rate of about seven miles an hour, and Mr. Stockqueler states that he could have approached close to the specimens he observed, had he not been deterred by the stories of the natives concerning the power and fury of the bunyip, and by the fact that his gun had only a single barrel, and his boat was of a very frail description.", "'The description varied across newspaper accounts: 'The great Bunyip question seems likely to be brought to a close, as a Mr. Stocqueler, an artist and gentleman, who has come up the Murray in a small boat, states that he saw one, and was enabled to take a drawing of this \"vexed question,\" but could not succeed in catching him.", "We have seen the sketch, and it puts us in mind of an hybrid between the water mole and the great sea serpent.'", "'Mr.", "Stocqueler, an artist, and his mother are on an expedition down the Murray, for the purpose of making some faithful sketches of the views on this fine stream, as well as of the creatures frequenting it.", "I have seen some of their productions, and as they pourtray localities with which I am well acquainted, can pronounce the drawings faithful representations.", "Mother and son go down the stream in a canoe.", "The lady paints flowers, &c.; the son devotes himself to choice views on the river's side.", "One of the drawings represents a singular creature, which the artist is unable to classify.", "It has the appearance in miniature of the famous sea-serpent, as that animal is described by navigators.", "Mr. Stocqueler was about twenty-five yards distant from it at first sight as it lay placidly on the water.", "On being observed, the stranger set-off, working his paddles briskly, and rapidly disappeared.", "Captain Cadell has tried to solve the mystery, but is not yet satisfied as to what the animal really is.", "Mr. Stocqueler states that there were about two feet of it above water when he first saw it, and he estimated its length at from five to six feet.", "The worthy Captain says, that unless the creature is the \"Musk Drake\" (so called from giving off a very strong odour of musk), he cannot account for the novelty.", "'Stocqueler disputed the newspaper descriptions in a letter; stating that he never called the animal a bunyip, it did not have a swan like neck, and he never said anything about the size of the animal as he never saw the whole body.", "He went on to write that all would be revealed in his diorama as an 'almost life size portrait of the beast' would be included.", "The diorama took him four years to paint and was reputed to be a mile (1.6 km) long and made of 70 individual pictures.", "The diorama has long since disappeared and may no longer exist." ], [ "Figure of speech and eponymy", "By the 1850s, ''bunyip'' was also used as a \"synonym for impostor, pretender, humbug and the like\", although this use of the word is now obsolete in Australian English.", "The term ''bunyip aristocracy'' was first coined in 1853 to describe Australians aspiring to be aristocrats.", "In the early 1990s, Prime Minister Paul Keating used this term to describe members of the conservative Liberal Party of Australia opposition.The word ''bunyip'' can still be found in a number of Australian contexts, including place names such as the Bunyip River (which flows into Westernport Bay in southern Victoria) and the town of Bunyip, Victoria." ], [ "In popular culture and fiction", "* ''The Bunyip'' is a local weekly newspaper published in the town of Gawler, South Australia.", "First published as a pamphlet by the Gawler Humbug Society in 1863, the name was chosen because \"the Bunyip is the true type of Australian Humbug!", "\"* The House of the Gentle Bunyip, built in the 1860s, is located in Clifton Hill, Victoria.", "It has been redeveloped as housing for low-income people.H.", "J. Ford accompanying the tale \"The Bunyip\" in the ''Brown Fairy Book''Numerous tales of the bunyip in written literature appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries.", "One of the earliest known is a story in Andrew Lang's ''The Brown Fairy Book'' (1904), adapted from a tale collected and published in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute in 1899.Jenny Wagner (born 1939).", "Forecourt of the State Library of Victoria.", "* Well known Australian author Colin Thiele wrote ''Gloop The Gloomy Bunyip,'' an illustrated children's book published in 1962.", "* The character Alexander Bunyip, created by children's author and illustrator Michael Salmon, first appeared in print in ''The Monster That Ate Canberra'' (1972).", "Salmon featured the Bunyip character in many other books and adapted his work as a live-action television series, ''Alexander Bunyip's Billabong''.", "A statue of Alexander Bunyip by Anne Ross, called ''A is for Alexander, B is for Bunyip, C is for Canberra'', was commissioned by the ACT Government for Gungahlin's $3.8 million town park and installed in front of the Gungahlin Library in 2011.", "*(1916) ragtime musical comedy Bunyip (musical) or the long title 'the enchantment of fairy princess wattle blossom' by Ella Palzier Campbell (AKA Ella Airlie) toured nine venues in three states for a year with Fuller Brothers theatre circuit.", "Music was supplied by a number of Australian Stage Personalities including Vince Courtney, Herbert De Pinna, Fred Monument and James Kendis.The Australian tourism boom of the 1970s brought a renewed interest in bunyip mythology.", "* (1972) A coin-operated bunyip was built by Dennis Newell at Murray Bridge, South Australia, at Sturt Reserve on the town's riverfront.", "* Jenny Wagner published a children's picture book, ''The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek'' (1973).", "* (1977) The film ''Dot and the Kangaroo'' contains a song \"The Bunyip (Bunyip Moon)\".", "The bunyip was the subject of ''Dot and the Smugglers'' where the title character, Dot, and her animal friends foil a circus-ringmaster's plan to capture a bunyip.", "The bunyip turns out to be a gentle, shy creature.", "* (1982) Children's picture book ''The Ballad of the Blue Lake Bunyip''* (1996) Australian children's author Jackie French wrote several bunyip tales, including the short story \"Bunyip's Gift\", collected in the anthology ''Mind's Eye''.", "* An episode of The Silver Brumby (TV series) featured a friendly, prank-playing bunyip.", "* Wommy, a character on Noah's Island keeps mentioning bunyips and mistook Noah, the noble polar bear who's the title character, and feral cats for bunyips.", "* (1986) The Australian film ''Frog Dreaming'' centres around the search for a bunyip called Donkegin.", "* (2016) The independent Australian film ''Red Billabong'' was released in 2016.It tells about two estranged brothers who find themselves stalked by the Bunyip.Bunyip stories have also been published outside Australia.Bunyip as presented in Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay's Chander Pahar.", "Art by Jukto Binir Basu.", "* (1937) Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay wrote a Bengali novel ''Chander Pahar'' ( Mountain of The Moon ) that included an account of a bunyip.", "The novel was adapted as a film of the same name, released in late 2013.The bunyip was portrayed as the primary threat to the treasure seekers in the wilderness of the Richtersveld mountains in southern Africa.", "In the novel, the bunyip is described as a three-toed ape-like hominid.", "* From 1954 to 1966, Bertie the Bunyip was the lead puppet character on a popular children's series on Channel 3 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "* (1992) The role playing game, ''Werewolf: The Apocalypse'', appropriates the Bunyip legend, having the Bunyip actually be a tribe of Australian native Garou, or werewolves.", "However, they are not playable in the game as, according to the game's lore, they were driven to extinction by the European werewolves during the colonisation of Australia.The Bunyip has been featured in films as well.", "* In 1978 Ozsploitation eco-horror film ''The Long Weekend'', a bunyip is featured as a creature that terrorizes the main couple in the film, who trash a peaceful Australian beach.In the 21st century the bunyip has been featured in works around the world.", "* (2002) The video game series Ty the Tasmanian Tiger portrays Bunyips as peaceful mystical elders who inhabit the world of The Dreaming, though not as ferocious as their namesake and resembling primates.", "The robotic suits that Ty can pilot in Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 2: Bush Rescue and Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 3: Night of the Quinkan are named after the Bunyips, such as Shadow Gunyip, Battle Gunyip and Missile Gunyips.", "* (2009) A character named Bruce Bunyip appears in the children's book ''The Neddiad'' by American Daniel Pinkwater.", "He is initially described as \"big and swarthy, and had tiny eyes, a scowl and his eyebrows grew together\" and later says he is a monster.", "* (2009) Bunyips appeared as the focus cryptids in an episode of ''The Secret Saturdays''; however, they were depicted as small, troublemaking creatures instead of monsters.", "* (2010) Bunyips appear in Naomi Novik's fantasy novel ''Tongues of Serpents'', where they are depicted as relatives of dragons that have adapted to the extreme conditions of the Outback.", "* (2011) An episode of ''Prank Patrol (Australia)'' Season 2 involved a prank called Bunyip Hunters.", "* (2014) In the novel ''Afterworlds'' one of the characters is the author of a fictional book named ''Bunyip''.", "* (2014) The fantasy novel, ''Queen of the Dark Things'', by C. Robert Cargill, features the Bunyip throughout the story.", "* (2016) A \"tri-horned\" bunyip appears in the ''My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic'' episode \"P.P.O.V (Pony Point Of View)\" after being revealed to be the cause of a shipwreck that is recollected differently by three of the series' main characters.", "* (2021) Bunyip appears in the match 3 ''RPG'' mobile game ''Tower of Saviors'' as Vitriolic Savagery - Bunyip* (2022) In the novel ''The Island'' by Adrian McKinty, which takes place in Australia, an antagonist fearfully refers to the bunyip before dying." ], [ "See also", "* Drop bear, a fictitious Australian mammal* Min Min light, a natural phenomenon that may have influenced Australian Aboriginal mythology* Nargun, a living stone creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology* Rainbow Serpent, a common motif in the art and mythology of Aboriginal Australia* Underwater panther, a similar North American creature of legend* Yara-ma-yha-who, a vampiric creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology* P. A. Yeomans, inventor of the Bunyip Slipper Imp, a plough for developing watersheds* Yowie, or Wowee, a \"Big Foot\" style of creature that has its origins in Australian Aboriginal mythology" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Brabant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brabant''' is a traditional geographical region (or regions) in the Low Countries of Europe.", "It may refer to:" ], [ "Place names in Europe", "===Belgium===* Province of Brabant, which in 1995 was split up into two provinces and an autonomous region:** Flemish Brabant, in the Flanders region** Walloon Brabant, in the Wallonia region** Brussels-Capital Region* Klein-Brabant, the municipalities Bornem, Puurs and Sint-Amands in the Antwerp province of Flanders region* East Brabant, or Hageland, an area east of Brussels between the cities of Leuven, Aarschot, Diest and Tienen===Netherlands===* North Brabant province===France===* Brabant-en-Argonne, commune in the Meuse department* Brabant-le-Roi, commune in the Meuse department** Brabant-lès-Villers (1973–1982), former commune, amalgamation of Brabant-le-Roi and Villers-aux-Vents===Geology===* London-Brabant Massif, a geological structure stretching from England to northern Germany" ], [ "Historical use", "* Pagus of Brabant, the original, early medieval territory, divided between several counts, core of the later Landgraviate* Landgraviate of Brabant (1085–1183), an expansive medieval lordship including Brussels, core of the later Duchy* Duchy of Brabant, a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire from 1183 until the French Revolution, by which time the northern half was lost to the Dutch Republic* Staats-Brabant, a territory of the Dutch Republic directly governed by the States-General from 1588 until the French Revolution* Département of Brabant, a département under various forms of French control, formed from an earlier French Département of the Dommel, and predecessor of modern North Brabant.", "* Province of Brabant (called South Brabant, 1815–1830), part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, based on earlier French département of the Dyle, became part of Belgium in 1830, now divided into three parts (see above)" ], [ "Royalty and nobility", "* House of Brabant descended from the Reginarid family of Lotharingia* Duke of Brabant, a dynastic title of the modern Belgian royal family" ], [ "Place names outside Europe", "* Brabant Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada* Port Brabant, former name of Tuktoyaktuk, Canada* Brabant, West Virginia, United States* Le Morne Brabant, a mountain on Mauritius* Brabant Island, Antarctica" ], [ "Other uses", "* Brabant (or Brabançon), other names for the Belgian Draught, a Belgian breed of horse* Brabantian, a dialect that formed the basis of the Dutch language* Brabançonne (or \"the Brabantian\"), the national anthem of Belgium* Brabant killers, a 1980s terrorist group* HNLMS ''Noord-Brabant'' ('North Brabant'), several ships of the Dutch navy* Brabant Company, precursor of the Dutch East India Company (VOC)* ''Brabant'' (train), a Paris-Brussels express train 1963–1995* ''Brabant'' (cruise ship), operated by Fred.", "Olsen Cruise Lines" ] ]

[ [ "Boone, North Carolina" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Boone''' is a town in and the county seat of Watauga County, North Carolina, United States.", "Located in the Blue Ridge Mountains of western North Carolina, Boone is the home of Appalachian State University and the headquarters for the disaster and medical relief organization Samaritan's Purse.", "The population was 19,092 at the 2020 census.The town is named for famous American pioneer and explorer Daniel Boone, and every summer from 1952 has hosted an outdoor amphitheatre drama, ''Horn in the West'', portraying the British settlement of the area during the American Revolutionary War and featuring the contributions of its namesake.", "It is the largest community and the economic hub of the seven-county region of Western North Carolina known as the High Country." ], [ "History", "Boone as seen from Howard Knob Boone took its name from the famous pioneer and explorer Daniel Boone, who on several occasions camped at a site generally agreed to be within the present city limits.", "Daniel's nephews, Jesse and Jonathan (sons of brother Israel Boone), were members of the town's first church, Three Forks Baptist, still in existence today.Boone was served by the narrow gauge East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad (nicknamed \"Tweetsie\") until the flood of 1940.The flood washed away much of the tracks and it was decided not to replace them.Boone is the home of Appalachian State University, a constituent member of the University of North Carolina.Appalachian State is the sixth-largest university in the seventeen-campus system.Caldwell Community College & Technical Institute also operates a satellite campus in Boone.", "\"''Horn in the West''\" is a dramatization of the life and times of the early settlers of the mountain area.", "It features Daniel Boone as one of its characters, and has been performed in an outdoor amphitheater near the town every summer since 1952, except for when COVID-19 necessitated canceling the 2020 performances.", "The original actor in the role of \"Daniel Boone\" was Ned Austin.", "His \"Hollywood Star\" stands on a pedestal on King Street in downtown Boone.", "He was followed in the role by Glenn Causey, who portrayed the rugged frontiersman for 41 years, and whose image is still seen in many of the depictions of Boone featured in the area today.Boone is notable for being home to the Junaluska community.", "Located in the hills just north of Downtown Boone, a free black community has existed in the area since before the Civil War.", "Although integration in the mid-20th century led to many of the businesses in the neighborhood closing in favor of their downtown counterparts, descendants of the original inhabitants still live in the neighborhood.", "Junaluska is also home to one of the few majority-African American Mennonite Brethren congregations.Boone is a center for bluegrass musicians and Appalachian storytellers.", "Notable artists associated with Boone include the late Grammy Award-winning bluegrass guitar player Doc Watson and the late guitarist Michael Houser, one of the founding members of and the lead guitarist for the band Widespread Panic, as well as Old Crow Medicine Show, The Blue Rags, and Eric Church, all who are Boone natives.The Blair Farm, Daniel Boone Hotel, Jones House, John Smith Miller House, and US Post Office-Boone are listed on the National Register of Historic Places." ], [ "Geography and climate", "Boone is located at an elevation of above sea level.", "An earlier survey gave the elevation as 3,332 ft and since then it has been published as having an elevation of .", "Boone has the highest elevation of any town of its size (over 10,000 population) east of the Mississippi River.", "As such, Boone features, depending on the isotherm used, a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfb''), a rarity for the Southeastern United States, bordering on an oceanic climate (''Cfb'') and straddles the boundary between USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 6B and 7A; the elevation also results in enhanced precipitation, with of average annual precipitation.", "Compared to the lower elevations of the Carolinas, winters are long and cold, with frequent sleet and snowfall.", "The daily average temperature in January is , which gives Boone a winter climate more similar to coastal southern New England rather than the Southeast, where a humid subtropical climate (''Cfa)'' predominates.", "Blizzard-like conditions are not unusual during many winters.", "Summers are warm, but far cooler and less humid than lower regions to the south and east, with a July daily average temperature of .", "Boone typically receives on average nearly of snowfall annually, far higher than the lowland areas in the rest of North Carolina.On January 21, 1985, the temperature fell to ." ], [ "Demographics", "===2020 census===+Boone racial composition Race Number Percentage White (non-Hispanic) 13,701 71.76% Black or African American (non-Hispanic) 1,783 9.34% Native American 31 0.16% Asian 645 3.38% Pacific Islander 7 0.04% Other/Mixed 1,154 6.04% Hispanic or Latino 1,771 9.28%As of the 2020 United States census, there were 19,092 people, 5,905 households, and 1,641 families residing in the town.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 13,472 people, 4,374 households, and 1,237 families residing in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 4,748 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 93.98% White, 3.42% Black or African American, 0.30% Native American, 1.19% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.46% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races.", "1.64% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 4,374 households, out of which 9.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.0% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 71.7% were non-families.", "38.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 1.97 and the average family size was 2.63.In the town, the population was spread out, with 5.8% under 18, 65.9% from 18 to 24, 12.1% from 25 to 44, 9.1% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 or older.", "The median age was 21 years.", "For every 100 females, there are 95.6 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.The median income for a household in the town was $20,541, and the median income for a family was $49,762.The per capita income was $12,256.Males had a median income of $28,060 versus $20,000 for females.", "About 9.2% of families and 37.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.1% of those 65 and older." ], [ "Media", "===Newspaper===Boone is mainly served by three local newspapers:* The ''Watauga Democrat'' is published on Wednesdays and Sundays.", "* The ''Mountain Times'' (free weekly entertainment publication).", "* The ''High Country Press'' (daily online news publication).A smaller newspaper, ''The Appalachian'', is Appalachian State University's campus newspaper; it is published once a week on Thursdays.", "In addition to the locally printed papers, a monthly entertainment pamphlet named ''Kraut Creek Revival'' has limited circulation and is funded by a Denver, NC-based newspaper.===Radio===* WATA-AM 1450 AM is a local news talk information radio station.", "* WATA-FM 96.5 FM is an alternate frequency of 1450 AM.", "* WZJS 100.7 FM is a classic hits radio station.", "* WMMY 106.1 FM is a country music radio station, broadcasting the same as 102.3 ''(\"Highway 106.1/102.3\")''.", "* WWMY 102.3 FM is a country music radio station, broadcasting the same as 106.1 ''(\"Highway 106.1/102.3\")''.", "* WECR 1130 AM is an adult contemporary music radio station ''(\"Star\")''.", "* WXIT 1200 AM is a top 40/contemporary hits radio station ''(\"Pulse Boone\")''.", "* WASU 90.5 FM is a college radio station from the Appalachian State University.", "* WNCW 92.9 FM is a noncommercial NPR-affiliate public radio station licensed to Isothermal Community College.", "* W261CK 100.1 FM is a local translator for WFDD 88.1 FM, a noncommercial NPR-affiliate public radio station from Wake Forest University." ], [ "Law and government", "Boone operates under a mayor–council government.", "The city council consists of five members.", "The mayor presides over the council and casts a vote on issues only in the event of a tie.", ", the Town Council members were: Mayor Tim Futrelle, and Councilors: Edie Tugman (Mayor Pro-Tem), Todd Carter, Virginia Roseman, Jon Dalton George, Rebecca Nenow." ], [ "Development", "Industrial, commercial, and residential development in the town of Boone is a controversial issue due to its location in the mountains of Appalachia.", "On October 16, 2009, the town council accepted the \"Boone 2030 Land Use Plan.\"", "While the document itself is not in any way actual law, it is used by the town council, board of adjustment, and other committees to guide decision making as to what types of development are appropriate.In 2009, the North Carolina Department of Transportation began widening 1.1 miles of U.S. 421 (King Street) to a 4-to-6-lane divided highway with a raised concrete median from U.S. 321 (Hardin Street) to east of N.C. 194 (Jefferson Road), including a new entrance and exit to the new Watauga High School, at a cost of $16.2 million.", "The widening has displaced 25 businesses and 63 residences east of historic downtown King Street.", "The project was slated to be completed by December 31, 2011, but construction continued into the spring of 2012." ], [ "Sports", "Boone is home to the Appalachian State Mountaineers which field varsity teams in 17 sports, 7 for men and 10 for women.", "Appalachian State's football program has been successful with the Mountaineers winning three straight national championships in 2005, 2006, and 2007, the only team in North Carolina, public or private, to win an NCAA national championship in football.Aside from college sports, Boone also has local baseball and soccer teams.", "The Boone Bigfoots were formed in 2021 and now compete in the Coastal Plain League, a wood-bat collegiate summer baseball league.", "The Bigfoots play their home games at Beaver Field at Jim and Bettie Smith Stadium.", "Boone's entry in the National Premier Soccer League is Appalachian FC which began play in March 2021 and play home games at ASU Soccer Stadium in the Ted Mackorell Soccer Complex." ], [ "Points of interest", "* Appalachian State University* Blue Ridge Parkway* Boone Mall* Daniel Boone Native Gardens* Elk Knob State Park* Grandfather Mountain* Horn in the West* Howard Knob* Kidd-Brewer Stadium* Tweetsie Railroad* Watauga River" ], [ "Notable people", "Doc Watson sculpture in downtown Boone* Sam Adams professional golfer who played on the PGA Tour* Chris Austin country music singer* Eustace Conway American naturalist* Bertha Cook needlework artist (native of nearby Sands)* Rufus L. Edmisten former North Carolina Secretary of State and Attorney General* Steve Goss former North Carolina Senator and ordained Southern Baptist minister* Franklin Graham American evangelist and missionary, president and CEO of Samaritan's Purse* Tommy Gregg former MLB player* Doc Hendley founder of Wine to Water, an American charitable organization* John Hollar former NFL player for the Washington Redskins and Detroit Lions* James Holshouser was the 68th Governor of North Carolina* Michael Houser founding member and lead guitarist of the band Widespread Panic* Ryder Jones MLB player with the San Francisco Giants* Bob Matheson former NFL player and two-time Super Bowl champion with the Miami Dolphins* Abraham Morlu former CFL player and track Olympian, representing his birth country Liberia* Stanley South major proponent of the processual archaeology movement* Brenda Taylor Olympic hurdler who represented Team USA at the 2004 Athens Olympics* Coaker Triplett former MLB player for the Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Cardinals, and Philadelphia Phillies* Doc Watson bluegrass, gospel, blues, folk, and country singer" ], [ "Sister city", "Boone has one sister city, as designated by Sister Cities International:* Collingwood, Ontario, Canada" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * DigitalNC: Historic Boone* Historical Boone Photos, Postcards, and Paper* Cy Crumley ET&WNC Photo Collection" ] ]

[ [ "Banshee" ], [ "Introduction", "''Bunworth Banshee'', ''Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland'', by Thomas Crofton Croker, 1825|300x300pxA '''banshee''' ( ; Modern Irish , from , \"woman of the fairy mound\" or \"fairy woman\") is a female spirit in Irish folklore who heralds the death of a family member, usually by screaming, wailing, shrieking, or keening.", "Her name is connected to the mythologically important tumuli or \"mounds\" that dot the Irish countryside, which are known as (singular ) in Old Irish." ], [ "Description", "Sometimes she has long streaming hair, which she may be seen combing, with some legends specifying she can only keen while combing her hair.", "She wears a grey cloak over a green dress, and her eyes are red from continual weeping.", "She may be dressed in white with red hair and a ghastly complexion, according to a firsthand account by Ann, Lady Fanshawe in her ''Memoirs''.", "Lady Wilde in her books provides others:In John O'Brien's Irish-English dictionary, the entry for Síth-Bhróg states:\"hence ''bean-síghe'', plural ''mná-síghe'', she-fairies or women-fairies, credulously supposed by the common people to be so affected to certain families that they are heard to sing mournful lamentations about their houses by night, whenever any of the family labours under a sickness which is to end by death, but no families which are not of an ancient & noble Stock, are believed to be honoured with this fairy privilege\"." ], [ "Keening", "leftIn Ireland and parts of Scotland, a traditional part of mourning is the keening woman (''bean chaointe''), who wails a lament —in ('weeping'), pronounced in the Irish dialects of Munster and southern Galway, in Connacht (except south Galway) and (particularly west) Ulster, and in Ulster, particularly in the traditional dialects of north and east Ulster, including Louth.", "This keening woman may in some cases be a professional, and the best keeners would be in high demand.Irish legend speaks of a lament being sung by a fairy woman, or banshee.", "She would sing it when a family member died or was about to die, even if the person had died far away and news of their death had not yet come.", "In those cases, her wailing would be the first warning the household had of the death.", "The banshee is also a predictor of death.", "If someone is about to enter a situation where it is unlikely they will come out alive she will warn people by screaming or wailing, giving rise to a banshee also being known as a wailing woman.", "The banshee was also associated with the death coach, being said to either summon it with her keening or to travel in tandem with it.When several banshees appear at once, it indicates the death of someone great or holy.", "The tales sometimes recounted that the woman, though called a fairy, was a ghost, often of a specific murdered woman, or a mother who died in childbirth.In some parts of Leinster, she is referred to as the ''bean chaointe'' (keening woman) whose wail can be so piercing that it shatters glass.", "In Scottish folklore, a similar creature is known as the bean nighe or ''ban nigheachain'' (little washerwoman) or ''nigheag na h-àth'' (little washer at the ford) and is seen washing the bloodstained clothes or armour of those who are about to die.", "In Welsh folklore, a similar creature is known as the cyhyraeth.Accounts reach as far back as 1380 to the publication of the ''Cathreim Thoirdhealbhaigh'' (''Triumphs of Torlough'') by Sean mac Craith.", "Mentions of banshees can also be found in Norman literature of that time." ], [ "Associated families", "Some sources suggest that the banshee laments only the descendants of the \"pure Milesian stock\" of Ireland, with the original belief appearing to associate the folklore with a number of ancient Irish families.", "According to this tradition, a banshee would not lament or visit someone of Saxon or Norman descent or who came to Ireland later.", "Most, but not all, surnames associated with banshees have the ''Ó'' or ''Mc/Mac'' prefix – that is, surnames of Goidelic origin, indicating a family native to the Insular Celtic lands rather than those of the Norse, Anglo-Saxon, or Norman.", "There are some exceptions to this lore, including that a banshee may lament a person who had been \"gifted with music and song\".", "There are accounts, for example, of the Geraldines hearing a banshee – as they had reputedly become \"more Irish than the Irish themselves\".", "And that the Bunworth Banshee, associated with the Rev.", "Charles Bunworth (a name of Anglo-Saxon origin), heralded the death of an Irish person who had been a patron to musicians.According to tradition, some families had their own banshee, with the Ua Briain banshee, named Aibell, being the ruler of 25 other banshees who would always be at her attendance." ], [ "See also", "*Baobhan Sith*Cailleach*Caoineag*Clíodhna*Devil Bird*La Llorona*Klagmuhme*Madam Koi Koi*Psychopomp*Siren*White Lady (ghost)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Genetically modified maize" ], [ "Introduction", "Transgenic maize containing a gene from the bacteria ''Bacillus thuringiensis'''''Genetically modified maize''' (corn) is a genetically modified crop.", "Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides.", "Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries.", "GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow.", "One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000." ], [ "Marketed products", "=== Herbicide-resistant maize ===Corn varieties resistant to glyphosate herbicides were first commercialized in 1996 by Monsanto, and are known as \"Roundup Ready Corn\".", "They tolerate the use of Roundup.", "Bayer CropScience developed \"Liberty Link Corn\" that is resistant to glufosinate.", "Pioneer Hi-Bred has developed and markets corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides under the trademark \"Clearfield\" – though in these hybrids, the herbicide-tolerance trait was bred using tissue culture selection and the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate, not genetic engineering.", "Consequently, the regulatory framework governing the approval of transgenic crops does not apply for Clearfield.As of 2011, herbicide-resistant GM corn was grown in 14 countries.", "By 2012, 26 varieties of herbicide-resistant GM maize were authorised for import into the European Union, but such imports remain controversial.", "Cultivation of herbicide-resistant corn in the EU provides substantial farm-level benefits.=== Insect-resistant corn ===The European corn borer, ''Ostrinia nubilalis'', destroys corn crops by burrowing into the stem, causing the plant to fall over.==== Bt maize/corn ====/ is a variant of maize that has been genetically altered to express one or more proteins from the bacterium ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' including Delta endotoxins.", "The protein is poisonous to certain insect pests.", "Spores of the bacillus are widely used in organic gardening, although GM corn is not considered organic.", "The European corn borer causes about a billion dollars in damage to corn crops each year.In recent years, traits have been added to ward off corn ear worms and root worms, the latter of which annually causes about a billion dollars in damages.The Bt protein is expressed throughout the plant.", "When a vulnerable insect eats the Bt-containing plant, the protein is activated in its gut, which is alkaline.", "In the alkaline environment, the protein partially unfolds and is cut by other proteins, forming a toxin that paralyzes the insect's digestive system and forms holes in the gut wall.", "The insect stops eating within a few hours and eventually starves.In 1996, the first GM maize producing a Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.The Philippine Government has promoted Bt corn, hoping for insect resistance and higher yields.Approved Bt genes include single and stacked (event names bracketed) configurations of: Cry1A.105 (MON89034), CryIAb (MON810), CryIF (1507), Cry2Ab (MON89034), Cry3Bb1 (MON863 and MON88017), Cry34Ab1 (59122), Cry35Ab1 (59122), mCry3A (MIR604), and Vip3A (MIR162), in both corn and cotton.", "Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010.A 2018 study found that Bt-corn protected nearby fields of non-Bt corn and nearby vegetable crops, reducing the use of pesticides on those crops.", "Data from 1976-1996 (before Bt corn was widespread) was compared to data after it was adopted (1996-2016).", "They examined levels of the European corn borer and corn earworm.", "Their larvae eat a variety of crops, including peppers and green beans.", "Between 1992 and 2016, the amount of insecticide applied to New Jersey pepper fields decreased by 85 percent.", "Another factor was the introduction of more effective pesticides that were applied less often.==== Sweet Corn ====GM sweet corn varieties include \"Attribute\", the brand name for insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Syngenta and ''Performance Series'' insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Monsanto.==== Cuba ====While Cuba's agriculture is largely focused on organic production, as of 2010, the country had developed a variety of genetically modified corn that is resistant to the palomilla moth.===Drought-resistant maize ===In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids called DroughtGard.", "The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe ''Bacillus subtilis''; it was approved by the USDA in 2011 and by China in 2013.==== Health Safety ====In regular corn crops, insects promote fungal colonization by creating \"wounds,\" or holes, in corn kernels.", "These wounds are favored by fungal spores for germination, which subsequently leads to mycotoxin accumulation in the crop that can be carcinogenic and toxic to humans and other animals.", "This can prove to be especially devastating in developing countries with drastic climate patterns such as high temperatures, which favor the development of toxic fungi.", "In addition, higher mycotoxin levels leads to market rejection or reduced market prices for the grain.", "GM corn crops encounter fewer insect attacks, and thus, have lower concentrations of mycotoxins.", "Fewer insect attacks also keep corn ears from being damaged, which increases overall yields." ], [ "Products in development", "In 2007, South African researchers announced the production of transgenic maize resistant to maize streak virus (MSV), although it has not been released as a product.", "While breeding cultivars for resistance to MSV isn't done in the public, the private sector, international research centers, and national programmes have done all of the breeding.", "As of 2014, there have been a few MSV-tolerant cultivars released in Africa.", "A private company ''Seedco'' has released 5 MSV cultivars.Research has been done on adding a single ''E.", "coli'' gene to maize to enable it to be grown with an essential amino acid (methionine)." ], [ "Refuges", "US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations require farmers who plant Bt corn to plant non-Bt corn nearby (called a refuge), with the logic that pests will infest the non-Bt corn and thus will not evolve a resistance to the Bt toxin.", "Typically, 20% of corn in a grower's fields must be refuge; refuge must be at least 0.5 miles from Bt corn for lepidopteran pests, and refuge for corn rootworm must at least be adjacent to a Bt field.", "EPA regulations also require seed companies to train farmers how to maintain refuges, to collect data on the refuges and to report that data to the EPA.", "A study of these reports found that from 2003 to 2005 farmer compliance with keeping refuges was above 90%, but that by 2008 approximately 25% of Bt corn farmers did not keep refuges properly, raising concerns that resistance would develop.Unmodified crops received most of the economic benefits of Bt corn in the US in 1996–2007, because of the overall reduction of pest populations.", "This reduction came because females laid eggs on modified and unmodified strains alike, but pest organisms that develop on the modified strain are eliminated.Seed bags containing both Bt and refuge seed have been approved by the EPA in the United States.", "These seed mixtures were marketed as \"Refuge in a Bag\" (RIB) to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional work needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand.", "The EPA approved a lower percentage of refuge seed in these seed mixtures ranging from 5 to 10%.", "This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt-resistance occurring for corn rootworm, but may increase the risk of resistance for lepidopteran pests, such as European corn borer.", "Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects." ], [ "Resistance", "Resistant strains of the European corn borer have developed in areas with defective or absent refuge management.", "In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated that army worms were resistant to Bt maize produced by Dupont-Dow; armyworm resistance was first discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to voluntarily stop selling the product on the island." ], [ "Regulation", "Regulation of GM crops varies between countries, with some of the most-marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.", "Regulation varies in a given country depending on intended uses." ], [ "Controversy", "There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.", "Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.", "The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.The scientific rigor of the studies regarding human health has been disputed due to alleged lack of independence and due to conflicts of interest involving governing bodies and some of those who perform and evaluate the studies.", "However, no reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population.GM crops provide a number of ecological benefits, but there are also concerns for their overuse, stalled research outside of the Bt seed industry, proper management and issues with Bt resistance arising from their misuse.Critics have objected to GM crops on ecological, economic and health grounds.", "The economic issues derive from those organisms that are subject to intellectual property law, mostly patents.", "The first generation of GM crops lose patent protection beginning in 2015.Monsanto has claimed it will not pursue farmers who retain seeds of off-patent varieties.", "These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, protests and to restrictive legislation in most countries.Introduction of Bt maize led to significant reduction of mycotoxin-related poisoning and cancer rates, as they were significantly less prone to contain mycotoxins (29%), fumonisins (31%) and thricotecens (37%), all of which are toxic and carcinogenic.", "=== Effects on nontarget insects ===Critics claim that Bt proteins could target predatory and other beneficial or harmless insects as well as the targeted pest.", "These proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the USA since 1958 with no ill effects on the environment reported.", "While ''cyt'' proteins are toxic towards the insect order Diptera (flies), certain ''cry'' proteins selectively target lepidopterans (moths and butterflies), while other ''cyt'' selectively target Coleoptera.", "As a toxic mechanism, ''cry'' proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in rupture of those cells.", "Any organism that lacks the appropriate gut receptors cannot be affected by the ''cry'' protein, and therefore Bt.", "Regulatory agencies assess the potential for the transgenic plant to impact nontarget organisms before approving commercial release.A 1999 study found that in a lab environment, pollen from Bt maize dusted onto milkweed could harm the monarch butterfly.", "Several groups later studied the phenomenon in both the field and the laboratory, resulting in a risk assessment that concluded that any risk posed by the corn to butterfly populations under real-world conditions was negligible.", "A 2002 review of the scientific literature concluded that \"the commercial large-scale cultivation of current Bt–maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population\".", "A 2007 review found that \"nontarget invertebrates are generally more abundant in Bt cotton and Bt maize fields than in nontransgenic fields managed with insecticides.", "However, in comparison with insecticide-free control fields, certain nontarget taxa are less abundant in Bt fields.", "\"=== Gene flow ===Gene flow is the transfer of genes and/or alleles from one species to another.", "Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico, and of gene flow into refuges.In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize, but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize, gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world's maize strains.", "A 2001 report in ''Nature'' presented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico.", "The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact.", "''Nature'' later stated, \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper\".", "A 2005 large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca.", "However, other authors also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize.A 2004 study found Bt protein in kernels of refuge corn.In 2017, a large-scale study found \"pervasive presence of transgenes and glyphosate in maize-derived food in Mexico\"=== Food ===The French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee reviewed the 2009 Vendômois ''et al.''", "study and concluded that it \"presents no admissible scientific element likely to ascribe any haematological, hepatic or renal toxicity to the three re-analysed GMOs.\"", "However, the French government applies the precautionary principle with respect to GMOs.A review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone.A 2011 Canadian study looked at the presence of CryAb1 protein (BT toxin) in non-pregnant women, pregnant women and fetal blood.", "All groups had detectable levels of the protein, including 93% of pregnant women and 80% of fetuses at concentrations of 0.19 ± 0.30 and 0.04 ± 0.04 mean ± SD ng/ml, respectively.", "The paper did not discuss safety implications or find any health problems.", "FSANZ agency published a comment pointing out a number of inconsistencies in the paper, most notably that it \"does not provide any evidence that GM foods are the source of the protein\".In January 2013, the European Food Safety Authority released all data submitted by Monsanto in relation to the 2003 authorisation of maize genetically modified for glyphosate tolerance.=== Starlink corn recalls ===StarLink contains Cry9C, which had not previously been used in a GM crop.", "Starlink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market Starlink for use in animal feed and in human food.", "However, because the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic.", "As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use in animal feed.", "Starlink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998.StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans in the US, Japan, and South Korea.", "This corn became the subject of the widely publicized Starlink corn recall, which started when Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain the corn.", "Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued.", "The registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000.Pioneer had been bought by AgrEvo which then became Aventis CropScience at the time of the incident, which was later bought by Bayer.Fifty-one people reported adverse effects to the FDA; US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to Starlink.", "However, the CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence of hypersensitivity to the Starlink Bt protein.A subsequent review of these tests by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act Scientific Advisory Panel points out that while \"the negative results decrease the probability that the Cry9C protein is the cause of allergic symptoms in the individuals examined ... in the absence of a positive control and questions regarding the sensitivity and specificity of the assay, it is not possible to assign a negative predictive value to this.", "\"The US corn supply has been monitored for the presence of the Starlink Bt proteins since 2001.In 2005, aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn.", "The nations involved, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid.=== Corporate espionage ===On 19 December 2013 six Chinese citizens were indicted in Iowa on charges of plotting to steal genetically modified seeds worth tens of millions of dollars from Monsanto and DuPont.", "Mo Hailong, director of international business at the Beijing Dabeinong Technology Group Co., part of the Beijing-based DBN Group, was accused of stealing trade secrets after he was found digging in an Iowa cornfield." ], [ "See also", "* Genetically modified food* Genetically modified crops* Genetically modified food controversies" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * - research project on coexistence and traceability of GM and non-GM supply chains* (Part of the minutes of the plenary meeting held on 3–4 December 2008, see on page 9)" ] ]

[ [ "Body substance isolation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Body substance isolation''' is a practice of isolating all body substances (blood, urine, feces, tears, etc.)", "of individuals undergoing medical treatment, particularly emergency medical treatment of those who might be infected with illnesses such as HIV, or hepatitis so as to reduce as much as possible the chances of transmitting these illnesses.", "BSI is similar in nature to universal precautions, but goes further in isolating workers from pathogens, including substances now known to carry HIV." ], [ "Place of body substance isolation practice in history", "Practice of Universal precautions was introduced in 1985–88.In 1987, the practice of Universal precautions was adjusted by a set of rules known as body substance isolation.", "In 1996, both practices were replaced by the latest approach known as standard precautions (health care).", "Nowadays and in isolation, practice of body substance isolation has just historical significance.Body substance isolation went further than universal precautions in isolating workers from pathogens, including substances now currently known to carry HIV.", "These pathogens fall into two broad categories, bloodborne (carried in the body fluids) and airborne.", "The practice of BSI was common in Pre-Hospital care and emergency medical services due to the often unknown nature of the patient and his/her disease or medical conditions.", "It was a part of the National Standards Curriculum for Prehospital Providers and Firefighters.Types of body substance isolation included:* Hospital gowns* Medical gloves* Shoe covers* Surgical mask or N95 Respirator* Safety GlassesIt was postulated that BSI precautions should be practiced in environment where treaters were exposed to bodily fluids, such as:* blood, semen, preseminal fluid, vaginal secretions, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, marrow, pericardial fluid, feces, nasal secretions, urine, vomitus, sputum, mucus, cervical mucus, phlegm, saliva, breastmilk, colostrum, and secretions and blood from the umbilical cordSuch infection control techniques that were recommended following the AIDS outbreak in the 1980s.", "Every patient was treated as if infected and therefore precautions were taken to minimize risk.", "Other conditions which called for minimizing risks with BSI:* Diseases with air-borne transmission (e.g., tuberculosis)* Diseases with droplet transmission (e.g., mumps, rubella, influenza, pertussis)* Transmission by direct or indirect contact with dried skin (e.g., colonisation with MRSA) or contaminated surfaces* Prion diseases (e.g., Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease)or any combination of the above." ], [ "See also", "* Barrier nursing" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Boudica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Boudica''' or '''Boudicca''' (, from Brythonic *''boudi'' 'victory, win' + *''-kā'' 'having' suffix, i.e.", "'Victorious Woman', known in Latin chronicles as '''Boadicea''' or '''Boudicea''', and in Welsh as '''''' ()) was a queen of the ancient British Iceni tribe, who led a failed uprising against the conquering forces of the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61.She is considered a British national heroine and a symbol of the struggle for justice and independence.Boudica's husband Prasutagus, with whom she had two daughters, ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome.", "He left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and to the Roman emperor in his will.", "When he died, his will was ignored, and the kingdom was annexed and his property taken.", "According to the Roman historian Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped.", "The historian Cassius Dio wrote that previous imperial donations to influential Britons were confiscated and the Roman financier and philosopher Seneca called in the loans he had forced on the reluctant Britons.In 60/61, Boudica led the Iceni and other British tribes in revolt.", "They destroyed Camulodunum (modern Colchester), earlier the capital of the Trinovantes, but at that time a for discharged Roman soldiers.", "Upon hearing of the revolt, the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus hurried from the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) to Londinium, the 20-year-old commercial settlement that was the rebels' next target.", "Unable to defend the settlement, he evacuated and abandoned it.", "Boudica's army defeated a detachment of the , and burnt both Londinium and Verulamium.", "In all, an estimated 70,000–80,000 Romans and Britons were killed by Boudica's followers.", "Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces, possibly in the West Midlands, and despite being heavily outnumbered, he decisively defeated the Britons.", "Boudica died, by suicide or illness, shortly afterwards.", "The crisis of 60/61 caused Nero to consider withdrawing all his imperial forces from Britain, but Suetonius's victory over Boudica confirmed Roman control of the province.Interest in these events was revived in the English Renaissance and led to Boudica's fame in the Victorian era and as a cultural symbol in Britain." ], [ "Historical sources", "The Boudican revolt against the Roman Empire is referred to in four works from classical antiquity written by three Roman historians: the ''Agricola'' () and ''Annals'' () by Tacitus; a mention of the uprising by Suetonius in his ''Lives of the Caesars'' (121); and the longest account, a detailed description of the revolt contained within Cassius Dio's history of the Empire ().Tacitus wrote many years after the rebellion, but his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola was an eyewitness to the events, having served in Britain as a tribune under Suetonius Paulinus during this period.Cassius Dio began his history of Rome and its empire about 140 years after Boudica's death.", "Much is lost and his account of Boudica survives only in the epitome of an 11th century Byzantine monk, John Xiphilinus.", "He provides greater and more lurid detail than Tacitus, but in general his details are often fictitious.Both Tacitus and Dio give an account of battle-speeches given by Boudica, though it is thought that her words were never recorded during her life.", "Although imaginary, these speeches, designed to provide a comparison for readers of the antagonists' demands and approaches to war, and to portray the Romans as morally superior to their enemy, helped create an image of patriotism that turned Boudica into a legendary figure." ], [ "Background", "A map of Iceni lands in NorfolkBoudica was the consort of Prasutagus, king of the Iceni, a tribe who inhabited what is now the English county of Norfolk and parts of the neighbouring counties of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Lincolnshire.", "They produced some of the earliest known British coins.", "They had revolted against the Romans in 47 when the Roman governor Publius Ostorius Scapula planned to disarm all the peoples of Britain under Roman control.", "The Romans allowed the kingdom to retain its independence once the uprising was suppressed." ], [ "Events leading to the revolt", "On his death in AD 60/61, Prasutagus made his two daughters as well as the Roman Emperor Nero his heirs.", "The Romans ignored the will, and the kingdom was absorbed into the province of Britannia.", "Catus Decianus, procurator of Britain, was sent to secure the Iceni kingdom for Rome.The Romans' next actions were described by Tacitus, who detailed pillaging of the countryside, the ransacking of the king's household, and the brutal treatment of Boudica and her daughters.", "According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters were raped.", "These abuses are not mentioned in Dio's account, who instead cites three different causes for the rebellion: the recalling of loans that were given to the Britons by Seneca; Decianus Catus's confiscation of money formerly loaned to the Britons by the Emperor Claudius; and Boudica's own entreaties.", "The loans were thought by the Iceni to have been repaid by gift exchange.Dio gives Boudica a speech to her people and their allies reminding them that life was much better before the Roman occupation, stressing that wealth cannot be enjoyed under slavery and placing the blame upon herself for not expelling the Romans as they had done when Julius Caesar invaded.", "The willingness of those seen as barbarians to sacrifice a higher quality of living under the Romans in exchange for their freedom and personal liberty was an important part of what Dio considered to be motivation for the rebellions." ], [ "Uprising", "===Attacks on Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium===A map of the Boudican RevoltThe first target of the rebels was Camulodunum (modern Colchester), a Roman for retired soldiers.", "A Roman temple had been erected there to Claudius, at great expense to the local population.", "Combined with brutal treatment of the Britons by the veterans, this had caused resentment towards the Romans.The Iceni and the Trinovantes comprised an army of 120,000 men.", "Dio claimed that Boudica called upon the British goddess of victory Andraste to aid her army.", "Once the revolt had begun, the only Roman troops available to provide assistance, aside from the few within the colony, were 200 auxiliaries located in London, who were not equipped to fight Boudica's army.", "Camulodunum was captured by the rebels; those inhabitants who survived the initial attack took refuge in the Temple of Claudius for two days before they were killed.", "Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX ''Hispana'', attempted to relieve Camulodunum, but suffered an overwhelming defeat.", "The infantry with him were all killed and only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped.", "After this disaster, Catus Decianus, whose behaviour had provoked the rebellion, fled abroad to Gaul.Suetonius was leading a campaign against the island of Mona, off the coast of North Wales.", "On hearing the news of the Iceni uprising, he left a garrison on Mona and returned to deal with Boudica.", "He moved quickly with a force of men through hostile territory to Londinium, which he reached before the arrival of Boudica's army but, outnumbered, he decided to abandon the town to the rebels, who burned it down after torturing and killing everyone who had remained.", "The rebels also sacked the ''municipium'' of Verulamium (modern St Albans), north-west of London, though the extent of its destruction is unclear.Dio and Tacitus both reported that around 80,000 people were said to have been killed by the rebels.", "According to Tacitus, the Britons had no interest in taking the Roman population as prisoners, only in slaughter by \"gibbet, fire, or cross\".", "Dio adds that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, \"to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour\" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste.=== Defeat and death ===Suetonius regrouped his forces.", "He amassed an army of almost 10,000 men at an unidentified location, and took a stand in a defile with a wood behind.", "The Romans used the terrain to their advantage, launching javelins at the Britons before advancing in a wedge-shaped formation and deploying cavalry.The Roman army was heavily outnumbered — according to Dio the rebels numbered 230,000 — but Boudica's army was crushed, and according to Tacitus, neither the women nor the animals were spared.", "Tacitus states that Boudica poisoned herself; Dio says she fell sick and died, after which she was given a lavish burial.", "It has been argued that these accounts are not mutually exclusive." ], [ "Name", "''Boudica'' may have been an honorific title, in which case the name that she was known by during most of her life is unknown.", "The English linguist and translator Kenneth Jackson concluded that the name ''Boudica''—based on later developments in Welsh () and Irish ()—derives from the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective *''boudīkā'' 'victorious', which in turn is derived from the Celtic word *''boudā'' 'victory', and that the correct spelling of the name in Common Brittonic (the British Celtic language) is '''', pronounced .", "Variations on the historically correct ''Boudica'' include ''Boudicca'', ''Bonduca'', ''Boadicea'', and ''Buduica''.", "The Gaulish version of her name is attested in inscriptions as ''Boudiga'' in Bordeaux, ''Boudica'' in Lusitania, and ''Bodicca'' in Algeria.Boudica's name was spelt incorrectly by Dio, who used ''Buduica''.", "Her name was also misspelled by Tacitus, who added a second 'c.'", "After the misspelling was copied by a medieval scribe, further variations began to appear.", "Along with the second 'c' becoming an 'e,' an 'a' appeared in place of the 'u', which produced the medieval (and most common) version of the name, ''Boadicea''.", "The true spelling was totally obscured when ''Boadicea'' first appeared in around the 17th century.", "William Cowper used this spelling in his poem ''Boadicea, an Ode'' (1782), a work whose impact resulted in Boudica's reinvention as a British imperialistic champion." ], [ "Early literature", "One of the earliest possible mentions of Boudica (excluding Tacitus' and Dio's accounts) was the 6th century work by the British monk Gildas.", "In it, he demonstrates his knowledge of a female leader whom he describes as a \"treacherous lioness\" who \"butchered the governors who had been left to give fuller voice and strength to the endeavours of Roman rule.", "\"Both Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' (731) and the 9th century work ''Historia Brittonum'' by the Welsh monk Nennius include references to the uprising of 60/61—but do not mention Boudica.No contemporary description of Boudica exists.", "Dio, writing more than a century after her death, provided a detailed description of the Iceni queen (translated in 1925): \"In stature she was very tall, in appearance most terrifying, in the glance of her eye most fierce, and her voice was harsh; a great mass of the tawniest hair fell to her hips; around her neck was a large golden necklace; and she wore a tunic of divers colours over which a thick mantle was fastened with a brooch.", "This was her invariable attire.\"" ], [ "Revival and the modern legend", "===16th and 17th century literature===Tudor queen in ''Holinshed's Chronicles'' (1577)During the Renaissance the works of Tacitus and Cassius Dio became available in England, after which her status changed as it was interpreted by historians, poets and dramatists.", "Boudica appeared as 'Voadicia' in a history, ''Anglica Historia'', by the Italian scholar Polydore Vergil, and in the Scottish historian Hector Boece's ''The History and Chronicles of Scotland'' (1526) she is 'Voada'—the first appearance of Boudica in a British publication.Boudica was called 'Voadicia' in the English historian Raphael Holinshed's ''Chronicles'', published between 1577 and 1587.A narrative by the Florentine scholar Petruccio Ubaldini in ''The Lives of the Noble Ladies of the Kingdom of England and Scotland'' (1591) includes two female characters, 'Voadicia' and 'Bunduica', both based on Boudica.", "From the 1570s to the 1590s, when Elizabeth I's England was at war with Spain, Boudica proved to be a valuable asset for the English.The English poet Edmund Spenser used the story of Boudica in his poem ''The Ruines of Time'', involving a story about a British heroine he called 'Bunduca'.", "A variation of this name was used in the Jacobean play ''Bonduca'' (1612), a tragicomedy that most scholars agree was written by John Fletcher, in which one of the characters was Boudica.", "A version of that play called ''Bonduca, or the British Heroine'' was set to music by the English composer Henry Purcell in 1695.One of the choruses, \"Britons, Strike Home!", "\", became a popular patriotic song in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries.=== Depiction during the 18th and 19th centuries ===The statue ''Boadicea and Her Daughters'' near Westminster Pier, LondonDuring the late 18th century, Boudica was used to develop ideas of English nationhood.", "Illustrations of Boudica during this period—such as in Edward Barnard's ''New, Complete and Authentic History of England'' (1790) and the drawing by Thomas Stothard of the queen as a classical heroine—lacked historical accuracy.", "The illustration of Boudica by Robert Havell in Charles Hamilton Smith's ''The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands from the Earliest Periods to the Sixth Century'' (1815) was an early attempt to depict her in an historically accurate way.Cowper's 1782 poem ''Boadicea: An Ode'' was the most notable literary work to champion the resistance of the Britons, and helped to project British ideas of imperial expansion.", "It caused Boudica to become a British cultural icon and be perceived as a national heroine.", "Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem (written in 1859, and published in 1864) drew on Cowper's poem.", "Depicting the Iceni queen as a violent and bloodthirsty warrior, the poem also forecasted the rise of British imperialism.", "Tennyson's image of Boudica was taken from the engraving produced in 1812 by Stothard.", "Another work, the poem \"Boadicea\" (1859) by Francis Barker, contained strongly patriotic and Christian themes.A range of Victorian children's books mentioned Boudica; ''Beric the Briton'' (1893), a novel by G. A. Henty, with illustrations by William Parkinson, had a text based on the accounts of Tacitus and Dio.", "''Boadicea and Her Daughters'', a statue of the queen in her war chariot, complete with anachronistic scythes on the wheel axles, was executed by the sculptor Thomas Thornycroft.", "He was encouraged by Prince Albert, who lent his horses for use as models.", "The statue, Thornycroft's most ambitious work, was produced between 1856 and 1871, cast in 1896, and positioned on the Victoria Embankment next to Westminster Bridge in 1902.File:Portraits and Dresses of the Most Remarkable Personages in England Prior to the Norman Conquest Plate 1.jpg|alt=18th century depiction of Boudica|''The History of England'' (1791), illustration by Francis WestFile:Boudicca-or-Boadicea.jpg|alt=Early 19th century engraving|An engraving by William Sharp after Thomas Stothard (1812)File:Caricature of Queen Caroline as Boudica.jpg|alt=Caricature of Queen Caroline as Boudica|A caricature of Queen Caroline (1820)File:Charles Hamilton Smith - Boudica.png|alt=19th century illustration of Boudica and other Britons|Robert Havell, ''The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands'' (1821)File:Frontispiece-Boudica.jpg|alt=Engraving of Bodica's rebellion|John Cassell's ''Illustrated History of England'' (1857)File:Boadicea Shows the marks of the Roman Rods.jpg|alt=1893 illustration of Boudica|G.A.", "Henty, ''Beric, the Briton'' (1893)===20th century – present===Boudica was once thought to have been buried at a place which lies now between platforms 9 and 10 in King's Cross station in London.", "There is no evidence for this and it is probably a post-World War II invention.", "At Colchester Town Hall, a life-sized statue of Boudica stands on the south facade, sculpted by L J Watts in 1902; another depiction of her is in a stained glass window by Clayton and Bell in the council chamber.Boudica was adopted by the suffragettes as one of the symbols of the campaign for women's suffrage.", "In 1908, a \"Boadicea Banner\" was carried in several National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies marches.", "She appears as character in ''A Pageant of Great Women'' written by Cicely Hamilton, which opened at the Scala Theatre, London, in November 1909 before a national tour, and she was described in a 1909 pamphlet as \"the eternal feminine... the guardian of the hearth, the avenger of its wrongs upon the defacer and the despoiler\".A \"vocal minority\" has claimed Boudica as a Celtic Welsh heroine.", "A statue of Boudica in the Marble Hall at Cardiff City Hall was among those unveiled by David Lloyd George in 1916, though the choice had gained little support in a public vote.", "It shows her with her daughters and without warrior trappings.Permanent exhibitions describing the Boudican Revolt are at the Museum of London, Colchester Castle Museum and the Verulamium Museum.", "A long distance footpath called Boudica's Way passes through countryside between Norwich and Diss in Norfolk." ], [ "See also", "* ''Boudica (2003 film)''* * List of women warriors in folklore* Women in ancient warfare" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*** ****" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Borneo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Borneo''' (; also known as '''Kalimantan''' in the Indonesian language) is the third-largest island in the world, with an area of .", "Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda Islands, located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and east of Sumatra.The island is politically divided among three countries: Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south.", "Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory.", "In the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island.", "The population in Borneo is 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses).", "Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo.", "The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, comprises about 1% of Borneo's land area.", "A little more than half of the island is in the Northern Hemisphere, including Brunei and the Malaysian portion, while the Indonesian portion spans the Northern and Southern hemispheres." ], [ "Etymology", "The Native people of Borneo referred to their island as ''Pulu K'lemantang'' but not as an ethnic name, when the sixteenth century Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes made contact with the native which became the name for modern-day Indonesian Borneo.", "The term kelamantan is used in Sarawak to refer to a group of people who consume sago in the northern part of the island.", "According to Crowfurd, the word kelamantan is the name of a type of mango (Mangifera) so the island of Borneo is called a mango island by the native.", "But he adds that the word is fanciful and unpopular.", "The local mango, called klemantan, is still widely found in rural areas in Ketapang and surrounding areas of West Kalimantan.Internationally it is known as ''Borneo'', derived from European contact with the Brunei kingdom in the 16th century during the Age of Exploration.", "On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo.", "The name ''Borneo'' may derive from the Sanskrit word '''' (), meaning either \"water\" or Varuna, the Hindu god of rain.Another source said it was from the Sanskrit word ''Kalamanthana'', meaning \"burning weather\" possibly to describe its hot and humid tropical weather.", "In Indianized malay era the name ''Kalamanthana'' was derived from Sanskrit terms ''kala'' (time or season) and ''manthana'' (churning, kindling or creating fire by friction), which possibly describes the heat of the weather.In 977, Chinese records began to use the term ''Bo-ni'' to refer to Borneo.", "In 1225, it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适).", "The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as ''Nusa Tanjungnagara'', which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom." ], [ "Geography", "=== Geology ===Location of Borneo in Maritime Southeast Asia.", "The Red River Fault is included.Borneo was formed through Mesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments, ophiolite terranes and island arc crust onto a Paleozoic continental core.", "At the beginning of the Cenozoic Borneo formed a promontory of Sundaland which partly separated from Asian mainland by the proto-South China Sea.", "The oceanic part of the proto-South China Sea was subducted during the Paleogene period and a large accretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo.", "In the early Miocene uplift of the accretionary complex occurred as a result of underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest.", "The uplift may have also resulted from shortening due to the counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo between 20 and 10 mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence of Australia-Southeast Asia collision.", "Large volumes of sediment were shed into basins, which scattered offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into a Neogene basin which is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southern Sabah.", "In southeast Sabah, the Miocene to recent island arc terranes of the Sulu Archipelago extend onshore into Borneo with the older volcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping subduction the Celebes Sea.Rich marine life off the coast of Borneo, in the Sulu SeaBefore sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age, Borneo was part of the mainland of Asia, forming, with Java and Sumatra, the upland regions of a peninsula that extended east from present day Indochina.", "The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula.", "Deeper waters separating Borneo from neighbouring Sulawesi prevented a land connection to that island, creating the divide known as Wallace's Line between Asian and Australia-New Guinea biological regions.", "The island today is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south.", "To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.", "To the south and east are islands of Indonesia: Java and Sulawesi, respectively.", "To the northeast are the Philippine Islands.", "With an area of , it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island of Asia (the largest continent).", "Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of .Lake Sentarum, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West KalimantanThe largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of .", "Other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan ( long), the Barito, Kahayan, and Mendawai in South Kalimantan (, , and long respectively), Rajang in Sarawak ( long) and Kinabatangan in Sabah ( long).", "Borneo has significant cave systems.", "In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over deep.", "The Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the \"Cockroach Cave\" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave.", "The Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly a karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves.=== Ecology ===The critically endangered Bornean orangutan, a great ape endemic to BorneoThe Borneo rainforest is estimated to be around 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world.", "The current dominant tree group, the dipterocarps, has dominated the Borneo lowland rain forests for millions of years.", "It is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals, and the rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan.", "It is an important refuge for many endemic forest species, including the Borneo elephant, the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros, the Bornean clouded leopard, the Bornean rock frog, the hose's palm civet and the dayak fruit bat.NASA satellite image of Borneo on 19 May 2002Peat swamp forests occupy the entire coastline of Borneo.", "The soil of the peat swamp is comparatively infertile, while it is known to be the home of various bird species such as the hook-billed bulbul, helmeted hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill.", "There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees (267 species are dipterocarps), 221 species of terrestrial mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo.", "There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo (about the same as Sumatra and Java combined).", "The Borneo river shark is known only from the Kinabatangan River.", "In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the \"Heart of Borneo\" agreement was signed in 2007.Logging road in East Kalimantan, IndonesiaThe WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions.", "Most are lowland regions:* Borneo lowland rain forests cover most of the island, with an area of .", "* Borneo peat swamp forests* ''Kerangas'' or Sundaland heath forests* Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests are found in the island's western and southern lowlands* Sunda Shelf mangroves* The Borneo montane rain forests lie in the central highlands of the island, above the elevation.", "*The highest elevations of Mount Kinabalu are home to the Kinabalu montane alpine meadows, a subalpine and alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including many orchids.According to analysis of data from Global Forest Watch, the Indonesian portion of Borneo lost of tree cover between 2002 and 2019, of which was primary forest, compared with Malaysian Borneo's of tree cover loss and of primary forest cover loss.", "As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of the island's tree cover, Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%.", "Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44% of Borneo's overall tree cover.==== Conservation issues ====Logging near Crocker Range National Park.", "Borneo has lost more than half of its rainforests in the past half century.The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavy logging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with the large demands of raw materials from industrial countries along with the conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes.", "Half of the annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo.", "Palm oil plantations have been widely developed and are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest.", "Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest.", "During these fires, hotspots were visible on satellite images and the resulting haze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.", "The haze could also reach southern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze.A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015.===Topography===Mount Kinabalu in Malaysia, the highest summit of the islandList of highest peaks in Borneo by elevation.", "* Mount Kinabalu * Mount Trusmadi * Raya Hill * Muruk Miau * Mount Wakid * Monkobo Hill * Mount Lotung * Mount Magdalena * Talibu Hill ===River systems===Kapuas River in Indonesia; at in length, it is the longest river in Borneo.List of longest river in Borneo by length.", "* Kapuas River * Barito River * Mahakam River * Kahayan River * Mendawai River * Kayan River * Rajang River * Kinabatangan River * Baram River * Sembakung River * Sesayap River * Pawan River" ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Dayak, the main indigenous people in the island, were feared for their headhunting practices.In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo.According to ancient Chinese (977), Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium AD.", "In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory, rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana, ''Dalbergia parviflora''), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo.", "The Indians named Borneo ''Suvarnabhumi'' (the land of gold) and also ''Karpuradvipa'' (Camphor Island).", "The Javanese named Borneo ''Puradvipa'', or Diamond Island.", "Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300.Territorial loss of the thalassocracy of the Sultanate of Brunei from 1400 to 1890 due to the beginning of Western imperialismStone pillars bearing inscriptions in the Pallava script, found in Kutai along the Mahakam River in East Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th century, constitute some of the oldest evidence of Hindu influence in Southeast Asia.", "By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia), later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China.", "Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally as Lupah Sug, stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; to Sabah, Eastern, and Northern Kalimantan in Borneo.", "The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied.", "The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century, following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas.The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century.", "During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines.", "During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor, arrived in Sulu from Malacca.", "In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as \"Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr\".", "Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence, Sulu began to expand its thalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo.", "Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks.", "Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.=== British and Dutch control ===British flag hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan on 24 December 1846Since the fall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530.Having visited Brunei's capital, the Portuguese described the place as surrounded by a stone wall.", "While Borneo was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it.", "The Spanish had sailed from Latin America and conquered the Brunei's provinces in the Philippines and incorporated it into the Mexico-Centered Viceroyalty of New Spain.", "The Spanish visit to Brunei led to the Castilian War in 1578.The English began to trade with Sambas of southern Borneo in 1609, while the Dutch only began their trade in 1644: to Banjar and Martapura, also in the southern Borneo.", "The Dutch tried to settle the island of Balambangan, north of Borneo, in the second half of the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797.In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo ceded his forts to the English East India Company.", "The English, led by Stamford Raffles, then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed.", "Although they managed to defeat the sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all ports in Borneo except Brunei, Banjarmasin and Pontianak, the project was cancelled by the British governor-general Lord Minto in India as it was too expensive.", "At the beginning of British and Dutch exploration on the island, they described the island of Borneo as full of head hunters, with the indigenous in the interior practising cannibalism, and the waters around the island infested with pirates, especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines.", "The Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo, along with the attacks by Illanuns of the Moro pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle off Mukah.Map of the island divided between the British and the Dutch, 1898.The present boundaries of Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei are largely inherited from the British and Dutch colonial rules.The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, posting ''residents'' to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and ''assistant-residents'' to Landak and Mampawa.", "The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the English adventurer James Brooke, as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion.", "Brooke established the Raj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the sultanate.", "He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs.", "Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Great Britain in 1846 through the Treaty of Labuan with the sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846.The region of northern Borneo came under the administration of North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron von Overbeck, before it was passed to the British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent and Edward Dent).", "Further expansion by the British continued into the Borneo interior.", "This led the 26th sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal the British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate.Dayak tribe during an Erau ceremony in TenggarongBefore the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei.", "A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo was formed by Joseph William Torrey, Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing a colony named \"Ellena\" in the Kimanis area.", "The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers.", "Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck.", "Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium, textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the sultanate.Sultan of Pontianak in 1930Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as the Madrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain in Madrid to cement Spanish influence and recognise their sovereignty over the Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the sultanate in northern Borneo.", "The British administration then established the first railway network in northern Borneo, known as the North Borneo Railway.", "During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines, and the Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production.", "By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate.", "The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891.The Dutch who already claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts.", "The British and Dutch governments had signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of influence.", "This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands) respectively.In 1895, Marcus Samuel received a concession in the Kutei area of east Borneo, and based on oil seepages in the Mahakam River delta, Mark Abrahams struck oil in February 1897.This was the discovery of the Sanga Sanga Oil Field, a refinery was built in Balikpapan, and discovery of the Samboja Oil Field followed in 1909.In 1901, the Pamusian Oil Field was discovered on Tarakan, and the Bunyu Oil Field in 1929.Royal Dutch Shell discovered the Miri Oil Field in 1910, and the Seria oil field in 1929.=== World War II ===Labuan on 14 January 1942.support craft moving towards Victoria and Brown beach to assist the landing of the members of Australian 24th Infantry Brigade on the island during Operation Oboe Six, 10 June 1945During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941 to 1945.In the first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors.", "The occupation drove many people in the coastal towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese.", "The Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with the Sino-Japanese War in Mainland China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation.", "Following the formation of resistance movements in northern Borneo such as the Jesselton Revolt, many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement.In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay sultans of West Kalimantan in the Pontianak incidents, together with Chinese people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats.", "Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II of Sambas was executed in 1944.The sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council.", "The Japanese also set-up ''Pusat Tenaga Rakjat'' (PUTERA) in the Indonesian archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became too nationalistic.", "Some of the Indonesian nationalist like Sukarno and Hatta who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese.", "Shortly after his release, Sukarno became president of the Central Advisory Council, an advisory council for south Borneo, Celebes, and Lesser Sunda, set up in February 1945.Since the fall of Singapore, the Japanese sent several thousand of British and Australian prisoners of war to camps in Borneo such as Batu Lintang camp.", "From the Sandakan camp site, only six of some 2,500 prisoners survived after they were forced to march in an event known as the Sandakan Death March.", "In addition, of the total of 17,488 Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment.", "The Dayak and other indigenous people played a role in guerrilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in the Kapit Division.", "They temporarily revived headhunting of Japanese toward the end of the war, with Allied Z Special Unit provided assistance to them.", "Australia contributed significantly to the liberation of Borneo.", "The Australian Imperial Force was sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese.", "Together with other Allies, the island was completely liberated in 1945.=== Recent history ===Sukarno visiting Pontianak, West Kalimantan, in 1963In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of Malaya.", "Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a Greater Indonesian republic.", "Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945.However, following the surrender of Japan to the Allied forces, the meeting was shelved.", "Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence, although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo.", "The southern part of the island achieved its independence through the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945.The southern part saw guerrilla conflicts followed by Dutch blockade to cut supplies for nationalist within the region.", "While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where they rallied with the red-white flag which became the flag of Indonesia, most of the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberated by Chinese Nationalist troops from mainland China and to integrate their districts as an overseas province of China.", "Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946.Queen's Own Highlanders 1st Battalion conduct a patrol to search for enemy positions in the jungle of Brunei.In 1961, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of the independent Federation of Malaya desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies of Sarawak, North Borneo, Singapore and the protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia.", "The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo.", "Sukarno, as the president of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, decided to launch a military infiltration, later known as the ''confrontation'', from 1962 to 1969.As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts, which was also participated by Australia and New Zealand.The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu.", "The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu former territories.", "The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic.The proposed flag of the North Borneo Federation, an attempt to establish a sovereign state by unifying North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak by A. M. Azahari The Sultanate of Brunei at the first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation.", "Meanwhile, the Brunei People's Party led by A.M. Azahari desired to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as the North Borneo Federation (), where the sultan of Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own intention to abolish the Brunei monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia, with the support from the latter government.", "This directly led to the Brunei Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia.", "Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation.With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations.", "The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963.To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequent cross border attacks.", "During the administration of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos, Marcos made some attempts to destabilise the state of Sabah, although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines.In August 2019, Indonesian president Joko Widodo announced a plan to move the capital of Indonesia from Jakarta to a newly established location in the East Kalimantan province in Borneo." ], [ "Demographics", "The demonym for Borneo is '''Bornean'''.Borneo had 23,053,723 inhabitants (in 2020 Censuses), a population density of .", "Most of the population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and villages along the rivers.===Territories by population, size and timezone===CountryPopulationArea (km2)Density per km2Province/StatePopulationArea (km2)Density per km2CapitalTime zone''''''460,345(2% of the population)5,765 km2(1% of the land area)72.11/km2 Bandar Seri BegawanUTC+8'''''' ('''Kalimantan''')16,544,696(72% of the population)539,238 km2(72% of the land area)713,622(3% of the population)72,275 km2(9.7% of the land area)9.7/km2Tanjung SelorUTC+83,849,842(16.8% of the population)127,347 km2(17.1% of the land area)29.6/km2SamarindaUTC+83,808,235(16.6% of the population)38,744 km2(5.2% of the land area)105.1/km2BanjarbaruUTC+82,702,200(11.8% of the population)153,565 km2(20.6% of the land area)17.4/km2Palangka RayaUTC+75,470,797(23.8% of the population)147,307 km2(19.8% of the land area)36.8/km2PontianakUTC+7'''''' ('''East Malaysia''')5,967,582(25.9% of the population)198,447 km2(26% of the land area)3,418,785(14.9% of the population)73,904 km2(9.9% of the land area)46/km2Kota KinabaluUTC+82,453,677(10.7% of the population)124,450 km2(16.7% of the land area)22/km2KuchingUTC+895,120(0.4% of the population)92 km2(0.1% of the land area)1,000/km2VictoriaUTC+8'''Total'''22,972,623743,450 km230.9~/km2May includes the offshore islands and its populationsDue to its size, Brunei is further subdivided into 4 districts (mukim), which is similar to the size of smaller administrative units in Indonesia (kecamatan) and Malaysia (daerah)===10 largest cities and towns in Borneo by population ===Cities and major towns in Borneo**RankCityPopulationCountryProvince/State1'''Samarinda'''2'''Banjarmasin'''3'''Kuching'''4'''Balikpapan'''5'''Pontianak'''6'''Kota Kinabalu''''''Tawau''''''Sandakan''''''Miri'''10'''Bandar Seri Begawan'''===Urbanisation by region===Kuching, the third largest city in Borneo after Samarinda and BanjarmasinCountryProvince/StateUrban-Rural Population (%)UrbanRural78.25%21.75%'''''' ('''Kalimantan''')|68.9%31.1%48.4%51.6%40.2%59.8%36.2%63.8%'''''' ('''East Malaysia''')|54.7%45.3%57%43%88.9%11.1%Data based on the projection in the former territories in East Kalimantan Province (prior to the separation of North Kalimantan in 2012)===Major ethnicities by region===Dayak dancers in their traditional clothes, Pampang Cultural Village, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, IndonesiaA group of Bruneian men in Baju Melayu, the ethnic Malays of Borneo are primarily inhabited the coastal areas of the islandCountryProvince/StateMajor ethnic groups '''Indigenous''' '''Non-indigenous''' Bisaya, Dusun, Kedayan, MalayChinese'''''' ('''Kalimantan''')|Bajau, Bulungan, Dayak, Tidung Bugis, JavaneseBanjarese, Berau, Dayak, Kutai, Paser Bugis, JavaneseBanjarese, Dayak Bugis, Javanese, MadureseBanjarese, Dayak, MalayJavanese, MadureseDayak, MalayChinese, Javanese, Madurese'''''' ('''East Malaysia''')| Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Malay, Murut, Rungus, SulukBugis, ChineseBidayuh, Iban, Malay, Melanau, Orang UluChinese Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Kedayan, Malay, MurutChinese Based on alphabetical order===Religion===+ Religions based on regions" ], [ "Administration", "The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries.", "* The independent sultanate of Brunei (main part and eastern exclave of Temburong)* The Indonesian provinces of East, South, West, North and Central Kalimantan, in Kalimantan* The East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as well as the Federal Territory of Labuan (on offshore islands nearby)Political divisions of Borneo" ], [ "Economy", "Seria Oil Refinery, Brunei DarussalamBorneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining, oil and gas, and ecotourism.", "Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia.", "The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of timber.", "Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer of rubber, cacao, and vegetables, and for its fisheries, while Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan export liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petroleum.", "The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly dependent on mining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas explorations.===List of territories by GDP/GRP===CountryProvince/StateGDP NominalGDP/GRP per capitaUS$ 14.1 billionUS$ 42,939'''''' ('''Kalimantan''')|US$ 9.34 billionUS$ 12,837US$ 62.05 billionUS$ 16,075US$ 16.92 billionUS$ 4,046US$ 13.47 billionUS$ 4,913\tUS$ 17.23 billionUS$ 3,109'''''' ('''East Malaysia''')|US$ 22.74 billionUS$ 6,654US$ 36.19 billionUS$ 17,305US$ 1.36 billionUS$ 18,068" ], [ "Human Development Index by territory", "'''HDI''' is a statistic of combined indicators that takes into account life expectancy, health, education and per-capita income.CountryProvince/StateHDI scoreCountry comparison 0.829 (2022) (0.831)'''''' ('''Kalimantan''')| 0.718 (2022) (0.717)\t 0.774 (2022) (0.774) 0.718 (2022) (0.717) 0.716 (2022) (0.717) 0.686 (2022) (0.686)'''''' ('''East Malaysia''')| 0.702 (2021) (0.703) 0.737 (2021) (0.739) 0.777 (2021) (0.777)" ], [ "See also", "* Hikayat Banjar* Kutai basin* List of islands of Indonesia* List of islands of Malaysia* Maphilindo* List of bats of Borneo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Environmental Profile of Borneo – Background on Borneo, including natural and social history, deforestation statistics, and conservation news." ] ]

[ [ "Ballpoint pen" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''ballpoint pen''', also known as a '''biro''' (British English), '''ball pen''' (Hong Kong, Pakistani, Indian and Philippine English), or '''dot pen''' (Nepali English), is a pen that dispenses ink (usually in paste form) over a metal ball at its point, i.e., over a \"ball point\".", "The metal commonly used is steel, brass, or tungsten carbide.", "The design was conceived and developed as a cleaner and more reliable alternative to dip pens and fountain pens, and it is now the world's most-used writing instrument; millions are manufactured and sold daily.", "It has influenced art and graphic design and spawned an artwork genre.Some pen manufacturers like Uni ball produce designer ballpoint pens for the high-end and collectors' markets." ], [ "History", "Magnified tip of a ballpoint penMovement of the ball in a ballpoint pen===Origins===The concept of using a \"ball point\" within a writing instrument to apply ink to paper has existed since the late 19th century.", "In these inventions, the ink was placed in a thin tube whose end was blocked by a tiny ball, held so that it could not slip into the tube or fall out of the pen.The first patent for a ballpoint pen was issued on 30 October 1888 to John J.", "Loud, who was attempting to make a writing instrument that would be able to write \"on rough surfaces—such as wood, coarse wrapping-paper, and other articles\" which fountain pens could not.", "Loud's pen had a small rotating steel ball held in place by a socket.", "Although it could be used to mark rough surfaces such as leather, as Loud intended, it proved too coarse for letter-writing.", "With no commercial viability, its potential went unexploited, and the patent eventually lapsed.The manufacture of economical, reliable ballpoint pens as are known today arose from experimentation, modern chemistry, and the precision manufacturing capabilities of the early 20th century.", "Patents filed worldwide during early development are testaments to failed attempts at making the pens commercially viable and widely available.", "Early ballpoints did not deliver the ink evenly; overflow and clogging were among the obstacles faced by early inventors.", "If the ball socket were too tight or the ink too thick, it would not reach the paper.", "If the socket were too loose or the ink too thin, the pen would leak, or the ink would smear.", "Ink reservoirs pressurized by a piston, spring, capillary action, and gravity would all serve as solutions to ink-delivery and flow problems.László Bíró, a Hungarian newspaper editor (later a naturalized Argentine) frustrated by the amount of time that he wasted filling up fountain pens and cleaning up smudged pages, noticed that inks used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free.", "He decided to create a pen using the same type of ink.", "Bíró enlisted the help of his brother György, a dentist with useful knowledge of chemistry, to develop viscous ink formulae for new ballpoint designs.Bíró's innovation successfully coupled ink-viscosity with a ball-socket mechanism which acted compatibly to prevent ink from drying inside the reservoir while allowing controlled flow.", "Bíró filed for a British patent on 15 June 1938.In 1941, the Bíró brothers and a friend, Juan Jorge Meyne, fled Germany and moved to Argentina, where they formed \"Bíró Pens of Argentina\" and filed a new patent in 1943.Their pen was sold in Argentina as the \"Birome\", from the names Bíró and Meyne, which is how ballpoint pens are still known in that country.", "This new design was licensed by the British engineer Frederick George Miles and manufactured by his company Miles Aircraft, to be used by Royal Air Force aircrew as the \"Biro\".", "Ballpoint pens were found to be more versatile than fountain pens, especially at high altitudes, where fountain pens were prone to leak.Bíró's patent, and other early patents on ballpoint pens, often used the term \"ball-point fountain pen\".===Postwar proliferation===2018 Parker Jotters are similar to the version that first came out in 1954Following World War II, many companies vied to commercially produce their own ballpoint pen design.", "In pre-war Argentina, success of the Birome ballpoint was limited, but in mid-1945, the Eversharp Co., a maker of mechanical pencils, teamed up with Eberhard Faber Co. to license the rights from Birome for sales in the United States.In 1946, a Spanish firm, Vila Sivill Hermanos, began to make a ballpoint, Regia Continua, and from 1953 to 1957 their factory also made Bic ballpoints, on contract with the French firm Société Bic.During the same period, American entrepreneur Milton Reynolds came across a Birome ballpoint pen during a business trip to Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "Recognizing commercial potential, he purchased several ballpoint samples, returned to the United States, and founded the Reynolds International Pen Company.", "Reynolds bypassed the Birome patent with sufficient design alterations to obtain an American patent, beating Eversharp and other competitors to introduce the pen to the US market.", "Debuting at Gimbels department store in New York City on 29 October 1945, for US$12.50 each (1945 US dollar value, about $ in dollars), \"Reynolds Rocket\" became the first commercially successful ballpoint pen.", "Reynolds went to great extremes to market the pen, with great success; Gimbel's sold many thousands of pens within one week.", "In Britain, the Miles Martin pen company was producing the first commercially successful ballpoint pens there by the end of 1945.Neither Reynolds' nor Eversharp's ballpoint lived up to consumer expectations in America.", "Ballpoint pen sales peaked in 1946, and consumer interest subsequently plunged due to market saturation.", "By the early 1950s the ballpoint boom had subsided and Reynolds' company folded.Paper Mate pens, among the emerging ballpoint brands of the 1950s, bought the rights to distribute their own ballpoint pens in Canada.", "Facing concerns about ink-reliability, Paper Mate pioneered new ink formulas and advertised them as \"banker-approved\".", "In 1954, Parker Pens released \"The Jotter\"—the company's first ballpoint—boasting additional features and technological advances which also included the use of tungsten-carbide textured ball-bearings in their pens.", "In less than a year, Parker sold several million pens at prices between three and nine dollars.", "In the 1960s, the failing Eversharp Co. sold its pen division to Parker and ultimately folded.Marcel Bich also introduced a ballpoint pen to the American marketplace in the 1950s, licensed from Bíró and based on the Argentine designs.", "Bich shortened his name to Bic in 1953, forming the ballpoint brand Bic now recognized globally.", "Bic pens struggled until the company launched its \"Writes First Time, Every Time!\"", "advertising campaign in the 1960s.", "Competition during this era forced unit prices to drop considerably." ], [ "Inks", "Ballpoint pen ink is normally a paste containing around 25 to 40 percent dye.", "The dyes are suspended in a mixture of solvents and fatty acids.", "The most common of the solvents are benzyl alcohol or phenoxyethanol, which mix with the dyes and oils to create a smooth paste that dries quickly.", "The fatty acids help to lubricate the ball tip while writing.", "Hybrid inks also contain added lubricants in the ink to provide a smoother writing experience.", "The drying time of the ink varies depending upon the viscosity of the ink and the diameter of the ball.In general, the more viscous the ink, the faster it will dry, but more writing pressure needs to be applied to dispense ink.", "But although they are less viscous, hybrid inks have a faster drying time compared to normal ballpoint inks.", "Also, a larger ball dispenses more ink and thus increases drying time.The dyes used in blue and black ballpoint pens are basic dyes based on triarylmethane and acid dyes derived from diazo compounds or phthalocyanine.", "Common dyes in blue (and black) ink are Prussian blue, Victoria blue, methyl violet, crystal violet, and phthalocyanine blue.", "The dye eosin is commonly used for red ink.The inks are resistant to water after drying but can be defaced by certain solvents which include acetone and various alcohols." ], [ "Types of ballpoint pens", "Bic Cristal ballpoint pens shown in four basic ink colorsTwist action ballpoint pen with large capacity G2 type refill.", "Model: Waterman Stainless SteelCommonly used ballpoint refill types (diameter and length given in millimeters)Ballpoint pens are produced in both disposable and refillable models.", "Refills allow for the entire internal ink reservoir, including a ballpoint and socket, to be replaced.", "Such characteristics are usually associated with designer-type pens or those constructed of finer materials.", "The simplest types of ballpoint pens are disposable and have a cap to cover the tip when the pen is not in use, or a mechanism for retracting the tip, which varies between manufacturers but is usually a spring- or screw-mechanism.Rollerball pens employ the same ballpoint mechanics, but with the use of water-based inks instead of oil-based inks.", "Compared to oil-based ballpoints, rollerball pens are said to provide more fluid ink-flow, but the water-based inks will blot if held stationary against the writing surface.", "Water-based inks also remain wet longer when freshly applied and are thus prone to \"smearing\"—posing problems to left-handed people (or right handed people writing right-to-left script)—and \"running\", should the writing surface become wet.Some ballpoint pens use a hybrid ink formulation whose viscosity is lower than that of standard ballpoint ink, but greater than rollerball ink.", "The ink dries faster than a gel pen to prevent smearing when writing.", "These pens are better suited for left-handed persons.", "Examples are the Uni-ball Jetstream and Pilot Acroball ranges.", "These pens are also labelled \"extra smooth\", as they offer a smoother writing experience compared to normal ballpoint pens.Ballpoint pens with erasable ink were pioneered by the Paper Mate pen company.", "The ink formulas of erasable ballpoints have properties similar to rubber cement, allowing the ink to be literally rubbed clean from the writing surface before drying and eventually becoming permanent.", "Erasable ink is much thicker than standard ballpoint inks, requiring pressurized cartridges to facilitate inkflow—meaning they can also write upside-down.", "Though these pens are equipped with erasers, any eraser will suffice.The inexpensive, disposable Bic Cristal (also simply \"Bic pen\" or \"Biro\") is reportedly the most widely sold pen in the world.", "It was the Bic company's first product and is still synonymous with the company name.", "The Bic Cristal is part of the permanent collection at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, acknowledged for its industrial design.", "Its hexagonal barrel mimics that of a wooden pencil and is transparent, showing the ink level in the reservoir.", "Originally a sealed streamlined cap, the modern pen cap has a small hole at the top to meet safety standards, helping to prevent suffocation if children suck it into the throat.induced fungal decayMulti-pens are pens that feature multiple varying colored pen refills.", "Sometimes ballpoint refills are combined with another non-ballpoint refill, usually a mechanical pencil.", "Sometimes ballpoint pens combine a ballpoint tip on one end and touchscreen stylus on the other.Ballpoint pens are sometimes provided free by businesses, such as hotels and banks, printed with a company's name and logo.", "Ballpoints have also been produced to commemorate events, such as a pen commemorating the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy.", "These pens, known as \"advertising pens,\" are the same as standard ballpoint pen models, but have become valued among collectors.Sometimes ballpoint pens are also produced as design objects.", "With cases made of metal or wood, they become individually styled utility objects." ], [ "Use of ballpoint pens in space", "It is generally believed that because of a ballpoint pen's reliance on gravity to coat the ball with ink, most cannot be used to write upside-down.", "However, the reason most ballpoint pens on the Earth do not work when writing upside-down is because the Earth's gravity pulls the ink inside the pen away from the tip of the pen, resulting in a bad writing experience.", "However, in space, the regular ballpoint pens can work upside-down because the microgravity in space is not strong enough to pull the ink away from the tip of the pen and capillary action prevails.", "The reliability of the regular ballpoint pen was tested in space by Pedro Duque, an ESA astronaut in 2003.Technology developed by Fisher pens in the United States resulted in the production of what came to be known as the \"Fisher Space Pen\".", "Space Pens combine a more viscous ink with a pressurized ink reservoir that forces the ink toward the point.", "Unlike standard ballpoints, the rear end of a Space Pen's pressurized reservoir is sealed, eliminating evaporation and leakage, thus allowing the pen to write upside-down, in zero-gravity environments, and reportedly underwater.", "Astronauts have made use of these pens in outer space." ], [ "As art medium", "Example of a ballpoint pen work-in-progress – rendering of actor Steve McQueen by artist James MylneBallpoint \"''PENting''\" by Lennie Mace, Uchuu Neko Parade (2005) ballpoint pen and hardware on paperBallpoint pens have proven to be a versatile art medium for professional artists as well as amateur doodlers.", "Low cost, availability, and portability are cited by practitioners as qualities which make this common writing tool a convenient, alternative art supply.", "Some artists use them within mixed-media works, while others use them solely as their medium-of-choice.Effects not generally associated with ballpoint pens can be achieved.", "Traditional pen-and-ink techniques such as stippling and cross-hatching can be used to create half-tones or the illusion of form and volume.", "For artists whose interests necessitate precision line-work, ballpoints are an obvious attraction; ballpoint pens allow for sharp lines not as effectively executed using a brush.", "Finely applied, the resulting imagery has been mistaken for airbrushed artwork and photography, causing reactions of disbelief which ballpoint artist Lennie Mace refers to as the \"Wow Factor\".Famous 20th-century artists such as Andy Warhol, among others, have utilized ballpoint pens to some extent during their careers.", "Ballpoint pen artwork continues to attract interest in the 21st century, with contemporary artists gaining recognition for their specific use of ballpoint pens; for their technical proficiency, imagination, and innovation.", "Korean-American artist Il Lee has been creating large-scale, ballpoint-only abstract artwork since the late 1970s.", "Since the 1980s, Lennie Mace creates imaginative, ballpoint-only artwork of varying content and complexity, applied to unconventional surfaces including wood and denim.", "The artist coined terms such as \"PENtings\" and \"Media Graffiti\" to describe his varied output.", "More recently, British artist James Mylne has been creating photo-realistic artwork using mostly black ballpoints, sometimes with minimal mixed-media color.Using ballpoint pens to create artwork is not without limitations.", "Color availability and sensitivity of ink to light are among concerns of ballpoint pen artists.", "Mistakes pose greater risks to ballpoint artists; once a line is drawn, it generally cannot be erased.", "Additionally, \"blobbing\" of ink on the drawing surface and \"skipping\" of ink-flow require consideration when using ballpoint pens for artistic purposes.", "Although the mechanics of ballpoint pens remain relatively unchanged, ink composition has evolved to solve certain problems over the years, resulting in unpredictable sensitivity to light and some extent of fading." ], [ "Manufacturing", "The common ballpoint pen is a product of mass production, with components produced separately on assembly lines.", "Basic steps in the manufacturing process include the production of ink formulas, molding of metal and plastic components, and assembly.", "Marcel Bich (leading to Société Bic) was involved in developing the production of inexpensive ballpoint pens.The ink holder of a disposable ballpoint penAlthough designs and construction vary between brands, basic components of all ballpoint pens are universal.", "Standard components of a ballpoint tip include the freely rotating \"ball\" itself (distributing the ink on the writing surface), a \"socket\" holding the ball in place, small \"ink channels\" that provide ink to the ball through the socket, and a self-contained \"ink reservoir\" supplying ink to the ball.", "In modern disposable pens, narrow plastic tubes contain the ink, which is compelled downward to the ball by gravity.", "Brass, steel, or tungsten carbide are used to manufacture the ball bearing-like points, then housed in a brass socket.The function of these components can be compared with the ball-applicator of roll-on antiperspirant; the same technology at a larger scale.", "The ballpoint tip delivers the ink to the writing surface while acting as a \"buffer\" between the ink in the reservoir and the air outside, preventing the quick-drying ink from drying inside the reservoir.", "Modern ballpoints are said to have a two-year shelf life, on average.A ballpoint tip that can write comfortably for a long period of time is not easy to produce, as it requires high-precision machinery and thin high-grade steel alloy plates.", "China, which produces about 80 percent of the world's ballpoint pens, relied on imported ballpoint tips and metal alloys before 2017." ], [ "Standards", "The International Organization for Standardization has published standards for ball point and roller ball pens:; ISO 12756:1998: Drawing and writing instruments – Ball point pens – Vocabulary; ISO 12757-1:1998: Ball point pens and refills – Part 1: General use; ISO 12757-2:1998: Ball point pens and refills – Part 2: Documentary use (DOC); ISO 14145-1:1998: Roller ball pens and refills – Part 1: General use; ISO 14145-2:1998: Roller ball pens and refills – Part 2: Documentary use (DOC)" ], [ "Guinness World Records", "* The world's largest functioning ballpoint pen was made by Acharya Makunuri Srinivasa in India.", "The pen measures long and weighs .", "* The world's most popular pen is Bic's Bic Cristal, the 100 billionth of which was sold in September 2006.It was launched in 1950 and has gone on to sell 57 per second, much faster and more than other brands." ], [ "See also", "* Gel pen* List of pen types, brands and companies* Retractable pen* Rollerball pen* Ballpoint pen knife* Ballpoint mouse" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fascinating facts about the invention of the Ballpoint Pen by Ladislas Biro in 1935 (archived 13 September 2019)* Laszlo Biro on Jewish.hu's list of famous Hungarians (archived 22 May 2013)" ] ]

[ [ "Burroughs Corporation" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Burroughs Corporation''' was a major American manufacturer of business equipment.", "The company was founded in 1886 as the American Arithmometer Company by William Seward Burroughs.", "In 1986, it merged with Sperry UNIVAC to form Unisys.", "The company's history paralleled many of the major developments in computing.", "At its start, it produced mechanical adding machines, and later moved into programmable ledgers and then computers.", "It was one of the largest producers of mainframe computers in the world, also producing related equipment including typewriters and printers." ], [ "Early history", "1914 advertisementAn early Burroughs adding machineDesktop model in use around 1910In 1886, the American Arithmometer Company was established in St. Louis, Missouri, to produce and sell an adding machine invented by William Seward Burroughs (grandfather of Beat Generation author William S. Burroughs).", "In 1904, six years after Burroughs' death, the company moved to Detroit and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.", "It was soon the biggest adding machine company in America." ], [ "Evolving product lines", "The adding machine range began with the basic, hand-cranked P100 which was only capable of adding.", "The design included some revolutionary features, foremost of which was the dashpot which governed the speed at which the operating lever could be pulled so allowing the mechanism to operate consistently correctly.", "The machine also had a full-keyboard with a separate column of keys 1 to 9 for each decade where the keys latch when pressed, with interlocking which prevented more than one key in any decade from being latched.", "The latching allowed the operator to quickly check that the correct number had been entered before pulling the operating lever.", "The numbers entered and the final total were printed on a roll of paper at the rear, so there was no danger of the operator writing down the wrong answer and there was a copy of the calculation which could be checked later if necessary.The P200 offered a subtraction capability and the P300 provided a means of keeping two separate totals.", "The P400 provided a moveable carriage, and the P600 and top-of-the-range P612 offered some limited programmability based upon the position of the carriage.", "The range was further extended by the inclusion of the \"J\" series which provided a single finger calculation facility, and the \"c\" series of both manual and electrical assisted comptometers.In the late 1960s, the Burroughs sponsored \"nixi-tube\" provided an electronic display calculator.", "Burroughs developed a range of adding machines with different capabilities, gradually increasing in their capabilities.", "A revolutionary adding machine was the ''Sensimatic'', which was able to perform many business functions semi-automatically.", "It had a moving programmable carriage to maintain ledgers.", "It could store 9, 18 or 27 balances during the ledger posting operations and worked with a mechanical adder named a Crossfooter.", "The Sensimatic developed into the ''Sensitronic'' which could store balances on a magnetic stripe which was part of the ledger card.", "This balance was read into the accumulator when the card was inserted into the carriage.", "The Sensitronic was followed by the E1000, E2000, E3000, E4000, E6000 and the E8000, which were computer systems supporting card reader/punches and a line printer.Later, Burroughs was selling more than adding machines, including typewriters." ], [ "Move into computers", "The biggest shift in company history came in 1953: the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into digital computer products, initially for banking institutions.", "This move began with Burroughs' purchase in June 1956, of the ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California, a spinoff of the Consolidated Engineering Corporation which had designed test instruments and had a cooperative relationship with Caltech in Pasadena.", "ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220.The first major computer product that came from this marriage was the B205 tube computer.", "In the late 1950s the L and TC series range was produced (e.g.", "the TC500—Terminal Computer 500) which had a golf ball printer and in the beginning a 1K (64 bit) disk memory.", "These were popular as branch terminals to the B5500/6500/6700 systems, and sold well in the banking sector, where they were often connected to non-Burroughs mainframes.", "In conjunction with these products, Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of cheque processing equipment, normally attached as terminals to a medium systems such as B200/B300 and larger systems such as a B2700 or B1700.In the 1950s, Burroughs worked with the Federal Reserve Bank on the development and computer processing of magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) especially for the processing of bank cheques.", "Burroughs made special MICR/OCR sorter/readers which attached to their medium systems line of computers (2700/3700/4700) and B200/B300 systems and this entrenched the company in the computer side of the banking industry." ], [ "A force in the computing industry", "Burroughs was one of the nine major United States computer companies in the 1960s, with IBM the largest, Honeywell, NCR Corporation, Control Data Corporation (CDC), General Electric (GE), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), RCA and Sperry Rand (UNIVAC line).", "In terms of sales, Burroughs was always a distant second to IBM.", "In fact, IBM's market share was so much larger than all of the others that this group was often referred to as \"IBM and the Seven Dwarves.\"", "By 1972 when GE and RCA were no longer in the mainframe business, the remaining five companies behind IBM became known as the BUNCH, an acronym based on their initials.At the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor.", "Like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete line of products for its customers, including Burroughs-designed printers, disk drives, tape drives, computer printing paper and typewriter ribbons.===Developments and innovations===The Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative architectures, based on the design philosophy of \"language-directed design\".", "Their machine instruction sets favored one or many high level programming languages, such as ALGOL, COBOL or FORTRAN.", "All three architectures were considered mainframe class machines:* The Burroughs Large Systems machines started with the B5000 in 1961.The B5500 came a few years later when large rotating disks replaced drums as the main external memory media.", "These B5000 Series systems used the world's first virtual memory multi-programming operating system.", "They were followed by the B6500/B6700 in the later 1960s, the B7700 in the mid 1970s, and the A series in the 1980s.", "The underlying architecture of these machines is similar and continues today as the Unisys ClearPath MCP line of computers: stack machines designed to be programmed in an extended Algol 60.Their operating systems, called MCP (Master Control Program—the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for ''Tron''), were programmed in ESPOL (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of ALGOL) and DCALGOL (Data Communications ALGOL) and later in NEWP (with further extensions to ALGOL) almost a decade before Unix.", "The command interface developed into a compiled structured language with declarations, statements and procedures called WFL (Work Flow Language).Many computer scientists consider these series of computers to be technologically groundbreaking.", "Stack oriented processors, with 48 bit word length where each word was defined as data or program contributed significantly to a secure operating environment, long before spyware and viruses affected computing.", "The modularity of these large systems was unique: multiple CPUs, multiple memory modules and multiple I/O and Data Comm processors permitted incremental and cost effective growth of system performance and reliability.In industries like banking, where continuous operations was mandatory, Burroughs Large Systems penetrated nearly every large bank, including the Federal Reserve Bank.", "Burroughs built the backbone switching systems for Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) which sent its first message in 1977.Unisys is still the provider to SWIFT today.", "* Burroughs produced the B2500 or \"medium systems\" computers aimed primarily at the business world.", "The machines were designed to execute COBOL efficiently.", "This included a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using base 10 numbering instead of binary.", "The designation for these systems was Burroughs B2500 through B49xx, followed by Unisys V-Series V340 through V560.", "* Burroughs produced the B1700 or \"small systems\" computers that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own virtual machine designed to be the best match to the programming language chosen for the program being run.", "* The smallest general-purpose computers were the B700 \"microprocessors\" which were used both as stand-alone systems and as special-purpose data-communications or disk-subsystem controllers.", "* Burroughs manufactured an extensive range of accounting machines including stand-alone systems such as the Sensimatic, L500 and B80 and dedicated terminals including the TC500 and specialised check processing equipment.", "* In 1982, Burroughs began producing personal computers, the B20 and B25 lines with the Intel 8086/8088 family of 16-bit chips as the processor.", "These ran the BTOS operating system, which Burroughs licensed from Convergent Technologies.", "These machines implemented an early local area network to share a hard disk between workgroup users.", "These microcomputers were later manufactured in Kunming, China for use in China under agreement with Burroughs.", "* Burroughs collaborated with University of Illinois on a multiprocessor architecture developing the ILLIAC IV computer in the early 1960s.", "The ILLIAC had up to 128 parallel processors while the B6700 & B7700 only accommodated a total of 7 CPUs and/or I/O units (the 8th unit was the memory tester).", "* Burroughs made military computers, such as the D825 (the \"D\" prefix signifying it was for defense industrial use), in its Great Valley Laboratory in Paoli, Pennsylvania.", "The D825 was, according to some scholars, the first true multiprocessor computer.", "Paoli was also home to the Defense and Space Group Marketing Division.", "* In 1964 Burroughs had completed the D830 which was another variation of the D825 designed specifically for real-time applications, such as airline reservations.", "Burroughs designated the B8300 after Trans World Airlines (TWA) ordered one in September 1965.A system with three instruction processors was installed at TWA's reservations center in Rockleigh, New Jersey in 1968.The system, which was called George, with an application programmed in JOVIAL, was intended to support some 4000 terminals, but the system experienced repeated crashes due to a filing system disk allocation error when operating under a large load.", "A fourth processor was added but did nothing to resolve the problem.", "The problem was resolved in late 1970 and the system became stable.", "The decision to cancel the project was being made at the very time that the problem was resolved.", "TWA cancelled the project and acquired one IBM System/360 Model 75, two IBM System/360 model 65s, and IBM's PARS software for its reservations system.", "TWA sued Burroughs for non-fulfillment of the contract, but Burroughs counter-sued, stating that the basic system did work and that the problems were in TWA's applications software.", "The two companies reached an out-of-court settlement.", "* Burroughs developed a half-size version of the D825 called the D82, cutting the word size from 48 to 24 bits and simplifying the computer's instruction set.", "The D82 could have up to 32,768 words of core memory and continued the use of separate instruction and I/O processors.", "Burroughs sold a D82 to Air Canada to handle reservations for trips originating in Montreal and Quebec.", "This design was further refined and made much more compact as the D84 machine which was completed in 1965.A D84 processor/memory unit with 4096 words of memory occupied just .", "This system was used successfully in two military projects: field test systems used to check the electronics of the Air Force General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark fighter plane and systems used to control the countdown and launch of the Army's Pershing 1 and 1a missile systems." ], [ "Merger with Sperry", "In September 1986, Burroughs Corporation merged with Sperry Corporation to form Unisys.", "For a time, the combined company retained the Burroughs processors as the A- and V-systems lines.", "As the market for large systems shifted from proprietary architectures to common servers, the company eventually dropped the V-Series line, although customers continued to use V-series systems .", "Unisys continues to develop and market the A-Series, now known as ClearPath." ], [ "Burroughs Payment Systems {{anchor|Reemergence of the Burroughs name}}", "In 2010, Unisys sold off its Payment Systems Division to Marlin Equity Partners, a California-based private investment firm, which incorporated it as '''Burroughs Payment Systems, Inc.''' (later just '''Burroughs, Inc.'''), based in Plymouth, Michigan." ], [ "References in popular culture", "Burroughs B205 hardware has appeared as props in many Hollywood television and film productions from the late 1950s.", "For example, a B205 console was often shown in the television series ''Batman'' as the ''Bat Computer''; also as the flight computer in ''Lost in Space''.", "B205 tape drives were often seen in series such as ''The Time Tunnel'' and ''Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Allweiss, Jack A., \"Evolution of Burroughs Stack Architecture - Mainframe Computers\", 2010* Barton, Robert S. \"A New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer\" Proc.", "western joint computer Conf.", "ACM (1961).", "***Hauck, E.A., Dent, Ben A.", "\"Burroughs B6500/B7500 Stack Mechanism\", SJCC (1968) pp. 245–251.", "* Martin, Ian L. (2012) \"Too far ahead of its time: Barclays, Burroughs and real-time banking\", ''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'' 34(2), pp. 5–19..", "(Draft version)* Mayer, Alastair J.W., \"The Architecture of the Burroughs B5000 - 20 Years Later and Still Ahead of the Times?", "\", ACM Computer Architecture News, 1982 (archived at the Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation.", "Glendale, Arizona)*McKeeman, William M. \"Language Directed Computer Design\", FJCC (1967) pp. 413–417.", "* Morgan, Bryan, \"Total to Date: The Evolution of the Adding Machine: The Story of Burroughs\", Burroughs Adding Machine Limited London, 1953.", "*Organick, Elliot I.", "\"Computer System Organization The B5700/B6700 series\", Academic Press (1973)*Wilner, Wayne T. \"Design of the B1700\", FJCC pp.", "489–497 (1972).", "* Wilner, Wayne T., \"B1700 Design and Implementation\", Burroughs Corporation, Santa Barbara Plant, Goleta, California, May 1972." ], [ "External links", "* Burroughs Corporation Records Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.", "Collection contains the records of the Burroughs Corporation, and its predecessors the American Arithmometer Company and Burroughs Adding Machine Company.", "Materials include corporate records, photographs, films and video tapes, scrapbooks, papers of employees and the records of companies acquired by Burroughs.", "CBI's Burroughs Corporation Records includes over 100,000 photographs depicting the entire visual history of Burroughs from its origin as the American Arithmometer Corporation in 1886 to its merger with the Sperry Corporation to form the Unisys Corporation in 1986.", "* Burroughs Corporation Photo Database at the Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.", "The searchable photo database permits browsing and retrieval of over 550 historical images.", "* \"Burroughs B 5000 Conference, OH 98\", Oral history on 6 September 1985, Marina del Ray, California.", "Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.", "The Burroughs 5000 computer series is discussed by individuals responsible for its development and marketing from 1957 through the 1960s in a 1985 conference sponsored by AFIPS and Burroughs Corporation.", "* Oral history interview with Isaac Levin Auerbach Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.", "Auerbach discusses his work at Burroughs 1949–1957 managing development for the SAGE project, BEAM I computer, the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile System, a magnetic core encryption communications system, and Atlas missile.", "* Oral history interview with Robert V. D. Campbell.", "Discusses his work at Burroughs (1949–1966) as director of research and in program planning.", "* Oral history interview with Alfred Doughty Cavanaugh Cavanaugh discusses the work of his grandfather, A. J. Doughty, with William Seward Burroughs and the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.", "* Oral history interview with Carel Sellenraad Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.", "Sellenraad describes his long association with Burroughs Adding Machine Company, and the impact of World Wars I & II on the sales and service of calculators, and adding and bookkeeping machines in Europe.", "* Oral history interview with Ovid M. Smith Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.", "Smith reviews his 46½ year career at Burroughs Adding Machine Company (later Burroughs Corporation).", "* \"Early Burroughs Machines\", University of Virginia's Computer Museum.", "* Older Burroughs computer manuals online* Burroughs computers such as the D825 at BRL* An historical Burroughs Adding Machine Company/Burroughs site* Unofficial list of Burroughs manufacturing plants and labs* Ian Joyner's Burroughs page* The Burroughs B5900 and E-Mode: A bridge to 21st Century Computing - Jack Allweiss" ] ]

[ [ "Brick" ], [ "Introduction", "A wall constructed in glazed-headed Flemish bond with bricks of various shades and lengths.An old brick wall in English bond laid with alternating courses of ''headers'' and ''stretchers''.A '''brick''' is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction.", "Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a unit primarily composed of clay, but is now also used informally to denote units made of other materials or other chemically cured construction blocks.", "Bricks can be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking.", "Bricks are usually produced at brickworks in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region, and are produced in bulk quantities.", "''Block'' is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of clay or concrete, but is usually larger than a brick.", "Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are made from expanded clay aggregate.Fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since ''circa'' 4000 BC.", "Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have a history older than fired bricks, and have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw.Bricks are laid in ''courses'' and numerous patterns known as ''bonds'', collectively known as brickwork, and may be laid in various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together to make a durable structure." ], [ "History", "=== Middle East and South Asia ===The ancient Jetavanaramaya stupa of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka is one of the largest brick structures in the world.The earliest bricks were dried mudbricks, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried (usually in the sun) until they were strong enough for use.", "The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region and in southeast Anatolia close to Diyarbakir.Mudbrick construction was used at Çatalhöyük, from c. 7,400 BC.Mudbrick structures, dating to c. 7,200 BC have been located in Jericho, Jordan Valley.", "These structures were made up of the first bricks with dimension 400x150x100 mm.Between 5000 and 4500 BC, Mesopotamia had discovered fired brick.", "The standard brick sizes in Mesopotamia followed a general rule: the width of the dried or burned brick would be twice its thickness, and its length would be double its width.The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh also constructed, air-dried mudbrick structures, between 7000 and 3300 BC.", "and later the ancient Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Mehrgarh.", "Ceramic, or ''fired brick'' was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities like Kalibangan.In the middle of the third millennium BC, there was a rise in monumental baked brick architecture in Indus cities.", "Examples included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, the fire altars of Kaalibangan, and the granary of Harappa.", "There was a uniformity to the brick sizes throughout the Indus Valley region, conforming to the 1:2:4, thickness, width, and length ratio.", "As the Indus civilization began its decline at the start of the second millennium BC, Harappans migrated east, spreading their knowledge of brickmaking technology.", "This led to the rise of cities like Pataliputra, Kausambi, and Ujjain, where there was an enormous demand for kiln-made bricks.By 604 BC, bricks were the construction materials for architectural wonders such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, where glazed fired bricks were put into practice.The brickwork of Shebeli Tower in Iran displays 12th-century craftsmanship=== China ===The earliest fired bricks appeared in Neolithic China around 4400 BC at Chengtoushan, a walled settlement of the Daxi culture.", "These bricks were made of red clay, fired on all sides to above 600 °C, and used as flooring for houses.", "By the Qujialing period (3300 BC), fired bricks were being used to pave roads and as building foundations at Chengtoushan.According to Lukas Nickel, the use of ceramic pieces for protecting and decorating floors and walls dates back at various cultural sites to 3000-2000 BC and perhaps even before, but these elements should be rather qualified as tiles.", "For the longest time builders relied on wood, mud and rammed earth, while fired brick and mudbrick played no structural role in architecture.", "Proper brick construction, for erecting walls and vaults, finally emerges in the third century BC, when baked bricks of regular shape began to be employed for vaulting underground tombs.", "Hollow brick tomb chambers rose in popularity as builders were forced to adapt due to a lack of readily available wood or stone.", "The oldest extant brick building above ground is possibly Songyue Pagoda, dated to 523 AD.By the end of the third century BC in China, both hollow and small bricks were available for use in building walls and ceilings.", "Fired bricks were first mass-produced during the construction of the tomb of China's first Emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi.", "The floors of the three pits of the terracotta army were paved with an estimated 230,000 bricks, with the majority measuring 28x14x7 cm, following a 4:2:1 ratio.", "The use of fired bricks in Chinese city walls first appeared in the Eastern Han dynasty (25 AD-220 AD).", "Up until the Middle Ages, buildings in Central Asia were typically built with unbaked bricks.", "It was only starting in the ninth century CE when buildings were entirely constructed using fired bricks.The carpenter's manual ''Yingzao Fashi'', published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use.", "Using the 17th-century encyclopaedic text ''Tiangong Kaiwu'', historian Timothy Brook outlined the brick production process of Ming dynasty China: === Europe ===Brick relief sculture by Walter RitchieRoman Basilica Aula Palatina in Trier, Germany, built with fired bricks in the fourth century as an audience hall for Constantine IEarly civilisations around the Mediterranean, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans, adopted the use of fired bricks.", "By the early first century CE, standardised fired bricks were being heavily produced in Rome.", "The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, stamping the bricks with the seal of the legion.", "The Romans used brick for walls, arches, forts, aqueducts, etc.", "Notable mentions of Roman brick structures are the Herculaneum gate of Pompeii and the baths of Caracalla.During the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northwestern Italy.", "An independent style of brick architecture, known as brick Gothic (similar to Gothic architecture) flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks.", "Examples of this architectural style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Kaliningrad (former East Prussia).Malbork Castle of the Teutonic Order in Poland – the largest brick castle in the worldThis style evolved into the Brick Renaissance as the stylistic changes associated with the Italian Renaissance spread to northern Europe, leading to the adoption of Renaissance elements into brick building.", "Identifiable attributes included a low-pitched hipped or flat roof, symmetrical facade, round arch entrances and windows, columns and pilasters, and more.A clear distinction between the two styles only developed at the transition to Baroque architecture.", "In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, who was also active at Schwerin (Schwerin Castle) and Wismar (Fürstenhof).Long-distance bulk transport of bricks and other construction equipment remained prohibitively expensive until the development of modern transportation infrastructure, with the construction of canal, roads, and railways.=== Industrial era ===In the National Museum of Roman Art in Mérida, Spain (designed by Rafael Moneo and built in the 1980s) the coating of hard-fired clay bricks forms a compression-resistant element together with the fill of non-reinforced concrete.Production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England.", "For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone, even in areas where the stone was readily available.", "It was at this time in London that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents.The transition from the traditional method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century.", "Possibly the first successful brick-making machine was patented by Henry Clayton, employed at the Atlas Works in Middlesex, England, in 1855, and was capable of producing up to 25,000 bricks daily with minimal supervision.", "His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone.", "The Bradley & Craven Ltd 'Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine' was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton.", "Bradley & Craven went on to be a dominant manufacturer of brickmaking machinery.", "Predating both Clayton and Bradley & Craven Ltd. however was the brick making machine patented by Richard A. Ver Valen of Haverstraw, New York, in 1852.At the end of the 19th century, the Hudson River region of New York State would become the world's largest brick manufacturing region, with 130 brickyards lining the shores of the Hudson River from Mechanicsville to Haverstraw and employing 8,000 people.", "At its peak, about 1 billion bricks were produced a year, with many being sent to New York City for use in its construction industry.The demand for high office building construction at the turn of the 20th century led to a much greater use of cast and wrought iron, and later, steel and concrete.", "The use of brick for skyscraper construction severely limited the size of the building – the Monadnock Building, built in 1896 in Chicago, required exceptionally thick walls to maintain the structural integrity of its 17 storeys.Following pioneering work in the 1950s at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and the Building Research Establishment in Watford, UK, the use of improved masonry for the construction of tall structures up to 18 storeys high was made viable.", "However, the use of brick has largely remained restricted to small to medium-sized buildings, as steel and concrete remain superior materials for high-rise construction.Bricks are often made of shale because it easily splits into thin layers." ], [ "Methods of manufacture", " Brick making at the beginning of the 20th centuryFour basic types of brick are un-fired, fired, chemically set bricks, and compressed earth blocks.", "Each type is manufactured differently for various purposes.Fired and unfired brick making process=== Mudbrick ===Unfired bricks, also known as mudbrick, are made from a mixture of silt, clay, sand and other earth materials like gravel and stone, combined with tempers and binding agents such as chopped straw, grasses, tree bark, or dung.", "Since these bricks are made up of natural materials and only require heat from the Sun to bake, mudbricks have a relatively low embodied energy and carbon footprint.The ingredients are first harvested and added together, with clay content ranging from 30% to 70%.", "The mixture is broken up with hoes or adzes, and stirred with water to form a homogenous blend.", "Next, the tempers and binding agents are added in a ratio, roughly one part straw to five parts earth to reduce weight and reinforce the brick by helping reduce shrinkage.", "However, additional clay could be added to reduce the need for straw, which would prevent the likelihood of insects deteriorating the organic material of the bricks, subsequently weakening the structure.", "These ingredients are thoroughly mixed together by hand or by treading and are then left to ferment for about a day.The mix is then kneaded with water and molded into rectangular prisms of a desired size.", "Bricks are lined up and left to dry in the sun for three days on both sides.", "After the six days, the bricks continue drying until required for use.", "Typically, longer drying times are preferred, but the average is eight to nine days spanning from initial stages to its application in structures.", "Unfired bricks could be made in the spring months and left to dry over the summer for use in the autumn.", "Mudbricks are commonly employed in arid environments to allow for adequate air drying.=== Fired brick ===alt=Fired bricks are baked in a kiln which makes them durable.", "Modern, fired, clay bricks are formed in one of three processes – soft mud, dry press, or extruded.", "Depending on the country, either the extruded or soft mud method is the most common, since they are the most economical.Clay and shale are the raw ingredients in the recipe for a fired brick.", "They are the product of thousands of years of decomposition and erosion of rocks, such as pegmatite and granite, leading to a material that has properties of being highly chemically stable and inert.", "Within the clays and shales are the materials of aluminosilicate (pure clay), free silica (quartz), and decomposed rock.One proposed optimal mix is:# Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight# Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight# Lime – 2 to 5% by weight# Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight# Magnesia – less than 1% by weight====Shaping methods====Three main methods are used for shaping the raw materials into bricks to be fired:* Moulded bricks – These bricks start with raw clay, preferably in a mix with 25–30% sand to reduce shrinkage.", "The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency.", "The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a hydraulic press.", "The shaped clay is then fired at to achieve strength.", "* Dry-pressed bricks – The dry-press method is similar to the soft-mud moulded method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks.", "The greater force in pressing and the longer firing time make this method more expensive.", "* Extruded bricks – For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10–15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20–25% water (soft extrusion) in a pugmill.", "This mixture is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the desired width and depth.", "This mass is then cut into bricks of the desired length by a wall of wires.", "Most structural bricks are made by this method as it produces hard, dense bricks, and suitable dies can produce perforations as well.", "The introduction of such holes reduces the volume of clay needed, and hence the cost.", "Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have different thermal properties from solid bricks.", "The cut bricks are hardened by drying for 20 to 40 hours at before being fired.", "The heat for drying is often waste heat from the kiln.==== Kilns ====Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in 2007In many modern brickworks, bricks are usually fired in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which the bricks are fired as they move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars, which achieves a more consistent brick product.", "The bricks often have lime, ash, and organic matter added, which accelerates the burning process.The other major kiln type is the Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineer W. Bull in the late 19th century.An oval or circular trench is dug, wide, deep, and in circumference.", "A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre.", "Half or more of the trench is filled with \"green\" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow.", "The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick pile.", "Historically, a stack of unfired bricks covered for protection from the weather was called a \"hack\".", "Cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport to their destinations.", "In the middle, the brick workers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, etc.)", "through access holes in the roof above the trench.", "The constant source of fuel maybe grown on the woodlots.The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency compared with clamp or scove kilns.", "Sheet metal or boards are used to route the airflow through the brick lattice so that fresh air flows first through the recently burned bricks, heating the air, then through the active burning zone.", "The air continues through the green brick zone (pre-heating and drying the bricks), and finally out the chimney, where the rising gases create suction that pulls air through the system.", "The reuse of heated air yields savings in fuel cost.As with the rail process, the BTK process is continuous.", "A half-dozen labourers working around the clock can fire approximately 15,000–25,000 bricks a day.", "Unlike the rail process, in the BTK process the bricks do not move.", "Instead, the locations at which the bricks are loaded, fired, and unloaded gradually rotate through the trench.==== Influences on colour ====Waterloo stationThe colour of fired clay bricks is influenced by the chemical and mineral content of the raw materials, the firing temperature, and the atmosphere in the kiln.", "For example, pink bricks are the result of a high iron content, white or yellow bricks have a higher lime content.", "Most bricks burn to various red hues; as the temperature is increased the colour moves through dark red, purple, and then to brown or grey at around .", "The names of bricks may reflect their origin and colour, such as London stock brick and Cambridgeshire White.", "''Brick tinting'' may be performed to change the colour of bricks to blend-in areas of brickwork with the surrounding masonry.An impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a slip, which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped.", "Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.=== Chemically set bricks ===Chemically set bricks are not fired but may have the curing process accelerated by the application of heat and pressure in an autoclave.==== Calcium-silicate bricks ====Swedish Mexitegel is a sand-lime or lime-cement brick.Calcium-silicate bricks are also called sandlime or flintlime bricks, depending on their ingredients.", "Rather than being made with clay they are made with lime binding the silicate material.", "The raw materials for calcium-silicate bricks include lime mixed in a proportion of about 1 to 10 with sand, quartz, crushed flint, or crushed siliceous rock together with mineral colourants.", "The materials are mixed and left until the lime is completely hydrated; the mixture is then pressed into moulds and cured in an autoclave for three to fourteen hours to speed the chemical hardening.", "The finished bricks are very accurate and uniform, although the sharp arrises need careful handling to avoid damage to brick and bricklayer.", "The bricks can be made in a variety of colours; white, black, buff, and grey-blues are common, and pastel shades can be achieved.", "This type of brick is common in Sweden as well as Russia and other post-Soviet countries, especially in houses built or renovated in the 1970s.", "A version known as fly ash bricks, manufactured using fly ash, lime, and gypsum (known as the FaL-G process) are common in South Asia.", "Calcium-silicate bricks are also manufactured in Canada and the United States, and meet the criteria set forth in ASTM C73 – 10 Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-Lime Brick).==== Concrete bricks ====A concrete brick-making assembly line in Guilinyang Town, Hainan, China.", "This operation produces a pallet containing 42 bricks, approximately every 30 seconds.Bricks formed from concrete are usually termed as blocks or concrete masonry unit, and are typically pale grey.", "They are made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed in steel moulds by vibration and compaction in either an \"egglayer\" or static machine.", "The finished blocks are cured, rather than fired, using low-pressure steam.", "Concrete bricks and blocks are manufactured in a wide range of shapes, sizes and face treatments – a number of which simulate the appearance of clay bricks.Concrete bricks are available in many colours and as an engineering brick made with sulfate-resisting Portland cement or equivalent.", "When made with adequate amount of cement they are suitable for harsh environments such as wet conditions and retaining walls.", "They are made to standards BS 6073, EN 771-3 or ASTM C55.Concrete bricks contract or shrink so they need movement joints every 5 to 6 metres, but are similar to other bricks of similar density in thermal and sound resistance and fire resistance.=== Compressed earth blocks ===A brick kiln in IndiaCompressed earth blocks are made mostly from slightly moistened local soils compressed with a mechanical hydraulic press or manual lever press.", "A small amount of a cement binder may be added, resulting in a ''stabilised compressed earth block''." ], [ "Types", "This wall in Beacon Hill, Boston, shows different types of brickwork and stone foundationsThere are thousands of types of bricks that are named for their use, size, forming method, origin, quality, texture, and/or materials.Categorized by manufacture method:* Extruded – made by being forced through an opening in a steel die, with a very consistent size and shape.", "** Wire-cut – cut to size after extrusion with a tensioned wire which may leave drag marks* Moulded – shaped in moulds rather than being extruded** Machine-moulded – clay is forced into moulds using pressure** Handmade – clay is forced into moulds by a person* Dry-pressed – similar to soft mud method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix and is compressed with great force.Categorized by use:* Common or building – A brick not intended to be visible, used for internal structure* Face – A brick used on exterior surfaces to present a clean appearance* Hollow – not solid, the holes are less than 25% of the brick volume** Perforated – holes greater than 25% of the brick volume* Keyed – indentations in at least one face and end to be used with rendering and plastering* Paving – brick intended to be in ground contact as a walkway or roadway* Thin – brick with normal height and length but thin width to be used as a veneerSpecialized use bricks:* Chemically resistant – bricks made with resistance to chemical reactions** Acid brick – acid resistant bricks* Engineering – a type of hard, dense, brick used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas) resistance are needed.", "Further classified as type A and type B based on their compressive strength** Accrington – a type of engineering brick from England* Fire or refractory – highly heat-resistant bricks** Clinker – a vitrified brick** Ceramic glazed – fire bricks with a decorative glazingBricks named for place of origin:* Chicago common brick - a soft brick made near Chicago, Illinois with a range of colors, like buff yellow, salmon pink, or deep red* Cream City brick – a light yellow brick made in Milwaukee, Wisconsin* Dutch brick – a hard light coloured brick originally from the Netherlands* Fareham red brick – a type of construction brick* London stock brick – type of handmade brick which was used for the majority of building work in London and South East England until the growth in the use of machine-made bricks* Nanak Shahi bricks – a type of decorative brick in India* Roman brick – a long, flat brick typically used by the Romans* Staffordshire blue brick – a type of construction brick from England" ], [ "Optimal dimensions, characteristics, and strength", "Comparison of typical brick sizes of assorted countries with isometric projections and dimensions in millimetresFor efficient handling and laying, bricks must be small enough and light enough to be picked up by the bricklayer using one hand (leaving the other hand free for the trowel).", "Bricks are usually laid flat, and as a result, the effective limit on the width of a brick is set by the distance which can conveniently be spanned between the thumb and fingers of one hand, normally about .", "In most cases, the length of a brick is twice its width plus the width of a mortar joint, about or slightly more.", "This allows bricks to be laid ''bonded'' in a structure which increases stability and strength (for an example, see the illustration of bricks laid in ''English bond'', at the head of this article).", "The wall is built using alternating courses of ''stretchers'', bricks laid longways, and ''headers'', bricks laid crossways.", "The headers tie the wall together over its width.", "In fact, this wall is built in a variation of ''English bond'' called ''English cross bond'' where the successive layers of stretchers are displaced horizontally from each other by half a brick length.", "In true ''English bond'', the perpendicular lines of the stretcher courses are in line with each other.A bigger brick makes for a thicker (and thus more insulating) wall.", "Historically, this meant that bigger bricks were necessary in colder climates (see for instance the slightly larger size of the Russian brick in table below), while a smaller brick was adequate, and more economical, in warmer regions.", "A notable illustration of this correlation is the Green Gate in Gdansk; built in 1571 of imported Dutch brick, too small for the colder climate of Gdansk, it was notorious for being a chilly and drafty residence.", "Nowadays this is no longer an issue, as modern walls typically incorporate specialised insulation materials.The correct brick for a job can be selected from a choice of colour, surface texture, density, weight, absorption, and pore structure, thermal characteristics, thermal and moisture movement, and fire resistance.Faces of a brick +Face brick (\"house brick\") sizes, (alphabetical order)Standard Metric (mm) Imperial (inches) In England, the length and width of the common brick remained fairly constant from 1625 when the size was regulated by statute at 9 x x 3 inches (but see brick tax), but the depth has varied from about or smaller in earlier times to about more recently.", "In the United Kingdom, the usual size of a modern brick (from 1965) is , which, with a nominal mortar joint, forms a ''unit size'' of , for a ratio of 6:3:2.In the United States, modern standard bricks are specified for various uses; The most commonly used is the modular brick has the ''actual dimensions'' of   ×   ×  inches (194 × 92 × 57 mm).", "With the standard inch mortar joint, this gives the ''nominal dimensions'' of 8 x 4 x inches which eases the calculation of the number of bricks in a given wall.", "The 2:1 ratio of modular bricks means that when they turn corners, a 1/2 running bond is formed without needing to cut the brick down or fill the gap with a cut brick; and the height of modular bricks means that a soldier course matches the height of three modular running courses, or one standard CMU course.Some brickmakers create innovative sizes and shapes for bricks used for plastering (and therefore not visible on the inside of the building) where their inherent mechanical properties are more important than their visual ones.", "These bricks are usually slightly larger, but not as large as blocks and offer the following advantages:* A slightly larger brick requires less mortar and handling (fewer bricks), which reduces cost* Their ribbed exterior aids plastering* More complex interior cavities allow improved insulation, while maintaining strength.Blocks have a much greater range of sizes.", "Standard co-ordinating sizes in length and height (in mm) include 400×200, 450×150, 450×200, 450×225, 450×300, 600×150, 600×200, and 600×225; depths (work size, mm) include 60, 75, 90, 100, 115, 140, 150, 190, 200, 225, and 250.They are usable across this range as they are lighter than clay bricks.", "The density of solid clay bricks is around 2000 kg/m3: this is reduced by frogging, hollow bricks, and so on, but aerated autoclaved concrete, even as a solid brick, can have densities in the range of 450–850 kg/m3.Bricks may also be classified as ''solid'' (less than 25% perforations by volume, although the brick may be \"frogged,\" having indentations on one of the longer faces), ''perforated'' (containing a pattern of small holes through the brick, removing no more than 25% of the volume), ''cellular'' (containing a pattern of holes removing more than 20% of the volume, but closed on one face), or ''hollow'' (containing a pattern of large holes removing more than 25% of the brick's volume).", "Blocks may be solid, cellular or hollow.The term \"frog\" can refer to the indentation or the implement used to make it.", "Modern brickmakers usually use plastic frogs but in the past they were made of wood.The compressive strength of bricks produced in the United States ranges from about , varying according to the use to which the brick are to be put.", "In England clay bricks can have strengths of up to 100 MPa, although a common house brick is likely to show a range of 20–40 MPa." ], [ "Uses", "Front Street along the Cane River in historic Natchitoches, Louisiana, is paved with bricks.Bricks are a versatile building material, able to participate in a wide variety of applications, including:* Structural walls, exterior and interior walls* Bearing and non-bearing sound proof partitions * The fireproofing of structural-steel members in the form of firewalls, party walls, enclosures and fire towers* Foundations for stucco* Chimneys and fireplaces* Porches and terraces* Outdoor steps, brick walks and paved floors* Swimming poolsIn the United States, bricks have been used for both buildings and pavement.", "Examples of brick use in buildings can be seen in colonial era buildings and other notable structures around the country.", "Bricks have been used in paving roads and sidewalks especially during the late 19th century and early 20th century.", "The introduction of asphalt and concrete reduced the use of brick for paving, but they are still sometimes installed as a method of traffic calming or as a decorative surface in pedestrian precincts.", "For example, in the early 1900s, most of the streets in the city of Grand Rapids, Michigan, were paved with bricks.", "Today, there are only about 20 blocks of brick-paved streets remaining (totalling less than 0.5 percent of all the streets in the city limits).", "Much like in Grand Rapids, municipalities across the United States began replacing brick streets with inexpensive asphalt concrete by the mid-20th century.In Northwest Europe, bricks have been used in construction for centuries.", "Until recently, almost all houses were built almost entirely from bricks.", "Although many houses are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are skinned with a layer of bricks on the outside for aesthetic appeal.Bricks in the metallurgy and glass industries are often used for lining furnaces, in particular refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral (chromomagnesite) refractory bricks.", "This type of brick must have good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, and satisfactory porosity.", "There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, Belgium and the Netherlands.Engineering bricks are used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas) resistance are needed.In the UK a red brick university is one founded in the late 19th or early 20th century.", "The term is used to refer to such institutions collectively to distinguish them from the older Oxbridge institutions, and refers to the use of bricks, as opposed to stone, in their buildings.Colombian architect Rogelio Salmona was noted for his extensive use of red bricks in his buildings and for using natural shapes like spirals, radial geometry and curves in his designs." ], [ "Limitations", "Starting in the 20th century, the use of brickwork declined in some areas due to concerns about earthquakes.", "Earthquakes such as the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and the 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed the weaknesses of unreinforced brick masonry in earthquake-prone areas.", "During seismic events, the mortar cracks and crumbles, so that the bricks are no longer held together.", "Brick masonry with steel reinforcement, which helps hold the masonry together during earthquakes, has been used to replace unreinforced bricks in many buildings.", "Retrofitting older unreinforced masonry structures has been mandated in many jurisdictions.", "However, similar to steel corrosion in reinforced concrete, rebar rusting will compromise the structural integrity of reinforced brick and ultimately limit the expected lifetime, so there is a trade-off between earthquake safety and longevity to a certain extent." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Chilehaus - Hamburg.jpg|Chile house in Hamburg, GermanyA block of fired bricks.jpg|A block of Bricks manufactured in Nepal to build Ancient StupaFile:Berlín, Museo de Pérgamo 05.jpg|Ishtar Gate of Babylon in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, GermanyOpus reticulatum 2.JPG|Roman opus reticulatum on Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli, Italy (2nd century)Munich Frauenkirche.jpg|Frauenkirche, Munich, Germany, erected 1468–1488, looking up at the towersTorun sw Jakub szczyt zach.JPG|Eastern gable of church of St. James in Toruń (14th century)Radzyn Chelm zamek zendrowka.jpg|Decorative pattern made of strongly fired bricks in Radzyń Castle (14th century)File:Mudéjar Teruel (1361857538).jpg|Mudéjar brick church tower in Teruel, Spain, (14th century)thornbury.twochimneys.arp.750pix.jpg|Brick sculpting on Thornbury Castle, Thornbury, near Bristol, England.", "The chimneys were erected in 1514Rijksmonument450429.JPG|A typical brick house in the Netherlands.Lopen uusi kirkko.jpg|A 19th-century brick church in Loppi, FinlandRieten dak old farmhouse.jpg|A typical Dutch farmhouse near Wageningen, NetherlandsCapilla San Sebastián Mártir a.jpg|Baroque brick Parish of San Sebastián Mártir, Xoco in Mexico City, was completed in 1663St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi Brick Detail 2.JPG|Decorative bricks in St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, MalawiBiblioBarco.jpg|Virgilio Barco Public Library, Bogotá, ColombiaMaria Claudia Cali edificio FES.jpg|FES Building, Cali, ColombiaBrick likn india.JPG|A brick kiln, Tamil Nadu, IndiaSW 4th Avenue MAX station.jpg|Brick sidewalk paving in Portland, Oregon, U.S.CambridgeMAFireplugB.jpg|Brick sidewalk in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.Porotherm style clay block brick angle 1.jpg|Porotherm style clay block brickCegly01.jpg|Moulding bricks, PolandNormanby Brick.jpg|Brick made as a byproduct of ironstone mining Normanby – UKBrick making in Hainan - 01.jpg|Fired, clay bricks in Hainan, ChinaStanley_Dock_warehouses.jpg|The largest brick warehouse in the world, Stanley Dock Tobacco Warehouse, Liverpool, UKForaine brick en.jpg|Medieval heir to the Roman brick in the Toulouse region, the \"Foraine\" brick has kept the same large and flat format.", "(Albi) North views of the Ste Cécile Cathedral.jpg|The Albi Cathedral (France) was built using \"Foraine\" bricks.File:艋舺古厝-成都路洪和商店No.124-2023-01.jpg|The old brick house at Taipei, Taiwan." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * Hudson, Kenneth (1972) ''Building Materials''; chap.", "3: Bricks and tiles.", "London: Longman; pp.", "28–42*" ], [ "External links", "* Brick in 20th-Century Architecture* Brick Industry Association United States * Brick Development Association UK* Think Brick Australia* International Brick Collectors Association" ] ]

[ [ "Béla Bartók" ], [ "Introduction", "Béla Bartók in 1927 '''Béla Viktor János Bartók''' (; ; 25 March 1881 – 26 September 1945) was a Hungarian composer, pianist and ethnomusicologist.", "He is considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century; he and Franz Liszt are regarded as Hungary's greatest composers.", "Through his collection and analytical study of folk music, he was one of the founders of comparative musicology, which later became known as ethnomusicology." ], [ "Biography", "===Childhood and early years (1881–1898)===Bartók was born in the Banatian town of Nagyszentmiklós in the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Sânnicolau Mare, Romania) on 25 March 1881.On his father's side, the Bartók family was a Hungarian lower noble family, originating from Borsodszirák, Borsod.", "His paternal grandmother was a Catholic of Bunjevci origin, but considered herself Hungarian.", "Bartók's father (1855–1888) was also named Béla.", "Bartók's mother, Paula (née Voit) (1857–1939), spoke Hungarian fluently.", "A native of Turócszentmárton (present-day Martin, Slovakia), she had German, Hungarian and Slovak or Polish ancestry.Béla displayed notable musical talent very early in life.", "According to his mother, he could distinguish between different dance rhythms that she played on the piano before he learned to speak in complete sentences.", "By the age of four he was able to play 40 pieces on the piano, and his mother began formally teaching him the next year.In 1888, when he was seven, his father, the director of an agricultural school, died suddenly.", "His mother then took Béla and his sister, Erzsébet, to live in Nagyszőlős (present-day Vynohradiv, Ukraine) and then in Pressburg (''Pozsony'', present-day Bratislava, Slovakia).", "Béla gave his first public recital aged 11 in Nagyszőlős, to positive critical reception.", "Among the pieces he played was his own first composition, written two years previously: a short piece called \"The Course of the Danube\".", "Shortly thereafter, László Erkel accepted him as a pupil.===Early musical career (1899–1908)===Bartók's signature on his high-school-graduation photograph, dated 9 September 1899From 1899 to 1903, Bartók studied piano under István Thomán, a former student of Franz Liszt, and composition under János Koessler at the Royal Academy of Music in Budapest.", "There he met Zoltán Kodály, who made a strong impression on him and became a lifelong friend and colleague.", "In 1903, Bartók wrote his first major orchestral work, ''Kossuth'', a symphonic poem which honored Lajos Kossuth, hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.The music of Richard Strauss, whom he met in 1902 at the Budapest premiere of ''Also sprach Zarathustra'', strongly influenced his early work.", "When visiting a holiday resort in the summer of 1904, Bartók overheard a young nanny, Lidi Dósa from Kibéd in Transylvania, sing folk songs to the children in her care.", "This sparked his lifelong dedication to folk music.Beginning in 1907, he came under the influence of French composer Claude Debussy, whose compositions Kodály had brought back from Paris.", "Bartók's large-scale orchestral works were still in the style of Johannes Brahms and Richard Strauss, but he wrote a number of small piano pieces which showed his growing interest in folk music.", "The first piece to show clear signs of this new interest is the String Quartet No.", "1 in A minor (1908), which contains folk-like elements.", "He began teaching as a piano professor at the Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest.", "This position freed him from touring Europe as a pianist.", "Among his notable students were Fritz Reiner, Sir Georg Solti, György Sándor, Ernő Balogh, Gisela Selden-Goth, and Lili Kraus.", "After Bartók moved to the United States, he taught Jack Beeson and Violet Archer.In 1908, Bartok and Kodály traveled into the countryside to collect and research old Magyar folk melodies.", "Their growing interest in folk music coincided with a contemporary social interest in traditional national culture.", "Magyar folk music had previously been categorised as Gypsy music.", "The classic example is Franz Liszt's ''Hungarian Rhapsodies'' for piano, which he based on popular art songs performed by Romani bands of the time.", "In contrast, Bartók and Kodály discovered that the old Magyar folk melodies were based on pentatonic scales, similar to those in Asian folk traditions, such as those of Central Asia, Anatolia and Siberia.Bartók and Kodály set about incorporating elements of such Magyar peasant music into their compositions.", "They both frequently quoted folk song melodies ''verbatim'' and wrote pieces derived entirely from authentic songs.", "An example is Bartok's two volumes entitled ''For Children'' for solo piano, containing 80 folk tunes to which he wrote accompaniment.", "Bartók's style in his art music compositions was a synthesis of folk music, classicism, and modernism.", "His melodic and harmonic sense was influenced by the folk music of Hungary, Romania, and other nations.", "He was especially fond of the asymmetrical dance rhythms and pungent harmonies found in Bulgarian music.", "Most of his early compositions offer a blend of nationalist and late Romanticism elements.===Middle years and career (1909–1939)=======Personal life====In 1909, at the age of 28, Bartók married Márta Ziegler (1893–1967), aged 16.Their son, Béla Bartók III, was born the next year.", "After nearly 15 years together, Bartók divorced Márta in June 1923.Two months after his divorce, he married Ditta Pásztory (1903–1982), a piano student, ten days after proposing to her.", "She was aged 19, he 42.Their son, Péter, was born in 1924.Raised as a Catholic, by his early adulthood Bartók had become an atheist.", "He later became attracted to Unitarianism and publicly converted to the Unitarian faith in 1916.Although Bartók was not conventionally religious, according to his son Béla Bartók III, \"he was a nature lover: he always mentioned the miraculous order of nature with great reverence\".", "As an adult, Béla III later became lay president of the Hungarian Unitarian Church.====Opera====In 1911, Bartók wrote what was to be his only opera, ''Bluebeard's Castle'', dedicated to Márta.", "He entered it for a prize by the Hungarian Fine Arts Commission, but they rejected his work as not fit for the stage.", "In 1917 Bartók revised the score for the 1918 première and rewrote the ending.", "Following the 1919 revolution, in which he actively participated, he was pressured by the Horthy regime to remove the name of librettist Béla Balázs from the opera, as Balázs was of Jewish origin, was blacklisted, and had left the country for Vienna.", "''Bluebeard's Castle'' received only one revival, in 1936, before Bartók emigrated.", "For the remainder of his life, although devoted to Hungary, its people and its culture, he never felt much loyalty to the government or its official establishments.====Folk music and composition====Béla Bartók using a phonograph to record Slovak folk songs sung by peasants in Zobordarázs (, today part of Nitra, Slovakia)After his disappointment over the Fine Arts Commission competition, Bartók wrote little for two or three years, preferring to concentrate on collecting and arranging folk music.", "He found the phonograph an essential tool for collecting folk music for its accuracy, objectivity, and manipulability.", "He collected first in the Carpathian Basin (then the Kingdom of Hungary), where he notated Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian, and Bulgarian folk music.", "The developmental breakthrough for Bartok arrived when he collaboratively collected folk music with Zoltán Kodály through the medium of an Edison machine, on which they would study classification possibilities (for individual folk songs) and record hundreds of cylinders.", "Bartok's compositional command of folk elements is expressed in such an authentic and undiluted a manner because of the scales, sounds, and rhythms that were so much a part of his native Hungary that he automatically saw music in these terms.", "He also collected in Moldavia, Wallachia, and (in 1913) Algeria.", "The outbreak of World War I forced him to stop the expeditions, but he returned to composing with a ballet called ''The Wooden Prince'' (1914–1916) and the String Quartet No.", "2 in (1915–1917), both influenced by Debussy.Bartók's ''libretto'' for ''The Miraculous Mandarin'', another ballet, was influenced by Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg and Richard Strauss.", "Though started in 1918, the story's sexual content kept it from being performed until 1926.He next wrote his two violin sonatas (written in 1921 and 1922, respectively), which are among his most harmonically and structurally complex pieces.In March 1927, he visited Barcelona and performed the ''Rhapsody for piano'' Sz.", "26 with the Orquestra Pau Casals at the Gran Teatre del Liceu.", "During the same stay, he attended a concert by the Cobla Barcelona at the Palau de la Música Catalana.", "According to the critic Joan Llongueras, \"he was very interested in the sardanas, above all, the freshness, spontaneity and life of our music ... he wanted to know the mechanism of the tenoras and the tibles, and requested data on the composition of the cobla and extension and characteristics of each instrument\".In 1927–1928, Bartók wrote his Third and Fourth String Quartets, after which his compositions demonstrated his mature style.", "Notable examples of this period are ''Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta'' (1936) and Divertimento for String Orchestra (1939).", "The Fifth String Quartet was composed in 1934, and the Sixth String Quartet (his last) in 1939.In 1936 he travelled to Turkey to collect and study Turkish folk music.", "He worked in collaboration with Turkish composer Ahmet Adnan Saygun mostly around Adana.===World War II and final years (1940–1945)===Bartok and PásztoryIn 1940, as the European political situation worsened after the outbreak of World War II, Bartók was increasingly tempted to flee Hungary.", "He strongly opposed the Nazis and Hungary's alliance with Germany and the Axis powers under the Tripartite Pact.", "After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Bartók refused to give concerts in Germany and broke away from his publisher there.", "His anti-fascist political views caused him a great deal of trouble with the establishment in Hungary.", "In his will recorded on 4 October 1940, he requested that no square or street be named after him until the Budapest squares Oktogon and Kodály körönd, or in fact any square or street in Hungary, no longer bear the names of Mussolini and Hitler, as they did at the time he wrote his will.", "Having first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bartók reluctantly emigrated to the U.S. with his wife, Ditta Pásztory, in October 1940.They settled in New York City after arriving on the night of 29–30 October by a steamer from Lisbon.", "After joining them in 1942, their younger son, Péter Bartók, enlisted in the United States Navy, where he served in the Pacific during the remainder of the war and later settled in Florida, where he became a recording and sound engineer.", "His elder son, by his first marriage, Béla Bartók III, remained in Hungary and later worked as a railroad official until his retirement in the early 1980s.Although he became an American citizen in 1945, shortly before his death, Bartók never felt fully at home in the United States.", "He initially found it difficult to compose.", "Although he was well known in America as a pianist, ethnomusicologist and teacher, he was not well known as a composer.", "There was little American interest in his music during his final years.", "He and his wife Ditta gave some concerts, although demand for them was low.", "Bartók, who had made some recordings in Hungary, also recorded for Columbia Records after he came to the US; many of these recordings (some with Bartók's own spoken introductions) were later issued on LP and CD.Supported by a research fellowship from Columbia University, for several years, Bartók and Ditta worked on a large collection of Serbian and Croatian folk songs in Columbia's libraries.", "Bartók's economic difficulties during his first years in America were mitigated by publication royalties, teaching and performance tours.", "While his finances were always precarious, he did not live and die in poverty as was the common myth.", "He had enough friends and supporters to ensure that there was sufficient money and work available for him to live on.", "Bartók was a proud man and did not easily accept charity.", "Despite being short on cash at times, he often refused money that his friends offered him out of their own pockets.", "Although he was not a member of the ASCAP, the society paid for any medical care he needed during his last two years, to which Bartók reluctantly agreed.", "The first symptoms of his health problems began late in 1940, when his right shoulder began to show signs of stiffening.", "In 1942, symptoms increased and he started having bouts of fever.", "Bartók's illness was at first thought to be a recurrence of the tuberculosis he had experienced as a young man, and one of his doctors in New York was Edgar Mayer, director of Will Rogers Memorial Hospital in Saranac Lake, but medical examinations found no underlying disease.", "Finally, in April 1944, leukemia was diagnosed, but by this time, little could be done.As his body slowly failed, Bartók found more creative energy and produced a final set of masterpieces, partly thanks to the violinist Joseph Szigeti and the conductor Fritz Reiner (Reiner had been Bartók's friend and champion since his days as Bartók's student at the Royal Academy).", "Bartók's last work might well have been the String Quartet No.", "6 but for Serge Koussevitzky's commission for the Concerto for Orchestra.", "Koussevitsky's Boston Symphony Orchestra premiered the work in December 1944 to highly positive reviews.", "The Concerto for Orchestra quickly became Bartók's most popular work, although he did not live to see its full impact.In 1944, he was also commissioned by Yehudi Menuhin to write a Sonata for Solo Violin.", "In 1945, Bartók composed his Piano Concerto No.", "3, a graceful and almost neo-classical work, as a surprise 42nd birthday present for Ditta, but he died just over a month before her birthday, with the scoring not quite finished.", "He had also sketched his Viola Concerto, but had barely started the scoring at his death, leaving completed only the viola part and sketches of the orchestral part.Béla Bartók's portrait on 1000 Hungarian forint banknote (printed between 1983 and 1992; no longer in circulation)Béla Bartók died at age 64 in a hospital in New York City from complications of leukemia (specifically, of secondary polycythemia) on 26 September 1945.His funeral was attended by only ten people.", "Aside from his widow and their son, other attendees included György Sándor.Bartók's body was initially interred in Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.", "During the final year of communist Hungary in the late 1980s, the Hungarian government, along with his two sons, Béla III and Péter, requested that his remains be exhumed and transferred back to Budapest for burial, where Hungary arranged a state funeral for him on 7 July 1988.He was re-interred at Budapest's Farkasréti Cemetery, next to the remains of Ditta, who died in 1982, one year after what would have been Béla Bartók's 100th birthday.The two unfinished works were later completed by his pupil Tibor Serly.", "György Sándor was the soloist in the first performance of the Third Piano Concerto on 8 February 1946.Ditta Pásztory-Bartók later played and recorded it.", "The Viola Concerto was revised and published in the 1990s by Bartók's son; this version may be closer to what Bartók intended.", "Concurrently, Peter Bartók, in association with Argentinian musician Nelson Dellamaggiore, worked to reprint and revise past editions of the Third Piano Concerto." ], [ "Music", "Bartók's music reflects two trends that dramatically changed the sound of music in the 20th century: the breakdown of the diatonic system of harmony that had served composers for the previous two hundred years; and the revival of nationalism as a source for musical inspiration, a trend that began with Mikhail Glinka and Antonín Dvořák in the last half of the 19th century.", "In his search for new forms of tonality, Bartók turned to Hungarian folk music, as well as to other folk music of the Carpathian Basin and even of Algeria and Turkey; in so doing he became influential in that stream of modernism which used indigenous music and techniques.One characteristic style of music is his Night music, which he used mostly in slow movements of multi-movement ensemble or orchestral compositions in his mature period.", "It is characterised by \"eerie dissonances providing a backdrop to sounds of nature and lonely melodies\".", "An example is the third movement (Adagio) of his ''Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta''.", "His music can be grouped roughly in accordance with the different periods in his life.===Early years (1890–1902)===The works of Bartók's youth were written in a classical and early romantic style touched with influences of popular and romanimusic.", "Between 1890 and 1894 (9 to 13 years of age) he wrote 31 piano pieces with corresponding opus numbers.", "Although most of these were simple dance pieces, in these early works Bartók began to tackle some more advanced forms, as in his ten-part programmatic ''A Duna folyása'' (\"The Course of the Danube\", 1890–1894), which he played in his first public recital in 1892.In Catholic grammar school Bartók took to studying the scores of composers \"from Bach to Wagner\", his compositions then advancing in style and taking on similarities to Schumann and Brahms.", "Following his matriculation into the Budapest Academy in 1890 he composed very little, though he began to work on exercises in orchestration and familiarized himself thoroughly with the operas of Wagner.", "In 1902 his creative energies were revitalized by the discovery of the music of Richard Strauss, whose tone poem ''Also sprach Zarathustra'', according to Bartók, \"stimulated the greatest enthusiasm in me; at last I saw the way that lay before me\".", "Bartók also owned the score to ''A Hero's Life'', which he transcribed for the piano and committed to memory.===New influences (1903–1911)===Under the influence of Strauss, Bartók composed in 1903 ''Kossuth'', a symphonic poem in ten tableaux on the subject of the 1848 Hungarian war of independence, reflecting the composers growing interest in musical nationalism.", "A year later he renewed his opus numbers with the ''Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra'' serving as Opus 1.Driven by nationalistic fervor and a desire to transcend the influence of prior composers, Bartók began a lifelong devotion to folk music, which was sparked by his overhearing nanny Lidi Dósa's singing of Transylvanian folk songs at a Hungarian resort in 1904.Bartók began to collect Magyar peasant melodies, later extending to the folk music of other peoples of the Carpathian Basin, Slovaks, Romanians, Rusyns, Serbs and Croatians.", "His compositional output would gradually prune away romantic elements in favour of an idiom that embodied folk music as intrinsic and essential to its style.", "Later in life he would have this to say on the incorporation of folk and art music:The question is, what are the ways in which peasant music is taken over and becomes transmuted into modern music?", "We may, for instance, take over a peasant melody unchanged or only slightly varied, write an accompaniment to it and possibly some opening and concluding phrases.", "This kind of work would show a certain analogy with Bach's treatment of chorales. ...", "Another method ... is the following: the composer does not make use of a real peasant melody but invents his own imitation of such melodies.", "There is no true difference between this method and the one described above. ...", "There is yet a third way ...", "Neither peasant melodies nor imitations of peasant melodies can be found in his music, but it is pervaded by the atmosphere of peasant music.", "In this case we may say, he has completely absorbed the idiom of peasant music which has become his musical mother tongue.Bartók became first acquainted with Debussy's music in 1907 and regarded his music highly.", "In an interview in 1939 Bartók said:Debussy's great service to music was to reawaken among all musicians an awareness of harmony and its possibilities.", "In that, he was just as important as Beethoven, who revealed to us the possibilities of progressive form, or as Bach, who showed us the transcendent significance of counterpoint.", "Now, what I am always asking myself is this: is it possible to make a synthesis of these three great masters, a living synthesis that will be valid for our time?Debussy's influence is present in the Fourteen Bagatelles (1908).", "These made Ferruccio Busoni exclaim: \"At last something truly new!\"", "Until 1911, Bartók composed widely differing works which ranged from adherence to romantic style, to folk song arrangements and to his modernist opera ''Bluebeard's Castle''.", "The negative reception of his work led him to focus on folk music research after 1911 and abandon composition with the exception of folk music arrangements.===Inspiration and experimentation (1916–1921)===His pessimistic attitude towards composing was lifted by the stormy and inspiring contact with Klára Gombossy in the summer of 1915.This interesting episode in Bartók's life remained hidden until it was researched by Denijs Dille between 1979 and 1989.Bartók started composing again, including the Suite for piano opus 14 (1916), and ''The Miraculous Mandarin'' (1919) and he completed ''The Wooden Prince'' (1917).Bartók felt the result of World War I as a personal tragedy.", "Many regions he loved were severed from Hungary: Transylvania, the Banat (where he was born), and Bratislava (Pozsony, where his mother had lived).", "Additionally, the political relations between Hungary and other successor states to the Austro-Hungarian empire prohibited his folk music research outside of Hungary.", "Bartók also wrote the noteworthy ''Eight Improvisations on Hungarian Peasant Songs'' in 1920 and the sunny ''Dance Suite'' in 1923, the year of his second marriage.===\"Synthesis of East and West\" (1926–1945)===In 1926, Bartók needed a significant piece for piano and orchestra with which he could tour in Europe and America.", "He was particularly inspired by American composer Henry Cowell's controversial use of intense tone clusters on the piano while touring western Europe.", "Bartók happened to be present at one of these concerts and would later request Cowell's permission to use his technique without causing offence, which Cowell granted.", "In the preparation for writing his first Piano Concerto, he wrote his Sonata, ''Out of Doors'', and ''Nine Little Pieces'', all for solo piano, and all of which prominently utilize clusters.", "He increasingly found his own voice in his maturity.", "The style of his last period named \"Synthesis of East and West\" is hard to define let alone to put under one term.", "In his mature period, Bartók wrote relatively few works but most of them are large-scale compositions for large settings.", "Only his voice works have programmatic titles and his late works often adhere to classical forms.Among Bartók's most important works are the six string quartets (1909, 1917, 1927, 1928, 1934, and 1939), the ''Cantata Profana'' (1930), which Bartók declared was the work he felt and professed to be his most personal \"credo\", the ''Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta'' (1936), the Concerto for Orchestra (1943) and the Third Piano Concerto (1945).", "He made a lasting contribution to the literature for younger students: for his son Péter's music lessons, he composed ''Mikrokosmos'', a six-volume collection of graded piano pieces." ], [ "Musical analysis", "Béla Bartók memorial plaque in Baja, HungaryPaul Wilson lists as the most prominent characteristics of Bartók's music from late 1920s onwards the influence of the Carpathian basin and European art music, and his changing attitude toward (and use of) tonality, but without the use of the traditional harmonic functions associated with major and minor scales.Although Bartók claimed in his writings that his music was always tonal, he rarely used the chords or scales normally associated with tonality, and so the descriptive resources of tonal theory are of limited use.", "George and Elliott focus on his alternative methods of signaling tonal centers, via axes of inversional symmetry.", "Others view Bartók's axes of symmetry in terms of atonal analytic protocols.", "Richard argues that inversional symmetry is often a byproduct of another atonal procedure, the formation of chords from transpositionally related dyads.", "Atonal pitch-class theory also furnishes resources for exploring polymodal chromaticism, projected sets, privileged patterns, and large set types used as source sets such as the equal tempered twelve tone aggregate, octatonic scale (and alpha chord), the diatonic and ''heptatonia secunda'' seven-note scales, and less often the whole tone scale and the primary pentatonic collection.He rarely used the simple aggregate actively to shape musical structure, though there are notable examples such as the second theme from the first movement of his Second Violin Concerto, of which he commented that he \"wanted to show Schoenberg that one can use all twelve tones and still remain tonal\".", "More thoroughly, in the first eight measures of the last movement of his Second Quartet, all notes gradually gather with the twelfth (G) sounding for the first time on the last beat of measure 8, marking the end of the first section.", "The aggregate is partitioned in the opening of the Third String Quartet with C–D–D–E in the accompaniment (strings) while the remaining pitch classes are used in the melody (violin 1) and more often as 7–35 (diatonic or \"white-key\" collection) and 5–35 (pentatonic or \"black-key\" collection) such as in no.", "6 of the ''Eight Improvisations''.", "There, the primary theme is on the black keys in the left hand, while the right accompanies with triads from the white keys.", "In measures 50–51 in the third movement of the Fourth Quartet, the first violin and cello play black-key chords, while the second violin and viola play stepwise diatonic lines.", "On the other hand, from as early as the Suite for piano, Op.", "14 (1914), he occasionally employed a form of serialism based on compound interval cycles, some of which are maximally distributed, multi-aggregate cycles.", "Ernő Lendvai analyses Bartók's works as being based on two opposing tonal systems, that of the acoustic scale and the axis system, as well as using the golden section as a structural principle.Milton Babbitt, in his 1949 review of Bartók's string quartets, criticized Bartók for using tonality and non-tonal methods unique to each piece.", "Babbitt noted that \"Bartók's solution was a specific one, it cannot be duplicated\".", "Bartók's use of \"two organizational principles\"—tonality for large scale relationships and the piece-specific method for moment to moment thematic elements—was a problem for Babbitt, who worried that the \"highly attenuated tonality\" requires extreme non-harmonic methods to create a feeling of closure." ], [ "Catalogues", "The cataloguing of Bartók's works is somewhat complex.", "Bartók assigned opus numbers to his works three times, the last of these series ending with the Sonata for Violin and Piano No.", "1, Op.", "21 in 1921.He ended this practice because of the difficulty of distinguishing between original works and ethnographic arrangements, and between major and minor works.", "Since his death, three attempts—two full and one partial—have been made at cataloguing.", "The first, and still most widely used, is András Szőllősy's chronological Sz.", "numbers, from 1 to 121.subsequently reorganised the juvenilia (Sz.", "1–25) thematically, as DD numbers 1 to 77.The most recent catalogue is that of László Somfai; this is a chronological index with works identified by BB numbers 1 to 129, incorporating corrections based on the Béla Bartók Thematic Catalogue.On 1 January 2016, Bartók's works entered the public domain in the European Union." ], [ "Discography", "Together with his like-minded contemporary Zoltán Kodály, Bartók embarked on an extensive programme of field research to capture the folk and peasant melodies of Magyar, Slovak and Romanian language territories.", "At first they would transcribe the melodies by hand, but later they began to use a wax cylinder recording machine invented by Thomas Edison.", "Compilations of Bartók's field recordings, interviews, and original piano playing have been released over the years, largely by the Hungarian record label Hungaroton: * * * * * Bartók, Béla.", "2003.", "''Bartók Sonata for 2 Pianos & Percussion, Suite for 2 Pianos.''", "Apex 0927-49569-2.CD recording.", "* * * A compilation of field recordings and transcriptions for two violas was also recently released by Tantara Records in 2014.On 18 March 2016 Decca Classics released ''Béla Bartók: The Complete Works'', the first ever complete compilation of all of Bartók's compositions, including new recordings of never-before-recorded early piano and vocal works.", "However, none of the composer's own performances are included in this 32-disc set." ], [ "Statues and other memorials", "Statue of Bartók in Makó, HungaryWalk of Fame, Vienna* A statue of Bartók stands in Brussels, Belgium, near the central train station in a public square, Spanjeplein-Place d'Espagne.", "* A statue stands outside Malvern Court, London, south of the South Kensington tube station, and just north of Sydney Place.", "An English Heritage blue plaque, unveiled in 1997, now commemorates Bartók at 7 Sydney Place, where he stayed when performing in London.", "* A statue of him was installed in front of the house in which Bartók spent his last eight years in Hungary, at Csalán út 29, in the hills above Budapest.", "It is now operated as the Béla Bartók Memorial House (Bartók Béla Emlékház).", "Copies of this statue also stand in Makó (the closest Hungarian city to his birthplace, which is now in Romania), Paris, London and Toronto.", "* A bust and plaque located at his last residence, in New York City at 309 W. 57th Street, inscribed: \"The Great Hungarian Composer / Béla Bartók / (1881–1945) / Made His Home In This House / During the Last Year of His Life\".", "* A bust of him is located in the front yard of Ankara State Conservatory, Ankara, Turkey, next to the bust of Ahmet Adnan Saygun.", "* A bronze statue of Bartók, sculpted by Imre Varga in 2005, stands in the front lobby of The Royal Conservatory of Music, 273 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.", "* A bronze bust of Bartók stands in the Anton Scudier Central Park in Timișoara, Romania.", "This park has an \"Alley of Personalities\", set up in 2009 and featuring busts of famous \"Romanians\".", "Sânnicolau Mare (Nagyszentmiklós in Hungarian), the small town where Bartók was born in 1881, is situated some 58 kilometres north-west of Timișoara, and is just inside Romania today, near the border with Hungary.", "* A statue of Bartók, sculpted by Varga, stands near the river Seine in the public park at , 26 place de Brazzaville, in Paris, France.", "* Also to be noted, in the same park, a sculptural transcription of the composer's research on tonal harmony, the fountain/sculpture ''Cristaux'' designed by Jean-Yves Lechevallier in 1980.", "* An expressionist sculpture by Hungarian sculptor András Beck in , Paris 16th arrondissement.", "* A statue of him also stands in the city centre of Târgu Mureș, Romania.", "( Google Maps Márton Izsák )* A statue (seated) of Bartók is also situated in front of Nako Castle, in his hometown, Nagyszentmiklós.", "( Google Maps)* Bartok has star on the Walk of Fame on Karlsplatz-Passage in Vienna." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * **" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Bartók, Béla.", "1976.", "\"The Influence of Peasant Music on Modern Music (1931)\".", "In ''Béla Bartók Essays'', edited by Benjamin Suchoff, 340–44.London: Faber & Faber.", "* * Bartók, Peter.", "2002.", "\"My Father\".", "Homosassa, Florida, Bartók Records ().", "* * Bónis, Ferenc.", "2006.''", "Élet-képek: Bartók Béla ''.", "Budapest: Balassi Kiadó: Vávi Kft., Alföldi Nyomda Zrt.", ".", "* Boys, Henry.", "1945.", "\"Béla Bartók 1881–1945\".", "''The Musical Times'' 86, no.", "1233 (November): 329–31.", "* Cohn, Richard, 1992.", "\"Bartók's Octatonic Strategies: A Motivic Approach.\"", "''Journal of the American Musicological Society'' 44* Czeizel, Endre.", "1992.", "''Családfa: honnan jövünk, mik vagyunk, hová megyünk?''", "Budapest: Kossuth Könyvkiadó.", "* * Fassett, Agatha, 1958.", "''The Naked Face of Genius: Béla Bartók's American Years.''", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin.", "* Jyrkiäinen, Reijo.", "2012.", "\"Form, Monothematicism, Variation and Symmetry in Béla Bartók's String Quartets\".", "Ph.D. diss.", "Helsinki: University of Helsinki.", "( Abstract).", "* Kárpáti, János.", "1975.", "''Bartók's String Quartets'', translated by Fred MacNicol.", "Budapest: Corvina Press.", "* Kasparov, Andrey.", "2000.", "\"Third Piano Concerto in the Revised 1994 Edition: Newly Discovered Corrections by the Composer\".", "''Hungarian Music Quarterly'' 11, nos.", "3–4:2–11.", "* Leafstedt, Carl S.", "1999.", "''Inside Bluebeard's Castle''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* * Loxdale, Hugh D., and Adalbert Balog.", "2009.", "\"Béla Bartók: Musician, Musicologist, Composer, and Entomologist!.\"", "''Antenna'' – Bulletin of the Royal Entomological Society of London 33, no.", "4:175–82.", "* * * Móser, Zoltán.", "2006b.", "\"Bartók-õsök Gömörben\".", "''Honismeret: A Honismereti Szövetség folyóirata'' 34, no.", "2 (April): 9–11.", "* Nelson, David Taylor (2012).", "\"Béla Bartók: The Father of Ethnomusicology\", Musical Offerings: Vol.", "3: No.", "2, Article 2.", "* Sluder, Claude K.", "1994.", "\"Revised Bartók Composition Highlights Pro Musica Concert\".", "''The Republic'' (16 February).", "* * Somfai, László.", "1981.", "''Tizennyolc Bartók-tanulmány'' Eighteen Bartók Studies.", "Budapest: Zeneműkiadó.", ".", "* Wells, John C.", "1990.", "\"Bartók\", in ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'', 63.Harlow, England: Longman." ], [ "External links", "* * Bartók Béla Memorial House, Budapest * The Belgian Bartók Archives, housed in the Brussels Royal Library and founded by Denijs Dille * * Gallery of Bartók portraits* Virtual Exhibition on Bartók* Finding aid to Béla Bartók manuscripts at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library.", "* * Bartók plays Bartók for Don Gabor's Continental record label later reissued on Remington Records* Interactive scores of Bartók's works for piano with Sir András Schiff." ] ]

[ [ "Bill Haley" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William John Clifton Haley''' (; July 6, 1925 – February 9, 1981) was an American rock and roll musician.", "He is credited by many with first popularizing this form of music in the early 1950s with his group Bill Haley & His Comets and million-selling hits such as \"Rock Around the Clock\", \"See You Later, Alligator\", \"Shake, Rattle and Roll\", \"Rocket 88\", \"Skinny Minnie\", and \"Razzle Dazzle\".", "Haley has sold over 60 million records worldwide.", "In 1987, he was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and career===Haley was born July 6, 1925, in Highland Park, Michigan.", "In 1929, the four-year-old Haley underwent an inner-ear mastoid operation which accidentally severed an optic nerve, leaving him blind in his left eye for the rest of his life.", "It is said that he adopted his trademark kiss curl over his right eye to draw attention from his left, but it also became his \"gimmick\", and added to his popularity.", "As a result of the effects of the Great Depression on the Detroit area, his father moved the family to Bethel Township, Pennsylvania, when Bill was seven years old.", "Haley's father William Albert Haley (1900–1956) was from Kentucky and played the banjo and mandolin, and his mother, Maude Green (1895–1955), who was originally from Ulverston in Lancashire, England, was a technically accomplished keyboardist with classical training.", "Haley told the story that when he made a simulated guitar out of cardboard, his parents bought him a real one.One of his first appearances was in 1938 for a Bethel Junior baseball team entertainment event, performing guitar and songs when he was 13 years old.The anonymous sleeve notes accompanying the 1956 Decca album ''Rock Around the Clock'' describe Haley's early life and career: \"When Bill Haley was fifteen c. 1940 he left home with his guitar and very little else and set out on the hard road to fame and fortune.", "The next few years, continuing this story in a fairy-tale manner, were hard and poverty-stricken, but crammed full of useful experience.", "Apart from learning how to exist on one meal a day and other artistic exercises, he worked at an open-air park show, sang and yodelled with any band that would have him, and worked with a traveling medicine show.", "Eventually he got a job with a popular group known as the 'Down Homers' while they were in Hartford, Connecticut.", "Soon after this he decided, as all successful people must decide at some time or another, to be his own boss again – and he has been that ever since.\"", "These notes fail to account for his early band, known as the Four Aces of Western Swing.", "During the 1940s Haley was considered one of the top cowboy yodelers in America as \"Silver Yodeling Bill Haley\".", "One source states that Haley started his career as \"The Rambling Yodeler\" in a country band, The Saddlemen.The sleeve notes conclude: \"For six years Bill Haley was a musical director of Radio Station WPWA in Chester, Pennsylvania, and led his own band all through this period.", "It was then known as Bill Haley's Saddlemen, indicating their definite leaning toward the tough Western style.", "They continued playing in clubs as well as over the radio around Philadelphia, and in 1951 made their first recordings on Ed Wilson's Keystone Records in Philadelphia.\"", "The group subsequently signed with Dave Miller's Holiday Records and, on June 14, 1951, the Saddlemen recorded a cover of the Delta Cats \"Rocket 88\".===Bill Haley and His Comets===During the Labor Day weekend in 1952, the Saddlemen were renamed '''Bill Haley with Haley's Comets'''.", "The name was inspired by the supposedly official pronunciation of Halley's Comet and was suggested by Bob Johnson, program director at radio station WPWA where Bill Haley had a live radio program from 12:00noon to 1:00p.m.", "In 1953, Haley's recording of \"Crazy Man, Crazy\" (co-written by Haley and his bass player, Marshall Lytle, although Lytle would not receive credit until 2001) hit the American charts, peaking at number 12 on ''Billboard'' and number 11 on ''Cash Box''.", "Some sources indicate that this was the first rock and roll record in history, although rockabilly might be a more appropriate term.", "By the time this record was released, the group's name had been revised to using the term \"Comets\" instead of \"Saddlemen\".Bill Haley and the Comets performing in 1974In 1954, Haley recorded \"Rock Around the Clock\".", "Initially, it was only a moderate success, peaking at number 36 on the ''Cash Box'' pop singles chart and staying on the charts for just two weeks.", "On re-release, the record reached number one on July 9, 1955.Haley had already had a worldwide hit with \"Shake, Rattle and Roll\", another rhythm and blues cover in this case from Big Joe Turner, which went on to sell a million copies and was the first rock 'n' roll song to enter the UK Singles Chart in December 1954, becoming a gold record.", "He retained elements of the original (which was slow blues), but sped it up with some country music aspects into the song (specifically, Western swing) and changed up the lyrics.", "Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as \"Rock and Roll\" to a wider audience after a period of it being considered an underground genre.When \"Rock Around the Clock\" appeared as the theme song of the 1955 film ''Blackboard Jungle'' starring Glenn Ford, it soared to the top of the American ''Billboard'' chart for eight weeks.", "The single is commonly used as a convenient line of demarcation between the \"rock era\" and the music industry that preceded it.", "''Billboard'' separated its statistical tabulations into 1890–1954 and 1955–present.", "After the record rose to number one, Haley became widely popular by those who had come to embrace the new style of music.", "With the song's success, the age of rock music began overnight and ended the dominance of the jazz and pop standards performed by Frank Sinatra, Jo Stafford, Perry Como, Bing Crosby, Eddie Fisher, and Patti Page.", "\"Rock Around the Clock\" was also the first record to sell over one million copies in both Britain and Germany.Bill Haley and the Comets performed \"Rock Around the Clock\" on the ''Texaco Star Theater'' hosted by Milton Berle on May 31, 1955, on NBC in an'' a cappella'' and lip-synched version.", "Berle predicted that the song would go number one: \"A group of entertainers who are going right to the top.\"", "Berle also sang and danced to the song which was performed by the entire cast of the show.", "This was one of the earliest nationally televised performances by a rock and roll band and provided the new musical genre with a much wider audience.Bill Haley and the Comets were the first rock and roll act to appear on American musical variety series the ''Ed Sullivan Show'' on August 7, 1955, on CBS in a broadcast that originated from the Shakespeare Festival Theater in Stratford, Connecticut.", "They performed a live version of \"Rock Around the Clock\" with Franny Beecher on lead guitar and Dick Richards on drums.", "The band made their second appearance on the show on Sunday, April 28, 1957, performing the songs \"Rudy's Rock\" and \"Forty Cups of Coffee\".Later on in 1957, Haley became the first major American rock singer to tour Europe.", "Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as \"See You Later, Alligator\" and he starred in the first rock and roll musical films ''Rock Around the Clock'' and ''Don't Knock the Rock'', both in 1956.Haley was already 30 years old, and his popularity was soon eclipsed in the United States by the younger Elvis Presley, but continued to enjoy great popularity in Latin America, Europe, and Australia during the 1960s.Bill Haley and the Comets appeared on ''American Bandstand'' hosted by Dick Clark on ABC twice in 1957, on the prime time show October 28, 1957, and on the regular daytime show on November 27, 1957.The band also appeared on Dick Clark's ''Saturday Night Beechnut Show'', also known as ''The Dick Clark Show'', a primetime TV series from New York on March 22, 1958, during the first season and on February 20, 1960, performing \"Rock Around the Clock\", \"Shake, Rattle and Roll\", and \"Tamiami\".=== Personal life =======Marriages====Haley was married three times:* Dorothy Crowe (December 11, 1946 – November 14, 1952) (divorced, two children)* Barbara Joan Cupchak (November 18, 1952 – 1960) (divorced, five children)* Martha Valaesco (1963 – February 9, 1981)====Children====Haley had at least ten children.", "John W. Haley, his eldest son, wrote ''Sound and Glory'', a biography of Haley.", "His youngest daughter, Gina Haley, is a professional musician based in Texas.", "Scott Haley is an athlete.", "His youngest son Pedro is also a musician.He also had a daughter, Martha Maria, from his last marriage with Martha Velasco.Bill Haley Jr., Haley's second son and first with Joan Barbara \"Cuppy\" Haley-Hahn, publishes a regional business magazine.", "In 2011, he formed a tribute band, performing his father's music and telling the stories behind the songs." ], [ "Last years and death", "Haley failed to achieve the level of success enjoyed by contemporaries such as Little Richard and Jerry Lee Lewis.", "According to one source, \"he had conflicted feelings about fame, was extremely private, suffered chronic alcoholism, and troubled relationships\".", "Having admitted to an alcohol problem in a 1974 radio interview for the BBC, Haley continued to battle alcoholism into the 1970s.", "Nonetheless, he and his band continued to be a popular touring act, benefiting from a 1950s nostalgia movement that began in the late 1960s and the signing of a lucrative record deal with the European Sonet label.", "After performing for Queen Elizabeth II at the Royal Variety Performance on November 26, 1979, Haley made his final performances in South Africa in May and June 1980.Before the South African tour, he was diagnosed with a brain tumor.", "Subsequently, Haley's planned tour of Germany in the autumn of 1980 had to be cancelled.Despite his illness, Haley started compiling notes for possible use as a basis for either a biographical film based on his life, or a published autobiography (accounts differ), and there were plans for him to record an album in Memphis, Tennessee, when the brain tumor began affecting his behavior and he returned to his home in Harlingen, Texas.The October 25, 1980, issue of German tabloid ''Bild'' reported that Haley had a brain tumor.", "Haley's British manager, Patrick Malynn, was quoted as saying that \"Haley had taken a fit and didn't recognize anyone anymore.\"", "Haley was immediately taken to his home in Beverly Hills.", "In addition, Haley's doctor said that the tumor was inoperable.", "The ''Berliner Zeitung'' reported a few days later that Haley had collapsed after a performance in Texas and was taken to the hospital in his hometown of Harlingen.", "However, this account is questionable, as Bill Haley did not perform in the United States at all in 1980.Haley's widow Martha, who was with him in these troubling times, denied he had a brain tumor, as did his close friend Hugh McCallum.", "Martha and friends related that Haley did not want to go on the road anymore and that ticket sales for that planned tour of Germany in the fall of 1980 were slow.", "McCallum said, \"It's my unproven gut feeling that that the brain tumor was said to curtail talks about the tour and play the sympathy card.", "\"At the same time, Haley's alcoholism appeared to be getting worse.", "According to Martha, by this time, she and Haley fought all the time and she told him to stop drinking or move out.", "Eventually, he moved into a room in their pool house.", "Martha still took care of him and sometimes, he would come in the house to eat, but he ate very little.", "\"There were days we never saw him,\" said his daughter Martha Maria.", "In addition to Haley's drinking problems, it was becoming evident that he was also developing serious mental health issues.", "Martha Maria said, \"It was like sometimes he was drunk even when he wasn't drinking.\"", "After Haley was picked up by the Harlingen Police several times for alleged intoxication, Martha had a judge put Haley in the hospital, where he was seen by a psychiatrist, who said Haley's brain was overproducing a chemical, like adrenaline.", "The doctor prescribed a medication to stop the overproduction, but said Haley would have to stop drinking.", "Martha said, \"This is pointless.\"", "She took him home, however, fed him and gave him his first dose.", "As soon as he felt better, he went back out to his room in the pool house, and the downward spiral continued until his death.Media reports immediately following his death indicated that Haley displayed deranged and erratic behavior in his final weeks.", "According to a biography of Haley by John Swenson, released in 1982, Haley made a succession of bizarre, mostly monologue late-night phone calls to friends and relatives toward the end of his life in which he was semi-coherent.", "His first wife has been quoted as saying, \"He would call you and ramble, dwelling on the past...\" The biography also describes Haley painting the windows of his home black, but there is little other information available about his final days.Haley died at his home in Harlingen on February9, 1981, aged 55.He was discovered lying motionless on his bed by a friend who had stopped by to visit him.", "The friend immediately called the police and Haley was pronounced dead at the scene.", "Haley's death certificate gave \"natural causes, most likely a heart attack\" as being the cause.", "Following a small funeral service attended by 75 people, Haley was cremated in Brownsville, Texas." ], [ "Tributes and legacy", "Haley received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6350 Hollywood Boulevard on February8, 1960, for his contributions to the music industry.", "Haley was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987.His son Pedro represented him at the ceremony.", "The Comets were separately inducted into the Hall of Fame as a group in 2012, after a rule change allowed the induction of backing groups.Songwriters Tom Russell and Dave Alvin addressed Haley's demise in musical terms with \"Haley's Comet\" on Alvin's 1991 album ''Blue Blvd.''", "Dwight Yoakam sang backup on the tribute.Surviving members of the 1954–55 contingent of Haley's Comets reunited in the late 1980s and continued to perform for many years around the world.", "They released a concert DVD in 2004 on Hydra Records, played the Viper Room in West Hollywood in 2005, and performed at Dick Clark's American Bandstand Theater in Branson, Missouri, beginning in 2006–07.As of 2014, only two members of this particular contingent were still alive (Joey Ambrose and Dick Richards), but they continued to perform in Branson and Europe.", "In 2019, Dick Richards, the drummer of the Comets, died at the age of 95.As of 2014, at least two other groups continue to perform in North America under the Comets name.In March 2007, the Original Comets opened the Bill Haley Museum in Munich, Germany.", "On October 27, 2007, ex-Comets guitar player Bill Turner opened the Bill Haley Museum for the public.=== Asteroid ===In February 2006, the International Astronomical Union announced the naming of asteroid 79896 Billhaley to mark the 25th anniversary of Haley's death." ], [ "Published biographies", "* In 1980, Haley began working on an autobiography entitled ''The Life and Times of Bill Haley'', but died after completing only 100 pages.", "The work is registered with the U.S.", "Copyright Office, but has yet to be released to the public.", "According to Gina Haley, Bill's youngest daughter, her father managed to complete the book on his career, and the manuscript is in possession of the Bill Haley estate.", "* Bill Haley, Jr. and Peter Benjaminson, ''Crazy Man, Crazy: The Bill Haley Story'' ,(2019)* John Swenson, ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' (),(1982)* John W. Haley with John von Hoëlle, ''Sound and Glory: The Incredible Story of Bill Haley, the Father of Rock 'N' Roll and the Music That Shook the World'' (), (1992)* Jim Dawson, ''Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution!''", "(), (2005)* Otto Fuchs, ''Bill Haley: The Father of Rock 'n' Roll'', (), (2011)" ], [ "Film portrayals", "Unlike his contemporaries, Haley has rarely been portrayed on screen.", "Following the success of ''The Buddy Holly Story'' in 1978, Haley expressed interest in having his life story committed to film, but this never came to fruition.", "In the 1980s and early 1990s, numerous media reports emerged stating that plans were underway to do a biopic based upon Haley's life, with Beau Bridges, Jeff Bridges and John Ritter all at one point being mentioned as actors in line to play Haley (according to ''Goldmine Magazine'', Ritter attempted to buy the film rights to ''Sound and Glory'').Haley has been portrayed ins:* John Paramor in ''Shout!", "The Story of Johnny O'Keefe'' (1985)* Michael Daingerfield in ''Mr.", "Rock 'n' Roll: The Alan Freed Story'' (1999)* Dicky Barrett (of The Mighty Mighty Bosstones) in ''Shake, Rattle and Roll: An American Love Story'' (1999)" ], [ "Discography", "Before the formation of Bill Haley and the Saddlemen, which later became the Comets, Haley released several singles with other groups.", "Dates are approximate due to lack of documentation.As '''Bill Haley and the Four Aces of Western Swing''':1948* ''Too Many Parties and Too Many Pals'' (vocal by Tex King)/''Four Leaf Clover Blues'' (Cowboy CR1201) August 1948 1949* ''Tennessee Border/Candy Kisses'' (Cowboy CR1202) March 1949 As '''Johnny Clifton and His String Band''':1950* ''Stand Up and Be Counted/Loveless Blues'' (Center C102)Many Haley discographies list two 1946 recordings by the Down Homers released on the Vogue Records label as featuring Haley.", "Haley historian Chris Gardner, as well as surviving members of the group, have confirmed that the two singles: \"Out Where the West Winds Blow\"/\"Who's Gonna Kiss You When I'm Gone\" (Vogue R736) and \"Boogie Woogie Yodel\"/\"Baby I Found Out All About You\" (Vogue R786) do not feature Haley.", "However, the tracks were nonetheless included in the compilation box set ''Rock 'n' Roll Arrives'' released by Bear Family Records in 2006." ], [ "Compositions", "Haley's compositions included \"Four Leaf Clover Blues\" in 1948, \"Rose of My Heart\", \"Yodel Your Blues Away\", \"Crazy Man, Crazy\", \"What'Cha Gonna Do\", \"Fractured\", \"Live It Up\", \"Farewell, So Long, Goodbye\", \"Real Rock Drive\", \"Rocking Chair on the Moon\", \"Sundown Boogie\", \"Green Tree Boogie\", \"Tearstains on My Heart\", \"Down Deep in My Heart\", \"Straight Jacket\", \"Birth of the Boogie\", \"Two Hound Dogs\", \"Rock-A-Beatin' Boogie\", \"Hot Dog Buddy Buddy\", \"R-O-C-K\", \"Rudy's Rock\", \"Calling All Comets\", \"Tonight's the Night\", \"Hook, Line and Sinker\", \"Sway with Me\", \"Paper Boy (On Main Street U.S.A.)\", \"Skinny Minnie\", \"B.B.", "Betty\", \"Eloise\", \"Whoa Mabel!", "\", \"Vive le Rock and Roll\", \"I've Got News For You\", \"So Right Tonight\", \"Jamaica D.J.", "\", \"Ana Maria\", \"Yucatán Twist\", \"Football Rock and Roll\", \"Let the Good Times Roll Again\" in 1979, and \"Chick Safari\" in 1960.He also wrote or co-wrote songs for other artists such as \"I've Got News for You\" for Penny Smith in 1955 on Kahill, \"Calypso Rock\" for Dave Day and The Red Coats on Kapp in 1956, \"Half Your Heart\" with Robert J. Hayes for Kitty Nation in 1956 on Wing, \"I Oughta\" and \"Everything But You\" for Dotti Malone in 1956 also on Wing, \"A.B.C.", "Rock\" and \"Rocky the Rockin' Rabbit\" (among others) for Sally Starr for an album she released on Haley's own label, Clymax Records, \"A Sweet Bunch of Roses\" for Country and Western singer Lou Graham, \"Toodle-Oo-Bamboo\" for Ray Coleman and His Skyrockets on Skyrocket Records in 1959, \"Always Together\" for the Cook Brothers on Arcade in 1960, \"Crazy Street\" for The Matys Brothers on Coral Records, \"The Cat\" for Cappy Bianco, and \"(Ya Gotta) Sing For the Ladies\" and \"Butterfly Love\" for Ginger Shannon and Johnny Montana in 1960 on Arcade as well as \"I'm Shook\" and \"Broke Down Baby\", both of which were recorded by The Tyrones in 1958–59." ], [ "Awards", "In 1982, Haley's \"Rock Around the Clock\" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings at least 25 years old and with \"qualitative or historical significance\".In December 2017, Haley was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Hall Of Fame." ], [ "References" ], [ "Other sources", "* Jim Dawson, ''Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution!''", "(San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2005)* John W. Haley and John von Hoëlle, ''Sound and Glory'' (Wilmington, DE: Dyne-American, 1990)* John Swenson, ''Bill Haley'' (London: W.H.", "Allen, 1982)" ], [ "External links", "* Bill Haley's new Comets web site* Melody Manor (Bill Haley's house) Google Map** Bill Haley Jr. and the Comets site" ] ]

[ [ "Northern bobwhite" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''northern bobwhite''' ('''''Colinus virginianus'''''), also known as the '''Virginia quail''' or (in its home range) '''bobwhite quail''', is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia.", "It is a member of the group of species known as New World quail (Odontophoridae).", "They were initially placed with the Old World quail in the pheasant family (Phasianidae), but are not particularly closely related.", "The name \"bobwhite\" is an onomatopoeic derivation from its characteristic whistling call.", "Despite its secretive nature, the northern bobwhite is one of the most familiar quails in eastern North America, because it is frequently the only quail in its range.", "Habitat degradation has contributed to the northern bobwhite population in eastern North America declining by roughly 85% from 1966 to 2014.This population decline is apparently range-wide and continuing.There are 20 subspecies of northern bobwhite, many of which are hunted extensively as game birds.", "One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (''Colinus virginianus ridgwayi''), is listed as endangered with wild populations located in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and a reintroduced population in Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona." ], [ "Taxonomy and systematics", "===Subspecies===There are 20 recognized subspecies in four groups.", "One subspecies, the Key West bobwhite (''C.", "v. insulanus''), is extinct.", "The subspecies are listed in taxonomic order:*Eastern group**''C.", "v. virginianus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) - Virginia bobwhite - eastern North America from Ontario south to northern Florida (includes former subspecies ''marilandicus'' and ''mexicanus'')**''C.", "v. floridanus'' (Coues, 1872) - Florida bobwhite - peninsular Florida**†''C.", "v. insulanus'' (Howe, 1904) - Key West bobwhite - the Florida Keys (extinct)**''C.", "v. cubanensis'' (GR Gray, 1846) - Cuban bobwhite - Cuba and Isla de la Juventud; introduced to Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and the Turks and Caicos islands**''C.", "v. taylori'' (Lincoln, 1915) - plains bobwhite - South Dakota to northern Texas, western Missouri and northwestern Arkansas**''C.", "v. texanus'' (Lawrence, 1853) - Texas bobwhite - southwestern Texas to northern Mexico**''C.", "v. aridus'' (Lawrence, 1853) - Jaumave bobwhite - west-central Tamaulipas to southeastern San Luis Potosí**''C.", "v. maculatus'' (Nelson, 1899) - spot-bellied bobwhite - central Tamaulipas to northern Veracruz and southeastern San Luis Potosí*Grayson's group**''C.", "v. graysoni'' (Lawrence, 1867) - Grayson's bobwhite - west-central Mexico**''C.", "v. nigripectus'' (Nelson, 1897) - Puebla bobwhite - eastern Mexico*Black-breasted group**''C.", "v. pectoralis'' (Gould, 1843) - black-breasted bobwhite - eastern slopes and mountains of central Veracruz**''C.", "v. godmani'' (Nelson, 1897) - Godman's bobwhite - eastern slopes and mountains of central Veracruz**''C.", "v. minor'' (Nelson, 1901) - least bobwhite - northeastern Chiapas and Tabasco**''C.", "v. thayeri'' (Bangs and Peters, 1928) - Thayer's bobwhite - northeastern Oaxaca*Masked group**''C.", "v. ridgwayi'' (Brewster, 1885) - masked bobwhite - north-central Sonora; reintroduced to Arizona**''C.", "v. atriceps'' (Ogilvie-Grant, 1893) - black-headed bobwhite - interior of western Oaxaca**''C.", "v. harrisoni'' (Orr and Webster, 1968) - Harrison's bobwhite - southwestern Oaxaca**''C.", "v. coyoleos'' (Müller, PLS, 1776) - Coyoleos bobwhite - Pacific Coast of Oaxaca and Chiapas**''C.", "v. salvini'' (Nelson, 1897) - Salvin's bobwhite - coastal and southern Chiapas**''C.", "v. insignis'' (Nelson, 1897) - Guatemalan bobwhite - Guatemala (Rio Chiapas Valley) and southeastern Chiapas (includes former subspecies ''nelsoni'')The holotype specimen of ''Ortyx pectoralis'' Gould ( Proc.", "Zool.", "Soc.", "London, 1842 (1843), p.182.)", "is held in the collections of the National Museums Liverpool at the World Museum, with accession number D3713.The specimen died in the aviary at Knowsley Hall, Lancashire and came to the Liverpool national collection via the 13th Earl of Derby's collection, which was bequeathed to the people of Liverpool in 1851." ], [ "Description", "''C.", "virginianus'' is a moderately-sized quail, and is the only small galliform native to eastern North America.", "The bobwhite can range from in length with a wingspan.", "As indicated by body mass, weights increase in birds found further north, as corresponds to Bergmann's rule.", "In Mexico, northern bobwhites weigh from whereas in the north they average and large males can attain as much as .", "Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is the culmen is and the tarsus is .", "It has the typical chunky, rounded shape of a quail.", "The bill is short, curved and brown-black in color.", "This species is sexually dimorphic.", "Males have a white throat and brow stripe bordered by black.", "The overall rufous plumage has gray mottling on the wings, white scalloped stripes on the flanks, and black scallops on the whitish underparts.", "The tail is gray.", "Females are similar but are duller overall and have a buff throat and brow without the black border.", "Both sexes have pale legs and feet." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "The northern bobwhite can be found year-round in agricultural fields, grassland, open woodland areas, roadsides and wood edges.", "Its range covers the southeastern quadrant of the United States from the Great Lakes and southern Minnesota east to New York State and southern Massachusetts, and extending west to southern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado front-range foothills to 7,000 feet, and all but westernmost Texas.It is absent from the southern tip of Florida (where the extinct Key West bobwhite subspecies once lived) and the highest elevations of the Appalachian Mountains, but occurs in eastern Mexico and in Cuba, and has been introduced to Hispaniola (both the Dominican Republic and Haiti), the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands (formerly), Puerto Rico, France, China, Portugal, and Italy.", "Isolated populations also have been introduced in Oregon and Washington.", "The northern bobwhite has also been introduced to New Zealand.There is no self-sustaining population in Pennsylvania, where the bird is considered extirpated; it is also considered extirpated in the states of New Hampshire and Connecticut.", "Its distribution in New York has been limited to Suffolk and Nassau Counties on Long Island, as well as potential population pockets in Upstate New York.", "The bird is considered declining or extirpated throughout much of the Northeastern United States.", "Similarly, the bird is almost extirpated from Ontario (and Canada as a whole), with the only self-sustaining population confirmed to exist recorded on Walpole Island." ], [ "Vocalizations", "The clear whistle \"bob-WHITE\" or \"bob-bob-WHITE\" call is very recognizable.", "The syllables are slow and widely spaced, rising in pitch a full octave from beginning to end.", "Other calls include lisps, peeps, and more rapidly whistled warning calls." ], [ "Behavior and ecology", "EggLike most game birds, the northern bobwhite is shy and elusive.", "When threatened, it will crouch and freeze, relying on camouflage to stay undetected, but will flush into low flight if closely disturbed.", "It is generally solitary or paired early in the year, but family groups are common in the late summer and winter roosts may have two dozen or more birds in a single covey.=== Breeding ===The species was once considered monogamous, but with the advent of radio telemetry, the sexual behavior of bobwhites has better been described as ambisexual polygamy.", "Either parent may incubate a clutch for 23 days, and the precocial young leave the nest shortly after hatching.", "The main source of nest failure is predation, with nest success averaging 28% across their range.", "However, the nest success of stable populations is typically much higher than this average, and the aforementioned estimate includes values for declining populations.Brooding behavior varies in that amalgamation (kidnapping, adopting, creching, gang brooding) may occur.", "An incubating parent may alternatively stay with its young.", "A hen may re-nest up to four times until she has a successful nest.", "However, it is extremely rare for bobwhites to hatch more than two successful nests within one nesting season.===Food and feeding===The northern bobwhite's diet consists of plant material and small invertebrates, such as snails, ticks, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, crickets, and leafhoppers.", "Plant sources include seeds, wild berries, partridge peas, and cultivated grains.", "It forages on the ground in open areas with some spots of taller vegetation.Optimal nutrient requirements for bobwhite vary depending on the age of bird and the time of the year.", "For example, the optimal protein requirement for egg laying hens (23% protein) is much higher than for males (16%)." ], [ "Relationship to humans", "===Introduced populations======= European Union ====Northern bobwhite were introduced into Italy in 1927, and are reported in the plains and hills in the northwest of the country.", "Other reports from the EU are in France, Spain, and the Balkans As bobwhites are highly productive and popular aviary subjects, it is reasonable to expect other introductions have been made in other parts of the EU, especially in the U.K. and Ireland, where game-bird breeding, liberation, and naturalization are relatively common practices.==== New Zealand ====From 1898 to 1902, some 1,300 birds were imported from America and released in many parts of the North and South Islands, from Northland to Southland.", "The bird was briefly on the Nelson game shooting licence, but: \"It would seem that the committee was a little too eager in placing these Quail on the licence, or the shooters of the day were over-zealous and greedy in their bag limits, for the Virginian Quail, like the Mountain Quail were soon a thing of the past.\"", "The Taranaki (Acclimatisation) Society released a few in 1900 and was confidant that in a year or two they might offer good sport; two years later, broods were reported and the species was said to be ''steadily increasing''; but after another two years they seemed ''to have disappeared'' and that was the end of them.", "The Otago (Acclimatisation) Society imported more in 1948, but these releases did no good.", "After 1923, no more genuinely wild birds were sighted until 1952, when a small population was found northwest of Wairoa in the Ruapapa Road area.", "Since then, bobwhite have been found at several localities around Waikaremoana, in farmland, open bush and along roadsides.More birds have been imported into New Zealand by private individuals since the 1990s and a healthy captive population is now held by backyard aviculturists and have been found to be easily cared for and bred and are popular for their song and good looks.", "A larger proportion of the national captive population belong to a few game preserves and game bird breeders.", "Though the birds would be self-sustaining in the wild if they were protected; it is tricky to guess what the effect of an annual population subsidy and hunting has on any of the original populations from the Acclimatisation Society releases.An albino hen was present in a covey in Bayview, Hawkes Bay for a couple of seasons sometime around 2000.===Captivity===Domesticated northern bobwhite==== Housing ====Bobwhites are generally compatible with most parrots, softbills and doves.", "This species should, however, be the only ground-dwelling species in the aviary.", "Most individuals will do little damage to finches, but one should watch that nests are not being crushed when the species perches at night.", "Single pairs are preferred, unless the birds have been raised together as a group since they were chicks.", "Some fighting will occur between cocks at breeding time.", "One cock may be capable of breeding with several hens, but the fertility seems to be highest in the eggs from the ''preferred'' hen.", "Aviary style is a compromise between what is tolerated by the bird and what is best for the bird.", "Open parrot-style type aviaries may be used, but some birds will remain flighty and shy in this situation.", "In a planted aviary, this species will generally settle down to become quite tame and confiding.", "Parents with chicks will roost on the ground, forming a circular arrangement, with heads facing outwards.", "In the early morning and late afternoon, the cock will utter his call, which, although not loud, carries well and may offend noise-sensitive neighbors.", "Most breeding facilities keep birds in breeding groups on wire up off the ground.", "This keeps the birds clean and generally avoids diseases and parasites, which can devastate a covey.", "Cages with mesh floors for pairs and trios are also employed, but usually where there is a photo-period manipulation to keep birds breeding through winter.==== Feeding ====In the wild the northern bobwhite feeds on a variety of weed and grass seeds, as well as insects.", "These are generally collected on the ground or from low foliage.", "Birds in the aviary are easily catered for with a commercial small seed mix (finch, budgerigar, or small parrot mix) when supplemented with greenfeed.", "Live food is not usually necessary for breeding, but will be ravenously accepted.", "High protein foods such as chicken grower crumble are more convenient to supply and will be useful for the stimulation of breeding birds.", "Extra calcium is required, especially by laying hens; it can be supplied in the form of shell grit, or cuttlefish bone.==== Breeding ====If a nesting site and privacy are not provided, hens will lay anywhere within an open aviary.", "Hens that do this may, in a season, lay upwards of 80 eggs, which can be taken for artificial incubation and the chicks hand-raised.", "Hens with nesting cover that do make a nest (on the ground) will build up 8–25 eggs in a clutch, with eggs being laid daily.==== Mutations and hybrids ====Some captive bobwhite hybrids recorded are between blue quail (scaled quail), Gambel's quail, California quail, and mountain quail.", "It has long been suggested that there are Japanese quail hybrids being bred commercially; however, there is a distinct lack of photographic proof to substantiate this.", "Inter-subspecific hybrids have been common.Several mutations have long been established, including Californian Jumbo, Wisconsin Jumbo, Northern Giant, Albino, Snowflake, Blonde, Fawn, Barred, Silver, and Red." ], [ "Status", "The northern bobwhite is rated as a Near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.", "The northern bobwhite is threatened across its range due to habitat loss and habitat degradation.", "Changing land use patterns and changing fire regimes have caused once prime habitat to become unfavorable for the bobwhite.=== Masked bobwhite ===The masked bobwhite subspecies, ''C.", "v. ridgwayi'', is listed as endangered in the U.S.", "The birds were twice declared extirpated in Arizona in the past century.", "It was originally endemic to southern Arizona in the U.S., and northern Sonora in Mexico.", "It is considered a ''Critically Imperiled Subspecies'' by NatureServe.The masked bobwhite was in decline since its discovery in 1884.By 1900, the subspecies was already extinct in the U.S.", "Populations remained in Mexico, but their study was curtailed by political events in Mexico, including the Mexican Revolution and the last of the Yaqui Wars.", "A population of the masked bobwhite was finally discovered and studied in Mexico, in 1931 and 1932.A native population historically existed in Sonora, but by 2017, its population appeared to be declining, or possibly extinct.", "A 2017 study recorded no wild sightings of the bird in Sonora.", "Decline of the species has been attributed to intense livestock grazing in an ecosystem that does not rejuvenate quickly.A captive flock was established in Arizona in the 1970s.", "The George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center (Sutton Center) became involved with conservation efforts in 2017 to establish a breeding population at the Sutton Center in Oklahoma, in order to reintroduce birds to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR).", "In 2019, biologists from the Sutton Center transported 1,000 chicks by road vehicle to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge.", "In 2020, a projected total of 1,200 birds will be transported by airplanes to BANWR.", "These recent actions are supplemental, and in addition to other conservation efforts in the past, seem to aid the subspecies' future conservation efforts." ], [ "In popular culture", "In 2023, the masked bobwhite subspecies will be featured on a United States Postal Service Forever stamp as part of the ''Endangered Species'' set, based on a photograph from Joel Sartore's ''Photo Ark''.", "The stamp will be dedicated at a ceremony at the National Grasslands Visitor Center in Wall, South Dakota." ], [ "See also", "*Quail hunting" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Northern Bobwhite at BirdWeb (seattleaudubon.org) * Northern Bobwhite info at About.com* National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bipolar disorder" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bipolar disorder''', previously known as '''manic depression''', is a mental disorder characterized by periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood that each last from days to weeks.", "If the elevated mood is severe or associated with psychosis, it is called mania; if it is less severe, it is called hypomania.", "During mania, an individual behaves or feels abnormally energetic, happy or irritable, and they often make impulsive decisions with little regard for the consequences.", "There is usually also a reduced need for sleep during manic phases.", "During periods of depression, the individual may experience crying and have a negative outlook on life and poor eye contact with others.", "The risk of suicide is high; over a period of 20 years, 6% of those with bipolar disorder died by suicide, while 30–40% engaged in self-harm.", "Other mental health issues, such as anxiety disorders and substance use disorders, are commonly associated with bipolar disorder.While the causes of this mood disorder are not clearly understood, both genetic and environmental factors are thought to play a role.", "Many genes, each with small effects, may contribute to the development of the disorder.", "Genetic factors account for about 70–90% of the risk of developing bipolar disorder.", "Environmental risk factors include a history of childhood abuse and long-term stress.", "The condition is classified as bipolar I disorder if there has been at least one manic episode, with or without depressive episodes, and as bipolar II disorder if there has been at least one hypomanic episode (but no full manic episodes) and one major depressive episode.", "It is classified as cyclothymia if there are hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet the criteria for major depressive episodes.If these symptoms are due to drugs or medical problems, they are not diagnosed as bipolar disorder.", "Other conditions that have overlapping symptoms with bipolar disorder include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, personality disorders, schizophrenia, and substance use disorder as well as many other medical conditions.", "Medical testing is not required for a diagnosis, though blood tests or medical imaging can rule out other problems.Mood stabilizers—lithium and certain anticonvulsants such as valproate and carbamazepine as well as atypical antipsychotics such as aripiprazole—are the mainstay of long-term pharmacologic relapse prevention.", "Antipsychotics are additionally given during acute manic episodes as well as in cases where mood stabilizers are poorly tolerated or ineffective.", "In patients where compliance is of concern, long-acting injectable formulations are available.", "There is some evidence that psychotherapy improves the course of this disorder.", "The use of antidepressants in depressive episodes is controversial: they can be effective but have been implicated in triggering manic episodes.", "The treatment of depressive episodes, therefore, is often difficult.", "Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is effective in acute manic and depressive episodes, especially with psychosis or catatonia.", "Admission to a psychiatric hospital may be required if a person is a risk to themselves or others; involuntary treatment is sometimes necessary if the affected person refuses treatment.Bipolar disorder occurs in approximately 2% of the global population.", "In the United States, about 3% are estimated to be affected at some point in their life; rates appear to be similar in females and males.", "Symptoms most commonly begin between the ages of 20 and 25 years old; an earlier onset in life is associated with a worse prognosis.", "Interest in functioning in the assessment of patients with bipolar disorder is growing, with an emphasis on specific domains such as work, education, social life, family, and cognition.", "Around one-quarter to one-third of people with bipolar disorder have financial, social or work-related problems due to the illness.", "Bipolar disorder is among the top 20 causes of disability worldwide and leads to substantial costs for society.", "Due to lifestyle choices and the side effects of medications, the risk of death from natural causes such as coronary heart disease in people with bipolar disorder is twice that of the general population." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of bipolar disorder.", "The condition is characterized by intermittent episodes of mania, commonly (but not in every patient) alternating with bouts of depression, with an absence of symptoms in between.", "During these episodes, people with bipolar disorder exhibit disruptions in normal mood, psychomotor activity (the level of physical activity that is influenced by mood)—e.g.", "constant fidgeting during mania or slowed movements during depression—circadian rhythm and cognition.", "Mania can present with varying levels of mood disturbance, ranging from euphoria, which is associated with \"classic mania\", to dysphoria and irritability.", "Psychotic symptoms such as delusions or hallucinations may occur in both manic and depressive episodes; their content and nature are consistent with the person's prevailing mood.", "In some people with bipolar disorder, depressive symptoms predominate, and the episodes of mania are always the more subdued hypomania type.According to the DSM-5 criteria, mania is distinguished from hypomania by the duration: hypomania is present if elevated mood symptoms persist for at least four consecutive days, while mania is present if such symptoms persist for more than a week.", "Unlike mania, hypomania is not always associated with impaired functioning.", "The biological mechanisms responsible for switching from a manic or hypomanic episode to a depressive episode, or vice versa, remain poorly understood.=== Manic episodes ===An 1892 color lithograph depicting a woman diagnosed with ''hilarious mania''Also known as a manic episode, mania is a distinct period of at least one week of elevated or irritable mood, which can range from euphoria to delirium.", "The core symptom of mania involves an increase in energy of psychomotor activity.", "Mania can also present with increased self-esteem or grandiosity, racing thoughts, pressured speech that is difficult to interrupt, decreased need for sleep, disinhibited social behavior, increased goal-oriented activities and impaired judgement, which can lead to exhibition of behaviors characterized as impulsive or high-risk, such as hypersexuality or excessive spending.", "To fit the definition of a manic episode, these behaviors must impair the individual's ability to socialize or work.", "If untreated, a manic episode usually lasts three to six months.In severe manic episodes, a person can experience psychotic symptoms, where thought content is affected along with mood.", "They may feel unstoppable, persecuted, or as if they have a special relationship with God, a great mission to accomplish, or other grandiose or delusional ideas.", "This may lead to violent behavior and, sometimes, hospitalization in an inpatient psychiatric hospital.", "The severity of manic symptoms can be measured by rating scales such as the Young Mania Rating Scale, though questions remain about the reliability of these scales.The onset of a manic or depressive episode is often foreshadowed by sleep disturbance.", "Manic individuals often have a history of substance use disorder developed over years as a form of \"self-medication\".=== Hypomanic episodes ===An 1858 lithograph captioned 'Melancholy passing into mania'Hypomania is the milder form of mania, defined as at least four days of the same criteria as mania, but which does not cause a significant decrease in the individual's ability to socialize or work, lacks psychotic features such as delusions or hallucinations, and does not require psychiatric hospitalization.", "Overall functioning may actually increase during episodes of hypomania and is thought to serve as a defense mechanism against depression by some.", "Hypomanic episodes rarely progress to full-blown manic episodes.", "Some people who experience hypomania show increased creativity, while others are irritable or demonstrate poor judgment.Hypomania may feel good to some individuals who experience it, though most people who experience hypomania state that the stress of the experience is very painful.", "People with bipolar disorder who experience hypomania tend to forget the effects of their actions on those around them.", "Even when family and friends recognize mood swings, the individual will often deny that anything is wrong.", "If not accompanied by depressive episodes, hypomanic episodes are often not deemed problematic unless the mood changes are uncontrollable or volatile.", "Most commonly, symptoms continue for time periods from a few weeks to a few months.=== Depressive episodes ===''Melancholy'' by William Bagg, after a photograph by Hugh Welch DiamondSymptoms of the depressive phase of bipolar disorder include persistent feelings of sadness, irritability or anger, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, sleeping too much or not enough, changes in appetite and/or weight, fatigue, problems concentrating, self-loathing or feelings of worthlessness, and thoughts of death or suicide.", "Although the DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing unipolar and bipolar episodes are the same, some clinical features are more common in the latter, including increased sleep, sudden onset and resolution of symptoms, significant weight gain or loss, and severe episodes after childbirth.The earlier the age of onset, the more likely the first few episodes are to be depressive.", "For most people with bipolar types 1 and 2, the depressive episodes are much longer than the manic or hypomanic episodes.", "Since a diagnosis of bipolar disorder requires a manic or hypomanic episode, many affected individuals are initially misdiagnosed as having major depression and incorrectly treated with prescribed antidepressants.=== Mixed affective episodes ===In bipolar disorder, a mixed state is an episode during which symptoms of both mania and depression occur simultaneously.", "Individuals experiencing a mixed state may have manic symptoms such as grandiose thoughts while simultaneously experiencing depressive symptoms such as excessive guilt or feeling suicidal.", "They are considered to have a higher risk for suicidal behavior as depressive emotions such as hopelessness are often paired with mood swings or difficulties with impulse control.", "Anxiety disorders occur more frequently as a comorbidity in mixed bipolar episodes than in non-mixed bipolar depression or mania.", "Substance (including alcohol) use also follows this trend, thereby appearing to depict bipolar symptoms as no more than a consequence of substance use.=== Comorbid conditions ===People with bipolar disorder often have other co-existing psychiatric conditions such as anxiety (present in about 71% of people with bipolar disorder), substance abuse (56%), personality disorders (36%) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (10–20%) which can add to the burden of illness and worsen the prognosis.", "Certain medical conditions are also more common in people with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population.", "This includes increased rates of metabolic syndrome (present in 37% of people with bipolar disorder), migraine headaches (35%), obesity (21%) and type 2 diabetes (14%).", "This contributes to a risk of death that is two times higher in those with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population.Substance use disorder is a common comorbidity in bipolar disorder; the subject has been widely reviewed." ], [ "Causes", "The causes of bipolar disorder likely vary between individuals and the exact mechanism underlying the disorder remains unclear.", "Genetic influences are believed to account for 73–93% of the risk of developing the disorder indicating a strong hereditary component.", "The overall heritability of the bipolar spectrum has been estimated at 0.71.Twin studies have been limited by relatively small sample sizes but have indicated a substantial genetic contribution, as well as environmental influence.", "For bipolar I disorder, the rate at which identical twins (same genes) will both have bipolar I disorder (concordance) is around 40%, compared to about 5% in fraternal twins.", "A combination of bipolar I, II, and cyclothymia similarly produced rates of 42% and 11% (identical and fraternal twins, respectively).", "The rates of bipolar II combinations without bipolar I are lowerbipolar II at 23 and 17%, and bipolar II combining with cyclothymia at 33 and 14%which may reflect relatively higher genetic heterogeneity.The cause of bipolar disorders overlaps with major depressive disorder.", "When defining concordance as the co-twins having either bipolar disorder or major depression, then the concordance rate rises to 67% in identical twins and 19% in fraternal twins.", "The relatively low concordance between fraternal twins brought up together suggests that shared family environmental effects are limited, although the ability to detect them has been limited by small sample sizes.=== Genetic ===Behavioral genetic studies have suggested that many chromosomal regions and candidate genes are related to bipolar disorder susceptibility with each gene exerting a mild to moderate effect.", "The risk of bipolar disorder is nearly ten-fold higher in first-degree relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population; similarly, the risk of major depressive disorder is three times higher in relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population.Although the first genetic linkage finding for mania was in 1969, linkage studies have been inconsistent.", "Findings point strongly to heterogeneity, with different genes implicated in different families.", "Robust and replicable genome-wide significant associations showed several common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with bipolar disorder, including variants within the genes ''CACNA1C'', ''ODZ4'', and ''NCAN''.", "The largest and most recent genome-wide association study failed to find any locus that exerts a large effect, reinforcing the idea that no single gene is responsible for bipolar disorder in most cases.", "Polymorphisms in ''BDNF'', ''DRD4'', ''DAO'', and ''TPH1'' have been frequently associated with bipolar disorder and were initially associated in a meta-analysis, but this association disappeared after correction for multiple testing.", "On the other hand, two polymorphisms in ''TPH2'' were identified as being associated with bipolar disorder.Due to the inconsistent findings in a genome-wide association study, multiple studies have undertaken the approach of analyzing SNPs in biological pathways.", "Signaling pathways traditionally associated with bipolar disorder that have been supported by these studies include corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling, cardiac β-adrenergic signaling, phospholipase C signaling, glutamate receptor signaling, cardiac hypertrophy signaling, Wnt signaling, Notch signaling, and endothelin 1 signaling.", "Of the 16 genes identified in these pathways, three were found to be dysregulated in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex portion of the brain in post-mortem studies: ''CACNA1C'', ''GNG2'', and ''ITPR2''.Bipolar disorder is associated with reduced expression of specific DNA repair enzymes and increased levels of oxidative DNA damages.=== Environmental ===Psychosocial factors play a significant role in the development and course of bipolar disorder, and individual psychosocial variables may interact with genetic dispositions.", "Recent life events and interpersonal relationships likely contribute to the onset and recurrence of bipolar mood episodes, just as they do for unipolar depression.", "In surveys, 30–50% of adults diagnosed with bipolar disorder report traumatic/abusive experiences in childhood, which is associated with earlier onset, a higher rate of suicide attempts, and more co-occurring disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder.", "The number of reported stressful events in childhood is higher in those with an adult diagnosis of bipolar spectrum disorder than in those without, particularly events stemming from a harsh environment rather than from the child's own behavior.", "Acutely, mania can be induced by sleep deprivation in around 30% of people with bipolar disorder.=== Neurological ===Less commonly, bipolar disorder or a bipolar-like disorder may occur as a result of or in association with a neurological condition or injury including stroke, traumatic brain injury, HIV infection, multiple sclerosis, porphyria, and rarely temporal lobe epilepsy." ], [ "Proposed mechanisms", "Brain imaging studies have revealed differences in the volume of various brain regions between patients with bipolar disorder and healthy control subjects.The precise mechanisms that cause bipolar disorder are not well understood.", "Bipolar disorder is thought to be associated with abnormalities in the structure and function of certain brain areas responsible for cognitive tasks and the processing of emotions.", "A neurologic model for bipolar disorder proposes that the emotional circuitry of the brain can be divided into two main parts.", "The ventral system (regulates emotional perception) includes brain structures such as the amygdala, insula, ventral striatum, ventral anterior cingulate cortex, and the prefrontal cortex.", "The dorsal system (responsible for emotional regulation) includes the hippocampus, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and other parts of the prefrontal cortex.", "The model hypothesizes that bipolar disorder may occur when the ventral system is overactivated and the dorsal system is underactivated.", "Other models suggest the ability to regulate emotions is disrupted in people with bipolar disorder and that dysfunction of the ventricular prefrontal cortex is crucial to this disruption.Meta-analyses of structural MRI studies have shown that certain brain regions (e.g., the left rostral anterior cingulate cortex, fronto-insular cortex, ventral prefrontal cortex, and claustrum) are smaller in people with bipolar disorder, whereas other regions are larger (lateral ventricles, globus pallidus, subgenual anterior cingulate, and the amygdala).", "Additionally, these meta-analyses found that people with bipolar disorder have higher rates of deep white matter hyperintensities.Functional MRI findings suggest that the ventricular prefrontal cortex regulates the limbic system, especially the amygdala.", "In people with bipolar disorder, decreased ventricular prefrontal cortex activity allows for the dysregulated activity of the amygdala, which likely contributes to labile mood and poor emotional regulation.", "Consistent with this, pharmacological treatment of mania returns ventricular prefrontal cortex activity to the levels in non-manic people, suggesting that ventricular prefrontal cortex activity is an indicator of mood state.", "However, while pharmacological treatment of mania reduces amygdala hyperactivity, it remains more active than the amygdala of those without bipolar disorder, suggesting amygdala activity may be a marker of the disorder rather than the current mood state.", "Manic and depressive episodes tend to be characterized by dysfunction in different regions of the ventricular prefrontal cortex.", "Manic episodes appear to be associated with decreased activation of the right ventricular prefrontal cortex whereas depressive episodes are associated with decreased activation of the left ventricular prefrontal cortex.", "These disruptions often occur during development linked with synaptic pruning dysfunction.People with bipolar disorder who are in a euthymic mood state show decreased activity in the lingual gyrus compared to people without bipolar disorder.", "In contrast, they demonstrate decreased activity in the inferior frontal cortex during manic episodes compared to people without the disorder.", "Similar studies examining the differences in brain activity between people with bipolar disorder and those without did not find a consistent area in the brain that was more or less active when comparing these two groups.", "People with bipolar have increased activation of left hemisphere ventral limbic areaswhich mediate emotional experiences and generation of emotional responsesand decreased activation of right hemisphere cortical structures related to cognitionstructures associated with the regulation of emotions.Neuroscientists have proposed additional models to try to explain the cause of bipolar disorder.", "One proposed model for bipolar disorder suggests that hypersensitivity of reward circuits consisting of frontostriatal circuits causes mania, and decreased sensitivity of these circuits causes depression.", "According to the \"kindling\" hypothesis, when people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience stressful events, the stress threshold at which mood changes occur becomes progressively lower, until the episodes eventually start (and recur) spontaneously.", "There is evidence supporting an association between early-life stress and dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leading to its overactivation, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder.", "Other brain components that have been proposed to play a role in bipolar disorder are the mitochondria and a sodium ATPase pump.", "Circadian rhythms and regulation of the hormone melatonin also seem to be altered.Dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for mood cycling, has increased transmission during the manic phase.", "The dopamine hypothesis states that the increase in dopamine results in secondary homeostatic downregulation of key system elements and receptors such as lower sensitivity of dopaminergic receptors.", "This results in decreased dopamine transmission characteristic of the depressive phase.", "The depressive phase ends with homeostatic upregulation potentially restarting the cycle over again.", "Glutamate is significantly increased within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during the manic phase of bipolar disorder, and returns to normal levels once the phase is over.Medications used to treat bipolar may exert their effect by modulating intracellular signaling, such as through depleting myo-inositol levels, inhibition of cAMP signaling, and through altering subunits of the dopamine-associated G-protein.", "Consistent with this, elevated levels of Gαi, Gαs, and Gαq/11 have been reported in brain and blood samples, along with increased protein kinase A (PKA) expression and sensitivity; typically, PKA activates as part of the intracellular signalling cascade downstream from the detachment of Gαs subunit from the G protein complex.Decreased levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, a byproduct of serotonin, are present in the cerebrospinal fluid of persons with bipolar disorder during both the depressed and manic phases.", "Increased dopaminergic activity has been hypothesized in manic states due to the ability of dopamine agonists to stimulate mania in people with bipolar disorder.", "Decreased sensitivity of regulatory α2 adrenergic receptors as well as increased cell counts in the locus coeruleus indicated increased noradrenergic activity in manic people.", "Low plasma GABA levels on both sides of the mood spectrum have been found.", "One review found no difference in monoamine levels, but found abnormal norepinephrine turnover in people with bipolar disorder.", "Tyrosine depletion was found to reduce the effects of methamphetamine in people with bipolar disorder as well as symptoms of mania, implicating dopamine in mania.", "VMAT2 binding was found to be increased in one study of people with bipolar mania." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Bipolar disorder is commonly diagnosed during adolescence or early adulthood, but onset can occur throughout life.", "Its diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the individual, abnormal behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, observable signs of illness as assessed by a clinician, and ideally a medical work-up to rule out other causes.", "Caregiver-scored rating scales, specifically from the mother, have shown to be more accurate than teacher and youth-scored reports in identifying youths with bipolar disorder.", "Assessment is usually done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to oneself or others.The most widely used criteria for diagnosing bipolar disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and the World Health Organization's (WHO) ''International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems'', 10th Edition (ICD-10).", "The ICD-10 criteria are used more often in clinical settings outside of the U.S. while the DSM criteria are used within the U.S. and are the prevailing criteria used internationally in research studies.", "The DSM-5, published in 2013, includes further and more accurate specifiers compared to its predecessor, the DSM-IV-TR.", "This work has influenced the eleventh revision of the ICD, which includes the various diagnoses within the bipolar spectrum of the DSM-V.Several rating scales for the screening and evaluation of bipolar disorder exist, including the Bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale, Mood Disorder Questionnaire, the General Behavior Inventory and the Hypomania Checklist.", "The use of evaluation scales cannot substitute a full clinical interview but they serve to systematize the recollection of symptoms.", "On the other hand, instruments for screening bipolar disorder tend to have lower sensitivity.=== Differential diagnosis ===Bipolar disorder is classified by the International Classification of Diseases as a mental and behavioural disorder.", "Mental disorders that can have symptoms similar to those seen in bipolar disorder include schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and certain personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder.", "A key difference between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder is the nature of the mood swings; in contrast to the sustained changes to mood over days to weeks or longer, those of the latter condition (more accurately called emotional dysregulation) are sudden and often short-lived, and secondary to social stressors.Although there are no biological tests that are diagnostic of bipolar disorder, blood tests and/or imaging are carried out to investigate whether medical illnesses with clinical presentations similar to that of bipolar disorder are present before making a definitive diagnosis.", "Neurologic diseases such as multiple sclerosis, complex partial seizures, strokes, brain tumors, Wilson's disease, traumatic brain injury, Huntington's disease, and complex migraines can mimic features of bipolar disorder.", "An EEG may be used to exclude neurological disorders such as epilepsy, and a CT scan or MRI of the head may be used to exclude brain lesions.", "Additionally, disorders of the endocrine system such as hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and Cushing's disease are in the differential as is the connective tissue disease systemic lupus erythematosus.", "Infectious causes of mania that may appear similar to bipolar mania include herpes encephalitis, HIV, influenza, or neurosyphilis.", "Certain vitamin deficiencies such as pellagra (niacin deficiency), vitamin B12 deficiency, folate deficiency, and Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (thiamine deficiency) can also lead to mania.", "Common medications that can cause manic symptoms include antidepressants, prednisone, Parkinson's disease medications, thyroid hormone, stimulants (including cocaine and methamphetamine), and certain antibiotics.=== Bipolar spectrum ===Since Emil Kraepelin's distinction between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in the 19th century, researchers have defined a spectrum of different types of bipolar disorder.Bipolar spectrum disorders include: bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, cyclothymic disorder and cases where subthreshold symptoms are found to cause clinically significant impairment or distress.", "These disorders involve major depressive episodes that alternate with manic or hypomanic episodes, or with mixed episodes that feature symptoms of both mood states.", "The concept of the bipolar spectrum is similar to that of Emil Kraepelin's original concept of manic depressive illness.", "Bipolar II disorder was established as a diagnosis in 1994 within DSM IV; though debate continues over whether it is a distinct entity, part of a spectrum, or exists at all.=== Criteria and subtypes ===Simplified graphical comparison of bipolar I, bipolar II and cyclothymiaThe DSM and the ICD characterize bipolar disorder as a spectrum of disorders occurring on a continuum.", "The DSM-5 and ICD-11 lists three specific subtypes:* Bipolar I disorder: At least one manic episode is necessary to make the diagnosis; depressive episodes are common in the vast majority of cases with bipolar disorder I, but are unnecessary for the diagnosis.", "Specifiers such as \"mild, moderate, moderate-severe, severe\" and \"with psychotic features\" should be added as applicable to indicate the presentation and course of the disorder.", "* Bipolar II disorder: No manic episodes and one or more hypomanic episodes and one or more major depressive episodes.", "Hypomanic episodes do not go to the full extremes of mania (''i.e.", "'', do not usually cause severe social or occupational impairment, and are without psychosis), and this can make bipolar II more difficult to diagnose, since the hypomanic episodes may simply appear as periods of successful high productivity and are reported less frequently than a distressing, crippling depression.", "* Cyclothymia: A history of hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet criteria for major depressive episodes.When relevant, specifiers for ''peripartum onset'' and ''with rapid cycling'' should be used with any subtype.", "Individuals who have subthreshold symptoms that cause clinically significant distress or impairment, but do not meet full criteria for one of the three subtypes may be diagnosed with other specified or unspecified bipolar disorder.", "Other specified bipolar disorder is used when a clinician chooses to explain why the full criteria were not met (e.g., hypomania without a prior major depressive episode).", "If the condition is thought to have a non-psychiatric medical cause, the diagnosis of ''bipolar and related disorder due to another medical condition'' is made, while ''substance/medication-induced bipolar and related disorder'' is used if a medication is thought to have triggered the condition.==== Rapid cycling ====Most people who meet criteria for bipolar disorder experience a number of episodes, on average 0.4 to 0.7 per year, lasting three to six months.", "''Rapid cycling'', however, is a course specifier that may be applied to any bipolar subtype.", "It is defined as having four or more mood disturbance episodes within a one-year span.", "Rapid cycling is usually temporary but is common amongst people with bipolar disorder and affects 25.8–45.3% of them at some point in their life.", "These episodes are separated from each other by a remission (partial or full) for at least two months or a switch in mood polarity (i.e., from a depressive episode to a manic episode or vice versa).", "The definition of rapid cycling most frequently cited in the literature (including the DSM-V and ICD-11) is that of Dunner and Fieve: at least four major depressive, manic, hypomanic or mixed episodes during a 12-month period.", "The literature examining the pharmacological treatment of rapid cycling is sparse and there is no clear consensus with respect to its optimal pharmacological management.", "People with the rapid cycling or ultradian subtypes of bipolar disorder tend to be more difficult to treat and less responsive to medications than other people with bipolar disorder.=== Coexisting psychiatric conditions ===The diagnosis of bipolar disorder can be complicated by coexisting (comorbid) psychiatric conditions including obsessive–compulsive disorder, substance-use disorder, eating disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, social phobia, premenstrual syndrome (including premenstrual dysphoric disorder), or panic disorder.", "A thorough longitudinal analysis of symptoms and episodes, assisted if possible by discussions with friends and family members, is crucial to establishing a treatment plan where these comorbidities exist.", "Children of parents with bipolar disorder more frequently have other mental health problems.=== Children ===Lithium is the only medication approved by the FDA for treating mania in children.In the 1920s, Kraepelin noted that manic episodes are rare before puberty.", "In general, bipolar disorder in children was not recognized in the first half of the twentieth century.", "This issue diminished with an increased following of the DSM criteria in the last part of the twentieth century.", "The diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorder, while formerly controversial, has gained greater acceptance among childhood and adolescent psychiatrists.", "American children and adolescents diagnosed with bipolar disorder in community hospitals increased 4-fold reaching rates of up to 40% in 10 years around the beginning of the 21st century, while in outpatient clinics it doubled reaching 6%.", "Studies using DSM criteria show that up to 1% of youth may have bipolar disorder.", "The DSM-5 has established a diagnosis—disruptive mood dysregulation disorder—that covers children with long-term, persistent irritability that had at times been misdiagnosed as having bipolar disorder, distinct from irritability in bipolar disorder that is restricted to discrete mood episodes.=== Elderly ===Bipolar disorder is uncommon in older patients, with a measured lifetime prevalence of 1% in over 60s and a 12-month prevalence of 0.10.5% in people over 65.Despite this, it is overrepresented in psychiatric admissions, making up 48% of inpatient admission to aged care psychiatry units, and the incidence of mood disorders is increasing overall with the aging population.", "Depressive episodes more commonly present with sleep disturbance, fatigue, hopelessness about the future, slowed thinking, and poor concentration and memory; the last three symptoms are seen in what is known as pseudodementia.", "Clinical features also differ between those with late-onset bipolar disorder and those who developed it early in life; the former group present with milder manic episodes, more prominent cognitive changes and have a background of worse psychosocial functioning, while the latter present more commonly with mixed affective episodes, and have a stronger family history of illness.", "Older people with bipolar disorder experience cognitive changes, particularly in executive functions such as abstract thinking and switching cognitive sets, as well as concentrating for long periods and decision-making." ], [ "Prevention", "Attempts at prevention of bipolar disorder have focused on stress (such as childhood adversity or highly conflictual families) which, although not a diagnostically specific causal agent for bipolar, does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness.", "Longitudinal studies have indicated that full-blown manic stages are often preceded by a variety of prodromal clinical features, providing support for the occurrence of an at-risk state of the disorder when an early intervention might prevent its further development and/or improve its outcome." ], [ "Management", "The aim of management is to treat acute episodes safely with medication and work with the patient in long-term maintenance to prevent further episodes and optimise function using a combination of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic techniques.", "Hospitalization may be required especially with the manic episodes present in bipolar I.", "This can be voluntary or (local legislation permitting) involuntary.", "Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalization, although these can still occur.", "Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include drop-in centers, visits from members of a community mental health team or an Assertive Community Treatment team, supported employment, patient-led support groups, and intensive outpatient programs.", "These are sometimes referred to as partial-inpatient programs.", "Compared to the general population, people with bipolar disorder are less likely to frequently engage in physical exercise.", "Exercise may have physical and mental benefits for people with bipolar disorder, but there is a lack of research.=== Psychosocial ===Psychotherapy aims to assist a person with bipolar disorder in accepting and understanding their diagnosis, coping with various types of stress, improving their interpersonal relationships, and recognizing prodromal symptoms before full-blown recurrence.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), family-focused therapy, and psychoeducation have the most evidence for efficacy in regard to relapse prevention, while interpersonal and social rhythm therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy appear the most effective in regard to residual depressive symptoms.", "Most studies have been based only on bipolar I, however, and treatment during the acute phase can be a particular challenge.", "Some clinicians emphasize the need to talk with individuals experiencing mania, to develop a therapeutic alliance in support of recovery.=== Medication ===Lithium is often used to treat bipolar disorder and has the best evidence for reducing suicide.Medications are often prescribed to help improve symptoms of bipolar disorder.", "Medications approved for treating bipolar disorder including mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antidepressants.", "Sometimes a combination of medications may also be suggested.", "The choice of medications may differ depending on the bipolar disorder episode type or if the person is experiencing unipolar or bipolar depression.", "Other factors to consider when deciding on an appropriate treatment approach includes if the person has any comorbidities, their response to previous therapies, adverse effects, and the desire of the person to be treated.====Mood stabilizers====Lithium and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and valproic acid are classed as mood stabilizers due to their effect on the mood states in bipolar disorder.", "Lithium has the best overall evidence and is considered an effective treatment for acute manic episodes, preventing relapses, and bipolar depression.", "Lithium reduces the risk of suicide, self-harm, and death in people with bipolar disorder.", "Lithium is preferred for long-term mood stabilization.", "Lithium treatment is also associated with adverse effects and it has been shown to erode kidney and thyroid function over extended periods.", "Valproate has become a commonly prescribed treatment and effectively treats manic episodes.", "Carbamazepine is less effective in preventing relapse than lithium or valproate.", "Lamotrigine has some efficacy in treating depression, and this benefit is greatest in more severe depression.", "Lamotrigine may have a similar effectiveness to lithium for treating bipolar disorder, however, there is evidence to suggest that lamotrigine is less effective at preventing recurrent mania episodes.", "Lamotrigine treatment has been shown to be safer compared to lithium treatment, with less adverse effects.", "Valproate and carbamazepine are teratogenic and should be avoided as a treatment in women of childbearing age, but discontinuation of these medications during pregnancy is associated with a high risk of relapse.", "The effectiveness of topiramate is unknown.", "Carbamazepine effectively treats manic episodes, with some evidence it has greater benefit in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, or those with more psychotic symptoms or more symptoms similar to that of schizoaffective disorder.Mood stabilizers are used for long-term maintenance but have not demonstrated the ability to quickly treat acute bipolar depression.====Antipsychotics====Antipsychotic medications are effective for short-term treatment of bipolar manic episodes and appear to be superior to lithium and anticonvulsants for this purpose.", "Atypical antipsychotics are also indicated for bipolar depression refractory to treatment with mood stabilizers.", "Olanzapine is effective in preventing relapses, although the supporting evidence is weaker than the evidence for lithium.", "A 2006 review found that haloperidol was an effective treatment for acute mania, limited data supported no difference in overall efficacy between haloperidol, olanzapine or risperidone, and that it could be less effective than aripiprazole.====Antidepressants====Antidepressants are not recommended for use alone in the treatment of bipolar disorder and do not provide any benefit over mood stabilizers.", "Atypical antipsychotic medications (e.g., aripiprazole) are preferred over antidepressants to augment the effects of mood stabilizers due to the lack of efficacy of antidepressants in bipolar disorder.", "Treatment of bipolar disorder using antidepressants carries a risk of affective switches; where a person switches from depression to manic or hypomanic phases.", "The risk of affective switches is higher in bipolar I depression; antidepressants are generally avoided in bipolar I disorder or only used with mood stabilizers when they are deemed necessary.", "There is also a risk of accelerating cycling between phases when antidepressants are used in bipolar disorder.==== Combined treatment approaches ====Antipsychotics and mood stabilizers used together are quicker and more effective at treating mania than either class of drug used alone.", "Some analyses indicate antipsychotics alone are also more effective at treating acute mania.", "A first-line treatment for depression in bipolar disorder is a combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine.====Other drugs====Short courses of benzodiazepines are used in addition to other medications for calming effect until mood stabilizing become effective.", "Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective form of treatment for acute mood disturbances in those with bipolar disorder, especially when psychotic or catatonic features are displayed.", "ECT is also recommended for use in pregnant women with bipolar disorder.", "It is unclear if ketamine (a common general dissociative anesthetic used in surgery) is useful in bipolar disorder.", "Gabapentin and pregabalin are not proven to be effective for treating bipolar disorder.===Children===Treating bipolar disorder in children involves medication and psychotherapy.", "The literature and research on the effects of psychosocial therapy on bipolar spectrum disorders are scarce, making it difficult to determine the efficacy of various therapies.", "Mood stabilizers and atypical antipsychotics are commonly prescribed.", "Among the former, lithium is the only compound approved by the FDA for children.", "Psychological treatment combines normally education on the disease, group therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy.", "Long-term medication is often needed.=== Resistance to treatment ===The occurrence of poor response to treatment in has given support to the concept of resistance to treatment in bipolar disorder.", "Guidelines to the definition of such treatment resistance and evidence-based options for its management were reviewed in 2020.=== Management of obesity ===A large proportion (approximately 68%) of people who seek treatment for bipolar disorder are obese or overweight and managing obesity is important for reducing the risk of other health conditions that are associated with obesity.", "Management approaches include non-pharmacological, pharmacological, and surgical.", "Examples of non-pharmacological include dietary interventions, exercise, behavioral therapies, or combined approaches.", "Pharmacological approaches include weight-loss medications or changing medications already being prescribed.", "Some people with bipolar disorder who have obesity may also be eligible for bariatric surgery.", "The effectiveness of these various approaches to improving or managing obesity in people with bipolar disorder is not clear." ], [ "Prognosis", "A lifelong condition with periods of partial or full recovery in between recurrent episodes of relapse, bipolar disorder is considered to be a major health problem worldwide because of the increased rates of disability and premature mortality.", "It is also associated with co-occurring psychiatric and medical problems, higher rates of death from natural causes (e.g., cardiovascular disease), and high rates of initial under- or misdiagnosis, causing a delay in appropriate treatment and contributing to poorer prognoses.", "When compared to the general population, people with bipolar disorder also have higher rates of other serious medical comorbidities including diabetes mellitus, respiratory diseases, HIV, and hepatitis C virus infection.", "After a diagnosis is made, it remains difficult to achieve complete remission of all symptoms with the currently available psychiatric medications and symptoms often become progressively more severe over time.Compliance with medications is one of the most significant factors that can decrease the rate and severity of relapse and have a positive impact on overall prognosis.", "However, the types of medications used in treating BD commonly cause side effects and more than 75% of individuals with BD inconsistently take their medications for various reasons.", "Of the various types of the disorder, rapid cycling (four or more episodes in one year) is associated with the worst prognosis due to higher rates of self-harm and suicide.", "Individuals diagnosed with bipolar who have a family history of bipolar disorder are at a greater risk for more frequent manic/hypomanic episodes.", "Early onset and psychotic features are also associated with worse outcomes, as well as subtypes that are nonresponsive to lithium.Early recognition and intervention also improve prognosis as the symptoms in earlier stages are less severe and more responsive to treatment.", "Onset after adolescence is connected to better prognoses for both genders, and being male is a protective factor against higher levels of depression.", "For women, better social functioning before developing bipolar disorder and being a parent are protective towards suicide attempts.=== Functioning ===Changes in cognitive processes and abilities are seen in mood disorders, with those of bipolar disorder being greater than those in major depressive disorder.", "These include reduced attentional and executive capabilities and impaired memory.", "People with bipolar disorder often experience a decline in cognitive functioning during (or possibly before) their first episode, after which a certain degree of cognitive dysfunction typically becomes permanent, with more severe impairment during acute phases and moderate impairment during periods of remission.", "As a result, two-thirds of people with BD continue to experience impaired psychosocial functioning in between episodes even when their mood symptoms are in full remission.", "A similar pattern is seen in both BD-I and BD-II, but people with BD-II experience a lesser degree of impairment.When bipolar disorder occurs in children, it severely and adversely affects their psychosocial development.", "Children and adolescents with bipolar disorder have higher rates of significant difficulties with substance use disorders, psychosis, academic difficulties, behavioral problems, social difficulties, and legal problems.", "Cognitive deficits typically increase over the course of the illness.", "Higher degrees of impairment correlate with the number of previous manic episodes and hospitalizations, and with the presence of psychotic symptoms.", "Early intervention can slow the progression of cognitive impairment, while treatment at later stages can help reduce distress and negative consequences related to cognitive dysfunction.Despite the overly ambitious goals that are frequently part of manic episodes, symptoms of mania undermine the ability to achieve these goals and often interfere with an individual's social and occupational functioning.", "One-third of people with BD remain unemployed for one year following a hospitalization for mania.", "Depressive symptoms during and between episodes, which occur much more frequently for most people than hypomanic or manic symptoms over the course of illness, are associated with lower functional recovery in between episodes, including unemployment or underemployment for both BD-I and BD-II.", "However, the course of illness (duration, age of onset, number of hospitalizations, and the presence or not of rapid cycling) and cognitive performance are the best predictors of employment outcomes in individuals with bipolar disorder, followed by symptoms of depression and years of education.=== Recovery and recurrence ===A naturalistic study in 2003 by Tohen and coworkers from the first admission for mania or mixed episode (representing the hospitalized and therefore most severe cases) found that 50% achieved syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks and 98% within two years.", "Within two years, 72% achieved symptomatic recovery (no symptoms at all) and 43% achieved functional recovery (regaining of prior occupational and residential status).", "However, 40% went on to experience a new episode of mania or depression within 2 years of syndromal recovery, and 19% switched phases without recovery.Symptoms preceding a relapse (prodromal), especially those related to mania, can be reliably identified by people with bipolar disorder.", "There have been intents to teach patients coping strategies when noticing such symptoms with encouraging results.=== Suicide ===Bipolar disorder can cause suicidal ideation that leads to suicide attempts.", "Individuals whose bipolar disorder begins with a depressive or mixed affective episode seem to have a poorer prognosis and an increased risk of suicide.", "One out of two people with bipolar disorder attempt suicide at least once during their lifetime and many attempts are successfully completed.", "The annual average suicide rate is 0.4%-1.4%, which is 30 to 60 times greater than that of the general population.", "The number of deaths from suicide in bipolar disorder is between 18 and 25 times higher than would be expected in similarly aged people without bipolar disorder.", "The lifetime risk of suicide is much higher in those with bipolar disorder, with an estimated 34% of people attempting suicide and 15–20% dying by suicide.Risk factors for suicide attempts and death from suicide in people with bipolar disorder include older age, prior suicide attempts, a depressive or mixed index episode (first episode), a manic index episode with psychotic symptoms, hopelessness or psychomotor agitation present during the episodes, co-existing anxiety disorder, a first degree relative with a mood disorder or suicide, interpersonal conflicts, occupational problems, bereavement or social isolation." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Burden of bipolar disorder around the world: disability-adjusted life years per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004Bipolar disorder is the sixth leading cause of disability worldwide and has a lifetime prevalence of about 1 to 3% in the general population.", "However, a reanalysis of data from the National Epidemiological Catchment Area survey in the United States suggested that 0.8% of the population experience a manic episode at least once (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar I) and a further 0.5% have a hypomanic episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II or cyclothymia).", "Including sub-threshold diagnostic criteria, such as one or two symptoms over a short time-period, an additional 5.1% of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4%, were classified as having a bipolar spectrum disorder.", "A more recent analysis of data from a second US National Comorbidity Survey found that 1% met lifetime prevalence criteria for bipolar I, 1.1% for bipolar II, and 2.4% for subthreshold symptoms.", "Estimates vary about how many children and young adults have bipolar disorder.", "These estimates range from 0.6 to 15% depending on differing settings, methods, and referral settings, raising suspicions of overdiagnosis.", "One meta-analysis of bipolar disorder in young people worldwide estimated that about 1.8% of people between the ages of seven and 21 have bipolar disorder.", "Similar to adults, bipolar disorder in children and adolescents is thought to occur at a similar frequency in boys and girls.There are conceptual and methodological limitations and variations in the findings.", "Prevalence studies of bipolar disorder are typically carried out by lay interviewers who follow fully structured/fixed interview schemes; responses to single items from such interviews may have limited validity.", "In addition, diagnoses (and therefore estimates of prevalence) vary depending on whether a categorical or spectrum approach is used.", "This consideration has led to concerns about the potential for both underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis.The incidence of bipolar disorder is similar in men and women as well as across different cultures and ethnic groups.", "A 2000 study by the World Health Organization found that prevalence and incidence of bipolar disorder are very similar across the world.", "Age-standardized prevalence per 100,000 ranged from 421.0 in South Asia to 481.7 in Africa and Europe for men and from 450.3 in Africa and Europe to 491.6 in Oceania for women.", "However, severity may differ widely across the globe.", "Disability-adjusted life year rates, for example, appear to be higher in developing countries, where medical coverage may be poorer and medication less available.", "Within the United States, Asian Americans have significantly lower rates than their African American and European American counterparts.", "In 2017, the Global Burden of Disease Study estimated there were 4.5 million new cases and a total of 45.5 million cases globally." ], [ "History", "German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin first distinguished between manic–depressive illness and \"dementia praecox\" (now known as schizophrenia) in the late 19th century.In the early 1800s, French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol's lypemania, one of his affective monomanias, was the first elaboration on what was to become modern depression.", "The basis of the current conceptualization of bipolar illness can be traced back to the 1850s.", "In 1850, Jean-Pierre Falret described \"circular insanity\" ('''', ); the lecture was summarized in 1851 in the '''' (\"Hospital Gazette\").", "Three years later, in 1854, Jules-Gabriel-François Baillarger (1809–1890) described to the French Imperial Académie Nationale de Médecine a biphasic mental illness causing recurrent oscillations between mania and melancholia, which he termed (, \"madness in double form\").", "Baillarger's original paper, \"\", appeared in the medical journal ''Annales médico-psychologiques'' (''Medico-psychological annals'') in 1854.These concepts were developed by the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926), who, using Kahlbaum's concept of cyclothymia, categorized and studied the natural course of untreated bipolar patients.", "He coined the term ''manic depressive psychosis'', after noting that periods of acute illness, manic or depressive, were generally punctuated by relatively symptom-free intervals where the patient was able to function normally.The term \"manic–depressive ''reaction''\" appeared in the first version of the DSM in 1952, influenced by the legacy of Adolf Meyer.", "Subtyping into \"unipolar\" depressive disorders and bipolar disorders has its origin in Karl Kleist's concept – since 1911 – of unipolar and bipolar affective disorders, which was used by Karl Leonhard in 1957 to differentiate between unipolar and bipolar disorder in depression.", "These subtypes have been regarded as separate conditions since publication of the DSM-III.", "The subtypes bipolar II and rapid cycling have been included since the DSM-IV, based on work from the 1970s by David Dunner, Elliot Gershon, Frederick Goodwin, Ronald Fieve, and Joseph Fleiss." ], [ "Society and culture", "Singer Rosemary Clooney's public revelation of bipolar disorder made her an early celebrity spokesperson for mental illness.===Cost===The United States spent approximately $202.1 billion on people diagnosed with bipolar I disorder (excluding other subtypes of bipolar disorder and undiagnosed people) in 2015.One analysis estimated that the United Kingdom spent approximately £5.2 billion on the disorder in 2007.In addition to the economic costs, bipolar disorder is a leading cause of disability and lost productivity worldwide.", "People with bipolar disorder are generally more disabled, have a lower level of functioning, longer duration of illness, and increased rates of work absenteeism and decreased productivity when compared to people experiencing other mental health disorders.", "The decrease in the productivity seen in those who care for people with bipolar disorder also significantly contributes to these costs.===Advocacy===There are widespread issues with social stigma, stereotypes, and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder.", "In 2000, actress Carrie Fisher went public with her bipolar disorder diagnosis.", "She became one of the most well-recognized advocates for people with bipolar disorder in the public eye and fiercely advocated to eliminate the stigma surrounding mental illnesses, including bipolar disorder.", "Stephen Fried, who has written extensively on the topic, noted that Fisher helped to draw attention to the disorder's chronicity, relapsing nature, and that bipolar disorder relapses do not indicate a lack of discipline or moral shortcomings.", "Since being diagnosed at age 37, actor Stephen Fry has pushed to raise awareness of the condition, with his 2006 documentary ''Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive''.", "In an effort to ease the social stigma associated with bipolar disorder, the orchestra conductor Ronald Braunstein cofounded the ME/2 Orchestra with his wife Caroline Whiddon in 2011.Braunstein was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1985 and his concerts with the ME/2 Orchestra were conceived in order to create a welcoming performance environment for his musical colleagues, while also raising public awareness about mental illness.===Notable cases===Numerous authors have written about bipolar disorder and many successful people have openly discussed their experience with it.", "Kay Redfield Jamison, a clinical psychologist and professor of psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, profiled her own bipolar disorder in her memoir ''An Unquiet Mind'' (1995).", "It is likely that Grigory Potemkin, Russian statesman and alleged husband of Catherine the Great, suffered from some kind of bipolar disorder.", "Several celebrities have also publicly shared that they have bipolar disorder; in addition to Carrie Fisher and Stephen Fry these include Catherine Zeta-Jones, Mariah Carey, Kanye West, Jane Pauley, Demi Lovato, Selena Gomez, and Russell Brand.===Media portrayals===Several dramatic works have portrayed characters with traits suggestive of the diagnosis which have been the subject of discussion by psychiatrists and film experts alike.In ''Mr.", "Jones'' (1993), (Richard Gere) swings from a manic episode into a depressive phase and back again, spending time in a psychiatric hospital and displaying many of the features of the syndrome.", "In ''The Mosquito Coast'' (1986), Allie Fox (Harrison Ford) displays some features including recklessness, grandiosity, increased goal-directed activity and mood lability, as well as some paranoia.", "Psychiatrists have suggested that Willy Loman, the main character in Arthur Miller's classic play ''Death of a Salesman'', has bipolar disorder.The 2009 drama ''90210'' featured a character, Silver, who was diagnosed with bipolar disorder.", "Stacey Slater, a character from the BBC soap ''EastEnders'', has been diagnosed with the disorder.", "The storyline was developed as part of the BBC's Headroom campaign.", "The Channel 4 soap ''Brookside'' had earlier featured a story about bipolar disorder when the character Jimmy Corkhill was diagnosed with the condition.", "2011 Showtime's political thriller drama ''Homeland'' protagonist Carrie Mathison has bipolar disorder, which she has kept secret since her school days.", "The 2014 ABC medical drama, ''Black Box'', featured a world-renowned neuroscientist with bipolar disorder.In the TV series ''Dave'', the eponymous main character, played by Lil Dicky as a fictionalized version of himself, is an aspiring rapper.", "Lil Dicky's real-life hype man GaTa also plays himself.", "In one episode, after being off his medication and having an episode, GaTa tearfully confesses to having bipolar disorder.", "GaTa has bipolar disorder in real life but, like his character in the show, he is able to manage it with medication.===Creativity===A link between mental illness and professional success or creativity has been suggested, including in accounts by Socrates, Seneca the Younger, and Cesare Lombroso.", "Despite prominence in popular culture, the link between creativity and bipolar has not been rigorously studied.", "This area of study also is likely affected by confirmation bias.", "Some evidence suggests that some heritable component of bipolar disorder overlaps with heritable components of creativity.", "Probands of people with bipolar disorder are more likely to be professionally successful, as well as to demonstrate temperamental traits similar to bipolar disorder.", "Furthermore, while studies of the frequency of bipolar disorder in creative population samples have been conflicting, full-blown bipolar disorder in creative samples is rare." ], [ "Research", "Research directions for bipolar disorder in children include optimizing treatments, increasing the knowledge of the genetic and neurobiological basis of the pediatric disorder and improving diagnostic criteria.", "Some treatment research suggests that psychosocial interventions that involve the family, psychoeducation, and skills building (through therapies such as CBT, DBT, and IPSRT) can benefit in addition to pharmacotherapy." ], [ "See also", "* List of people with bipolar disorder* Outline of bipolar disorder* Bipolar I disorder* Bipolar II disorder* Bipolar NOS* Cyclothymia* Bipolar disorders research* Borderline personality disorder* Emotional dysregulation* Mood (psychology)* Mood swing* International Society for Bipolar Disorders" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Cited texts", "* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Blitz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blitz''', German for \"lightning\", may refer to:" ], [ "Military uses", "*Blitzkrieg, blitz campaign, or blitz, a type of military campaign*The Blitz, the German aerial campaign against Britain in the Second World War*, an Imperial German Navy light cruiser built in 1882" ], [ "Computing", "*Blitz (software), a cloud-based load-and performance-testing service*Blitz BASIC, a dialect of the BASIC programming language*Blitz++, a C++ class library for scientific computing*BlitzMail, the internal e-mail network at Dartmouth College*Blitz Research, a New Zealand software company" ], [ "Film and television", "*''Blitz'' (2011 film), a film starring Jason Statham*Blitz (upcoming film), an upcoming World War II-themed historical drama film*''Blitz'' or ''Killing Cars'', a 1986 Michael Verhoeven film*Blitz, a fictional anthropomorphic doberman from ''Road Rovers''*Blitz, a robot dog from the cartoon ''C.O.P.S.", "''*The Blitz, in the \"Blitzgiving\" episode of ''How I Met Your Mother''" ], [ "Games", "*''Blitz'' (game), a card game*''Blitz'' (video game), a VIC-20 game*''Blitz: The League'', a 2005 American football game series*Blitz chess, fast chess in which each player is allotted less than ten minutes*Blitz Games, a British computer games company*Blitz, a playable character in ''Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege''*World of Tanks Blitz, a mobile game based on the PC version (WoT) World of Tanks" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Blitz'' (British magazine), an influential British \"style\" magazine of the 1980s* ''Blitz'' (Portuguese magazine), a Portuguese music magazine, started in 1984 as a newspaper*''Blitz'' (newspaper), Indian investigative newspaper, started in 1941 by Russi Karanjia*''Weekly Blitz'', a weekly Bangladeshi newspaper*Blitz (Big Bang Comics), a Flash-based Big Bang Comics hero*Blitz (Marvel Comics)*Blitz, the alter-ego of George in the web comic ''Bob and George''" ], [ "Music", "*Blitz (British band), a punk rock band*Blitz (Brazilian band), a new-wave band from the 1980s*Bobby Ellsworth or Blitz, American thrash metal musician*''Blitz'' (Étienne Daho album) (2017)*''Blitz'' (KMFDM album) (2009)*''The Blitz'' (Krokus album) (1984)*''The Blitz'' (Thebandwithnoname album) (2002)*''Blitz!", "'', a musical by Lionel Bart*\"Blitz\", a song by Audio Adrenaline from ''Some Kind of Zombie'' (1997)" ], [ "Nightclubs", "*Blitz Club, a techno nightclub in Munich, Germany*Blitz, a 1980s night club in London frequented by the Blitz Kids" ], [ "Sports", "===American football===*Blitz (gridiron football), a type of defensive tactic*''The Blitz'' (ESPNEWS), a TV show on ESPNEWS*Blitz (mascot), the mascot of the Seattle Seahawks*Bakersfield Blitz, a former arena football team*Chicago Blitz, a United States Football League team in the 1980s*Chicago Blitz (indoor football), a defunct professional indoor football team*Chicago Blitz (X League), an American women's gridiron football team*London Blitz (American football), a London-based team*Montreal Blitz, a women's team*Syracuse Blitz, a former Professional Indoor Football League team===Other sports===*Blitz defence, a defensive technique used in rugby union*SV Blitz Breslau, a defunct German association football team*Blitz (company), a Japanese tuning company which competes in the D1 Grand Prix" ], [ "Other uses", "*Blitz (surname), a surname and list of people with the name*Opel Blitz, various German lorries built by Opel from 1930 to 1975*Blitz (movement), a radical youth movement in Norway*Blitz campaign, or blitz, a type of marketing campaign" ], [ "See also", "* Blitzkrieg (disambiguation)* Blitzer (disambiguation)* Blits (disambiguation)*Utah Blitzz, former professional soccer team*Blitzy, a fictional dog character from ''Mona the Vampire''*Bristol Blitz, the German bombing raids on Bristol, England in 1940 and 1941*Hull Blitz, the German Second World War bombing campaign targeting Kingston upon Hull*Rotterdam Blitz, the German bombing raid on Rotterdam, Netherlands in 1940*World of Tanks Blitz, an online game" ] ]

[ [ "Burt Lancaster" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Burton Stephen Lancaster''' (November 2, 1913 – October 20, 1994) was an American actor and film producer.", "Initially known for playing tough guys with a tender heart, he went on to achieve success with more complex and challenging roles over a 45-year career in films and television series.", "He was a four-time nominee for the Academy Award for Best Actor (winning once), and he also won two BAFTA Awards and one Golden Globe Award for Best Lead Actor.", "The American Film Institute ranks Lancaster as of the greatest male stars of classic Hollywood cinema.Lancaster performed as a circus acrobat in the 1930s.", "After serving in World War II, the 32-year-old Lancaster landed a role in a Broadway play and drew the attention of a Hollywood agent.", "His breakthrough role was in the film noir ''The Killers'' in 1946 alongside Ava Gardner.", "A critical success, it launched both of their careers.", "Not long after in 1948, Lancaster starred alongside Barbara Stanwyck in the commercially and critically acclaimed film ''Sorry, Wrong Number'' where he portrayed the husband to her bedridden, invalid character.", "In 1953, Lancaster played the illicit lover of Deborah Kerr in the military drama ''From Here to Eternity''.", "A box office smash, it won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and landed a Best Actor nomination for Lancaster.Later in the 1950s, he starred in ''The Rainmaker'' (1956), with Katharine Hepburn, earning a Best Actor Golden Globe nomination, and in 1957 he starred in ''Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral'' (1957) with frequent co-star Kirk Douglas.", "During the 1950s, his production company, Hecht-Hill-Lancaster, was highly successful, with Lancaster acting in films such as: ''Trapeze'' (1956), a box office smash in which he used his acrobatic skills and for which he won the Silver Bear for Best Actor; ''Sweet Smell of Success'' (1957), a dark drama today considered a classic; ''Run Silent, Run Deep'' (1958), a WWII submarine drama with Clark Gable; and ''Separate Tables'' (1958), a hotel-set drama which received seven Oscar nominations.In the early 1960s, Lancaster starred in a string of critically successful films, each in very disparate roles.", "Playing a charismatic biblical con-man in ''Elmer Gantry'' in 1960 won him the Academy Award and the Golden Globe for Best Actor.", "He played a Nazi war criminal in 1961 in the all-star, war-crime-trial film, ''Judgment at Nuremberg''.", "Playing a bird expert prisoner in ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' in 1962, he earned the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor and his third Oscar nomination.", "In 1963, Lancaster traveled to Italy to star as an Italian prince in Visconti's epic period drama ''The Leopard''.", "In 1964, he played a US Air Force General who, opposed by a Colonel played by Douglas, tries to overthrow the President in ''Seven Days in May''.", "Then, in 1966, he played an explosives expert in the western ''The Professionals''.", "Although the reception of his 1968 film ''The Swimmer'' was initially lackluster upon release, in the years after it has grown in stature critically and attained a cult following.In 1970, Lancaster starred in the box-office hit, air-disaster drama ''Airport''.", "In 1974 he again starred in a Visconti film, ''Conversation Piece''.", "He experienced a career resurgence in 1980 with the crime-romance ''Atlantic City'', winning the BAFTA for Best Actor and landing his fourth Oscar nomination.", "Starting in the late 1970s, he also appeared in television mini-series, including the award-winning ''Separate but Equal'' with Sidney Poitier.", "He continued acting into his late 70s, until a stroke in 1990 forced him to retire; four years later he died from a heart attack.", "His final film role was in the Oscar-nominated ''Field of Dreams''." ], [ "Early life", "Lancaster was born on November 2, 1913, in New York City, at his parents' home at 209 East 106th Street, the son of Elizabeth (''née'' Roberts) and mailman James Lancaster.", "Both of his parents were Protestants of working-class origin.", "All four of his grandparents were emigrants from Ireland to the United States, from the province of Ulster.", "His maternal grandparents were from Belfast and were descendants of English dissenters who had colonised Ireland as part of the Plantation of Ulster.Lancaster grew up in East Harlem, New York City.", "He developed a great interest and skill in gymnastics while attending DeWitt Clinton High School, where he was a basketball star.", "Before he graduated from DeWitt Clinton, his mother died of a cerebral hemorrhage.", "Lancaster was accepted by New York University with an athletic scholarship, but dropped out." ], [ "Circus career", " At the age of 9, Lancaster met Nick Cravat with whom he developed a lifelong partnership.", "Together, they learned to act in local theatre productions and circus arts at Union Settlement, one of the city's oldest settlement houses.", "In the 1930s, they formed the acrobat duo ''Lang and Cravat'' and soon joined the Kay Brothers circus.", "However, in 1939, an injury forced Lancaster to give up the profession, with great regret.", "He then found temporary work, first as a salesman for Marshall Fields and then as a singing waiter in various restaurants." ], [ "World War II service", "After the United States entered World War II, Lancaster joined the United States Army in January 1943 and performed with the Army's 21st Special Services Division, one of the military groups organized to follow the troops on the ground and provide USO entertainment to keep up morale.", "He served with General Mark Clark's Fifth Army in Italy from 1943 to 1945.He was discharged October 1945 and was an entertainment specialist with the rank of technician fifth grade." ], [ "Acting career", "===Broadway===Lancaster returned to New York after his Army service.", "Although initially unenthusiastic about acting, Lancaster was encouraged to audition for a Broadway play by a producer who saw him in an elevator while he was visiting his then-girlfriend at work.", "The audition was successful and Lancaster was cast in Harry Brown's ''A Sound of Hunting'' (1945).", "The show only ran three weeks, but his performance attracted the interest of a Hollywood agent, Harold Hecht.", "Lancaster had other offers but Hecht promised him the opportunity to produce their own movies within five years of hitting Hollywood.Through Hecht, Lancaster was brought to the attention of producer Hal B. Wallis.", "Lancaster left New York and moved to Los Angeles.", "Wallis signed him to a non-exclusive eight-movie contract.===Hal Wallis===With Ava Gardner in ''The Killers'', 1946Lancaster's first filmed movie was ''Desert Fury'' for Wallis in 1947, where Lancaster was billed after John Hodiak and Lizabeth Scott.", "It was directed by Lewis Allen.Then producer Mark Hellinger approached him to star in 1946's ''The Killers'', which was completed and released prior to ''Desert Fury''.", "Directed by Robert Siodmak, it was a great commercial and critical success and launched Lancaster and his co-star Ava Gardner to stardom.", "It has since come to be regarded as a classic.Hellinger used Lancaster again on ''Brute Force'' in 1947, a prison drama written by Richard Brooks and directed by Jules Dassin.", "It was also well received.", "Wallis released his films through Paramount, and so Lancaster and other Wallis contractees made cameos in ''Variety Girl'' in 1947.Lancaster's next film was a thriller for Wallis in 1947, ''I Walk Alone'', co-starring Lizabeth Scott and a young Kirk Douglas, who was also under contract to Wallis.", "''Variety'' listed it as one of the top grossers of the year, taking in more than $2 million.In 1948, Lancaster had a change of pace with the film adaptation of Arthur Miller's ''All My Sons'', made at Universal Pictures with Edward G. Robinson.", "His third film for Wallis was an adaptation of ''Sorry, Wrong Number'' in 1948, with Barbara Stanwyck.===Norma Productions===Hecht kept to his promise to Lancaster to turn producer.", "The two of them formed a company, Norma Productions, and did a deal with Universal to make a thriller about a disturbed G.I.", "in London, ''Kiss the Blood Off My Hands'' in 1948, with Joan Fontaine and directed by Norman Foster.", "It made a profit of only $50,000, but was critically acclaimed.Back in Hollywood, Lancaster made another film noir with Siodmak, ''Criss Cross'', in 1949.It was originally going to be produced by Hellinger and when Hellinger died, another took over.", "Tony Curtis made an early appearance.Lancaster appeared in a fourth picture for Wallis, ''Rope of Sand'', in 1949.Norma Productions signed a three-picture deal with Warner Bros.", "The first was 1950's ''The Flame and the Arrow'', a swashbuckler movie, in which Lancaster drew on his circus skills.", "Nick Cravat had a supporting role and the film was a huge commercial success, making $6 million.", "It was Warners' most popular film of the year and established an entirely new image for Lancaster.Lancaster was borrowed by 20th Century Fox for ''Mister 880'' in 1950, a comedy with Edmund Gwenn.", "MGM put him in a popular Western, ''Vengeance Valley'' in 1951, then he went to Warners to play the title role in the biopic ''Jim Thorpe – All-American'', also in 1951.===Halburt===Norma signed a deal with Columbia Pictures to make two films through a Norma subsidiary, Halburt.", "The first film was 1951's ''Ten Tall Men'', where Lancaster was a member of the French Foreign Legion.", "Robert Aldrich worked on the movie as a production manager.The second was 1952's ''The First Time'', a comedy which was the directorial debut of Frank Tashlin.", "It was meant to star Lancaster but he wound up not appearing in the filmthe first of their productions in which he did not act.===Hecht-Lancaster Productions===In 1951, the actor/producer duo changed the company's name to Hecht-Lancaster Productions.", "The first film under the new name was another swashbuckler: 1952's ''The Crimson Pirate'', directed by Siodmak.", "Co-starring Cravat, it was extremely popular.Lancaster changed pace once more by doing a straight dramatic part in 1952's ''Come Back, Little Sheba'', based on a Broadway hit, with Shirley Booth, produced by Wallis and directed by Daniel Mann.Alternating with adventure films, he went into ''South Sea Woman'' in 1952 at Warners.", "Part of the Norma-Warners contract was that Lancaster had to appear in some non-Norma films, of which this was one.With Deborah Kerr in ''From Here to Eternity'', 1953In 1954, for his own company, Lancaster produced and starred in ''His Majesty O'Keefe'', a South Sea island tale shot in Fiji.", "It was co-written by James Hill, who would soon become a part of the Hecht-Lancaster partnership.===United Artists===Hecht and Lancaster left Warners for United Artists, for what began as a two-picture deal, the first of which was to be 1954's ''Apache'', starring Lancaster as a Native American.They followed it with another Western in 1954, ''Vera Cruz'', co-starring Gary Cooper and produced by Hill.", "Both films were directed by Robert Aldrich and were hugely popular.United Artists signed Hecht-Lancaster to a multi-picture contract, to make seven films over two years.", "These included films in which Lancaster did not act.", "Their first was ''Marty'' in 1955, based on Paddy Chayefsky's TV play starring Ernest Borgnine and directed by Delbert Mann.", "It won both the Best Picture Oscar and the Palme d'Or award at Cannes and Borgnine an Best Actor Oscar.", "It also earned $2 million on a budget of $350,000.", "''Vera Cruz'' had been a huge success, but ''Marty'' secured Hecht-Lancaster as one of the most successful independent production companies in Hollywood at the time.", "''Marty'' star Borgnine was under contract to Hecht-Lancaster and was unhappy about his lack of upcoming roles, especially after only receiving some seven lines in 1957's ''Sweet Smell of Success'' and half of his normal pay for ''Marty''.", "He eventually sued for breach of contract to gain back some of this money in 1957.Without Hill, Hecht and Lancaster produced ''The Kentuckian'' in 1955.It was directed by Lancaster in his directorial debut, and he also played a lead role.", "Lancaster disliked directing and only did it once more, on 1974's ''The Midnight Man''.Lancaster still had commitments with Wallis, and made ''The Rose Tattoo'' for him in 1955, starring with Anna Magnani and Daniel Mann directing.", "It was very popular at the box office and critically acclaimed, winning Magnani an Oscar.===Hecht-Hill-Lancaster===In 1955, Hill was made an equal partner in Hecht-Lancaster, with his name added to the production company.", "Hecht-Hill-Lancaster (HHL) released their first film ''Trapeze'' in 1956, with Lancaster performing many of his own stunts.", "The film, co-starring Tony Curtis and Gina Lollobrigida, went on to become the production company's top box office success, and United Artists expanded its deal with HHL.In 1956, Lancaster and Hecht partnered with Loring Buzzell and entered the music industry with the music publishing companies Leigh Music, Hecht-Lancaster & Buzzell Music, Calyork Music and Colby Music and the record labels Calyork Records and Maine Records.The HHL team impressed Hollywood with its success; as ''Life'' wrote in 1957, \"after the independent production of a baker's dozen of pictures, it has yet to have its first flop ... (They were also good pictures.).\"", "In late 1957, they announced they would make ten films worth $14 million in 1958.Lancaster made two films for Wallis to complete his eight-film commitment for that contract: ''The Rainmaker'' (1956) with Katharine Hepburn, which earned Lancaster a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor; and ''Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral'' (1957) with Kirk Douglas, which was a huge commercial hit directed by John Sturges.Lancaster re-teamed with Tony Curtis in 1957 for ''Sweet Smell of Success'', a co-production between Hecht-Hill-Lancaster and Curtis' own company with wife Janet Leigh, Curtleigh Productions.", "The movie, directed by Alexander Mackendrick, was a critical success but a commercial disappointment.", "Over the years it has come to be regarded as one of Lancaster's greatest films.HHL produced seven additional films in the late 1950s.", "Four starred Lancaster: ''Run Silent, Run Deep'' (1958), a Robert Wise directed war film with Clark Gable, which was mildly popular; ''Separate Tables'' (1958) a hotel-set drama with Kerr and Rita Hayworth (who married James Hill), which received an Oscar nomination for Best Picture and Oscar awards for lead actor David Niven and supporting actress Wendy Hiller, and was both a critical and commercial success; ''The Devil's Disciple'' (1959), with Douglas and Laurence Olivier, which lost money (and saw Lancaster fire Mackendrick during shooting); and the Western ''The Unforgiven'' (1960), with Audrey Hepburn, which was a critical and commercial disappointment.Three were made without Lancaster, all of which lost money: ''The Bachelor Party'' (1957), from another TV play by Chayefsky, and directed by Delbert Mann; ''Take a Giant Step'' (1959), about a black student; and ''Summer of the Seventeenth Doll'' (1960), from an Australian play, shot on location in Australia and Britain.HHL served as the production company for the 1960–61 TV series ''Whiplash''.The Hecht-Hill-Lancaster Productions company dissolved in 1960 after Hill ruptured his relationship with both Hecht and Lancaster.", "Hill went on to produce a single additional film, ''The Happy Thieves'', in a new production company, Hillworth Productions, co-owned with his wife Rita Hayworth.===Hecht and Lancaster===A drawing of Lancaster after he won an Oscar for ''Elmer Gantry'', 1960.Artist: Nicholas VolpeLancaster played the title role in ''Elmer Gantry'' (1960), written and directed by Richard Brooks for United Artists.", "The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Actor.", "Lancaster won the 1960 Academy Award for Best Actor, a Golden Globe Award, and the New York Film Critics Award for his performance.Hecht and Lancaster worked together on ''The Young Savages'' (1961), directed by John Frankenheimer and produced by Hecht.", "Sydney Pollack worked as a dialogue coach.Lancaster starred in ''Judgment at Nuremberg'' (1961) for Stanley Kramer, alongside Spencer Tracy, Richard Widmark and a number of other stars.", "The film was both a commercial and critical success, receiving eleven Oscar nominations, including Best Picture.He then did another film with Hecht and Frankenheimer (replacing Charles Crichton), ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962), a largely fictionalized biography.", "In it he plays Robert Stroud, a federal prisoner incarcerated for life for two murders, who begins to collect birds and over time becomes an expert in bird diseases, even publishing a book.", "The film shows Stroud transferred to the maximum security Alcatraz prison where he is not allowed to keep birds and as he ages he gets married, markets bird remedies, helps stop a prison rebellion, and writes a book on the history of the U.S. penal system, but never gets paroled.", "The sympathetic performance earned Lancaster a Best Actor Oscar nomination, a BAFTA Award for Best Actor, and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Dramatic Role.", "Hecht went on to produce five films without Lancaster's assistance, through his company Harold Hecht Films Productions between 1961 and 1967, including another Academy Award winner, ''Cat Ballou'', starring Lee Marvin and Jane Fonda.===Collaborations with younger filmmakers===Lancaster made ''A Child Is Waiting'' (1963) with Judy Garland.", "It was produced by Kramer and directed by John Cassavetes.He went to Italy to star in ''The Leopard'' (1963) for Luchino Visconti, co-starring Alain Delon and Claudia Cardinale.", "It was one of Lancaster's favourite films and was a big hit in France but failed in the US (though the version released was much truncated).He had a small role in ''The List of Adrian Messenger'' (1963) for producer/star Kirk Douglas, and then did two for Frankenheimer: ''Seven Days in May'' (1964), a political thriller with Douglas, and ''The Train'' (1964), a World War Two action film (Lancaster had Frankenheimer replace Arthur Penn several days into filming).Lancaster starred in ''The Hallelujah Trail'' (1965), a comic Western produced and directed by John Sturges which failed to recoup its large cost.He had a big hit with ''The Professionals'' (1966), a Western directed by Brooks and also starring Lee Marvin.In 1966, at the age of 52, Lancaster appeared nude in director Frank Perry's film ''The Swimmer'' (1968), in what the critic Roger Ebert called \"his finest performance\".", "Prior to working on ''The Swimmer'', Lancaster was terrified of the water because he did not know how to swim.", "In preparation for the film, he took swimming lessons from UCLA swim coach Bob Horn.", "Filming was difficult and clashes between Lancaster and Perry led to Sydney Pollack coming in to do some filming.", "The film was not released until 1968, when it proved to be a commercial failure, though Lancaster remained proud of the movie and his performance.===Norlan Productions===With Audrey Hepburn in ''The Unforgiven'', 1960In 1967, Lancaster formed a new partnership with Roland Kibbee, who had already worked as a writer on five Lancaster projects: ''Ten Tall Men'', ''The Crimson Pirate'', ''Three Sailors and a Girl'' (in which Lancaster made a cameo appearance), ''Vera Cruz'', and ''The Devil's Disciple''.Through Norlan Productions, Lancaster and Kibbee produced ''The Scalphunters'' in 1968, directed by Sydney Pollack.Lancaster followed it with another film from Pollack, ''Castle Keep'' in 1969, which was a big flop.", "So was ''The Gypsy Moths'', for Frankenheimer, also in 1969.===1970s===With Soviet fighter pilot Alexander Pokryshkin during documentary filming \"The Unknown War\", episode 9 War in the Air.", "Moscow, USSR, 1978, photo: Leo MedvedevLancaster had one of the biggest successes of his career with ''Airport'' in 1970, starring alongside Dean Martin, George Kennedy, Van Heflin, Helen Hayes, Maureen Stapleton, Barbara Hale, Jean Seberg, and Jacqueline Bisset.", "The Ross Hunter film received nine Academy Award nominations, including one for Best Picture.", "It became one of the biggest box-office hits of 1970 and, at that time, reportedly the highest-grossing film in the history of Universal Pictures.He then went into a series of Westerns: ''Lawman'' in 1971, directed by Michael Winner; ''Valdez Is Coming'' in 1971, for Norlan; and ''Ulzana's Raid'' in 1972, directed by Aldrich and produced by himself and Hecht.", "None were particularly popular but ''Ulzana's Raid'' has become a cult film.Lancaster did two thrillers, both 1973: ''Scorpio'' with Winner and ''Executive Action''.Lancaster returned to directing in 1974 with ''The Midnight Man'', which he also wrote and produced with Kibee.He made a second film with Visconti, ''Conversation Piece'' in 1974 and played the title role in the TV series ''Moses the Lawgiver'', also in 1974.Lancaster was one of many names in 1975's ''1900'', directed by Bernardo Bertolucci, and he had a cameo in 1976's ''Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson'' for Robert Altman.He played Shimon Peres in the TV movie ''Victory at Entebbe'' in 1977 and had a supporting role in ''The Cassandra Crossing'' in 1976.He made a fourth and final film with Aldrich, ''Twilight's Last Gleaming'' in 1977, and had the title role in 1977's ''The Island of Dr. Moreau''.Lancaster was top-billed in ''Go Tell the Spartans'' in 1978, a Vietnam War film; Lancaster admired the script so much that he took a reduced fee and donated money to help the movie to be completed.", "He was in ''Zulu Dawn'' in 1979.===1980s===Lancaster began the 1980s with a highly acclaimed performance alongside Susan Sarandon in ''Atlantic City'' in 1980, directed by Louis Malle.", "The film received five Oscar nominations, including Best Picture and a Best Actor nomination for Lancaster.He had key roles in ''Cattle Annie and Little Britches'' in 1981, ''The Skin'' in 1982 with Cardinale, ''Marco Polo'', also in 1982, and ''Local Hero'' in 1983.By now, Lancaster was mostly a character actor in features, as in ''The Osterman Weekend'' in 1983, but he was the lead in the TV movie ''Scandal Sheet'' in 1985.He was in ''Little Treasure'' in 1985, directed by Alan Sharp, who had written ''Ulzana's Raid''; ''On Wings of Eagles'' for TV in 1986, as Bull Simons; 1986's made for TV ''Barnum'' starred him in the title role; ''Tough Guys'' reunited him on the big screen with Kirk Douglas in 1986; ''Fathers and Sons: A German Tragedy'' (in German Väter und Söhne – Eine deutsche Tragödie) in 1986 for German TV; 1987's ''Control'' made in Italy; ''Rocket Gibraltar'' in 1988, and ''The Jeweller's Shop'' in 1989.His first critical success in a while was ''Field of Dreams'' in 1989, in which he played a supporting role as Moonlight Graham.", "He was also in the miniseries ''The Betrothed'' in 1989.===Later career===Lancaster's final performances included TV miniseries ''The Phantom of the Opera'' (1990); ''Voyage of Terror: The Achille Lauro Affair'' (1990) as Leon Klinghoffer based on the 1985 hijacking incident; and ''Separate But Equal'' (1991) with Sidney Poitier.===Frequent collaborators===In ''Judgment at Nuremberg'', 1961Lancaster appeared in a total of seventeen films produced by his agent, Harold Hecht.", "Eight of these were co-produced by James Hill.", "He also appeared in eight films produced by Hal B. Wallis and two with producer Mark Hellinger.", "Although Lancaster's work alongside Kirk Douglas was known as that of a successful pair of actors, Douglas, in fact, produced four films for the pair, through his production companies Bryna Productions and Joel Productions.", "Roland Kibbee also produced three Lancaster films, and Lancaster was also cast in two Stanley Kramer productions.==== Kirk Douglas ====Kirk Douglas starred in seven films across the decades with Burt Lancaster: ''I Walk Alone'' (1948), ''Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral'' (1957), ''The Devil's Disciple'' (1959), ''The List of Adrian Messenger'' (1963), ''Seven Days in May'' (1964), ''Victory at Entebbe'' (1976) and ''Tough Guys'' (1986), which fixed the notion of the pair as something of a team in the public imagination.", "Douglas was always billed under Lancaster in these movies but, with the exception of ''I Walk Alone'', in which Douglas played a villain, their roles were usually more or less the same size.", "Both actors arrived in Hollywood at about the same time, and first appeared together in the fourth film for each, albeit with Douglas in a supporting role.", "They both became actor-producers who sought out independent Hollywood careers.==== John Frankenheimer ====John Frankenheimer directed five films with Lancaster: ''The Young Savages'' (1961), ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962), ''Seven Days in May'' (1964), ''The Train'' (1964), and ''The Gypsy Moths'' (1969).==== Other repeat collaborators ====He was directed four times by Robert Aldrich, three times each by Robert Siodmak and Sydney Pollack, and twice each by Byron Haskin, Daniel Mann, John Sturges, John Huston, Richard Brooks, Alexander Mackendrick, Luchino Visconti, and Michael Winner.Roland Kibbee wrote for seven Lancaster films.", "Lancaster used makeup veteran Robert Schiffer in twenty credited films, hiring Schiffer on nearly all of the films he produced." ], [ "Political activism", "Lancaster was a vocal supporter of progressive and liberal political causes.", "He frequently spoke out in support of racial and other minorities.", "As a result, he was often a target of FBI investigations.", "He was named in President Richard Nixon's 1973 \"Enemies List\".A vocal opponent of the Vietnam War, he helped pay for the successful defense of a soldier accused of \"fragging\" (i.e., murdering) another soldier during war-time.", "In 1968, Lancaster actively supported the presidential candidacy of anti-war Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, and frequently spoke on his behalf during the Democratic primaries.Lancaster was also active in anti-death penalty activism.", "He campaigned heavily for George McGovern in the 1972 United States presidential election.In 1985, Lancaster joined the fight against AIDS after fellow movie star Rock Hudson contracted the disease.", "Lancaster delivered Hudson's last words at the Commitment to Life fundraiser at a time when the stigma surrounding AIDS was at its height.Of his political opinions, frequent co-star Tony Curtis said: \"Here's this great big aggressive guy that looks like a ding-dong athlete playing these big tough guys and he has the soul of—who were those first philosophers of equality?—Socrates, Plato.", "He was a Greek philosopher with a sense that everybody was equal.", "\"Actor and SAG president Ed Asner said he showed everybody in Hollywood \"how to be a liberal with balls\".===Hollywood Ten===In 1947, Lancaster reportedly signed a statement release by the National Council of Arts, Sciences and Professions (NCASP) asking Congress to abolish the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).", "He was also a member of the short-lived Committee for the First Amendment, formed in support of the Hollywood Ten.", "He was one of 26 movie stars who flew to Washington in October 1947 to protest against the HUAC hearings.", "The committee's ''Hollywood Fights Back'' broadcasts on ABC Radio Network were two 30-minute programs that took place on October 27 and November 2, 1947, during which committee members voiced their opposition to the HUAC hearings.", "Many members faced blacklisting and backlash due to their involvement in the committee.", "Lancaster was listed in anti-communist literature as a fellow traveler.===Civil rights movement===He and his second wife, Norma, hosted a fundraiser for Martin Luther King Jr. and the Student Diversity Leadership Conference (SDLC) ahead of the historic March on Washington in 1963.He attended the march, where he was one of the speakers.", "He flew in from France for the event, where he was shooting ''The Train'', and flew back again the next day, despite a reported fear of flying.===ACLU===In 1968, Lancaster was elected to serve as chairman of the Roger Baldwin Foundation, a newly formed fund-raising arm of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California.", "His co-chairs were Frank Sinatra and Irving L. Lichtenstein.", "In October 1968, he hosted a party at his home to raise money for the ACLU to use for the defense of the more than four hundred people arrested at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.", "Throughout the years, he remained an ardent supporter and a fundraiser for the organization.While serving as a member of the five-person ACLU Foundation executive committee, he cast the key vote to retain Ramona Ripston as executive director of the Southern California affiliate, a position she would build into a powerful advocacy force in Los Angeles politics.", "Ripston later recalled: \"There was a feeling that a woman couldn't run the ACLU foundation, nor have access to the books.", "The vote finally came down to two 'yes' and two 'no.'", "Who had the deciding vote?", "Burt.", "He had a scotch or two and finally he said, 'I think she should be executive director.'", "I always loved him for that.", "\"When President George H. W. Bush derided Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis as a \"card-carrying member of the ACLU\", Lancaster was one of the supporters featured in the organization's first television advertising campaign stating: \"I'm a card-carrying member of the ACLU\" and \"No one agrees with every single thing they've done.", "But no one can disagree with the guiding principle—with liberty and justice for all.'\"", "He also campaigned for Michael Dukakis in the 1988 United States presidential election." ], [ "Personal life", "Lancaster's son Bill Lancaster in ''The Big Valley'', 1967.In adulthood, he became a screenwriter.===Marriages and relationships===Lancaster guarded his personal life and attempted to keep it private despite his stardom.", "He was married three times and had five children.", "He also had many affairs, male and female, according to his family.His first marriage was to June Ernst, a trapeze acrobat.", "Ernst was the daughter of a renowned female aerialist and an accomplished acrobat herself.", "After they were married, he performed with her family and her until their separation in the late 1930s.", "When they divorced is unclear.", "Contemporary reports listed 1940, but subsequent biographers have suggested dates as late as 1946, delaying his marriage to his second wife.He met second wife Norma Anderson (1917–1988) when the stenographer substituted for an ill actress in a USO production for the troops in Italy.", "Reportedly, on seeing Lancaster in the crowd on her way to town from the airport, she turned to an officer and asked, \"Who is that good-looking officer and is he married?\"", "The officer set up a blind date between the two for that evening.", "They married in 1946.Norma was active in political causes with an entire room in their Bel Air home devoted to her major interest, the League of Woman Voters, crammed with printing presses and all the necessary supplies for mass mailings.", "She was a life-long member of the NAACP.", "The couple held a fundraiser for Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference ahead of the 1963 March on Washington.", "All five of his children were with Anderson: Bill (who became an actor and screenwriter), James, Susan, Joanna (who worked as a film producer), and Sighle (pronounced \"Sheila\").", "It was a troubled marriage.", "The pair separated in 1966, and divorced in 1969.In 1966, Lancaster began a long-term relationship with hairdresser Jackie Bone, who worked on ''The Professionals''.", "The relationship was tempestuous, with Bone once smashing a wine bottle over Lancaster's head at a dinner with Sydney Pollack and Peter Falk.", "Reportedly, they eventually split up after her religious conversion, which Lancaster believed he could not share with her.His third marriage, to Susan Martin, lasted from September 1990 until his death in 1994.According to biographer Kate Buford in ''Burt Lancaster: An American Life'', Lancaster was devotedly loyal to his friends and family.", "Old friends from his childhood remained his friends for life.====Possible affairs====Friends said he claimed he was romantically involved with Deborah Kerr during the filming of ''From Here to Eternity'' in 1953.However, Kerr stated that while there was a spark of attraction, nothing ever happened.He reportedly had an affair with Joan Blondell.In her 1980 autobiography, Shelley Winters claimed to have had a two-year affair with him, during which time he was considering separation from his wife.", "In his Hollywood memoirs, friend Farley Granger recalled an incident when Lancaster and he had to come to Winters' rescue one evening when she had inadvertently overdosed on alcohol and sleeping pills.", "She broke up with him for \"cheating on her with his wife\" after she heard reports of his wife's third or fourth pregnancy.", "Lancaster and Winters performed together in the 1949 radio play adaptation of ''The Killers''.", "They appeared in two films together: ''The Young Savages'', where she played his character's former lover, and ''The Scalphunters''.===Religion===Despite his Protestant background and upbringing, Lancaster identified as an atheist later in life." ], [ "Health problems", "As Lancaster reached his 60s, he began to be affected by cardiovascular disease.", "In January 1980, he had complications from a routine gall bladder operation (that he barely survived).", "In 1983, following two minor heart attacks, he underwent an emergency quadruple coronary bypass.", "He continued to act, however, and to engage in public activism.", "In 1988, he attended a congressional hearing in Washington, DC, with former colleagues who included James Stewart and Ginger Rogers to protest against media magnate Ted Turner's plan to colorize various black-and-white films from the 1930s and 1940s.", "On November 30, 1990, when he was 77, a stroke left him partially paralyzed and largely unable to speak, ending his acting career." ], [ "Death", "Lancaster's plaque under an oak tree in Westwood Memorial Park where his ashes were scatteredLancaster died at his apartment in Century City, Los Angeles, after having a third heart attack at 4:50 am on October 20, 1994.His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered under a large oak tree in Westwood Memorial Park, which is located in Westwood Village, California.", "A small, square ground plaque amid several others, inscribed \"Burt Lancaster 1913–1994\", marks the location.", "As he had requested, no memorial or funeral service was held for him." ], [ "Legacy", "The centennial of Lancaster's birth was honored at New York City's Film Society of Lincoln Center in May 2013 with the screening of 12 of the actor's best-known films, from ''The Killers'' to ''Atlantic City''.Lancaster has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard." ], [ "Filmography and awards", "Lancaster was nominated for the Oscar for Best Actor in a Leading Role in 1954 for ''From Here to Eternity'', in 1961 for ''Elmer Gantry'', in 1964 for ''Birdman of Alcatraz'', and in 1982 for ''Atlantic City'' and won the award in 1961.Lancaster's leading role in Luchino Visconti's 1963 canonical ''The Leopard'' began a series of roles with important European art film directors that included roles in Bernardo Bertolucci's ''1900'' and Louis Malle's ''Atlantic City'' as well as Visconti's ''Conversation Piece''.===Box office ranking===For a number of years exhibitors voted Lancaster among the most popular stars: YearUS RankUK Rank1950 16th1951 25th1952 24th1953 17th1954 13th7th1955 16th1956 4th3rd1957 15th3rd 1958 20th1960 19th1961 11th196210th===In other media===Spanish music group Hombres G released an album named ''La cagaste, Burt Lancaster'' (''You messed up, Burt Lancaster'') in 1986.Thomas Hart Benton painted a scene from ''The Kentuckian'' as part of the film's marketing.", "Lancaster posed for the painting, also known as ''The Kentuckian''." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Andreychuk, Ed.", "''Burt Lancaster: A Filmography And Biography''.", "Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2005..* Buford, Kate.", "''Burt Lancaster: An American Life''.", "London: Aurum Press, 2008..* Winters, Shelley.", "''Shelley: Also known as Shirley''.", "New York: Morrow, 1980..* Karney, Robyn.", "''Burt Lancaster: A Singular Man''.", "Trafalgar Square Pub, 1997" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Literature on Burt Lancaster* \"The Rainmaker\", a poem for Lancaster" ] ]

[ [ "Balts" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Balts''' or '''Baltic peoples''' (, ) are an ethno-linguistic group of peoples who speak the Baltic languages of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages.One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained.", "Among the Baltic peoples are modern-day Lithuanians and Latvians (including Latgalians) — all East Balts — as well as the Old Prussians, Yotvingians and Galindians — the West Balts — whose languages and cultures are now extinct." ], [ "Etymology", "Medieval German chronicler Adam of Bremen in the latter part of the 11th century AD was the first writer to use the term \"Baltic\" in reference to the sea of that name.", "Before him various ancient places names, such as Balcia, were used in reference to a supposed island in the Baltic Sea.Adam, a speaker of German, connected ''Balt-'' with ''belt'', a word with which he was familiar.In Germanic languages there was some form of the toponym East Sea until after about the year 1600, when maps in English began to label it as the Baltic Sea.", "By 1840, German nobles of the Governorate of Livonia adopted the term \"Balts\" to distinguish themselves from Germans of Germany.", "They spoke an exclusive dialect, Baltic German, which was regarded by many as the language of the Balts until 1919.In 1845, Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann proposed a distinct language group for Latvian, Lithuanian, and Old Prussian, which he termed Baltic.", "The term became prevalent after Latvia and Lithuania gained independence in 1918.Up until the early 20th century, either \"Latvian\" or \"Lithuanian\" could be used to mean the entire language family." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Baltic archaeological cultures in the Iron Age from 600 BC to 200 BCThe Balts or Baltic peoples, defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the lower Vistula and southeast shore of the Baltic Sea and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers.", "Because the thousands of lakes and swamps in this area contributed to the Balts' geographical isolation, the Baltic languages retain a number of conservative or archaic features.Some of the major authorities on Balts, such as Kazimieras Būga, Max Vasmer, Vladimir Toporov and Oleg Trubachyov, in conducting etymological studies of eastern European river names, were able to identify in certain regions names of specifically Baltic provenance, which most likely indicate where the Balts lived in prehistoric times.", "According to Vladimir Toporov and Oleg Trubachyov, the eastern boundary of the Balts in the prehistoric times were the upper reaches of the Volga, Moskva, and Oka rivers, while the southern border was the Seym river.", "This information is summarized and synthesized by Marija Gimbutas in ''The Balts'' (1963) to obtain a likely proto-Baltic homeland.", "Its borders are approximately: from a line on the Pomeranian coast eastward to include or nearly include the present-day sites of Berlin, Warsaw, Kyiv, and Kursk, northward through Moscow to the River Berzha, westward in an irregular line to the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of Riga.", "However, other scholars such as Endre Bojt (1999) reject the presumption that there ever was such a thing as a clear, single \"Baltic ''Urheimat''\": 'The references to the Balts at various ''Urheimat'' locations across the centuries are often of doubtful authenticity, those concerning the Balts furthest to the West are the more trustworthy among them.", "(...) It is wise to group the particulars of Baltic history according to the interests that moved the pens of the authors of our sources.", "'===Proto-history===The area of Baltic habitation shrank due to assimilation by other groups, and invasions.", "According to one of the theories which has gained considerable traction over the years, one of the western Baltic tribes, the Galindians, Galindae, or Goliad, migrated to the area around modern-day Moscow, Russia around the fourth century AD.Over time the Balts became differentiated into West and East Balts.", "In the fifth century AD parts of the eastern Baltic coast began to be settled by the ancestors of the Western Balts: Brus/Prūsa (\"Old Prussians\"), Sudovians/Jotvingians, Scalvians, Nadruvians, and Curonians.", "The East Balts, including the hypothesised Dniepr Balts, were living in modern-day Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.Germanic peoples lived to the west of the Baltic homelands; by the first century AD, the Goths had stabilized their kingdom from the mouth of the Vistula, south to Dacia.", "As Roman domination collapsed in the first half of the first millennium CE in Northern and Eastern Europe, large migrations of the Balts occurred — first, the Galindae or Galindians towards the east, and later, East Balts towards the west.", "In the eighth century, Slavic tribes from the Volga regions appeared.", "By the 13th and 14th centuries, they reached the general area that the present-day Balts and Belarusians inhabit.", "Many other Eastern and Southern Balts either assimilated with other Balts, or Slavs in the fourth–seventh centuries and were gradually slavicized.===Middle Ages===Baltic tribes before the coming of the Teutonic Order ().", "The East Balts are shown in brown hues while the West Balts are shown in green.", "The boundaries are approximate.", "Baltic territory was extensive inland.In the 12th and 13th centuries, internal struggles and invasions by Ruthenians and Poles, and later the expansion of the Teutonic Order, resulted in an almost complete annihilation of the Galindians, Curonians, and Yotvingians.", "Gradually, Old Prussians became Germanized or Lithuanized between the 15th and 17th centuries, especially after the Reformation in Prussia.", "The cultures of the Lithuanians and Latgalians/Latvians survived and became the ancestors of the populations of the modern-day countries of Latvia and Lithuania.Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct Western Baltic languages, Curonian, Galindian and Sudovian.", "It is more distantly related to the surviving Eastern Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Latvian.", "Compare the Prussian word ''seme'' (''zemē''), Latvian ''zeme'', the Lithuanian ''žemė'' (''land'' in English)." ], [ "Culture", "The Balts originally practiced Baltic religion.", "They were gradually Christianized as a result of the Northern Crusades of the Middle Ages.", "Baltic peoples such as the Latvians, Lithuanians and Old Prussians had their distinct mythologies.", "The Lithuanians have close historic ties to Poland, and many of them are Roman Catholic.", "The Latvians have close historic ties to Northern Germany and Scandinavia, and many of them are irreligious.", "In recent times, the Baltic religion has been revived in Baltic neopaganism." ], [ "Genetics", "The Balts are included in the \"North European\" gene cluster together with the Germanic peoples, some Slavic groups (the Poles and Northern Russians) and Baltic Finnic peoples.Saag et a.", "(2017) detected that the eastern Baltic in the Mesolithic was inhabited primarily by Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs).", "Their paternal haplogroups were mostly types of I2a and R1b, while their maternal haplogroups were mostly types of U5, U4 and U2.These people carried a high frequency of the derived HERC2 allele which codes for light eye color and possess an increased frequency of the derived alleles for SLC45A2 and SLC24A5, coding for lighter skin colour.Baltic hunter-gatherers still displayed a slightly larger amount of WHG ancestry than Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHGs).", "WHG ancestry in the Baltic was particularly high among hunter-gatherers in Latvia and Lithuania.", "Unlike other parts of Europe, the hunter-gatherers of the eastern Baltic do not appear to have mixed much with Early European Farmers (EEFs) arriving from Anatolia.During the Neolithic, increasing admixture from Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) is detected.", "The paternal haplogroups of EHGs was mostly types of R1a, while their maternal haplogroups appears to have been almost exclusively types of U5, U4, and U2.The rise of the Corded Ware culture in the eastern Baltic in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age is accompanied by a significant infusion of steppe ancestry and EEF ancestry into the eastern Baltic gene pool.", "In the aftermath of the Corded Ware expansion, local hunter-gatherer ancestry experienced a resurgence.Haplogroup N reached the eastern Baltic only in the Late Bronze Age, probably with the speakers of the Uralic languages.Modern-day Balts have a lower amount of EEF ancestry, and a higher amount of WHG ancestry, than any other population in Europe." ], [ "List of Baltic peoples", "'''Modern-day Baltic peoples'''*East Baltic peoples**Latvians***Latgalians**Lithuanians***Aukštaitija (\"highlanders\")***Samogitians (\"lowlanders\")" ], [ "See also", "* East Baltic languages* West Baltic languages" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===English language===* * * * * * * * * * ===Polish language===* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* (in Lithuanian) E. Jovaiša, ''Aisčiai.", "Kilmė'' (''Aestii.", "The Origin'').", "Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto leidykla, Vilnius; 2013.", "* (in Lithuanian) E. Jovaiša, ''Aisčiai.", "Raida'' (''Aestii.", "The Evolution'').", "Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto leidykla, Vilnius; 2014.", "* (in Lithuanian) E. Jovaiša, ''Aisčiai.", "Lietuvių ir Lietuvos pradžia'' (''Aestii.", "The Beginning of Lithuania and Lithuanians'').", "Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto leidykla, Vilnius; 2016.", "* Nowakowski, Wojciech; Bartkiewicz, Katarzyna.", "\"Baltes et proto-Slaves dans l'Antiquité.", "Textes et archéologie\".", "In: ''Dialogues d'histoire ancienne'', vol.", "16, n°1, 1990.pp.", "359–402.DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/dha.1990.1472;www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1472* Matthews, W. K. \"Baltic origins.\"", "Revue des études slaves 24.1/4 (1948): 48–59." ], [ "External links", "* E-book of the original.", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Burnt-in timecode" ], [ "Introduction", "EBU colour bars with burnt-in timecode'''Burnt-in timecode''' (often abbreviated to '''BITC''' by analogy to VITC) is a human-readable on-screen version of the timecode information for a piece of material superimposed on a video image.", "BITC is sometimes used in conjunction with \"real\" machine-readable timecode, but more often used in copies of original material on to a non-broadcast format such as VHS, so that the VHS copies can be traced back to their master tape and the original time codes easily located.", "Many professional VTRs can \"burn\" (overlay) the tape timecode onto one of their outputs.", "This output (which usually also displays the setup menu or on-screen display) is known as the ''super out'' or ''monitor out''.", "The ''character'' switch or menu item turns this behaviour on or off.", "The ''character'' function is also used to display the timecode on the preview monitors in linear editing suites.Videotapes that are recorded with timecode numbers overlaid on the video are referred to as ''window dubs'', named after the \"window\" that displays the burnt-in timecode on-screen.When editing was done using magnetic tapes that were subject to damage from excessive wear, it was common to use a window dub as a working copy for the majority of the editing process.", "Editing decisions would be made using a window dub, and no specialized equipment was needed to write down an edit decision list which would then be replicated from the high-quality masters.Timecode can also be superimposed on video using a dedicated overlay device, often called a \"window dub inserter\".", "This inputs a video signal and its separate timecode audio signal, reads the timecode, superimposes the timecode display over the video, and outputs the combined display (usually via composite), all in real time.", "Stand-alone timecode generator / readers often have the window dub function built-in.", "Some consumer cameras, in particular DV cameras, can \"burn\" (overlay) the tape timecode onto the composite output.", "This output typically is semi-transparent and may include other tape information.", "It is usually activated by turning on the 'display' info in one of the camera's sub-menus.", "While not as 'professional' as an overlay as created by a professional VCRs, it is a cheap alternative that is just as accurate.Timecode is stored in the metadata areas of captured DV AVI files, and some software is able to \"burn\" (overlay) this into the video frames.", "For example, DVMP Pro is able to \"burn\" timecode or other items of DV metadata (such as date and time, iris, shutter speed, gain, white balance mode, etc.)", "into DV AVI files.OCR techniques can be used to read BITC in situations where other forms of timecode are not available." ], [ "See also", "*Linear timecode*Vertical interval timecode*SMPTE time code*MIDI timecode*CTL timecode*AES-EBU embedded timecode*Rewritable consumer timecode" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bra–ket notation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bra–ket notation''', also called '''Dirac notation''', is a notation for linear algebra and linear operators on complex vector spaces together with their dual space both in the finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional case.", "It is specifically designed to ease the types of calculations that frequently come up in quantum mechanics.", "Its use in quantum mechanics is quite widespread.Bra–ket notation was created by Paul Dirac in his 1939 publication ''A New Notation for Quantum Mechanics''.", "The notation was introduced as an easier way to write quantum mechanical expressions.", "The name comes from the English word \"Bracket\"." ], [ "Quantum mechanics", "In quantum mechanics, bra–ket notation is used ubiquitously to denote quantum states.", "The notation uses angle brackets, and , and a vertical bar , to construct \"bras\" and \"kets\".A '''ket''' is of the form .", "Mathematically it denotes a vector, , in an abstract (complex) vector space , and physically it represents a state of some quantum system.A '''bra''' is of the form .", "Mathematically it denotes a linear form , i.e.", "a linear map that maps each vector in to a number in the complex plane .", "Letting the linear functional act on a vector is written as .Assume that on there exists an inner product with antilinear first argument, which makes an inner product space.", "Then with this inner product each vector can be identified with a corresponding linear form, by placing the vector in the anti-linear first slot of the inner product: .", "The correspondence between these notations is then .", "The linear form is a covector to , and the set of all covectors forms a subspace of the dual vector space , to the initial vector space .", "The purpose of this linear form can now be understood in terms of making projections onto the state to find how linearly dependent two states are, etc.For the vector space , kets can be identified with column vectors, and bras with row vectors.", "Combinations of bras, kets, and linear operators are interpreted using matrix multiplication.", "If has the standard Hermitian inner product , under this identification, the identification of kets and bras and vice versa provided by the inner product is taking the Hermitian conjugate (denoted ).It is common to suppress the vector or linear form from the bra–ket notation and only use a label inside the typography for the bra or ket.", "For example, the spin operator on a two dimensional space of spinors has eigenvalues with eigenspinors .", "In bra–ket notation, this is typically denoted as , and .", "As above, kets and bras with the same label are interpreted as kets and bras corresponding to each other using the inner product.", "In particular, when also identified with row and column vectors, kets and bras with the same label are identified with Hermitian conjugate column and row vectors.Bra–ket notation was effectively established in 1939 by Paul Dirac; it is thus also known as Dirac notation, despite the notation having a precursor in Hermann Grassmann's use of for inner products nearly 100 years earlier." ], [ "Vector spaces", "===Vectors vs kets===In mathematics, the term \"vector\" is used for an element of any vector space.", "In physics, however, the term \"vector\" tends to refer almost exclusively to quantities like displacement or velocity, which have components that relate directly to the three dimensions of space, or relativistically, to the four of spacetime.", "Such vectors are typically denoted with over arrows (), boldface () or indices ().In quantum mechanics, a quantum state is typically represented as an element of a complex Hilbert space, for example, the infinite-dimensional vector space of all possible wavefunctions (square integrable functions mapping each point of 3D space to a complex number) or some more abstract Hilbert space constructed more algebraically.", "To distinguish this type of vector from those described above, it is common and useful in physics to denote an element of an abstract complex vector space as a ket , to refer to it as a \"ket\" rather than as a vector, and to pronounce it \"ket-\" or \"ket-A\" for .Symbols, letters, numbers, or even words—whatever serves as a convenient label—can be used as the label inside a ket, with the making clear that the label indicates a vector in vector space.", "In other words, the symbol \"\" has a recognizable mathematical meaning as to the kind of variable being represented, while just the \"\" by itself does not.", "For example, is not necessarily equal to .", "Nevertheless, for convenience, there is usually some logical scheme behind the labels inside kets, such as the common practice of labeling energy eigenkets in quantum mechanics through a listing of their quantum numbers.", "At its simplest, the label inside the ket is the eigenvalue of a physical operator, such as , , , etc.===Notation===Since kets are just vectors in a Hermitian vector space, they can be manipulated using the usual rules of linear algebra.", "For example::Note how the last line above involves infinitely many different kets, one for each real number .Since the ket is an element of a vector space, a '''bra''' is an element of its dual space, i.e.", "a bra is a linear functional which is a linear map from the vector space to the complex numbers.", "Thus, it is useful to think of kets and bras as being elements of different vector spaces (see below however) with both being different useful concepts.A bra and a ket (i.e.", "a functional and a vector), can be combined to an operator of rank one with outer product:===Inner product and bra–ket identification on Hilbert space===The bra–ket notation is particularly useful in Hilbert spaces which have an inner product that allows Hermitian conjugation and identifying a vector with a continuous linear functional, i.e.", "a ket with a bra, and vice versa (see Riesz representation theorem).", "The inner product on Hilbert space (with the first argument anti linear as preferred by physicists) is fully equivalent to an (anti-linear) identification between the space of kets and that of bras in the bra ket notation: for a vector ket define a functional (i.e.", "bra) by:====Bras and kets as row and column vectors====In the simple case where we consider the vector space , a ket can be identified with a column vector, and a bra as a row vector.", "If moreover we use the standard Hermitian inner product on , the bra corresponding to a ket, in particular a bra and a ket with the same label are conjugate transpose.", "Moreover, conventions are set up in such a way that writing bras, kets, and linear operators next to each other simply imply matrix multiplication.", "In particular the outer product of a column and a row vector ket and bra can be identified with matrix multiplication (column vector times row vector equals matrix).For a finite-dimensional vector space, using a fixed orthonormal basis, the inner product can be written as a matrix multiplication of a row vector with a column vector:Based on this, the bras and kets can be defined as:and then it is understood that a bra next to a ket implies matrix multiplication.The conjugate transpose (also called ''Hermitian conjugate'') of a bra is the corresponding ket and vice versa:because if one starts with the brathen performs a complex conjugation, and then a matrix transpose, one ends up with the ketWriting elements of a finite dimensional (or mutatis mutandis, countably infinite) vector space as a column vector of numbers requires picking a basis.", "Picking a basis is not always helpful because quantum mechanics calculations involve frequently switching between different bases (e.g.", "position basis, momentum basis, energy eigenbasis), and one can write something like \"\" without committing to any particular basis.", "In situations involving two different important basis vectors, the basis vectors can be taken in the notation explicitly and here will be referred simply as \"\" and \"\".=== Non-normalizable states and non-Hilbert spaces ===Bra–ket notation can be used even if the vector space is not a Hilbert space.In quantum mechanics, it is common practice to write down kets which have infinite norm, i.e.", "non-normalizable wavefunctions.", "Examples include states whose wavefunctions are Dirac delta functions or infinite plane waves.", "These do not, technically, belong to the Hilbert space itself.", "However, the definition of \"Hilbert space\" can be broadened to accommodate these states (see the Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction or rigged Hilbert spaces).", "The bra–ket notation continues to work in an analogous way in this broader context.Banach spaces are a different generalization of Hilbert spaces.", "In a Banach space , the vectors may be notated by kets and the continuous linear functionals by bras.", "Over any vector space without topology, we may also notate the vectors by kets and the linear functionals by bras.", "In these more general contexts, the bracket does not have the meaning of an inner product, because the Riesz representation theorem does not apply." ], [ "Usage in quantum mechanics", "The mathematical structure of quantum mechanics is based in large part on linear algebra:*Wave functions and other quantum states can be represented as vectors in a complex Hilbert space.", "(The exact structure of this Hilbert space depends on the situation.)", "In bra–ket notation, for example, an electron might be in the \"state\" .", "(Technically, the quantum states are ''rays'' of vectors in the Hilbert space, as corresponds to the same state for any nonzero complex number .", ")*Quantum superpositions can be described as vector sums of the constituent states.", "For example, an electron in the state is in a quantum superposition of the states and .", "*Measurements are associated with linear operators (called observables) on the Hilbert space of quantum states.", "*Dynamics are also described by linear operators on the Hilbert space.", "For example, in the Schrödinger picture, there is a linear time evolution operator with the property that if an electron is in state right now, at a later time it will be in the state , the same for every possible .", "*Wave function normalization is scaling a wave function so that its norm is 1.Since virtually every calculation in quantum mechanics involves vectors and linear operators, it can involve, and often does involve, bra–ket notation.", "A few examples follow:===Spinless position–space wave function===The Hilbert space of a spin-0 point particle is spanned by a \"position basis\" , where the label extends over the set of all points in position space.", "This label is the eigenvalue of the position operator acting on such a basis state, .", "Since there are an uncountably infinite number of vector components in the basis, this is an uncountably infinite-dimensional Hilbert space.", "The dimensions of the Hilbert space (usually infinite) and position space (usually 1, 2 or 3) are not to be conflated.Starting from any ket in this Hilbert space, one may ''define'' a complex scalar function of , known as a wavefunction,On the left-hand side, is a function mapping any point in space to a complex number; on the right-hand side, is a ket consisting of a superposition of kets with relative coefficients specified by that function.It is then customary to define linear operators acting on wavefunctions in terms of linear operators acting on kets, byFor instance, the momentum operator has the following coordinate representation,One occasionally even encounters an expression such as , though this is something of an abuse of notation.", "The differential operator must be understood to be an abstract operator, acting on kets, that has the effect of differentiating wavefunctions once the expression is projected onto the position basis, even though, in the momentum basis, this operator amounts to a mere multiplication operator (by ).", "That is, to say,or===Overlap of states===In quantum mechanics the expression is typically interpreted as the probability amplitude for the state to collapse into the state .", "Mathematically, this means the coefficient for the projection of onto .", "It is also described as the projection of state onto state .===Changing basis for a spin-1/2 particle===A stationary spin- particle has a two-dimensional Hilbert space.", "One orthonormal basis is:where is the state with a definite value of the spin operator equal to + and is the state with a definite value of the spin operator equal to −.Since these are a basis, ''any'' quantum state of the particle can be expressed as a linear combination (i.e., quantum superposition) of these two states:where and are complex numbers.A ''different'' basis for the same Hilbert space is:defined in terms of rather than .Again, ''any'' state of the particle can be expressed as a linear combination of these two:In vector form, you might writedepending on which basis you are using.", "In other words, the \"coordinates\" of a vector depend on the basis used.There is a mathematical relationship between , , and ; see change of basis." ], [ "Pitfalls and ambiguous uses", "There are some conventions and uses of notation that may be confusing or ambiguous for the non-initiated or early student.===Separation of inner product and vectors===A cause for confusion is that the notation does not separate the inner-product operation from the notation for a (bra) vector.", "If a (dual space) bra-vector is constructed as a linear combination of other bra-vectors (for instance when expressing it in some basis) the notation creates some ambiguity and hides mathematical details.", "We can compare bra–ket notation to using bold for vectors, such as , and for the inner product.", "Consider the following dual space bra-vector in the basis :It has to be determined by convention if the complex numbers are inside or outside of the inner product, and each convention gives different results.===Reuse of symbols===It is common to use the same symbol for ''labels'' and ''constants''.", "For example, , where the symbol is used simultaneously as the ''name of the operator'' , its ''eigenvector'' and the associated ''eigenvalue'' .", "Sometimes the ''hat'' is also dropped for operators, and one can see notation such as .===Hermitian conjugate of kets===It is common to see the usage , where the dagger () corresponds to the Hermitian conjugate.", "This is however not correct in a technical sense, since the ket, , represents a vector in a complex Hilbert-space , and the bra, , is a linear functional on vectors in .", "In other words, is just a vector, while is the combination of a vector and an inner product.===Operations inside bras and kets===This is done for a fast notation of scaling vectors.", "For instance, if the vector is scaled by , it may be denoted .", "This can be ambiguous since is simply a label for a state, and not a mathematical object on which operations can be performed.", "This usage is more common when denoting vectors as tensor products, where part of the labels are moved '''outside''' the designed slot, e.g.", "." ], [ "Linear operators", "===Linear operators acting on kets===A linear operator is a map that inputs a ket and outputs a ket.", "(In order to be called \"linear\", it is required to have certain properties.)", "In other words, if is a linear operator and is a ket-vector, then is another ket-vector.In an -dimensional Hilbert space, we can impose a basis on the space and represent in terms of its coordinates as a column vector.", "Using the same basis for , it is represented by an complex matrix.", "The ket-vector can now be computed by matrix multiplication.Linear operators are ubiquitous in the theory of quantum mechanics.", "For example, observable physical quantities are represented by self-adjoint operators, such as energy or momentum, whereas transformative processes are represented by unitary linear operators such as rotation or the progression of time.===Linear operators acting on bras===Operators can also be viewed as acting on bras ''from the right hand side''.", "Specifically, if is a linear operator and is a bra, then is another bra defined by the rule(in other words, a function composition).", "This expression is commonly written as (cf.", "energy inner product)In an -dimensional Hilbert space, can be written as a row vector, and (as in the previous section) is an matrix.", "Then the bra can be computed by normal matrix multiplication.If the same state vector appears on both bra and ket side,then this expression gives the expectation value, or mean or average value, of the observable represented by operator for the physical system in the state .===Outer products===A convenient way to define linear operators on a Hilbert space is given by the outer product: if is a bra and is a ket, the outer productdenotes the rank-one operator with the rule For a finite-dimensional vector space, the outer product can be understood as simple matrix multiplication:The outer product is an matrix, as expected for a linear operator.One of the uses of the outer product is to construct projection operators.", "Given a ket of norm 1, the orthogonal projection onto the subspace spanned by isThis is an idempotent in the algebra of observables that acts on the Hilbert space.===Hermitian conjugate operator===Just as kets and bras can be transformed into each other (making into ), the element from the dual space corresponding to is , where denotes the Hermitian conjugate (or adjoint) of the operator .", "In other words,If is expressed as an matrix, then is its conjugate transpose.Self-adjoint operators, where , play an important role in quantum mechanics; for example, an observable is always described by a self-adjoint operator.", "If is a self-adjoint operator, then is always a real number (not complex).", "This implies that expectation values of observables are real." ], [ "Properties", "Bra–ket notation was designed to facilitate the formal manipulation of linear-algebraic expressions.", "Some of the properties that allow this manipulation are listed herein.", "In what follows, and denote arbitrary complex numbers, denotes the complex conjugate of , and denote arbitrary linear operators, and these properties are to hold for any choice of bras and kets.===Linearity===* Since bras are linear functionals, * By the definition of addition and scalar multiplication of linear functionals in the dual space, ===Associativity===Given any expression involving complex numbers, bras, kets, inner products, outer products, and/or linear operators (but not addition), written in bra–ket notation, the parenthetical groupings do not matter (i.e., the associative property holds).", "For example::and so forth.", "The expressions on the right (with no parentheses whatsoever) are allowed to be written unambiguously ''because'' of the equalities on the left.", "Note that the associative property does ''not'' hold for expressions that include nonlinear operators, such as the antilinear time reversal operator in physics.===Hermitian conjugation===Bra–ket notation makes it particularly easy to compute the Hermitian conjugate (also called ''dagger'', and denoted ) of expressions.", "The formal rules are:* The Hermitian conjugate of a bra is the corresponding ket, and vice versa.", "* The Hermitian conjugate of a complex number is its complex conjugate.", "* The Hermitian conjugate of the Hermitian conjugate of anything (linear operators, bras, kets, numbers) is itself—i.e., * Given any combination of complex numbers, bras, kets, inner products, outer products, and/or linear operators, written in bra–ket notation, its Hermitian conjugate can be computed by reversing the order of the components, and taking the Hermitian conjugate of each.These rules are sufficient to formally write the Hermitian conjugate of any such expression; some examples are as follows:* Kets: * Inner products: Note that is a scalar, so the Hermitian conjugate is just the complex conjugate, i.e., * Matrix elements: * Outer products:" ], [ "Composite bras and kets", "Two Hilbert spaces and may form a third space by a tensor product.", "In quantum mechanics, this is used for describing composite systems.", "If a system is composed of two subsystems described in and respectively, then the Hilbert space of the entire system is the tensor product of the two spaces.", "(The exception to this is if the subsystems are actually identical particles.", "In that case, the situation is a little more complicated.", ")If is a ket in and is a ket in , the tensor product of the two kets is a ket in .", "This is written in various notations::See quantum entanglement and the EPR paradox for applications of this product." ], [ "The unit operator", "Consider a complete orthonormal system (''basis''),for a Hilbert space , with respect to the norm from an inner product .From basic functional analysis, it is known that any ket can also be written aswith the inner product on the Hilbert space.From the commutativity of kets with (complex) scalars, it follows thatmust be the ''identity operator'', which sends each vector to itself.This, then, can be inserted in any expression without affecting its value; for examplewhere, in the last line, the Einstein summation convention has been used to avoid clutter.In quantum mechanics, it often occurs that little or no information about the inner product of two arbitrary (state) kets is present, while it is still possible to say something about the expansion coefficients and of those vectors with respect to a specific (orthonormalized) basis.", "In this case, it is particularly useful to insert the unit operator into the bracket one time or more.For more information, see Resolution of the identity, where Since , plane waves follow, In his book (1958), Ch.", "III.20, Dirac defines the ''standard ket'' which, up to a normalization, is the translationally invariant momentum eigenstate in the momentum representation, i.e., .", "Consequently, the corresponding wavefunction is a constant, , and as well as Typically, when all matrix elements of an operator such as are available, this resolution serves to reconstitute the full operator," ], [ "Notation used by mathematicians", "The object physicists are considering when using bra–ket notation is a Hilbert space (a complete inner product space).Let be a Hilbert space and a vector in .", "What physicists would denote by is the vector itself.", "That is,Let be the dual space of .", "This is the space of linear functionals on .", "The embedding is defined by , where for every the linear functional satisfies for every the functional equation .Notational confusion arises when identifying and with and respectively.", "This is because of literal symbolic substitutions.", "Let and let .", "This givesOne ignores the parentheses and removes the double bars.Moreover, mathematicians usually write the dual entity not at the first place, as the physicists do, but at the second one, and they usually use not an asterisk but an overline (which the physicists reserve for averages and the Dirac spinor adjoint) to denote complex conjugate numbers; i.e., for scalar products mathematicians usually writewhereas physicists would write for the same quantity" ], [ "See also", "* Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)* -slit interferometric equation* Quantum state* Inner product space" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* .", "Also see his standard text, ''The Principles of Quantum Mechanics'', IV edition, Clarendon Press (1958), * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*Richard Fitzpatrick, \"Quantum Mechanics: A graduate level course\", The University of Texas at Austin.", "Includes:** 1.Ket space** 2.Bra space** 3.Operators** 4.The outer product** 5.Eigenvalues and eigenvectors*Robert Littlejohn, Lecture notes on \"The Mathematical Formalism of Quantum mechanics\", including bra–ket notation.", "University of California, Berkeley.", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Blue" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blue''' is one of the three primary colours in the RYB colour model (traditional colour theory), as well as in the RGB (additive) colour model.", "It lies between violet and cyan on the spectrum of visible light.", "The term ''blue'' generally describes colors perceived by humans observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres.", "Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet.", "The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering.", "An optical effect called the Tyndall effect explains blue eyes.", "Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.Blue has been an important colour in art and decoration since ancient times.", "The semi-precious stone lapis lazuli was used in ancient Egypt for jewellery and ornament and later, in the Renaissance, to make the pigment ultramarine, the most expensive of all pigments.", "In the eighth century Chinese artists used cobalt blue to colour fine blue and white porcelain.", "In the Middle Ages, European artists used it in the windows of cathedrals.", "Europeans wore clothing coloured with the vegetable dye woad until it was replaced by the finer indigo from America.", "In the 19th century, synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced organic dyes and mineral pigments.", "Dark blue became a common colour for military uniforms and later, in the late 20th century, for business suits.", "Because blue has commonly been associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations and the European Union.In the United States and Europe, blue is the colour that both men and women are most likely to choose as their favourite, with at least one recent survey showing the same across several other countries, including China, Malaysia, and Indonesia.", "Past surveys in the US and Europe have found that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, confidence, masculinity, knowledge, intelligence, calm, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sadness." ], [ "Etymology and linguistics", "The modern English word ''blue'' comes from Middle English or , from the Old French , a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word (meaning 'shimmering, lustrous').", "In heraldry, the word ''azure'' is used for ''blue''.In Russian, Spanish and some other languages, there is no single word for blue, but rather different words for light blue (, ; ) and dark blue (, ; ).", "See Colour term.Several languages, including Japanese and Lakota Sioux, use the same word to describe blue and green.", "For example, in Vietnamese, the colour of both tree leaves and the sky is .", "In Japanese, the word for blue (, ) is often used for colours that English speakers would refer to as green, such as the colour of a traffic signal meaning \"go\".", "In Lakota, the word is used for both blue and green, the two colours not being distinguished in older Lakota.", "(For more on this subject, see Blue–green distinction in language.", ")Linguistic research indicates that languages do not begin by having a word for the colour blue.", "Colour names often developed individually in natural languages, typically beginning with black and white (or dark and light), and then adding red, and only much later – usually as the last main category of colour accepted in a language – adding the colour blue, probably when blue pigments could be manufactured reliably in the culture using that language." ], [ "Optics and colour theory", "The term ''blue'' generally describes colours perceived by humans observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres.", "Blues with a higher frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency and a longer wavelength gradually appear more green.", "Purer blues are in the middle of this range, e.g., around 470 nanometres.Isaac Newton included blue as one of the seven colours in his first description of the visible spectrum.", "He chose seven colours because that was the number of notes in the musical scale, which he believed was related to the optical spectrum.", "He included indigo, the hue between blue and violet, as one of the separate colours, though today it is usually considered a hue of blue.In painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments (red, yellow, blue), which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours.", "Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green.", "Mixing all three primary colours together produces a dark brown.", "From the Renaissance onward, painters used this system to create their colours.", "(See RYB colour model.", ")The RYB model was used for colour printing by Jacob Christoph Le Blon as early as 1725.Later, printers discovered that more accurate colours could be created by using combinations of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink, put onto separate inked plates and then overlaid one at a time onto paper.", "This method could produce almost all the colours in the spectrum with reasonable accuracy.File:AdditiveColorMixing.svg|Additive colour mixing.", "The combination of primary colours produces secondary colours where two overlap; the combination red, green, and blue each in full intensity makes white.File:Closeup of pixels.JPG|Red, green, and blue subpixels on an LCD display.On the HSV colour wheel, the complement of blue is yellow; that is, a colour corresponding to an equal mixture of red and green light.", "On a colour wheel based on traditional colour theory (RYB) where blue was considered a primary colour, its complementary colour is considered to be orange (based on the Munsell colour wheel).===LED===In 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation.", "In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano of Nagoya University were working on a new development which revolutionized LED lighting.Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for the invention of an efficient blue LED.", "===Lasers===Lasers emitting in the blue region of the spectrum became widely available to the public in 2010 with the release of inexpensive high-powered 445–447 nm laser diode technology.", "Previously the blue wavelengths were accessible only through DPSS which are comparatively expensive and inefficient, but still widely used by scientists for applications including optogenetics, Raman spectroscopy, and particle image velocimetry, due to their superior beam quality.", "Blue gas lasers are also still commonly used for holography, DNA sequencing, optical pumping, among other scientific and medical applications." ], [ "Shades and variations", "Various shades of blueBlue is the colour of light between violet and cyan on the visible spectrum.", "Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Azure, which is a lighter shade of blue, similar to the colour of the sky; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens such as turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.Blue also varies in shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white.", "Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue.", "(For a more complete list see the List of colours).===As a structural colour===In nature, many blue phenomena arise from structural colouration, the result of interference between reflections from two or more surfaces of thin films, combined with refraction as light enters and exits such films.", "The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces interferes constructively, while at other angles, the light interferes destructively.", "Diverse colours therefore appear despite the absence of colourants." ], [ "Colourants", "File:Egyptian blue.jpg|Egyptian blueFile:Cobalt Blue.JPG|Cobalt blueFile:Bleu phtalo.jpg|Copper phthalocyanineFile:YInMn_Blue_-_cropped.jpg|YInMn blueFile:Prussian blue.jpg|Prussian blue, FeFe(CN), is the blue of blueprints.===Artificial blues===Egyptian blue, the first artificial pigment, was produced in the third millennium BC in Ancient Egypt.", "It is produced by heating pulverized sand, copper, and natron.", "It was used in tomb paintings and funereal objects to protect the dead in their afterlife.", "Prior to the 1700s, blue colourants for artwork were mainly based on lapis lazuli and the related mineral ultramarine.", "A breakthrough occurred in 1709 when German druggist and pigment maker Johann Jacob Diesbach discovered Prussian blue.", "The new blue arose from experiments involving heating dried blood with iron sulphides and was initially called Berliner Blau.", "By 1710 it was being used by the French painter Antoine Watteau, and later his successor Nicolas Lancret.", "It became immensely popular for the manufacture of wallpaper, and in the 19th century was widely used by French impressionist painters.", "Beginning in the 1820s, Prussian blue was imported into Japan through the port of Nagasaki.", "It was called ''bero-ai'', or Berlin blue, and it became popular because it did not fade like traditional Japanese blue pigment, ''ai-gami'', made from the dayflower.", "Prussian blue was used by both Hokusai, in his wave paintings, and Hiroshige.In 1799 a French chemist, Louis Jacques Thénard, made a synthetic cobalt blue pigment which became immensely popular with painters.In 1824 the Societé pour l'Encouragement d'Industrie in France offered a prize for the invention of an artificial ultramarine which could rival the natural colour made from lapis lazuli.", "The prize was won in 1826 by a chemist named Jean Baptiste Guimet, but he refused to reveal the formula of his colour.", "In 1828, another scientist, Christian Gmelin then a professor of chemistry in Tübingen, found the process and published his formula.", "This was the beginning of new industry to manufacture artificial ultramarine, which eventually almost completely replaced the natural product.In 1878 German chemists synthesized indigo.", "This product rapidly replaced natural indigo, wiping out vast farms growing indigo.", "It is now the blue of blue jeans.", "As the pace of organic chemistry accelerated, a succession of synthetic blue dyes were discovered including Indanthrone blue, which had even greater resistance to fading during washing or in the sun, and copper phthalocyanine.File:The Blue Boy.jpg|The Blue Boy (1770), featuring lapis lazuli, indigo, and cobalt colourants,File:Great Wave off Kanagawa2.jpg|The Great Wave off Kanagawa illustrates the use of Prussian blueFile:Indigoproduktion BASF 1890.JPG|A synthetic indigo dye factory in Germany in 1890.===Dyes for textiles and food===Chemical structure of indigo dye, a widely produced blue dye.", "Blue jeans consist of 1–3% by weight of this organic compound.Chemical structure of C.I.", "Acid Blue 9, a dye commonly used in candies.Blue dyes are organic compounds, both synthetic and natural.", "Woad and true indigo were once used but since the early 1900s, all indigo is synthetic.", "Produced on an industrial scale, indigo is the blue of blue jeans.For food, the triarylmethane dye Brilliant blue FCF is used for candies.", "The search continues for stable, natural blue dyes suitable for the food industry.===Pigments for painting and glass===Blue pigments were once produced from minerals, especially lapis lazuli and its close relative ultramarine.", "These minerals were crushed, ground into powder, and then mixed with a quick-drying binding agent, such as egg yolk (tempera painting); or with a slow-drying oil, such as linseed oil, for oil painting.", "Two inorganic but synthetic blue pigments are cerulean blue (primarily cobalt(II) stanate: ) and Prussian blue (milori blue: primarily ).", "The chromophore in blue glass and glazes is cobalt(II).", "Diverse cobalt(II) salts such as cobalt carbonate or cobalt(II) aluminate are mixed with the silica prior to firing.", "The cobalt occupies sites otherwise filled with silicon.===Inks===Methyl blue is the dominant blue pigment in inks used in pens.", "Blueprinting involves the production of Prussian blue in situ.===Inorganic compounds===Certain metal ions characteristically form blue solutions or blue salts.", "Of some practical importance, cobalt is used to make the deep blue glazes and glasses.", "It substitutes for silicon or aluminum ions in these materials.", "Cobalt is the blue chromophore in stained glass windows, such as those in Gothic cathedrals and in Chinese porcelain beginning in the Tang Dynasty.", "Copper(II) (Cu2+) also produces many blue compounds, including the commercial algicide copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O).", "Similarly, vanadyl salts and solutions are often blue, e.g.", "vanadyl sulfate." ], [ "In nature", "===Sky and sea===When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the blue wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and more blue comes to our eyes.", "This effect is called Rayleigh scattering, after Lord Rayleigh and confirmed by Albert Einstein in 1911.The sea is seen as blue for largely the same reason: the water absorbs the longer wavelengths of red and reflects and scatters the blue, which comes to the eye of the viewer.", "The deeper the observer goes, the darker the blue becomes.", "In the open sea, only about one per cent of light penetrates to a depth of 200 metres.", "(See underwater and euphotic depth)The colour of the sea is also affected by the colour of the sky, reflected by particles in the water; and by algae and plant life in the water, which can make it look green; or by sediment, which can make it look brown.The farther away an object is, the more blue it often appears to the eye.", "For example, mountains in the distance often appear blue.", "This is the effect of atmospheric perspective; the farther an object is away from the viewer, the less contrast there is between the object and its background colour, which is usually blue.", "In a painting where different parts of the composition are blue, green and red, the blue will appear to be more distant, and the red closer to the viewer.", "The cooler a colour is, the more distant it seems.", "Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, hence our \"blue planet\".File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|Earth's blue halo when seen from space.File:Aerial perspective 1.JPG|Another example of Rayleigh scattering.File:LightningVolt Deep Blue Sea.jpg|The sea.===Minerals===Lapis-lazuli hg.jpg|Lapis-lazuliAzurite - New Nevada Lode, La Sal, Utah, USA.jpg|AzuriteNatural ultramarine pigment.jpg|Natural ultramarine pigmentLogan Sapphire SI.jpg|Logan sapphireSome of the most desirable gems are blue, including sapphire and tanzanite.", "Compounds of copper(II) are characteristically blue and so are many copper-containing minerals.Azurite (, with a deep blue colour, was once employed in medieval years, but it is unstable pigment, losing its colour especially under dry conditions.", "Lapis lazuli, mined in Afghanistan for more than three thousand years, was used for jewelry and ornaments, and later was crushed and powdered and used as a pigment.", "The more it was ground, the lighter the blue colour became.", "Natural ultramarine, made by grinding lapis lazuli into a fine powder, was the finest available blue pigment in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.", "It was extremely expensive, and in Italian Renaissance art, it was often reserved for the robes of the Virgin Mary.===Plants and fungi===File:Blaue Primeln.JPG|''Primula acaulis''File:Ipomoea August 2007-1.jpg|Morning glory (''Ipomoea acuminata'')File:Vaccinium corymbosum Beeren.jpg|''Vaccinium corymbosum''File:Delphinium denudatum 1.jpg|Blue Delphinium flowerFile:Lactarius indigo 48568 edit.jpg|''Lactarius indigo''Intense efforts have focused on blue flowers and the possibility that natural blue colourants could be used as food dyes.", "Commonly, blue colours in plants are anthocyanins: \"the largest group of water-soluble pigments found widespread in the plant kingdom.\"", "In the few plants that exploit structural colouration, brilliant colours are produced by structures within cells.", "The most brilliant blue colouration known in any living tissue is found in the marble berries of ''Pollia condensata'', where a spiral structure of cellulose fibrils scattering blue light.", "The fruit of quandong (Santalum acuminatum) can appear blue owing to the same effect.===Animals===File:Morpho didius Male Dos MHNT.jpg|Morpho butterflyFile:Indigo Bunting by Dan Pancamo 4.jpg|Indigo buntings have iridescent feathers.File:Mandrill-k-means.png|Blue facial ridges of mandrillFile:2009-03-29Dendrobates tinctorius azureus106.jpg|Blue poison dart frogFile:Synchiropus splendidus 2 Luc Viatour cropped.png|The mandarin fish is one of few animal species with blue pigmentBlue-pigmented animals are relatively rare.", "Examples of which include butterflies of the genus ''Nessaea'', where blue is created by pterobilin.", "Other blue pigments of animal origin include phorcabilin, used by other butterflies in ''Graphium'' and ''Papilio'' (specifically ''P.", "phorcas'' and ''P.", "weiskei''), and sarpedobilin, which is used by ''Graphium sarpedon''.", "Blue-pigmented organelles, known as \"cyanosomes\", exist in the chromatophores of at least two fish species, the mandarin fish and the picturesque dragonet.", "More commonly, blueness in animals is a structural colouration; an optical interference effect induced by organized nanometer-sized scales or fibres.", "Examples include the plumage of several birds like the blue jay and indigo bunting, the scales of butterflies like the morpho butterfly, collagen fibres in the skin of some species of monkey and opossum, and the iridophore cells in some fish and frogs.===Eyes===Tyndall scattering.Blue eyes do not actually contain any blue pigment.", "Eye colour is determined by two factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.", "In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black.", "The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky.", "The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.", "Eye colour also varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-coloured eyes.Blue eyes are most common in Ireland, the Baltic Sea area and Northern Europe, and are also found in Eastern, Central, and Southern Europe.", "Blue eyes are also found in parts of Western Asia, most notably in Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, and Iran.", "In Estonia, 99% of people have blue eyes.", "In Denmark in 1978, only 8% of the population had brown eyes, though through immigration, today that number is about 11%.", "In Germany, about 75% have blue eyes.In the United States, as of 2006, one out of every six people, or 16.6% of the total population, and 22.3% of the white population, have blue eyes, compared with about half of Americans born in 1900, and a third of Americans born in 1950.Blue eyes are becoming less common among American children.", "In the US, boys are 3–5 per cent more likely to have blue eyes than girls." ], [ "History", "=== In the ancient world ===File:Lapis bowl Iran, AO 26477.jpg|Lapis lazuli bowl from Iran, end of 3rd – beginning of 2nd millennium BC (Louvre Museum)File:Tripodic goblet Louvre AO4079.jpg|Egyptian blue tripodic beaker imitating lapis lazuli.", "South Mesopotamia.", "(1399-1200 BC)File:WLA metmuseum Wall painting Polyphemus and Galaltea 4.jpg|Fresco of Polyphemus and Galatea, Pompei, using Egyptian blue (1st c. BC) (Metropolitan Museum)As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, in Shortugai, and in other mines in Badakhshan province in northeast Afghanistan.Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of Indus Valley civilisation.", "Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation (7570–1900 BC).", "Lapis beads have been found at Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh, the Caucasus, and as far away as Mauritania.", "It was used in the funeral mask of Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC).A term for Blue was relatively rare in many forms of ancient art and decoration, and even in ancient literature.", "The Ancient Greek poets described the sea as green, brown or \"the colour of wine\".", "The colour is mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible as 'tekhelet'.", "Reds, blacks, browns, and ochres are found in cave paintings from the Upper Paleolithic period, but not blue.", "Blue was also not used for dyeing fabric until long after red, ochre, pink, and purple.", "This is probably due to the perennial difficulty of making blue dyes and pigments.", "On the other hand, the rarity of blue pigment made it even more valuable.The earliest known blue dyes were made from plants – woad in Europe, indigo in Asia and Africa, while blue pigments were made from minerals, usually either lapis lazuli or azurite, and required more.", "Blue glazes posed still another challenge since the early blue dyes and pigments were not thermally robust.", "In , the blue glaze Egyptian blue was introduced for ceramics, as well as many other objects.", "The Greeks imported indigo dye from India, calling it indikon, and they painted with Egyptian blue.", "Blue was not one of the four primary colours for Greek painting described by Pliny the Elder (red, yellow, black, and white).", "For the Romans, blue was the colour of mourning, as well as the colour of barbarians.", "The Celts and Germans reportedly dyed their faces blue to frighten their enemies, and tinted their hair blue when they grew old.", "The Romans made extensive use of indigo and Egyptian blue pigment, as evidenced, in part, by frescos in Pompeii.The Romans had many words for varieties of blue, including , , , , , , , and , but two words, both of foreign origin, became the most enduring; , from the Germanic word ''blau'', which eventually became ''bleu'' or blue; and , from the Arabic word , which became azure.Blue was widely used in the decoration of churches in the Byzantine Empire.", "By contrast, in the Islamic world, blue was of secondary to green, believed to be the favourite colour of the Prophet Mohammed.", "At certain times in Moorish Spain and other parts of the Islamic world, blue was the colour worn by Christians and Jews, because only Muslims were allowed to wear white and green.=== In the Middle Ages ===File:Vitraux Saint-Denis 190110 19.jpg|Stained glass window at Saint Denis Basilica (1130-1140), coloured with cobalt blue File:Vitrail Chartres Notre-Dame 210209 1.jpg|Detail of the Blue Virgin Window, Chartres Cathedral (12th c.)File:Wilton diptych.jpg|The Wilton Diptych (1395–1399).", "The Virgin Mary was traditionally shown in blue(14th c.)In the art and life of Europe during the early Middle Ages, blue played a minor role.", "This changed dramatically between 1130 and 1140 in Paris, when the Abbe Suger rebuilt the Saint Denis Basilica.", "Suger considered that light was the visible manifestation of the Holy Spirit.", "He installed stained glass windows coloured with cobalt, which, combined with the light from the red glass, filled the church with a bluish violet light.", "The church became the marvel of the Christian world, and the colour became known as the .", "In the years that followed even more elegant blue stained glass windows were installed in other churches, including at Chartres Cathedral and Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.In the 12th century the Roman Catholic Church dictated that painters in Italy (and the rest of Europe consequently) to paint the Virgin Mary with blue, which became associated with holiness, humility and virtue.", "In medieval paintings, blue was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the Virgin Mary.", "Paintings of the mythical King Arthur began to show him dressed in blue.", "The coat of arms of the kings of France became an azure or light blue shield, sprinkled with golden fleur-de-lis or lilies.", "Blue had come from obscurity to become the royal colour.=== Renaissance through 18th century ===Blue came into wider use beginning in the Renaissance, when artists began to paint the world with perspective, depth, shadows, and light from a single source.", "In Renaissance paintings, artists tried to create harmonies between blue and red, lightening the blue with lead white paint and adding shadows and highlights.", "Raphael was a master of this technique, carefully balancing the reds and the blues so no one colour dominated the picture.", "Ultramarine was the most prestigious blue of the Renaissance, being more expensive than gold.", "Wealthy art patrons commissioned works with the most expensive blues possible.", "In 1616 Richard Sackville commissioned a portrait of himself by Isaac Oliver with three different blues, including ultramarine pigment for his stockings.", "File:Oliver Richard Sackville Earl of Dorset 1616.jpg|Portrait of Richard Sackville (1616), using three expensive blues, including ultramarine for his stockingsFile:MET DP251168.jpg|Ming Dynasty, Porcelain vase painted with cobalt blue under transparent glaze.", "(15th c.) (Metropolitan Museum)File:Delftware plaque with New Testament scene 002.jpg|Delftware plaque with cobalt blue painting (1683) (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)File:Portrait of Louis XIV of France in Coronation Robes (by Hyacinthe Rigaud) - Louvre Museum.jpg|Portrait of King Louis XIV of France in coronation robes, by Hyacinthe Rigaud (c. 1700) (Louvre Museum)File:Urn with cover MET DP104608.jpg|Urn by Josiah Wedgewood (1780s) (Metropolitan Museum)File:Queen Maria I of Portugal (1734-1816) in an 18th century painting.jpg|Queen Maria I of Portugal (late 1700s)File:Johannes Vermeer - Girl with a Pearl Earring - WGA24666.jpg|\"Girl with a Pearl Earring\" by Johannes Vermeer features ultramarine pigmentAn industry for the manufacture of fine blue and white pottery began in the 14th century in Jingdezhen, China, using white Chinese porcelain decorated with patterns of cobalt blue, imported from Persia.", "It was first made for the family of the Emperor of China, then was exported around the world, with designs for export adapted to European subjects and tastes.", "The Chinese blue style was also adapted by Dutch craftsmen in Delft and English craftsmen in Staffordshire in the 17th-18th centuries.", "in the 18th century, blue and white porcelains were produced by Josiah Wedgwood and other British craftsmen.===19th-20th century===File:BrummellDighton1805.jpg|Beau Brummel (1776-1840) introduced the ancestor of the modern blue suitFile:D. Maria II (1834) - Joaquim Rafael (Museu Militar de Lisboa).png|Queen Maria II of Portugal in a blue and gold embroidered gown (1835)File:A Miner in His Cabin.jpg|A California gold miner in blue jeans (1853)File:Ferdinand Krumholz Isabel do Brasil 1853.jpg|Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil in light blue gown (1853)File:New York Metropolitan Police Uniforms 1871.jpg|New York City police in 1871The early 19th century saw the ancestor of the modern blue business suit, created by Beau Brummel (1776-1840), who set fashion at the London Court.", "It also saw the invention of blue jeans, a highly popular form of workers's costume, invented in 1853 by Jacob W. Davis who used metal rivets to strengthen blue denim work clothing in the California gold fields.", "The invention was funded by San Francisco entrepreneur Levi Strauss, and spread around the world..", "File:Starry Night Over the Rhone.jpg|Van Gogh's ''Starry Night Over the Rhône'' (1888).", "Blue used to create a mood or atmosphere.", "A cobalt blue sky, and cobalt or ultramarine water.File:Matisse Conversation.jpg|\"The Conversation\" by Henri Matisse (1908-1912)Recognizing the emotional power of blue, many artists made it the central element of paintings in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "They included Pablo Picasso, Pavel Kuznetsov and the Blue Rose art group, and Kandinsky and Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) school.", "Henri Matisse expressed deep emotions with blue:, \"A certain blue penetrates your soul.\"", "In the second half of the 20th century, painters of the abstract expressionist movement use blues to inspire ideas and emotions.", "Painter Mark Rothko observed that colour was \"only an instrument;\" his interest was \"in expressing human emotions tragedy, ecstasy, doom, and so on.\"" ], [ "In society and culture", "=== Uniforms ===File:Very friendly MPS officers in London.jpg|Officers of the London Metropolitan PoliceFile:Royal Navy Sailors on Parade MOD 45155635.jpg|Sailors of the Royal NavyFile:2010.Донецк.", "Карнавал на день города 010.jpg|Ukrainian police officer in DonetskFile:PM do Rio muda o comando de 25 UPPs.jpg|Officers of the Military Police of Rio de Janeiro State, BrazilIn the 17th century.", "The Prince-Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William I of Prussia, chose Prussian blue as the new colour of Prussian military uniforms, because it was made with Woad, a local crop, rather than Indigo, which was produced by the colonies of Brandenburg's rival, England.", "It was worn by the German army until World War I, with the exception of the soldiers of Bavaria, who wore sky-blue.In 1748, the Royal Navy adopted a dark shade of blue for the uniform of officers.", "It was first known as marine blue, now known as navy blue.", "The militia organized by George Washington selected blue and buff, the colours of the British Whig Party.", "Blue continued to be the colour of the field uniform of the US Army until 1902, and is still the colour of the dress uniform.In the 19th century, police in the United Kingdom, including the Metropolitan Police and the City of London Police also adopted a navy blue uniform.", "Similar traditions were embraced in France and Austria.", "It was also adopted at about the same time for the uniforms of the officers of the New York City Police Department.===Religion===File:Sri Mariamman Temple Singapore 2 amk.jpg|In Hinduism, Krishna is depicted with blue skin File:Reknown blue domes of the Church dedicated to St. Spirou in Firostefani, Santorini island (Thira), Greece.jpg|Blue domes of the Church dedicated to St. Spirou in Firostefani, Santorini island (Thira), Greece.File:Mezquita Shah, Isfahán, Irán, 2016-09-20, DD 64.jpg|Persian blue in Shah mosque (16th c.) in Isfahan, IranFile:Flag-of-Israel-4-Zachi-Evenor.jpg|The flag of Israel uses a special variety of blue, called tekhelet* Blue in Judaism: In the Torah, the Israelites were commanded to put fringes, ''tzitzit'', on the corners of their garments, and to weave within these fringes a \"twisted thread of blue (''tekhelet'')\".", "In ancient days, this blue thread was made from a dye extracted from a Mediterranean snail called the ''hilazon''.", "Maimonides claimed that this blue was the colour of \"the clear noonday sky\"; Rashi, the colour of the evening sky.", "According to several rabbinic sages, blue is the colour of God's Glory.", "Staring at this colour aids in mediation, bringing us a glimpse of the \"pavement of sapphire, like the very sky for purity\", which is a likeness of the Throne of God.", "(The Hebrew word for glory.)", "Many items in the ''Mishkan'', the portable sanctuary in the wilderness, such as the ''menorah'', many of the vessels, and the Ark of the Covenant, were covered with blue cloth when transported from place to place.", "* Blue in Christianity: Blue is particularly associated with the Virgin Mary.", "This was the result of a decree of Pope Gregory I (540-601) who ordered that all religious paintings should tell a story which was clearly comprehensible to all viewers, and that figures should be easily recognizable, especially that of the figure of Mary.", "If she was alone in the image, her costume was usually painted with the finest blue, ultramarine.", "If she was with Christ, her costume was usually painted with a less expensive pigment, to avoid outshining him.", "* Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who is said to be the preserver of the world, and thus intimately connected to water.", "Krishna and Rama, Vishnu's avatars, are usually depicted with blue skin.", "Shiva, the destroyer deity, is also depicted in a light-blue hue, and is called ''neela kantha'', or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison to save the universe during the Samudra Manthana, the churning of the ocean of milk.", "Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, and the throat, chakra (Vishuddha).", "* Blue in Sikhism: The Akali Nihangs warriors wear all-blue attire.", "Guru Gobind Singh also has a blue roan horse.", "The Sikh Rehat Maryada states that the Nishan Sahib hoisted outside every Gurudwara should be xanthic (Basanti in Punjabi) or greyish blue (modern day navy blue) (Surmaaee in Punjabi) colour.", "*Blue in Paganism: Blue is associated with peace, truth, wisdom, protection, and patience.", "It helps with healing, psychic ability, harmony, and understanding.=== Sports ===File:Italy Team - Rome, 1965.jpg|The Italian national football teamFile:Serbia national volleyball team at the 2012 Summer Olympics (7913882066).jpg|Serbian national volleyball team, 2012 OlympicsIn sports, blue is widely represented in uniforms in part because the majority of national teams wear the colours of their national flag.", "For example, the national men's football team of France are known as ''Les Bleus'' (the Blues).", "Similarly, Argentina, Italy, and Uruguay wear blue shirts.", "The Asian Football Confederation and the Oceania Football Confederation use blue text on their logos.", "Blue is well represented in baseball (Blue Jays), basketball, and American football, and Ice hockey.", "The Indian national cricket team wears blue uniform during One day international matches, as such the team is also referred to as \"Men in Blue\".===Politics===File:Flag of the United Nations.svg|Flag of the United Nations, approximates \"sky blue\"File:Flag of Europe.svg|Flag of the European Union is \"reflex blue\", a medium dark blueFile:Red state, blue state.svg|A presidential-election map of the US, 2008–2020.States that consistently vote for Democrats are termed \"blue states\".Unlike red or green, blue was not strongly associated with any particular country, religion or political movement.", "As the colour of harmony, it was chosen as the colour for the flags of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO.", "In politics, blue is often used as the colour of conservative parties, contrasting with the red associated with left-wing parties.", "Some conservative parties that use the color blue include the Conservative Party (UK), Conservative Party of Canada, Liberal Party of Australia, Liberal Party of Brazil, and Likud of Israel.", "In some countries, however, like the United States, the colours are reversed.", "To avoid associations of the Democrats with socialism or the far left, U.S. states which voted Democratic in four consecutive presidential elections are termed \"blue states\", while those which voted for Republicans are termed \"red states\".", "States which voted for different parties in two of the last four presidential elections are called \"swing states\", and are usually coloured purple, a mix of red and blue, or sometimes pink or light blue.South Korea also uses this color model, with the Democratic Party on the left using blue and the People Power Party on the right using red." ], [ "See also", "* Engineer's blue* Lists of colours* Non-photo blue* Blue pigments" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* (page numbers refer to the French translation)* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * \"Friday essay: from the Great Wave to Starry Night, how a blue pigment changed the world\", By Hugh Davies, theconversation.com" ] ]

[ [ "Blind Willie McTell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blind Willie McTell''' (born '''William Samuel McTier'''; May 5, 1898 – August 19, 1959) was a Piedmont blues and ragtime singer and guitarist.", "He played with a fluid, syncopated fingerstyle guitar technique, common among many exponents of Piedmont blues.", "Unlike his contemporaries, he came to use twelve-string guitars exclusively.", "McTell was also an adept slide guitarist, unusual among ragtime bluesmen.", "His vocal style, a smooth and often laid-back tenor, differed greatly from many of the harsher voices of Delta bluesmen such as Charley Patton.", "McTell performed in various musical styles, including blues, ragtime, religious music and hokum.McTell was born in Thomson, Georgia.", "He learned to play the guitar in his early teens.", "He soon became a street performer in several Georgia cities, including Atlanta and Augusta, and first recorded in 1927 for Victor Records.", "He never produced a major hit record, but he had a prolific recording career with different labels and under different names in the 1920s and 1930s.", "In 1940, he was recorded by the folklorist John A. Lomax and Ruby Terrill Lomax for the folk song archive of the Library of Congress.", "He was active in the 1940s and 1950s, playing on the streets of Atlanta, often with his longtime associate Curley Weaver.", "Twice more he recorded professionally.", "His last recordings originated during an impromptu session recorded by an Atlanta record store owner in 1956.McTell died three years later, having lived for years with diabetes and alcoholism.", "Despite his lack of commercial success, he was one of the few blues musicians of his generation who continued to actively play and record during the 1940s and 1950s.", "He did not live to see the American folk music revival, in which many other bluesmen were \"rediscovered\".McTell's influence extended over a wide variety of artists, including the Allman Brothers Band, who covered his \"Statesboro Blues\", and Bob Dylan, who paid tribute to him in his 1983 song \"Blind Willie McTell\", the refrain of which is \"And I know no one can sing the blues like Blind Willie McTell\".", "Other artists influenced by McTell include Taj Mahal, Alvin Youngblood Hart, Ralph McTell, Chris Smither, Jack White, and the White Stripes." ], [ "Biography", "He was born William Samuel McTier in the Happy Valley community outside Thomson, Georgia.", "Most sources give the date of his birth as 1898, but researchers Bob Eagle and Eric LeBlanc suggest 1903, on the basis of his entry in the 1910 census.", "McTell was born blind in one eye and lost his remaining vision by late childhood.", "He attended schools for the blind in Georgia, New York and Michigan and showed proficiency in music from an early age, first playing the harmonica and accordion, learning to read and write music in Braille, and turning to the six-string guitar in his early teens.", "His family background was rich in music; both of his parents and an uncle played the guitar.", "He was related to the bluesman and gospel pioneer Thomas A. Dorsey.", "McTell's father left the family when Willie was young.", "After his mother died, in the 1920s, he left his hometown and became an itinerant musician, or \"songster\".", "He began his recording career in 1927 for Victor Records in Atlanta.McTell married Ruth Kate Williams, now better known as Kate McTell, in 1934.She accompanied him on stage and on several recordings before becoming a nurse in 1939.For most of their marriage, from 1942 until his death, they lived apart, she in Fort Gordon, near Augusta, and he working around Atlanta.In the years before World War II, McTell traveled and performed widely, recording for several labels under different names: Blind Willie McTell (for Victor and Decca), Blind Sammie (for Columbia), Georgia Bill (for Okeh), Hot Shot Willie (for Victor), Blind Willie (for Vocalion and Bluebird), Barrelhouse Sammie (for Atlantic), and Pig & Whistle Red (for Regal).", "The appellation \"Pig & Whistle\" was a reference to a chain of barbecue restaurants in Atlanta; McTell often played for tips in the parking lot of a Pig 'n Whistle restaurant.", "He also played behind a nearby building that later became Ray Lee's Blue Lantern Lounge.", "Like Lead Belly, another songster who began his career as a street artist, McTell favored the somewhat unwieldy and unusual twelve-string guitar, whose greater volume made it suitable for outdoor playing.In 1940 John A. Lomax and his wife, Ruby Terrill Lomax, a professor of classics at the University of Texas at Austin, interviewed and recorded McTell for the Archive of American Folk Song of the Library of Congress in a two-hour session held in their hotel room in Atlanta.", "These recordings document McTell's distinctive musical style, which bridges the gap between the raw country blues of the early part of the 20th century and the more conventionally melodious, ragtime-influenced East Coast Piedmont blues sound.", "The Lomaxes also elicited from the singer traditional songs (such as \"The Boll Weevil\" and \"John Henry\") and spirituals (such as \"Amazing Grace\"), which were not part of his usual commercial repertoire.", "In the interview, John A. Lomax is heard asking if McTell knows any \"complaining\" songs (an earlier term for protest songs), to which the singer replies somewhat uncomfortably and evasively that he does not.", "The Library of Congress paid McTell $10, the equivalent of $154.56 in 2011, for this two-hour session.", "The material from this 1940 session was issued in 1960 as an LP and later as a CD, under the somewhat misleading title ''The Complete Library of Congress Recordings'', notwithstanding the fact that it was truncated, in that it omitted some of John A. Lomax's interactions with the singer and entirely omitted the contributions of Ruby Terrill Lomax.Ahmet Ertegun visited Atlanta in 1949 in search of blues artists for this new Atlantic Records label and after finding McTell playing on the street, arranged a recording session.", "Some of the songs were released on 78 rpm discs, but sold poorly.", "The complete session was released in 1972 as ''Atlanta Twelve-String''.", "McTell recorded for Regal Records in 1949, but these recordings also met with less commercial success than his previous works.", "He continued to perform around Atlanta, but his career was cut short by ill health, mostly due to diabetes and alcoholism.", "In 1956, an Atlanta record store manager, Edward Rhodes, discovered McTell playing in the street for quarters and enticed him with a bottle of corn liquor into his store, where he captured a few final performances on a tape recorder.", "These recordings were released posthumously by Prestige/Bluesville Records as ''Last Session''.", "Beginning in 1957, McTell was a preacher at Mt.", "Zion Baptist Church in Atlanta.McTell died of a stroke in Milledgeville, Georgia, in 1959.He was buried at Jones Grove Church, near Thomson, Georgia, his birthplace.", "Author David Fulmer, who in 1992 was working on a documentary about McTell, paid to have a gravestone erected on his resting place.", "The name given on his gravestone is Willie Samuel McTier.", "He was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Blues Hall of Fame in 1981 and the Georgia Music Hall of Fame in 1990.In his recordings of \"Lay Some Flowers on My Grave\", \"Lord, Send Me an Angel\" and \"Statesboro Blues\", he pronounces his surname ''MacTell'', with the stress on the first syllable." ], [ "Influence", "Label of \"Statesboro Blues\", one of McTell's most notable worksMcTell's most famous song, \"Statesboro Blues\", was first adapted by Taj Mahal with Jesse Ed Davis on slide guitar, then covered on an LP and frequently performed by the Allman Brothers Band; it also contributes to Canned Heat's \"Goin' Up the Country\".", "A short list of some of the artists who have performed the song includes Taj Mahal, David Bromberg, Dave Van Ronk, The Devil Makes Three and Ralph McTell, who changed his name on account of liking the song.", "Ry Cooder covered McTell's \"Married Man's a Fool\" on his 1973 album, ''Paradise and Lunch''.", "Jack White, of the White Stripes considers McTell an influence; the White Stripes album ''De Stijl'' (2000) is dedicated to him and features a cover of his song \"Southern Can Is Mine\".", "The White Stripes also covered McTell's \"Lord, Send Me an Angel\", releasing it as a single in 2000.In 2013, Jack White's Third Man Records teamed up with Document Records to issue ''The Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order of Charley Patton, Blind Willie McTell and the Mississippi Sheiks''.Bob Dylan paid tribute to McTell on at least four occasions.", "In his 1965 song \"Highway 61 Revisited\", the second verse begins, \"Georgia Sam he had a bloody nose\", a reference to one of McTell's many recording names (Note: there is no evidence of use of this moniker on any recordings).", "Dylan's song \"Blind Willie McTell\" was recorded in 1983 and released in 1991 on ''The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3''.", "Dylan also recorded covers of McTell's \"Broke Down Engine\" and \"Delia\" on his 1993 album, ''World Gone Wrong''; Dylan's song \"Po' Boy\", on the album ''Love and Theft'' (2001), contains the lyric \"had to go to Florida dodging them Georgia laws\", which comes from McTell's \"Kill It Kid\".The Bath-based band Kill It Kid is named after the song of the same title.A billiards bar and concert venue in Statesboro, Georgia, was named Blind Willie's after McTell in the 1990s.", "The venue is now closed, but remains a fond memory for Georgia Southern University students at the time.Blind Willie's is a bar in the Virginia-Highlands neighborhood of Atlanta named after McTell that features blues musicians and bands.", "The Blind Willie McTell Blues Festival is held annually in Thomson, Georgia." ], [ "Discography", "===Singles=== Year A-side B-side Label Cat.", "# Moniker Note1927 \"Stole Rider Blues\" \"Mr. McTell Got the Blues\"Victor 21124Blind Willie McTell \"Writing Paper Blues\" \"Mamma, Tain't Long Fo' Day\" 214741928 \"Three Women Blues\" \"Statesboro Blues\" V38001 \"Dark Night Blues\" \"Loving Talking Blues\" V380321929 \"Atlanta Strut\" \"Kind Mama\"Columbia 14657-DBlind Sammie \"Travelin' Blues\" \"Come on Around to My House Mama\" 14484-D \"Drive Away Blues\" \"Love Changing Blues\" Victor V38580 Blind Willie McTell 1930 \"Talking to Myself\" \"Razor Ball\"Columbia 14551-DBlind Sammie1931 \"Southern Can Is Mine\" \"Broke Down Engine Blues\" 14632-D \"Low Rider's Blues\" \"Georgia Rag\"OKeh 8924Georgia Bill \"Stomp Down Rider\" \"Scarey Day Blues\" 89361932 \"Mama, Let Me Scoop for You\" \"Rollin' Mama Blues\"Victor 23328Hot Shot Williewith Ruby Glaze \"Lonesome Day Blues\" \"Searching the Desert for the Blues\" 233531933 \"Savannah Mama\" \"B and O Blues No.", "2\"Vocalion 02568Blind Willie \"Broke Down Engine\" \"Death Cell Blues\" 02577 \"Warm It Up to Me\" \"Runnin' Me Crazy\" 02595 \"It's a Good Little Thing\" \"Southern Can Mama\" 02622 \"Lord Have Mercy, if You Please\" \"Don't You See How This World Made a Change\" 02623 with \"Partner\" (Curley Weaver) \"My Baby's Gone\" \"Weary Hearted Blues\" 026681935 \"Bell Street Blues\" \"Ticket Agent Blues\"Decca 7078Blind Willie McTellwith Kate McTell \"Dying Gambler\" \"God Don't Like It\" 7093 \"Ain't It Grand to Be a Christian\" \"We Got to Meet Death One Day\" 7130 \"Your Time to Worry\" \"Hillbilly Willie's Blues\" 7117 \"Cold Winter Day\" \"Lay Some Flowers on My Grave\" 78101950 \"Kill It Kid\" \"Broke-Down Engine Blues\" Atlantic 891 Barrelhouse Sammy \"River Jordan\" \"How About You\"Regal 3260Blind Willie \"It's My Desire\" \"Hide Me in Thy Bosom\" 3272 \"Love Changing Blues\" \"Talkin' to You Mama\" 3277 Willie Samuel McTell with Curley Weaver;attributed to \"Pig and Whistle Band\";As an accompanist Year Artist A-side B-side Label Cat.", "# Note 1927 Alfoncy and Bethenea Harris \"Teasing Brown\" \"This Is Not the Stove to Brown Your Bread\" Victor V385941931Ruth Willis \"Experience Blues\" \"Painful Blues\" Columbia 14642-D \"Rough Alley Blues\" \"Low Down Blues\"OKeh 8921 \"Talkin' to You Wimmin' About the Blues\" \"Merciful Blues\" 89321935Curley Weaver \"Tricks Ain't Walking No More\" \"Early Morning Blues\"Decca 7077 \"Sometime Mama\" \"Two-Faced Woman\" 7906 McTell plays only on B-side \"Oh Lawdy Mama\" \"Fried Pie Blues\" 7664 1949 \"My Baby's Gone\" \"Ticket Agent\" Sittin' In With 547===Long-plays=== Year Title Label Cat.", "# Note 1961 ''Last Session'' Bluesville BV 1040 recorded in 1956 1966 ''Blind Willie McTell: 1940'' Melodeon MLP 7323 subtitled ''The Legendary Library of Congress Session'';recorded in 1940===Selected compilations===*''Blind Willie McTell 1927–1933: The Early Years'', Yazoo L-1005 (1968)*''Blind Willie McTell 1949: Trying to Get Home'', Biograph BLP-12008 (1969)*''King of the Georgia Blues Singers (1929–1935)'', Roots RL-324 (1969)*''Atlanta Twelve String'', Atlantic SD-7224 (1972)*''Death Cell Blues'', Biograph BLP-C-14 (1973)*''Blind Willie McTell: 1927–1935'', Yazoo L-1037 (1974)*''Blind Willie McTell: 1927–1949, The Remaining Titles'', Wolf WSE 102 (1982)*''Blues in the Dark'', MCA 1368 (1983)*''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order'', vol.", "1, Document DOCD-5006 (1990)*''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order'', vol.", "2, Document DOCD-5007 (1990)*''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order'', vol.", "3, Document DOCD-5008 (1990)**These three albums were issued together as the box set ''Statesboro Blues'', Document DOCD-5677 (1990)*''Complete Library of Congress Recordings in Chronological Order'', RST Blues Documents BDCD-6001 (1990)*''Pig 'n Whistle Red'', Biograph BCD 126 (1993)*''The Definitive Blind Willie McTell'', Legacy C2K-53234 (1994)*''The Classic Years 1927–1940'', JSP JSP7711 (2003)*''King of the Georgia Blues'', Snapper SBLUECD504X (2007)===Selected compilations with other artists===*''Blind Willie McTell/Memphis Minnie: Love Changin' Blues'', Biograph BLP-12035 (1971)*''Atlanta Blues 1933'', JEMF 106 (1979)*''Blind Willie McTell and Curley Weaver: The Post-War Years'', RST Blues Documents BDCD 6014 (1990)*''Classic Blues Artwork from the 1920s'', vol.", "5, Blues Images – BIM-105 (2007)" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Notes======Citations======Works cited===* ===General references===*Bastin, Bruce.", "''Red River Blues: The Blues Tradition in the Southeast''.", "Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986, 1995., .", "*Charters, Samuel, ed.", "''Sweet as the Showers of Rain''.", "Oak Publications, 1977, pp, 120–131." ], [ "External links", "* New Georgia Encyclopedia – Blind Willie McTell article* Illustrated Blind Willie McTell discography* * \"Statesboro Blues\" MP3 file on the Internet Archive* David Fulmer, producer \"Blind Willie's Blues\" Documentary film, 1996* \"The Dying Crapshooter's Blues\" Novel by David Fulmer featuring McTell as a character* John May interviews biographer Michael Gray* Review of Hand Me My Travelin' Shoes: In Search of Blind Willie McTell by Michael Gray" ] ]

[ [ "BDSM" ], [ "Introduction", "The BDSM initialism'''BDSM''' is a variety of often erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, discipline, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other related interpersonal dynamics.", "Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged in by people who do not consider themselves to be practising BDSM, inclusion in the BDSM community or subculture often is said to depend on self-identification and shared experience.The initialism ''BDSM'' is first recorded in a Usenet post from 1991, and is interpreted as a combination of the abbreviations B/D (Bondage and Discipline), D/s (Dominance and submission), and S/M (Sadism and Masochism).", "''BDSM'' is now used as a catch-all phrase covering a wide range of activities, forms of interpersonal relationships, and distinct subcultures.", "BDSM communities generally welcome anyone with a non-normative streak who identifies with the community; this may include cross-dressers, body modification enthusiasts, animal roleplayers, rubber fetishists, and others.Activities and relationships in BDSM are often characterized by the participants' taking on roles that are complementary and involve inequality of power; thus, the idea of informed consent of both the partners is essential.", "The terms ''submissive'' and ''dominant'' are often used to distinguish these roles: the dominant partner (\"dom\") takes psychological control over the submissive (\"sub\").", "The terms ''top'' and ''bottom'' are also used; the top is the instigator of an action while the bottom is the receiver of the action.", "The two sets of terms are subtly different: for example, someone may choose to act as bottom to another person, for example, by being whipped, purely recreationally, without any implication of being psychologically dominated, and submissives may be ordered to massage their dominant partners.", "Although the bottom carries out the action and the top receives it, they have not necessarily switched roles.The abbreviations ''sub'' and ''dom'' are frequently used instead of ''submissive'' and ''dominant''.", "Sometimes the female-specific terms ''mistress'', ''domme'', and ''dominatrix'' are used to describe a dominant woman, instead of the sometimes gender-neutral term ''dom''.", "Individuals who change between top/dominant and bottom/submissive roles—whether from relationship to relationship or within a given relationship—are called ''switches''.", "The precise definition of roles and self-identification is a common subject of debate among BDSM participants." ], [ "Fundamentals", "''BDSM'' is an umbrella term for certain kinds of erotic behaviour between consenting adults, encompassing various subcultures.", "Terms for roles vary widely among the subcultures.", "''Top'' and ''dominant'' are widely used for those partner(s) in the relationship or activity who are, respectively, the physically active or controlling participants.", "''Bottom'' and ''submissive'' are widely used for those partner(s) in the relationship or activity who are, respectively, the physically receptive or controlled participants.", "The interaction between tops and bottoms—where physical or mental control of the bottom is surrendered to the top—is sometimes known as \"power exchange\", whether in the context of an encounter or a relationship.BDSM actions can often take place during a specific period of time agreed to by both parties, referred to as \"play\", a \"scene\", or a \"session\".", "Participants usually derive pleasure from this, even though many of the practices—such as inflicting pain or humiliation or being restrained—would be unpleasant under other circumstances.", "Explicit sexual activity, such as sexual penetration, may occur within a session, but is not essential.", "For legal reasons, such explicit sexual interaction is seen only rarely in public play spaces and is sometimes banned by the rules of a party or playspace.", "Whether it is a public \"playspace\"—ranging from a party at an established community dungeon to a hosted play \"zone\" at a nightclub or social event—the parameters of allowance can vary.", "Some have a policy of panties/nipple sticker for women (underwear for men) and some allow full nudity with explicit sexual acts.The fundamental principles for the exercise of BDSM require that it be performed with the informed consent of all parties.", "Since the 1980s, many practitioners and organizations have adopted the motto (originally from the statement of purpose of GMSMA—a gay SM activist organization) ''safe, sane and consensual'' (''SSC''), which means that everything is based on safe activities, that all participants are of sufficiently sound mind to consent, and that all participants do consent.", "Mutual consent makes a clear legal and ethical distinction between BDSM and such crimes as sexual assault and domestic violence.Flogging of the bare buttocks as seen in this New York street fair is a common practice in BDSM.Some BDSM practitioners prefer a code of behaviour that differs from SSC.", "Described as \"risk-aware consensual kink\" (RACK), this code shows a preference for a style in which the ''individual'' responsibility of the involved parties is emphasized more strongly, with each participant being responsible for their own well-being.", "Advocates of RACK argue that SSC can hamper discussion of risk because no activity is truly \"safe\", and that discussion of even low-risk possibilities is necessary for truly informed consent.", "They further argue that setting a discrete line between \"safe\" and \"not-safe\" activities ideologically denies consenting adults the right to evaluate risks versus rewards for themselves; that some adults will be drawn to certain activities regardless of the risk; and that BDSM play—particularly higher-risk play or edgeplay—should be treated with the same regard as extreme sports, with both respect and the demand that practitioners educate themselves and practice the higher-risk activities to decrease risk.", "RACK may be seen as focusing primarily upon awareness and informed consent, rather than accepted safe practices.Consent is the most important criterion.", "The consent and compliance for a sadomasochistic situation can be granted only by people who can judge the potential results.", "For their consent, they must have relevant information (the extent to which the scene will go, potential risks, if a safeword will be used, what that is, and so on) at hand and the necessary mental capacity to judge.", "The resulting consent and understanding is occasionally summarized in a written \"contract\", which is an agreement of what can and cannot take place.BDSM play is usually structured such that it is possible for the consenting partner to withdraw their consent at any point during a scene; for example, by using a safeword that was agreed on in advance.", "Use of the agreed safeword (or occasionally a \"safe symbol\" such as dropping a ball or ringing a bell, especially when speech is restricted) is seen by some as an explicit withdrawal of consent.", "Failure to honor a safeword is considered serious misconduct and could constitute a crime, depending on the relevant law, since the bottom or top has explicitly revoked their consent to any actions that follow the use of the safeword.", "For other scenes, particularly in established relationships, a safeword may be agreed to signify a warning (\"this is getting too intense\") rather than explicit withdrawal of consent; and a few choose not to use a safeword at all.=== Terminology and subtypes ===A male bondage rigger demonstrates to the audience how to do rope bondage at the 2015 BoundCon event in Germany.", "The bondage technique used here is box tie, a basic form of arm and breast bondage.The initialism ''BDSM'' stands for:* Bondage and discipline (''B&D'')* Dominance and submission (''D&s'')* Sadomasochism (or ''S&M'')These terms replaced ''sadomasochism'', as they more broadly cover BDSM activities and focus on the submissive roles instead of psychological pain.", "The model is only an attempt at phenomenological differentiation.", "Individual tastes and preferences in the area of human sexuality may overlap among these areas.Under the initialism BDSM, these psychological and physiological facets are also included:*Male dominance*Male submission*Female dominance*Female submissionThe term ''bondage'' describes the practice of physical restraint.", "Bondage is usually, but not always, a sexual practice.", "While bondage is a very popular variation within the larger field of BDSM, it is nevertheless sometimes differentiated from the rest of this field.", "A 2015 study of over 1,000 Canadians showed that about half of all men held fantasies of bondage, and almost half of all women did as well.", "In a strict sense, bondage means binding the partner by tying their appendages together; for example, by the use of handcuffs or ropes, or by lashing their arms to an object.", "Bondage can also be achieved by spreading the appendages and fastening them with chains or ropes to a St. Andrew's cross or spreader bars.The term ''discipline'' describes psychological restraining, with the use of rules and punishment to control overt behaviour.", "Punishment can be pain caused physically (such as caning), humiliation caused psychologically (such as a public flagellation) or loss of freedom caused physically (for example, chaining the submissive partner to the foot of a bed).", "Another aspect is the structured training of the bottom.Dominance and submission (also known as ''D&s'', ''Ds'' or ''D/s'') is a set of behaviours, customs and rituals relating to the giving and accepting of control of one individual over another in an erotic or lifestyle context.", "It explores the more mental aspect of BDSM.", "This is also the case in many relationships not considering themselves as sadomasochistic; it is considered to be a part of BDSM if it is practiced purposefully.", "The range of its individual characteristics is thereby wide.Strappado with rope and a spreader bar.", "This practice has a distinct effect of immobilization and pain.Often, BDSM contracts are set out in writing to record the formal consent of the parties to the power exchange, stating their common vision of the relationship dynamic.", "The purpose of this kind of agreement is primarily to encourage discussion and negotiation in advance and then to document that understanding for the benefit of all parties.", "Such documents have not been recognized as being legally binding, nor are they intended to be.", "These agreements are binding in the sense that the parties have the expectation that the negotiated rules will be followed.", "Often other friends and community members may witness the signing of such a document in a ceremony, and so parties violating their agreement can result in loss of face, respect or status with their friends in the community.In general, as compared to conventional relationships, BDSM participants go to greater lengths to negotiate the important aspects of their relationships in advance, and to contribute significant effort toward learning about and following safe practices.In D/s, the dominant is the top and the submissive is the bottom.", "In S/M, the sadist is usually the top and the masochist the bottom, but these roles are frequently more complicated or jumbled (as in the case of being dominant, masochists who may arrange for their submissive to carry out S/M activities on them).", "As in B/D, the declaration of the top/bottom may be required, though sadomasochists may also play without any power exchange at all, with both partners equally in control of the play.=== Etymology ===The term ''sadomasochism'' is derived from the words ''sadism'' and ''masochism''.", "These terms differ somewhat from the same terms used in psychology since those require that the sadism or masochism cause significant distress or involve non-consenting partners.", "''Sadomasochism'' refers to the aspects of BDSM surrounding the exchange of physical or emotional pain.", "Sadism describes sexual pleasure derived by inflicting pain, degradation, humiliation on another person or causing another person to suffer.", "On the other hand, the masochist enjoys being hurt, humiliated, or suffering within the consensual scenario.", "Sadomasochistic scenes sometimes reach a level that appears more extreme or cruel than other forms of BDSM—for example, when a masochist is brought to tears or is severely bruised—and is occasionally unwelcome at BDSM events or parties.", "Sadomasochism does not imply enjoyment through causing or receiving pain in other situations (for example, accidental injury, medical procedures).", "''Portrait of Marquis de Sade'' by Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo (1761)The terms ''sadism'' and ''masochism'' are derived from the names of the Marquis de Sade and Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, based on the content of the authors' works.", "Although the names of de Sade and Sacher-Masoch are attached to the terms sadism and masochism respectively, the scenes described in de Sade's works do not meet modern BDSM standards of informed consent.", "BDSM is solely based on consensual activities, and based on its system and laws.", "The concepts presented by de Sade are not in accordance with the BDSM culture, even though they are sadistic in nature.", "In 1843, the Ruthenian physician Heinrich Kaan published '''' (''Psychopathy of Sex''), a writing in which he converts the sin conceptions of Christianity into medical diagnoses.", "With his work, the originally theological terms ''perversion'', ''aberration'' and ''deviation'' became part of the scientific terminology for the first time.", "The German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing introduced the terms ''sadism'' and ''masochism'' to the medical community in his work '''' (''New research in the area of Psychopathy of Sex'') in 1890.In 1905, Sigmund Freud described sadism and masochism in his ''Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality'' as diseases developing from an incorrect development of the child psyche and laid the groundwork for the scientific perspective on the subject in the following decades.", "This led to the first time use of the compound term ''sado-masochism'' (German '''') by the Viennese psychoanalytic Isidor Isaak Sadger in their work, \"\" (\"Regarding the sadomasochistic complex\") in 1913.In the later 20th century, BDSM activists have protested against these conceptual models, as they were derived from the philosophies of two singular historical figures.", "Both Freud and Krafft-Ebing were psychiatrists; their observations on sadism and masochism were dependent on psychiatric patients, and their models were built on the assumption of psychopathology.", "BDSM activists argue that it is illogical to attribute human behavioural phenomena as complex as sadism and masochism to the \"inventions\" of two historic individuals.", "Advocates of BDSM have sought to distinguish themselves from widely held notions of antiquated psychiatric theory by the adoption of the term ''BDSM'' as a distinction from the now common usage of those psychological terms, abbreviated as ''S&M''." ], [ "Behavioural and physiological aspects", "male dominance and female submission.BDSM is commonly mistaken as being \"all about pain\".", "Freud was confounded by the complexity and counterintuitiveness of practitioners' doing things that are self-destructive and painful.", "Rather than pain, BDSM practitioners are primarily concerned with power, humiliation, and pleasure.", "The aspects of D/s and B/D may not include physical suffering at all, but include the sensations experienced by different emotions of the mind.Of the three categories of BDSM, only sadomasochism specifically requires pain, but this is typically a means to an end, as a vehicle for feelings of humiliation, dominance, etc.", "In psychology, this aspect becomes a deviant behaviour once the act of inflicting or experiencing pain becomes a substitute for or the main source of sexual pleasure.", "In its most extreme, the preoccupation on this kind of pleasure can lead participants to view humans as insensate means of sexual gratification.Dominance and submission of power are an entirely different experience, and are not always psychologically associated with physical pain.", "Many BDSM activities involve no pain or humiliation, but just the exchange of power and control.", "During the activities, the participants may feel endorphin effects comparable to \"runner's high\" and to the afterglow of orgasm.", "The corresponding trance-like mental state is also called ''subspace'', for the submissive, and ''domspace'', for the dominant.", "Some use ''body stress'' to describe this physiological sensation.", "The experience of algolagnia is important, but is not the only motivation for many BDSM practitioners.", "The philosopher Edmund Burke called the sensation of pleasure derived from pain \"sublime\".", "Couples engaging in consensual BDSM tend to show hormonal changes that indicate decreases in stress and increases in emotional bonding.There is an array of BDSM practitioners who take part in sessions in which they do not receive any personal gratification.", "They enter such situations solely with the intention to allow their partners to indulge their own needs or fetishes.", "Professional dominants do this in exchange for money, but non-professionals do it for the sake of their partners.In some BDSM sessions, the top exposes the bottom to a range of sensual experiences, such as pinching; biting; scratching with fingernails; erotic spanking; erotic electrostimulation; and the use of crops, whips, liquid wax, ice cubes, and Wartenberg wheels.", "Fixation by handcuffs, ropes, or chains may occur.", "The repertoire of possible \"toys\" is limited only by the imagination of both partners.", "To some extent, everyday items, such as clothespins, wooden spoons, and plastic wrap, are used in sex play.", "It is commonly considered that a pleasurable BDSM experience during a session depends strongly on the top's competence and experience and the bottom's physical and mental state.", "Trust and sexual arousal help the partners enter a shared mindset.=== Types of play ===Erotic humiliation: A submissive woman publicly caged at the Folsom Street Fair in U.S., with cane markings on her body.Following are some of the types of BDSM play:* Animal roleplay* Bondage (BDSM)* Breast torture* Cock and ball torture* Diaper play* Edgeplay* Erotic electrostimulation* Erotic sexual denial* Spanking* Flogging* Human furniture* Japanese bondage* Medical play* Omorashi and bathroom use control* Paraphilic infantilism* Play piercing* Predicament bondage* Pussy torture* Salirophilia* Sexual roleplay* Suspension* Tickle torture* Urolagnia* Wax play=== Safety ===A woman being put in suspension bondage at BoundCon, Germany, 2013.Since the submissive is vulnerable to a potential fall, it is important that great care is taken.Besides safe sex, BDSM sessions often require a wider array of safety precautions than vanilla sex (sexual behaviour without BDSM elements).", "To ensure consent related to BDSM activity, pre-play negotiations are commonplace, especially among partners who do not know each other very well.", "In practice, pick-up scenes at clubs or parties may sometimes be low in negotiation (much as pick-up sex from singles bars may not involve much negotiation or disclosure).", "These negotiations concern the interests and fantasies of each partner and establish a framework of both acceptable and unacceptable activities.", "This kind of discussion is a typical \"unique selling proposition\" of BDSM sessions and quite commonplace.", "Additionally, safewords are often arranged to provide for an immediate stop of any activity if any participant should so desire.Safewords are words or phrases that are called out when things are either not going as planned or have crossed a threshold one cannot handle.", "They are something both parties can remember and recognize and are, by definition, not words commonly used playfully during any kind of scene.", "Words such as ''no'', ''stop'', and ''don't'', are often inappropriate as a safeword if the roleplaying aspect includes the illusion of non-consent.", "''The traffic light system'' (TLS) is the most commonly used set of safewords.", "* Red – meaning: stop immediately and check the status of your partner* Yellow – meaning: slow down, be careful* Green – meaning: I'm all good, we can start.", "If used it's normally uttered by everyone involved before the scene can start.At most clubs and group-organized BDSM parties and events, dungeon monitors (DMs) provide an additional safety net for the people playing there, ensuring that house rules are followed and safewords respected.BDSM participants are expected to understand practical safety aspects, such as the potential for harm to body parts.", "Contusion or scarring of the skin can be a concern.", "Using crops, whips, or floggers, the top's fine motor skills and anatomical knowledge can make the difference between a satisfying session for the bottom and a highly unpleasant experience that may even entail severe physical harm.", "The very broad range of BDSM \"toys\" and physical and psychological control techniques often requires a far-reaching knowledge of details related to the requirements of the individual session, such as anatomy, physics, and psychology.", "Despite these risks, BDSM activities usually result in far less severe injuries than sports like boxing and football, and BDSM practitioners do not visit emergency rooms any more often than the general population.It is necessary to be able to identify each person's psychological \"squicks\" or triggers in advance to avoid them.", "Such losses of emotional balance due to sensory or emotional overload are a fairly commonly discussed issue.", "It is important to follow participants' reactions empathetically and continue or stop accordingly.", "For some players, sparking \"freakouts\" or deliberately using triggers may be the desired outcome.", "Safewords are one way for BDSM practices to protect both parties.", "However, partners should be aware of each other's psychological states and behaviours to prevent instances where the \"freakouts\" prevent the use of safewords.After any BDSM activities, it is important that the participants go through sexual aftercare, to process and calm down from the activity.", "After the sessions, participants can need aftercare because their bodies have experienced trauma and they need to mentally come out of the role play." ], [ "Social aspects", "=== Roles ===;Top and bottomAt one end of the spectrum are those who are indifferent to, or even reject physical stimulation.", "At the other end of the spectrum are bottoms who enjoy discipline and erotic humiliation but are not willing to be subordinate to the person who applies it.", "The bottom is frequently the partner who specifies the basic conditions of the session and gives instructions, directly or indirectly, in the negotiation, while the top often respects this guidance.", "Other bottoms, often called \"brats\", try to incur punishment from their tops by provoking them or \"misbehaving\".", "Nevertheless, a purist \"school\" exists within the BDSM community, which regards such \"topping from the bottom\" as rude or even incompatible with the standards of BDSM relations.=== Types of relationships ===;PlayBDSM practitioners sometimes regard the practice of BDSM in their sex life as roleplaying and so often use the terms ''play'' and ''playing'' to describe activities where in their roles.", "Play of this sort for a specified period of time is often called a ''session'', and the contents and the circumstances of play are often referred to as the ''scene''.", "It is also common in personal relationships to use the term ''kink play'' for BDSM activities, or more specific terms for the type of activity.", "The relationships can be of varied types.", ";Long termEarly writings on BDSM both by the academic and BDSM community spoke little of long-term relationships with some in the gay leather community suggesting short-term play relationships to be the only feasible relationship models, and recommending people to get married and \"play\" with BDSM outside of marriage.", "In recent times though writers of BDSM and sites for BDSM have been more focused on long-term relationships.A 2003 study, the first to look at these relationships, fully demonstrated that \"quality long-term functioning relationships\" exist among practitioners of BDSM, with either sex being the top or bottom (the study was based on 17 heterosexual couples).", "Respondents in the study expressed their BDSM orientation to be built into who they are, but considered exploring their BDSM interests an ongoing task, and showed flexibility and adaptability in order to match their interests with their partners.", "The \"perfect match\" where both in the relationship shared the same tastes and desires was rare, and most relationships required both partners to take up or put away some of their desires.", "The BDSM activities that the couples partook in varied in sexual to nonsexual significance for the partners who reported doing certain BDSM activities for \"couple bonding, stress release, and spiritual quests\".", "The most reported issue amongst respondents was not finding enough time to be in role with most adopting a lifestyle wherein both partners maintain their dominant or submissive role throughout the day.Amongst the respondents, it was typically the bottoms who wanted to play harder, and be more restricted into their roles when there was a difference in desire to play in the relationship.", "The author of the study, Bert Cutler, speculated that tops may be less often in the mood to play due to the increased demand for responsibility on their part: being aware of the safety of the situation and prepared to remove the bottom from a dangerous scenario, being conscious of the desires and limits of the bottom, and so on.", "The author of the study stressed that successful long-term BDSM relationships came after \"early and thorough disclosure\" from both parties of their BDSM interests.Many of those engaged in long-term BDSM relationships learned their skills from larger BDSM organizations and communities.", "There was a lot of discussion by the respondents on the amount of control the top possessed in the relationships but \"no discussion of being better, or smarter, or of more value\" than the bottom.", "Couples were generally of the same mind of whether or not they were in an ongoing relationship, but in such cases, the bottom was not locked up constantly, but that their role in the context of the relationship was always present, even when the top was doing non-dominant activities such as household chores, or the bottom being in a more dominant position.", "In its conclusion the study states:The study further goes on to list three aspects that made the successful relationships work: early disclosure of interests and continued transparency, a commitment to personal growth, and the use of the dominant/submissive roles as a tool to maintain the relationship.", "In closing remarks, the author of the study theorizes that due to the serious potential for harm, couples in BDSM relationships develop increased communication that may be higher than in mainstream relationships.", ";Professional servicesA professional dominatrix or professional dominant, often referred to within the culture as a ''pro-dom(me)'', offers services encompassing the range of bondage, discipline, and dominance in exchange for money.", "The term ''dominatrix'' is little-used within the non-professional BDSM scene.", "A non-professional dominant woman is more commonly referred to simply as a ''domme'', ''dominant'', or ''femdom'' (short for female dominance).", "Professional submissives (\"pro-subs\"), although far more rare, do exist.", "A professional submissive consents to their client's dominant behaviour within negotiated limits, and often works within a professional dungeon.", "Most of the people who work as subs normally have tendencies towards such activities, especially when sadomasochism is involved.", "Males also work as professional \"tops\" in BDSM, and are called ''masters'' or ''doms''.", "However, it is much rarer to find a male in this profession.=== Scenes ===In BDSM, a \"scene\" is the stage or setting where BDSM activity takes place, as well as the activity itself.", "The physical place where a BDSM activity takes place is usually called a dungeon, though some prefer less dramatic terms, including ''playspace'' or ''club''.", "A BDSM activity can, but need not, involve sexual activity or sexual roleplay.", "A characteristic of many BDSM relationships is the power exchange from the bottom to the dominant partner, and bondage features prominently in BDSM scenes and sexual roleplay.", "\"The Scene\" (including use of the definite article ''the'') is also used in the BDSM community to refer to the BDSM community as a whole.", "Thus someone who is on \"the Scene\", and prepared to play in public, might take part in \"a scene\" at a public play party.A scene can take place in private between two or more people and can involve a domestic arrangement, such as servitude or a casual or committed lifestyle master/slave relationship.", "BDSM elements may involve settings of slave training or punishment for breaches of instructions.A scene can also take place in a club, where the play can be viewed by others.", "When a scene takes place in a public setting, it may be because the participants enjoy being watched by others, or because of the equipment available, or because having third parties present adds safety for play partners who have only recently met.=== Etiquette ===Most standard social etiquette rules still apply when at a BDSM event, such as not intimately touching someone you do not know, not touching someone else's belongings (including toys), and abiding by dress codes.", "Many events open to the public also have rules addressing alcohol consumption, recreational drugs, cell phones, and photography.A specific scene takes place within the general conventions and etiquette of BDSM, such as requirements for mutual consent and agreement as to the limits of any BDSM activity.", "This agreement can be incorporated into a formal contract.", "In addition, most clubs have additional rules which regulate how onlookers may interact with the actual participants in a scene.", "As is common in BDSM, these are founded on the catchphrase \"safe, sane, and consensual\".=== Parties and clubs ===BDSM play parties are events in which BDSM practitioners and other similarly interested people meet in order to communicate, share experiences and knowledge, and to \"play\" in an erotic atmosphere.", "BDSM parties show similarities to ones in the dark culture, being based on a more or less strictly enforced dress code; often clothing made of latex, leather or vinyl/PVC, lycra and so on, emphasizing the body's shape and the primary and secondary sexual characteristics.", "The requirement for such dress codes differ.", "While some events have none, others have a policy in order to create a more coherent atmosphere and to prevent outsiders from taking part.At these parties, BDSM can be publicly performed on a stage, or more privately in separate \"dungeons\".", "A reason for the relatively fast spread of this kind of event is the opportunity to use a wide range of \"playing equipment\", which in most apartments or houses is unavailable.", "Slings, St. Andrew's crosses (or similar restraining constructs), spanking benches, and punishing supports or cages are often made available.", "The problem of noise disturbance is also lessened at these events, while in the home setting many BDSM activities can be limited by this factor.", "In addition, such parties offer both exhibitionists and voyeurs a forum to indulge their inclinations without social criticism.", "Sexual intercourse is not permitted within most public BDSM play spaces or not often seen in others, because it is not the emphasis of this kind of play.", "In order to ensure the maximum safety and comfort for the participants, certain standards of behaviour have evolved; these include aspects of courtesy, privacy, respect and safewords.", "Today BDSM parties are taking place in most of the larger cities in the Western world.This scene appears particularly on the Internet, in publications, and in meetings such as at fetish clubs (like Torture Garden), SM parties, gatherings called munches, and erotic fairs like Venus Berlin.", "The annual Folsom Street Fair held in San Francisco is the world's largest BDSM event.", "It has its roots in the gay leather movement.", "The weekend-long festivities include a wide range of sadomasochistic erotica in a public clothing optional space between 8th and 13th streets with nightly parties associated with the organization.There are also conventions such as Living in Leather and Black Rose." ], [ "Psychology", "Research indicates that there is no evidence that a preference for BDSM is a consequence of childhood abuse.", "Some reports suggest that people abused as children may have more BDSM injuries and have difficulty with safe words being recognized as meaning stop the previously consensual behaviour; thus, it is possible that people choosing BDSM as part of their lifestyle, who also were previously abused, may have had more police or hospital reports of injuries.", "There is also a link between transgender individuals who have been abused and violence occurring in BDSM activities.Joseph Merlino, author and psychiatry adviser to the ''New York Daily News'', said in an interview that a sadomasochistic relationship, as long as it is consensual, is not a psychological problem:Some psychologists agree that experiences during early sexual development can have a profound effect on the character of sexuality later in life.", "Sadomasochistic desires, however, seem to form at a variety of ages.", "Some individuals report having had them before puberty, while others do not discover them until well into adulthood.", "According to one study, the majority of male sadomasochists (53%) developed their interest before the age of 15, while the majority of females (78%) developed their interest afterward (Breslow, Evans, and Langley 1985).", "The prevalence of sadomasochism within the general population is unknown.", "Despite female sadists being less visible than males, some surveys have resulted in comparable amounts of sadistic fantasies between females and males.", "The results of such studies demonstrate that one's sex does not determine preference for sadism.Following a phenomenological study of nine individuals involved in sexual masochistic sessions who regarded pain as central to their experience, sexual masochism was described as an addiction-like tendency, with several features resembling that of drug addiction: craving, intoxication, tolerance and withdrawal.", "It was also demonstrated how the first masochistic experience is placed on a pedestal, with subsequent use aiming at retrieving this lost sensation, much as described in the descriptive literature on addiction.=== Prevalence ===Flogging of a bound man by a dominatrix at the Exxxotica adult event at the Jersey Shore, New Jersey, U.S.Two professional dominatrices interviewed by David Shankbone about the psychological aspects of some of their stranger requestsBDSM occurs among people of all genders and sexual orientations, and in varied occurrences and intensities.", "The spectrum ranges from couples with no connections to the subculture outside of their bedrooms or homes, without any awareness of the concept of BDSM, playing \"tie-me-up-games\", to public scenes on St. Andrew's crosses at large events such as the Folsom Street Fair in San Francisco.", "Estimation on the overall percentage of BDSM-related sexual behaviour varies.Alfred Kinsey stated in his 1953 nonfiction book ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'' that 12% of females and 22% of males reported having an erotic response to a sadomasochistic story.", "In that book erotic responses to being bitten were given as: Erotic responses By females By males Definite and/or frequent 26% 26% Some response 29% 24% Never 45% 50%+ Number of cases 2200 567A non-representative survey on the sexual behaviour of American students published in 1997 and based on questionnaires had a response rate of about 8–9%.", "Its results showed 15% of homosexual and bisexual males, 21% of lesbian and female bisexual students, 11% of heterosexual males and 9% of female heterosexual students committed to BDSM related fantasies.", "In all groups the level of practical BDSM experiences were around 6%.", "Within the group of openly lesbian and bisexual females, the quote was significantly higher, at 21%.", "Independent of their sexual orientation, about 12% of all questioned students, 16% of lesbians and female bisexuals and 8% of heterosexual males articulated an interest in spanking.", "Experience with this sexual behaviour was indicated by 30% of male heterosexuals, 33% of female bisexuals and lesbians, and 24% of the male gay and bisexual men and female heterosexual women.", "Even though this study was not considered representative, other surveys indicate similar dimensions in differing target groups.A representative study done from 2001 to 2002 in Australia found that 1.8% of sexually active people (2.2% men, 1.3% women but no significant sex difference) had engaged in BDSM activity in the previous year.", "Of the entire sample, 1.8% of men and 1.3% of women had been involved in BDSM.", "BDSM activity was significantly more likely among bisexuals and homosexuals of both sexes.", "But among men in general, there was no relationship effect of age, education, language spoken at home or relationship status.", "Among women, in this study, activity was most common for those between 16 and 19 years of age and least likely for females over 50 years.", "Activity was also significantly more likely for women who had a regular partner they did not live with, but was not significantly related with speaking a language other than English or education.Another representative study, published in 1999 by the German Institut für rationale Psychologie, found that about 2/3 of the interviewed women stated a desire to be at the mercy of their sexual partners from time to time.", "69% admitted to fantasies dealing with sexual submissiveness, 42% stated interest in explicit BDSM techniques, 25% in bondage.", "A 1976 study in the general US population suggests three per cent have had positive experiences with Bondage or master-slave roleplaying.", "Overall 12% of the interviewed females and 18% of the males were willing to try it.", "A 1990 Kinsey Institute report stated that 5% to 10% of Americans occasionally engage in sexual activities related to BDSM, 11% of men and 17% of women reported trying bondage.", "Some elements of BDSM have been popularized through increased media coverage since the middle 1990s.", "Thus both black leather clothing, sexual jewelry such as chains and dominance roleplay appear increasingly outside of BDSM contexts.According to yet another survey of 317,000 people in 41 countries, about 20% of the surveyed have at least used masks, blindfolds or other bondage utilities once, and 5% explicitly connected themselves with BDSM.", "In 2004, 19% mentioned spanking as one of their practices and 22% confirmed the use of blindfolds or handcuffs.A 1985 study found 52 out of 182 female respondents (28%) were involved in sadomasochistic activities.", ";Recent surveysA 2009 study on two separate samples of male undergraduate students in Canada found that 62 to 65%, depending on the sample, had entertained sadistic fantasies, and 22 to 39% engaged in sadistic behaviours during sex.", "The figures were 62 and 52% for bondage fantasies, and 14 to 23% for bondage behaviours.", "A 2014 study involving a mixed sample of Canadian college students and online volunteers, both male and female, reported that 19% of male samples and 10% of female samples rated the sadistic scenarios described in a questionnaire as being at least \"slightly arousing\" on a scale that ranged from \"very repulsive\" to \"very arousing\"; the difference was statistically significant.", "The corresponding figures for the masochistic scenarios were 15% for male students and 17% for female students, a non-significant difference.", "In a 2011 study on 367 middle-aged and elderly men recruited from the broader community in Berlin, 21.8% of the men self-reported sadistic fantasies and 15.5% sadistic behaviors; 24.8% self-reported any such fantasy and/or behavior.", "The corresponding figures for self-reported masochism were 15.8% for fantasy, 12.3% for behaviour, and 18.5% for fantasy and/or behaviour.", "In a 2008 study on gay men in Puerto Rico, 14.8% of the over 425 community volunteers reported any sadistic fantasy, desire or behaviour in their lifetime; the corresponding figure for masochism was 15.7%.", "A 2017 cross-sectional representative survey among the general Belgian population demonstrated a substantial prevalence of BDSM fantasies and activities; 12.5% of the population performed one of more BDSM-practices on a regular basis.Lifetime BDSM behaviors among North American medical studentsStraight menGay menBisexual menStraight womenGay womenBisexual womenHas been restrained for pleasure12%20%13%19%38%55%Has restrained someone else for pleasure17.5%17%13%13%36%51%Has received pain for pleasure4%6.5%18%8%10%36%Has inflicted pain for pleasure5%6%9%4%6.5%26%=== Medical categorization ===Reflecting changes in social norms, modern medical opinion is now moving away from regarding BDSM activities as medical disorders, unless they are nonconsensual or involve significant distress or harm.==== DSM ====In the past, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the American Psychiatric Association's manual, defined some BDSM activities as sexual disorders.", "Following campaigns from advocacy organizations including the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom, the current version of the DSM, DSM-5, excludes consensual BDSM from diagnosis when the sexual interests cause no harm or distress.==== ICD ====The World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD) has made similar moves in recent years.Section F65 of the current revision, ICD-10, indicates that \"mild degrees of sadomasochistic stimulation are commonly used to enhance otherwise normal sexual activity\".", "The diagnostic guidelines for the ICD-10 state that this class of diagnosis should only be made \"if sadomasochistic activity is the most important source of stimulation or necessary for sexual gratification\".In Europe, an organization called ReviseF65 has worked to remove sadomasochism from the ICD.", "In 1995, Denmark became the first European Union country to have completely removed sadomasochism from its national classification of diseases.", "This was followed by Sweden in 2009, Norway in 2010 and Finland 2011.Recent surveys on the spread of BDSM fantasies and practices show strong variations in the range of their results.", "Nonetheless, researchers assume that 5 to 25 per cent of the population practices sexual behaviour related to pain or dominance and submission.", "The population with related fantasies is believed to be even larger.The ICD is in the process of revision, and recent drafts have reflected these changes in social norms.", ", the final advance preview of the ICD-11 has de-pathologised most things listed in ICD-10 section F65, characterizing as pathological only those activities which are either coercive, or involving significant risk of injury or death, or distressing to the individual committing them, and specifically excluding consensual sexual sadism and masochism from being regarded as pathological.", "The ICD-11 classification consider sadomasochism as a variant in sexual arousal and private behaviour without appreciable public health impact and for which treatment is neither indicated nor sought.", "\"According to the WHO ICD-11 Working Group on Sexual Disorders and Sexual Health, stigmatization and discrimination of fetish- and BDSM individuals are inconsistent with human rights principles endorsed by the United Nations and the World Health Organization.The final advance text is to be officially presented to the members of the WHO in 2019, ready to come into effect in 2022.=== Coming out ===Pride 2005, TaipeiA sulky cart drawn by a pony-girl, an example of petplay at the Folsom Parade, 2012.She is wearing a bit gag and a neck collar, to which are attached a ''ring of O'' and a leash.", "Bells are hung from her pierced nipples.", "All these symbols indicate she is roleplaying a 'pet slave'.A bondage pornography shoot in the U.S., 2011Some people who are interested in or curious about BDSM decide to come out of the closet, although many sadomasochists remain closeted.", "Depending upon a survey's participants, about 5 to 25 per cent of the US population show affinity to the subject.", "Other than a few artists and writers, practically no celebrities are publicly known as sadomasochists.Public knowledge of one's BDSM lifestyle can have detrimental vocational and social effects for sadomasochists.", "Many face severe professional consequences or social rejection if they are exposed, either voluntarily or involuntarily, as sadomasochists.Within feminist circles, the discussion is split roughly into two camps: some who see BDSM as an aspect or reflection of oppression (for example, Alice Schwarzer) and, on the other side, pro-BDSM feminists, often grouped under the banner of sex-positive feminism (see Samois); both of them can be traced back to the 1970s.", "Some feminists have criticized BDSM for eroticizing power and violence and reinforcing misogyny.", "They argue that women who engage in BDSM are making a choice that is ultimately bad for women.", "Feminist defenders of BDSM argue that consensual BDSM activities are enjoyed by many women and validate the sexual inclinations of these women.", "They argue that there is no connection between consensual kinky activities and sex crimes, and that feminists should not attack other women's sexual desires as being \"anti-feminist\".", "They also state that the main point of feminism is to give an individual woman free choices in her life; which includes her sexual desire.", "While some feminists suggest connections between consensual BDSM scenes and non-consensual rape and sexual assault, other sex-positive ones find the notion insulting to women.Roles are not fixed to gender, but personal preferences.", "The dominant partner in a heterosexual relationship may be the woman rather than the man, or BDSM may be part of male/male or female/female sexual relationships.", "Finally, some people switch, taking either a dominant or submissive role on different occasions.", "Several studies investigating the possibility of a correlation between BDSM pornography and the violence against women also indicate a lack of correlation.", "In 1991, a lateral survey came to the conclusion that between 1964 and 1984, despite the increase in amount and availability of sadomasochistic pornography in the U.S., Germany, Denmark and Sweden, there is no correlation with the national number of rapes to be found.Operation Spanner in the U.K. proves that BDSM practitioners still run the risk of being stigmatized as criminals.", "In 2003, the media coverage of Jack McGeorge showed that simply participating and working in BDSM support groups poses risks to one's job, even in countries where no law restricts it.", "Here a clear difference can be seen to the situation of homosexuality.", "The psychological strain appearing in some individual cases is normally neither articulated nor acknowledged in public.", "Nevertheless, it leads to a difficult psychological situation in which the person concerned can be exposed to high levels of emotional stress.In the stages of \"self-awareness\", he or she realizes their desires related to BDSM scenarios or decides to be open for such.", "Some authors call this ''internal coming-out''.", "Two separate surveys on this topic independently came to the conclusion that 58 per cent and 67 per cent of the sample respectively, had realized their disposition before their 19th birthday.", "Other surveys on this topic show comparable results.", "Independent of age, coming-out can potentially result in a difficult life crisis, sometimes leading to thoughts or acts of suicide.", "While homosexuals have created support networks in the last decades, sadomasochistic support networks are just starting to develop in most countries.", "In German-speaking countries they are only moderately more developed.", "The Internet is the prime contact point for support groups today, allowing for local and international networking.", "In the U.S., Kink Aware Professionals (KAP) a privately funded, non-profit service provides the community with referrals to psychotherapeutic, medical, and legal professionals who are knowledgeable about and sensitive to the BDSM, fetish, and leather community.", "In the U.S. and the U.K., the Woodhull Freedom Foundation & Federation, National Coalition for Sexual Freedom (NCSF) and Sexual Freedom Coalition (SFC) have emerged to represent the interests of sadomasochists.", "The German Bundesvereinigung Sadomasochismus is committed to the same aim of providing information and driving press relations.", "In 1996, the website and mailing list Datenschlag went online in German and English providing the largest bibliography, as well as one of the most extensive historical collections of sources related to BDSM.=== Social (non-medical) research ===Richters et al.", "(2008) found that people who engaged in BDSM were more likely to have experienced a wider range of sexual practices (e.g., oral or anal sex, more than one partner, group sex, phone sex, viewed pornography, used a sex toy, fisting, etc.).", "They were, however, not any more likely to have been coerced, unhappy, anxious, or experiencing sexual difficulties.", "On the contrary, men who had engaged in BDSM scored lower on a psychological distress scale than men who did not.There have been few studies on the psychological aspects of BDSM using modern scientific standards.", "Psychotherapist Charles Moser has said there is no evidence for the theory that BDSM has common symptoms or any common psychopathology, emphasizing that there is no evidence that BDSM practitioners have any special psychiatric other problems based on their sexual preferences.Problems sometimes occur with self-classification.", "During the phase of the \"coming-out\", self-questioning related to one's own \"normality\" is common.", "According to Moser, the discovery of BDSM preferences ''can'' result in fear of the current non-BDSM relationship's destruction.", "This, combined with the fear of discrimination in everyday life, leads in some cases to a double life which can be highly burdensome.", "At the same time, the denial of BDSM preferences can induce stress and dissatisfaction with one's own \"vanilla\"-lifestyle, feeding the apprehension of finding no partner.", "Moser states that BDSM practitioners having problems finding BDSM partners would probably have problems in finding a non-BDSM partner as well.", "The wish to remove BDSM preferences is another possible reason for psychological problems since it is not possible in most cases.", "Finally, the scientist states that BDSM practitioners seldom commit violent crimes.", "From his point of view, crimes of BDSM practitioners usually have no connection with the BDSM components existing in their life.", "Moser's study comes to the conclusion that there is no scientific evidence, which could give reason to refuse members of this group work- or safety certificates, adoption possibilities, custody or other social rights or privileges.", "The Swiss psychoanalyst Fritz Morgenthaler shares a similar perspective in his book, ''Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, Perversion'' (1988).", "He states that possible problems result not necessarily from the non-normative behavior, but in most cases primarily from the real or feared reactions of the social environment towards their own preferences.", "In 1940 psychoanalyst Theodor Reik reached implicitly the same conclusion in his standard work ''Aus Leiden Freuden.", "Masochismus und Gesellschaft''.Moser's results are further supported by a 2008 Australian study by Richters ''et al.''", "on the demographic and psychosocial features of BDSM participants.", "The study found that BDSM practitioners were no more likely to have experienced sexual assault than the control group, and were not more likely to feel unhappy or anxious.", "The BDSM males reported higher levels of psychological well-being than the controls.", "It was concluded that \"BDSM is simply a sexual interest or subculture attractive to a minority, not a pathological symptom of past abuse or difficulty with 'normal' sex.", "\"=== Gender differences in research ===Several recent studies have been conducted on the gender differences and personality traits of BDSM practitioners.", "Wismeijer and van Assen (2013) found that \"the association of BDSM role and gender was strong and significant\" with only 8% of women in the study being dominant compared to 75% being submissive.", "; Hébert and Weaver (2014) found that 9% of women in their study were dominant compared to 88% submissive; Weierstall1 and Giebel (2017) likewise found a significant difference, with 19% of women in the study as dominant compared to 74% as submissive, and a study from Andrea Duarte Silva (2015) indicated that 61.7% of females who are active in BDSM expressed a preference for a submissive role, 25.7% consider themselves a switch, while 12.6% prefer the dominant role.", "In contrast, 46.6% of men prefer the submissive role, 24% consider themselves to be switches and 29.5% prefer the dominant role.", "They concluded that \"men more often display an engagement in dominant practices, whereas females take on the submissive part.", "This result is inline with a recent study about mate preferences that has shown that women have a generally higher preference for a dominant partner than men do (Giebel, Moran, Schawohl, & Weierstall, 2015).", "Women also prefer dominant men, and even men who are aggressive, for a short-term relationship and for the purpose of sexual intercourse (Giebel, Weierstall, Schauer, & Elbert, 2013)\".", "Similarly, studies on sexual fantasy differences between men and women show the latter prefer submissive and passive fantasies over dominant and active ones, with rape and force being common.==== Gender differences in masochistic scripts ====A whipping scene where both dominant and submissives are female, Paris, 1930One common belief of BDSM and kink is that women are more likely to take on masochistic roles than men.", "Roy Baumeister (2010) actually had more male masochists in his study than female, and fewer male dominants than female.", "The lack of statistical significance in these gender differences suggests that no assumptions should be made regarding gender and masochistic roles in BDSM.", "One explanation why we might think otherwise lies in our social and cultural ideals about femininity; masochism may emphasize certain stereotypically feminine elements through activities like feminization of men and ultra-feminine clothing for women.", "But such tendencies of the submissive masochistic role should not be interpreted as a connection between it and the stereotypical female role—many masochistic scripts do not include any of these tendencies.Baumeister found that masochistic males experienced greater: severity of pain, frequency of humiliation (status-loss, degrading, oral), partner infidelity, active participation by other persons, and cross-dressing.", "Trends also suggested that male masochism included more bondage and oral sex than female (though the data was not significant).", "Female masochists, on the other hand, experienced greater: frequency in pain, pain as punishment for 'misdeeds' in the relationship context, display humiliation, genital intercourse, and presence of non-participating audiences.", "The exclusiveness of dominant males in a heterosexual relationship happens because, historically, men in power preferred multiple partners.", "Finally, Baumeister observes a contrast between the 'intense sensation' focus of male masochism to a more 'meaning and emotion' centred female masochistic script.Prior argues that although some of these women may appear to be engaging in traditional subordinate or submissive roles, BDSM allows women in both dominant and submissive roles to express and experience personal power through their sexual identities.", "In a study that she conducted in 2013, she found that the majority of the women she interviewed identified as bottom, submissive, captive, or slave/sex slave.", "In turn, Prior was able to answer whether or not these women found an incongruity between their sexual identities and feminist identity.", "Her research found that these women saw little to no incongruity, and in fact felt that their feminist identity supported identities of submissive and slave.", "For them, these are sexually and emotionally fulfilling roles and identities that, in some cases, feed other aspects of their lives.", "Prior contends that third wave feminism provides a space for women in BDSM communities to express their sexual identities fully, even when those identities seem counter-intuitive to the ideals of feminism.", "Furthermore, women who do identify as submissive, sexually or otherwise, find a space within BDSM where they can fully express themselves as integrated, well-balanced, and powerful women.==== Women in S/M culture ====Levitt, Moser, and Jamison's 1994 study provides a general, if outdated, description of characteristics of women in the sadomasochistic (S/M) subculture.", "They state that women in S/M tend to have higher education, become more aware of their desires as young adults, are less likely to be married than the general population.", "The researchers found the majority of females identified as heterosexual and submissive, a substantial minority were versatile—able to switch between dominant and submissive roles—and a smaller minority identified with the dominant role exclusively.", "Oral sex, bondage and master-slave script were among the most popular activities, while feces/watersports were the least popular.=== Orientation observances in research ===BDSM is considered by some of its practitioners to be a sexual orientation.", "The BDSM and kink scene is more often seen as a diverse pansexual community.", "Often this is a non-judgmental community where gender, sexuality, orientation, preferences are accepted as is or worked at to become something a person can be happy with.", "In research, studies have focused on bisexuality and its parallels with BDSM, as well as gay-straight differences between practitioners.==== Comparison between gay and straight men in S/M ====Demographically, Nordling et al.", "'s (2006) study found no differences in age, but 43% of gay male respondents compared to 29% of straight males had university-level education.", "The gay men also had higher incomes than the general population and tended to work in white-collar jobs while straight men tended toward blue-collar ones.", "Because there were not enough female respondents (22), no conclusions could be drawn from them.Sexually speaking, the same 2006 study by Nordling et al.", "found that gay males were aware of their S/M preferences and took part in them at an earlier age, preferring leather, anal sex, rimming, dildos and special equipment or uniform scenes.", "In contrast, straight men preferred verbal humiliation, mask and blindfolds, gags, rubber/latex outfits, caning, vaginal sex, straitjackets, and cross-dressing among other activities.", "From the questionnaire, researchers were able to identify four separate sexual themes: hyper-masculinity, giving and receiving pain, physical restriction (i.e.", "bondage), and psychological humiliation.", "Gay men preferred activities that tended towards hyper-masculinity while straight men showed greater preference for humiliation, significantly higher master/madame-slave role play at ≈84%.", "Though there were not enough female respondents to draw a similar conclusion with, the fact that there is a difference in gay and straight men suggests strongly that S/M (and BDSM in general) can not be considered a homogenous phenomenon.", "As Nordling et al.", "(2006) puts it, \"People who identify as sadomasochists mean different things by these identifications.\"", "(54)==== Bisexuality ====In Steve Lenius' original 2001 paper, he explored the acceptance of bisexuality in a supposedly pansexual BDSM community.", "The reasoning behind this is that 'coming-out' had become primarily the territory of the gay and lesbian, with bisexuals feeling the push to be one or the other (and being right only half the time either way).", "What he found in 2001, was that people in BDSM were open to discussion about the topic of bisexuality and pansexuality and all controversies they bring to the table, but personal biases and issues stood in the way of actively using such labels.", "A decade later, Lenius (2011) looks back on his study and considers if anything has changed.", "He concluded that the standing of bisexuals in the BDSM and kink community was unchanged, and believed that positive shifts in attitude were moderated by society's changing views towards different sexualities and orientations.", "But Lenius (2011) does emphasize that the pansexual promoting BDSM community helped advance greater acceptance of alternative sexualities.Brandy Lin Simula (2012), on the other hand, argues that BDSM actively resists gender-conforming and identified three different types of BDSM bisexuality: gender-switching, gender-based styles (taking on a different gendered style depending on the gender of partner when playing), and rejection of gender (resisting the idea that gender matters in their play partners).", "Simula (2012) explains that practitioners of BDSM routinely challenge our concepts of sexuality by pushing the limits on pre-existing ideas of sexual orientation and gender norms.", "For some, BDSM and kink provides a platform in creating identities that are fluid, ever-changing.=== History of psychotherapy and current recommendations ===Psychiatry has an insensitive history in the area of BDSM.", "There have been many involvements by institutions of political power to marginalize subgroups and sexual minorities.", "Mental health professionals have a long history of holding negative assumptions and stereotypes about the BDSM community.", "Beginning with the DSM-II, Sexual Sadism and Sexual Masochism have been listed as sexually deviant behaviours.", "Sadism and masochism were also found in the personality disorder section.", "This negative assumption has not changed significantly which is evident in the continued inclusion of Sexual Sadism and Sexual Masochism as paraphilias in the DSM-IV-TR.", "The DSM-V, however, has depathologized the language around paraphilias in a way that signifies \"the APA's intent to not demand treatment for healthy consenting adult sexual expression\".", "These biases and misinformation can result in pathologizing and unintentional harm to clients who identify as sadists and/or masochists and medical professionals who have been trained under older editions of the DSM can be slow to change in their ways of clinical practice.According to Kolmes et al.", "(2006), major themes of biased and inadequate care to BDSM clients are:* Considering BDSM to be unhealthy* Requiring a client to give up BDSM activities in order to continue in treatment* Confusing BDSM with abuse* Having to educate the therapist about BDSM* Assuming that BDSM interests are indicative of past family/spousal abuse* Therapists misrepresenting their expertise by stating that they are BDSM-positive when they are not actually knowledgeable about BDSM practicesThese same researchers suggested that therapists should be open to learning more about BDSM, to show comfort in talking about BDSM issues, and to understand and promote \"safe, sane, consensual\" BDSM.There has also been research which suggests BDSM can be a beneficial way for victims of sexual assault to deal with their trauma, most notably by Corie Hammers, but this work is limited in scope and to date, has not undergone empirical testing as a treatment.=== Clinical issues ===Nichols (2006) compiled some common clinical issues: countertransference, non-disclosure, coming out, partner/families, and bleed-through.Countertransference is a common problem in clinical settings.", "Despite having no evidence, therapists may find themselves believing that their client's pathology is \"self-evident\".", "Therapists may feel intense disgust and aversive reactions.", "Feelings of countertransference can interfere with therapy.", "Another common problem is when clients conceal their sexual preferences from their therapists.", "This can compromise any therapy.", "To avoid non-disclosure, therapists are encouraged to communicate their openness in indirect ways with literature and artworks in the waiting room.", "Therapists can also deliberately bring up BDSM topics during the course of therapy.", "With less informed therapists, sometimes they over-focus on clients' sexuality which detracts from original issues such as family relationships, depression, etc.", "A special subgroup that needs counselling is the \"newbie\".", "Individuals just coming out might have internalized shame, fear, and self-hatred about their sexual preferences.", "Therapists need to provide acceptance, care, and model positive attitude; providing reassurance, psychoeducation, and bibliotherapy for these clients is crucial.", "The average age when BDSM individuals realize their sexual preference is around 26 years.", "Many people hide their sexuality until they can no longer contain their desires.", "However, they may have married or had children by this point." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===A fresco in the Etruscan Tomb of the Whipping, 5th century BCCopper engraving, about 1780Flagellation scene, illustration to ''Fanny Hill'' by Édouard-Henri Avril, 1907Practices of BDSM survive from some of the oldest textual records in the world, associated with rituals to the goddess Inanna (Ishtar in Akkadian).", "Cuneiform texts dedicated to Inanna which incorporate domination rituals.", "In particular, she points to ancient writings such as Inanna and Ebih (in which the goddess dominates Ebih), and Hymn to Inanna describing cross-dressing transformations and rituals \"imbued with pain and ecstasy, bringing about initation and journeys of altered states of consciousness; punishment, moaning, ecstasy, lament and song, participants exhausting themselves in weeping and grief.", "\"During the 9th century BC, ritual flagellations were performed in Artemis Orthia, one of the most important religious areas of ancient Sparta, where the Cult of Orthia, a pre-Olympic religion, was practiced.", "Here, ritual flagellation called ''diamastigosis'' took place, in which young adolescent men were whipped in a ceremony overseen by the priestess.", "These are referred to by a number of ancient authors, including Pausanius (III, 16: 10–11).One of the oldest graphical proofs of sadomasochistic activities is found in the Etruscan Tomb of the Whipping near Tarquinia, which dates to the 5th century BC.", "Inside the tomb, there is a fresco which portrays two men who flagellate a woman with a cane and a hand during an erotic situation.", "Another reference related to flagellation is to be found in the sixth book of the ''Satires'' of the ancient Roman Poet Juvenal (1st–2nd century A.D.), further reference can be found in Petronius's ''Satyricon'' where a delinquent is whipped for sexual arousal.", "Anecdotal narratives related to humans who have had themselves voluntary bound, flagellated or whipped as a substitute for sex or as part of foreplay reach back to the 3rd and 4th century BC.In Pompeii, a whip-mistress figure with wings is depicted on the wall of the Villa of Mysteries, as part of an initiation of a young woman into the Mysteries.", "The whip-mistress role drove the sacred initiation of ceremonial death and rebirth.", "The archaic Greek Aphrodite may too once have been armed with an implement, with archaeological evidence of armed Aphrodites known from a number of locations in Cythera, Acrocorinth and Sparta, and which may have been a whip.The ''Kama Sutra'' of India describes four different kinds of hitting during lovemaking, the allowed regions of the human body to target and different kinds of joyful \"cries of pain\" practiced by bottoms.", "The collection of historic texts related to sensuous experiences explicitly emphasizes that impact play, biting and pinching during sexual activities should only be performed consensually since only some women consider such behavior to be joyful.", "From this perspective, the Kama Sutra can be considered one of the first written resources dealing with sadomasochistic activities and safety rules.", "Further texts with sadomasochistic connotation appear worldwide during the following centuries on a regular basis.There are anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped, as a prelude to or substitute for sex, during the 14th century.", "The medieval phenomenon of courtly love in all of its slavish devotion and ambivalence has been suggested by some writers to be a precursor of BDSM.", "Some sources claim that BDSM as a distinct form of sexual behavior originated at the beginning of the 18th century when Western civilization began medically and legally categorizing sexual behavior (see Etymology).Flagellation practiced within an erotic setting has been recorded from at least the 1590s evidenced by a John Davies epigram, and references to \"flogging schools\" in Thomas Shadwell's ''The Virtuoso'' (1676) and Tim Tell-Troth's ''Knavery of Astrology'' (1680).", "Visual evidence such as mezzotints and print media is also identified revealing scenes of flagellation, such as \"The Cully Flaug'd\" from the British Museum collection.John Cleland's novel ''Fanny Hill'', published in 1749, incorporates a flagellation scene between the character's protagonist Fanny Hill and Mr Barville.", "A large number of flagellation publications followed, including ''Fashionable Lectures: Composed and Delivered with Birch Discipline'' (), promoting the names of women offering the service in a lecture room with rods and cat o' nine tails.Foot worship of one of the feet of a dominatrix by a submissive man.", "Her other foot rests over the man's head, using it as a footstool (human furniture).", "This sketch is from a 1950 work named ''Bizarre Honeymoon''.Other sources give a broader definition, citing BDSM-like behavior in earlier times and other cultures, such as the medieval flagellates and the physical ordeal rituals of some Native American societies.BDSM ideas and imagery have existed on the fringes of Western culture throughout the 20th century.", "Robert Bienvenu attributes the origins of modern BDSM to three sources, which he names as \"European Fetish\" (from 1928), \"American Fetish\" (from 1934), and \"Gay Leather\" (from 1950).", "Another source are the sexual games played in brothels, which go back to the 19th century, if not earlier.", "Charles Guyette was the first American to produce and distribute fetish related material (costumes, footwear, photography, props and accessories) in the U.S. His successor, Irving Klaw, produced commercial sexploitation film and photography with a BDSM theme (most notably with Bettie Page) and issued fetish comics (known then as \"chapter serials\") by the now-iconic artists John Willie, Gene Bilbrew, and Eric Stanton.Stanton's model Bettie Page became at the same time one of the first successful models in the area of fetish photography and one of the most famous pin-up girls of American mainstream culture.", "Italian author and designer Guido Crepax was deeply influenced by him, coining the style and development of European adult comics in the second half of the 20th century.", "The artists Helmut Newton and Robert Mapplethorpe are the most prominent examples of the increasing use of BDSM-related motives in modern photography and the public discussions still resulting from this.Alfred Binet first coined the term ''erotic fetishism'' in his 1887 book, ''Du fétichisme dans l'amour'' Richard von Krafft-Ebing saw BDSM interests as the end of a continuum.=== Leather movement ===Cologne Pride Parade, 2014Leather has been a predominantly gay male term to refer to one fetish, but it can stand for many more.", "Members of the gay male leather community may wear leathers such as motorcycle leathers, or may be attracted to men wearing leather.", "Leather and BDSM are seen as two parts of one whole.", "Much of the BDSM culture can be traced back to the gay male leather culture, which formalized itself out of the group of men who were soldiers returning home after World War II (1939–1945).", "World War II was the setting where countless homosexual men and women tasted the life among homosexual peers.", "Post-war, homosexual individuals congregated in larger cities such as New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.", "They formed leather clubs and bike clubs; some were fraternal services.", "The establishment of Mr. Leather Contest and Mr. Drummer Contest were made around this time.", "This was the genesis of the gay male leather community.", "Many of the members were attracted to extreme forms of sexuality, for which peak expression was in the pre-AIDS 1970s.", "This subculture is epitomized by the ''Leatherman's Handbook'' by Larry Townsend, published in 1972, which describes in detail the practices and culture of gay male sadomasochists in the late 1960s and early 1970s.In the early 1980s, lesbians also joined the leathermen as a recognizable element of the gay leather community.", "They also formed leather clubs, but there were some gender differences, such as the absence of leatherwomen's bars.", "In 1981, the publication of ''Coming to Power'' by lesbian-feminist group Samois led to a greater knowledge and acceptance of BDSM in the lesbian community.", "By the 1990s, the gay men's and women's leather communities were no longer underground and played an important role in the kink community.Today, the leather movement is generally seen as a part of the BDSM-culture instead of as a development deriving from gay subculture, even if a huge part of the BDSM-subculture was gay in the past.", "In the 1990s, the so-called New Guard leather subculture evolved.", "This new orientation started to integrate psychological aspects into their play.The Leather Archives and Museum (LA&M) in Chicago was founded in 1991 by Chuck Renslow and Tony DeBlase as a “community archives, library, and museum of leather, kink, fetish, and BDSM history and culture.” The LA&M has an extensive collection of leather- and BDSM-related artifacts, including one of three original leather pride flags.The San Francisco South of Market Leather History Alley consists of four works of art along Ringold Alley honoring leather culture; it opened in 2017.One of the works of art is metal bootprints along the curb which honor 28 people (including Steve McEachern, owner of the Catacombs, a gay and lesbian S/M fisting club, and Cynthia Slater, a founder of the Society of Janus, the second oldest BDSM organization in the United States) who were an important part of the leather communities of San Francisco.=== Internet ===In the late 1980s, the Internet provided a way of finding people with specialized interests around the world as well as on a local level, and communicating with them anonymously.", "This brought about an explosion of interest and knowledge of BDSM, particularly on the usenet group alt.sex.bondage.", "When that group became too cluttered with spam, the focus moved to soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm.", "With an increased focus on forms of social media, FetLife was formed, which advertises itself as \"a social network for the BDSM and fetish community\".", "It operates similarly to other social media sites, with the ability to make friends with other users, events, and pages of shared interests.In addition to traditional sex shops, which sell sex paraphernalia, there has also been an explosive growth of online adult toy companies that specialize in leather/latex gear and BDSM toys.", "Once a very niche market, there are now very few sex toy companies that do not offer some sort of BDSM or fetish gear in their catalog.", "Kinky elements seem to have worked their way into \"vanilla\" markets.", "The former niche expanded to an important pillar of the business with adult accessories.", "Today practically all suppliers of sex toys do offer items which originally found usage in the BDSM subculture.", "Padded handcuffs, latex and leather garments, as well as more exotic items like soft whips for fondling and TENS for erotic electro stimulation, can be found in catalogs aiming at classical vanilla target groups, indicating that former boundaries increasingly seem to shift.During the last years, the Internet also provides a central platform for networking among individuals who are interested in the subject.", "Besides countless private and commercial choices, there is an increasing number of local networks and support groups emerging.", "These groups often offer comprehensive background and health-related information for people who have been unwillingly outed as well as contact lists with information on psychologists, physicians and lawyers who are familiar with BDSM-related topics.=== University clubs ===Increasingly, American universities are witnessing BDSM and kink education by providing student clubs, such as Columbia University's Conversio Virium and Iowa State University's Cuffs.", "University BDSM clubs are also found in the U.K., Canada, Belgium, and Taiwan.Some American universities—such as Indiana University and Michigan State University—have professors who research and teach classes on BDSM." ], [ "Legal status", "=== Austria ===Consensual giving or receiving of pain is legal in Austria, showing wax play at the Eros Pyramide sex show in 2009Section 90 of the Austrian criminal code declares bodily injury (Sections 83–84) or the endangerment of physical security (Section 89) to not be subject to penalty in cases in which the victim has consented and the injury or endangerment does not offend moral sensibilities.", "Case law from the Austrian Supreme Court has consistently shown that bodily injury is only offensive to moral sensibilities, thus it is only punishable when a \"serious injury\" (damage to health or an employment disability lasting more than 24 days) or the death of the \"victim\" results.", "A ''light injury'' is generally considered ''permissible'' when the \"victim\" has consented to it.", "In cases of threats to bodily well being the standard depends on the probability that an injury will actually occur.", "If serious injury or even death would be a likely result of a threat being carried out, then even the threat itself is considered punishable.=== Canada ===In 2004, a judge in Canada ruled that videos seized by the police featuring BDSM activities were not obscene and did not constitute violence, but a \"normal and acceptable\" sexual activity between two consenting adults.In 2011, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in ''R.", "v.", "J.A.''", "that a person must have an active mind during the specific sexual activity in order to legally consent.", "The Court ruled that it is a criminal offence to perform a sexual act on an unconscious person—whether or not that person consented in advance.=== Germany ===Sexual activity may occur in BDSM, but it is not essential part of BDSM.", "Photo shows erotic humiliation of sexual nature being performed at music festival, Germany, 2014.The submissive woman is stripped naked, hung upside down, whipped and a master doing sexual roleplay of a devil forces himself on her to cause vagina torture.According to Section 194 of the German criminal code, the charge of insult (slander) can only be prosecuted if the defamed person chooses to press charges.", "False imprisonment can be charged if the victim—when applying an objective view—can be considered to be impaired in their rights of free movement.", "According to Section 228, a person inflicting a bodily injury on another person with that person's permission violates the law only in cases where the act can be considered to have violated good morals in spite of permission having been given.", "On 26 May 2004, the Criminal Panel No.", "2 of the Bundesgerichtshof (German Federal Court) ruled that sado-masochistically motivated physical injuries are not per se indecent and thus subject to Section 228.Following cases in which sado-masochistic practices had been repeatedly used as pressure tactics against former partners in custody cases, the Appeals Court of Hamm ruled in February 2006 that sexual inclinations toward sado-masochism are no indication of a lack of capabilities for successful child-raising.=== Italy ===In Italian law, BDSM is right on the border between crime and legality, and everything lies in the interpretation of the legal code by the judge.", "This concept is that anyone willingly causing \"injury\" to another person is to be punished.", "In this context, though, \"injury\" is legally defined as \"anything causing a condition of illness\", and \"illness\" is ill-defined itself in two different legal ways.", "The first is \"any anatomical or functional alteration of the organism\" (thus technically including little scratches and bruises too); the second is \"a significant worsening of a previous condition relevant to organic and relational processes, requiring any kind of therapy\".", "This could make it somewhat risky to play with someone, as later the \"victim\" may call foul play citing even an insignificant mark as evidence against the partner.", "Also, any injury requiring over 20 days of medical care must be denounced by the professional medic who discovers it, leading to automatic indictment of the person who caused it.=== Nordic countries ===In September 2010, a Swedish court acquitted a 32-year-old man of assault for engaging in consensual BDSM play with a 16-year-old girl (the age of consent in Sweden is 15).", "Norway's legal system has likewise taken a similar position, that safe and consensual BDSM play should not be subject to criminal prosecution.", "This parallels the stance of the mental health professions in the Nordic countries which have removed sadomasochism from their respective lists of psychiatric illnesses.=== Switzerland ===The age of consent in Switzerland is 16 years, which also applies to BDSM play.", "Minors (i.e., those under 16) are not subject to punishment for BDSM play as long as the age difference between them is less than three years.", "Certain practices, however, require granting consent for light injuries, with only those over 18 permitted to give consent.", "On 1 April 2002, Articles 135 and 197 of the Swiss Criminal Code were tightened to make ownership of ''\"objects or demonstrations ... which depict sexual acts with violent content\"'' a punishable offense.", "This law amounts to a general criminalization of sado-masochism since nearly every sado-masochist will have some kind of media that fulfills this criterion.", "Critics also object to the wording of the law which puts sado-masochists in the same category as pedophiles and pederasts.=== United Kingdom ===In British law, consent is an absolute defense to common assault, but not necessarily to actual bodily harm, where courts may decide that consent is not valid, as occurred in the case of ''R v Brown''.", "Accordingly, consensual activities in the U.K. may not constitute \"assault occasioning actual or grievous bodily harm\" in law.", "The Spanner Trust states that this is defined as activities which have caused injury \"of a lasting nature\" but that only a slight duration or injury might be considered \"lasting\" in law.", "The decision contrasts with the later case of ''R v Wilson'' in which conviction for non-sexual consensual branding within a marriage was overturned, the appeal court ruling that ''R v Brown'' was not an authority in all cases of consensual injury and criticizing the decision to prosecute.Following Operation Spanner, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in January 1999 in ''Laskey, Jaggard and Brown v. United Kingdom'' that no violation of Article 8 occurred because the amount of physical or psychological harm that the law allows between any two people, even consenting adults, is to be determined by the jurisdiction the individuals live in, as it is the State's responsibility to balance the concerns of public health and well-being with the amount of control a State should be allowed to exercise over its citizens.", "In the Criminal Justice and Immigration Bill 2007, the British Government cited the Spanner case as justification for criminalizing images of consensual acts, as part of its proposed criminalization of possession of \"extreme pornography\".", "Another contrasting case was that of Stephen Lock in 2013, who was cleared of actual bodily harm on the grounds that the woman consented.", "In this case, the act was deemed to be sexual.=== United States ===paddle in a BDSM dungeon in Lower ManhattanThe United States Federal law does not list a specific criminal determination for consensual BDSM acts.", "Many BDSM practitioners cite the legal decision of ''People v. Jovanovic'', 95 N.Y.2d 846 (2000), or the \"Cybersex Torture Case\", which was the first U.S. appellate decision to hold (in effect) that one does not commit assault if the victim consents.", "However, many individual states do criminalize specific BDSM actions within their state borders.", "Some states specifically address the idea of \"consent to BDSM acts\" within their assault laws, such as the state of New Jersey, which defines \"simple assault\" to be \"a disorderly persons offense unless committed in a fight or scuffle ''entered into by mutual consent'', in which case it is a petty disorderly persons offense\".Oregon Ballot Measure 9 was a ballot measure in the U.S. state of Oregon in 1992, concerning sadism, masochism, gay rights, pedophilia, and public education, that drew widespread national attention.", "It would have added the following text to the Oregon Constitution:It was defeated in the 3 November 1992 general election with 638,527 votes in favor, 828,290 votes against.The National Coalition for Sexual Freedom collects reports about punishment for sexual activities engaged in by consenting adults, and about its use in child custody cases." ], [ "Cultural aspects", "Today, the BDSM culture exists in most Western countries.", "This offers BDSM practitioners the opportunity to discuss BDSM relevant topics and problems with like-minded people.", "This culture is often viewed as a subculture, mainly because BDSM is often still regarded as \"unusual\" by some of the public.", "Many people hide their leaning from society since they are afraid of the incomprehension and of social exclusion.In contrast to frameworks seeking to explain sadomasochism through psychological, psychoanalytic, medical or forensic approaches, which seek to categorize behaviour and desires and find a root \"cause\", Romana Byrne suggests that such practices can be seen as examples of \"aesthetic sexuality\", in which a founding physiological or psychological impulse is irrelevant.", "Rather, sadism and masochism may be practiced through choice and deliberation, driven by certain aesthetic goals tied to style, pleasure, and identity.", "These practices, in certain circumstances and contexts, can be compared with the creation of art.=== Symbols ===The BDSM rights flag with triskelion-type emblemThe leather pride flag, a symbol of the BDSM and fetish subcultureOne of the most commonly used symbols of the BDSM community is a derivation of a triskelion shape within a circle.", "Various forms of triskele have had many uses and many meanings in many cultures; its BDSM usage derives from the ''Ring of O'' in the classic book ''Story of O''.", "The BDSM Emblem Project claims copyright over one particular specified form of the triskelion symbol; other variants of the triskelion are free from such copyright claims.The leather pride flag is a symbol for the leather subculture and also widely used within BDSM.", "In continental Europe, the ''Ring of O'' is widespread among BDSM practitioners.The triskelion as a BDSM symbol can easily be perceived as the three separate parts of the acronym BDSM; which are BD, DS, and SM (Bondage & Discipline, Dominance & Submission, Sadism & Masochism).", "They are three separate items, that are normally associated together.The BDSM rights flag, shown to the right, is intended to represent the belief that people whose sexuality or relationship preferences include BDSM practises deserve the same human rights as everyone else, and should not be discriminated against for pursuing BDSM with consenting adults.The flag is inspired by the leather pride flag and BDSM emblem but is specifically intended to represent the concept of BDSM rights and to be without the other symbols' restrictions against commercial use.", "It is designed to be recognizable by people familiar with either the leather pride flag or BDSM triskelion (or triskele) as \"something to do with BDSM\"; and to be distinctive whether reproduced in full colour, or in black and white (or another pair of colours).BDSM and fetish items and styles have been spread widely in Western societies' everyday life by different factors, such as avant-garde fashion, heavy metal, goth subculture, and science fiction TV series, and are often not consciously connected with their BDSM roots by many people.", "While it was mainly confined to the punk and BDSM subcultures in the 1990s, it has since spread into wider parts of Western societies.=== Film and music ===* In music: the Romanian singer-songwriter Navi featured BDSM and Shibari scenes in her music video \"Picture Perfect\" (2014).", "The video was banned in Romania for its explicit content.", "In 2010, Rihanna's song \"S&M\" and Christina Aguilera's single \"Not Myself Tonight\" appeared, both full of BDSM imagery.", "* In movies: While BDSM activity appeared initially in subtle form, in the 1960s famous works of literature like ''Story of O'' and ''Venus in Furs'' were filmed explicitly.", "With the release of the 1986 film ''9½ Weeks'', the topic of BDSM was transferred to mainstream cinema.", "From the 1990s, cinematic representation of alternative sexualities, including BDSM, increased dramatically, as seen in documentary productions such as ''Graphic Sexual Horror'' (a 2009 film based on the website Insex), ''Kink'' (a 2013 film based on the website Kink.com), and movies such as ''Fifty Shades of Grey'' (2015) and its two sequels ''Fifty Shades Darker'' (2017) and ''Fifty Shades Freed'' (2018).", "** However, mistakenly considered in mainstream society as having BDSM activities that are, rather, abusive are the movies ''Fifty Shades of Grey'' (2015) and its two sequels ''Fifty Shades Darker'' (2017) and ''Fifty Shades Freed'' (2018).", "\"A lot of what happens in the main relationship of Fifty Shades of Grey is domestic abuse, both physical and emotional, and for people whose entire understanding of BDSM now comes from jiggle balls and rooms of pain this is a dangerous misconception to foster.", "\"=== Theater ===Although it would be possible to establish certain elements related to BDSM in classical theater, not until the emergence of contemporary theater would some plays have BDSM as the main theme.", "Exemplifying this are two works: one Austrian, one German, in which BDSM is not only incorporated but integral to the storyline of the play.", "* ''Worauf sich Körper kaprizieren'', Austria.", "Peter Kern directed and wrote the script for this comedy which is a present-day adaption of Jean Genet's 1950 film, .", "It is about a marriage in which the wife (film veteran Miriam Goldschmidt) submits her husband (Heinrich Herkie) and the butler (Günter Bubbnik) to her sadistic treatment until two new characters take their places.", "* ''Ach, Hilde'' (''Oh, Hilda''), Germany.", "This play by Anna Schwemmer premiered in Berlin.", "A young Hilde becomes pregnant, and after being abandoned by her boyfriend she decides to become a professional dominatrix to earn money.", "The play carefully crafts a playful and frivolous picture of the field of professional dominatrices.=== Literature ===Fanny Pistor (with whip) and Leopold von Sacher-Masoch.", "''Venus in Furs'' was inspired by the author's own life where he was dominated by a woman.Although examples of literature catering to BDSM and fetishistic tastes were created in earlier periods, BDSM literature as it exists today cannot be found much earlier than World War II.The word ''sadism'' originates from the works of Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade, and the word ''masochism'' originates from Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, the author of ''Venus in Furs''.", "However, it is worth noting that the Marquis de Sade describes non-consensual abuse in his works, such as in ''Justine''.", "''Venus in Furs'' describes a consensual dom-sub relationship.A central work in modern BDSM literature is undoubtedly ''Story of O'' (1954) by Anne Desclos under the pseudonym Pauline Réage.Other notable works include ''9½ Weeks'' (1978) by Elizabeth McNeill, some works of the writer Anne Rice (''Exit to Eden'', and her ''Claiming of Sleeping Beauty'' series of books), Jeanne de Berg (''L'Image'' (1956) dedicated to Pauline Réage), the Gor series by John Norman, and naturally all the works of Patrick Califia, Gloria Brame, the group Samois and many of the writer Georges Bataille (''Histoire de l'oeil-Story of the Eye'', Madame Edwarda, 1937), as well as those of Bob Flanagan (''Slave Sonnets'' (1986), ''Fuck Journal'' (1987), ''A Taste of Honey'' (1990)).", "A common part of many of the poems of Pablo Neruda is a reflection on feelings and sensations arising from the relations of EPE or erotic exchange of power.", "The ''Fifty Shades'' trilogy is a series of very popular erotic romance novels by E. L. James which involves BDSM; however, the novels have been criticized for their inaccurate and harmful depiction of BDSM.In the 21st century, a number of prestigious university presses, such as Duke University, Indiana University and University of Chicago, have published books on BDSM written by professors, thereby lending academic legitimacy to this once taboo topic.=== Art ===* In photography: Eric Kroll and Irving Klaw (with Bettie Page, the first well-known bondage model), and Japanese photographer Araki Nobuyoshi, whose works are exhibited in several major art museums, galleries and private collections, such as the Baroness Marion Lambert, the world's largest holder of contemporary photographic art.", "Also Robert Mapplethorpe, whose most controversial work is that of the underground BDSM scene in the late 1960s and early 1970s of New York.", "The homoeroticism of this work fuelled a national debate over the public funding of controversial artwork.", "* Comic book drawings: Guido Crepax with ''Histoire d'O'' (1975), ''Justine'' (1979) and ''Venere in Pelliccia'' (1984); inspired by the work of Pauline Réage, the Marquis de Sade and Leopold von Sacher-Masoch.", "John Willie and ''The Adventures of Sweet Gwendoline'' (1984) which was the basis for the film ''The Perils of Gwendoline in the Land of the Yik-Yak''.", "The ''Sunstone/Mercy'' (2011-ongoing) books by Stjepan Sejic have become very popular and are found in many conventional bookstores around the world.", "* In graphic design: Eric Stanton and his work on dominance and female bondage, as well as Hajime Sorayama and Robert Bishop.", "* In art deco sculpture: Bruno Zach produced perhaps his best known sculpture—called \"The Riding Crop\" ()—which features a scantily clad dominatrix wielding a riding crop." ], [ "See also", "* Autosadism* Dominance hierarchy* Index of BDSM articles* Glossary of BDSM* List of BDSM equipment* List of BDSM organizations* List of bondage positions* Leather subculture* Outline of BDSM* Vulnerability and care theory of love" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Baldwin, Guy.", "''Ties That Bind: SM/Leather/Fetish Erotic Style: Issues, Communication, and Advice'', Daedalus Publishing, 1993..* * Brame, Gloria G., Brame, William D., and Jacobs, Jon.", "''Different Loving: An Exploration of the World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'' Villard Books, New York, 1993.", "* Brame, Gloria.", "''Come Hither: A Commonsense Guide to Kinky Sex'', Fireside, 2000..* Califia, Pat.", "''Sensuous Magic''.", "New York, Masquerade Books, 1993.", "* * * Dollie Llama.", "''Diary of an S&M Romance''., PEEP!", "Press (California), 2006, * Henkin, Wiliiam A., Sybil Holiday.", "''Consensual Sadomasochism: How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', Daedalus Publishing, 1996..* Janus, Samuel S., and Janus, Cynthia L. ''The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior'', John Wiley & Sons, 1994.", "* Masters, Peter.", "''This Curious Human Phenomenon: An Exploration of Some Uncommonly Explored Aspects of BDSM''.", "The Nazca Plains Corporation, 2008.", "* Phillips, Anita.", "''A Defence of Masochism'', Faber and Faber, new edition 1999.", "* Newmahr, Staci (2011).", "''Playing on the Edge: Sadomasochism, Risk and Intimacy''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", ".", "* Nomis, Anne O.", "(2013) ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix'' Mary Egan Publishing & Anna Nomis Ltd, U.K. * Rinella, Jack.", "''The Complete Slave: Creating and Living an Erotic Dominant/submissive Lifestyle'', Daedalus Publishing, 2002..* Saez, Fernando y Viñuales, Olga, ''Armarios de Cuero'', Ed.", "Bellaterra, 2007.", "* Larry Townsend.", "''Leatherman's Handbook'', first edition 1972 (this was the first book to publicize BDSM to the general public—it was a paperback book widely available on newsstands and at bookstores throughout the United States)* Wiseman, Jay.", "''SM 101: A Realistic Introduction'' (1st ed., 1992); 2nd ed.", "Greenery Press, 2000.", "* Byrne, Romana (2013) Aesthetic Sexuality: A Literary History of Sadomasochism , New York: Bloomsbury.", "* Dominari, Rajan (2019).", "''Welcome to the Darkside: A BDSM Primer''.", "AKO Publishing Company.", "." ], [ "External links", "* \"Pain and the erotic\" by Lesley Hall (archived 17 December 2008)*" ] ]

[ [ "Bash (Unix shell)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bash''' is a Unix shell and command language written by Brian Fox for the GNU Project as a free software replacement for the Bourne shell.", "The shell's name is an acronym for ''Bourne-Again SHell'', a pun on the name of the Bourne shell that it replaces and the notion of being \"born again\".", "First released in 1989, it has been used as the default login shell for most Linux distributions and it was one of the first programs Linus Torvalds ported to Linux, alongside GCC.", "It is available on nearly all modern operating systems.", "Bash is a command processor that typically runs in a text window where the user types commands that cause actions.", "Bash can also read and execute commands from a file, called a shell script.", "Like most Unix shells, it supports filename globbing (wildcard matching), piping, here documents, command substitution, variables, and control structures for condition-testing and iteration.", "The keywords, syntax, dynamically scoped variables and other basic features of the language are all copied from sh.", "Other features, e.g., history, are copied from csh and ksh.", "Bash is a POSIX-compliant shell, but with a number of extensions.A version is also available for Windows 10 and Windows 11 via the Windows Subsystem for Linux.", "It is also the default user shell in Solaris 11.Bash was also the default shell in BeOS, and in versions of Apple macOS from 10.3 (originally, the default shell was tcsh) to 10.15 (macOS Catalina), which changed the default shell to zsh, although Bash remains available as an alternative shell.A security hole in Bash dating from version 1.03 (August 1989), dubbed Shellshock, was discovered in early September 2014 and quickly led to a range of attacks across the Internet.", "Patches to fix the bugs were made available soon after the bugs were identified.==History== Brian Fox began coding Bash on January 10, 1988, after Richard Stallman became dissatisfied with the lack of progress being made by a prior developer.", "Stallman and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) considered a free shell that could run existing shell scripts so strategic to a completely free system built from BSD and GNU code that this was one of the few projects they funded themselves, with Fox undertaking the work as an employee of FSF.", "Fox released Bash as a beta, version .99, on June 8, 1989, and remained the primary maintainer until sometime between mid-1992 and mid-1994, when he was laid off from FSF and his responsibility was transitioned to another early contributor, Chet Ramey.Since then, Bash has become by far the most popular shell among users of Linux, becoming the default interactive shell on that operating system's various distributions (although Almquist shell may be the default scripting shell) and on Apple's macOS releases before Catalina in October 2019.Bash has also been ported to Microsoft Windows and distributed with Cygwin and MinGW, to DOS by the DJGPP project, to Novell NetWare, to OpenVMS by the GNV project, to ArcaOS, and to Android via various terminal emulation applications.In September 2014, Stéphane Chazelas, a Unix/Linux specialist, discovered a security bug in the program.", "The bug, first disclosed on September 24, was named Shellshock and assigned the numbers .", "The bug was regarded as severe, since CGI scripts using Bash could be vulnerable, enabling arbitrary code execution.", "The bug was related to how Bash passes function definitions to subshells through environment variables." ], [ "Features", "The Bash command syntax is a superset of the Bourne shell command syntax.", "Bash supports brace expansion, command line completion (Programmable Completion), basic debugging and signal handling (using trap) since bash 2.05a among other features.", "Bash can execute the vast majority of Bourne shell scripts without modification, with the exception of Bourne shell scripts stumbling into fringe syntax behavior interpreted differently in Bash or attempting to run a system command matching a newer Bash builtin, etc.", "Bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the Korn Shell (ksh) and the C shell (csh) such as command line editing, command history (history command), the directory stack, the $RANDOM and $PPID variables, and POSIX command substitution syntax $(…).When a user presses the tab key within an interactive command-shell, Bash automatically uses command line completion, since beta version 2.04, to match partly typed program names, filenames and variable names.", "The Bash command-line completion system is very flexible and customizable, and is often packaged with functions that complete arguments and filenames for specific programs and tasks.Bash's syntax has many extensions lacking in the Bourne shell.", "Bash can perform integer calculations (\"arithmetic evaluation\") without spawning external processes.", "It uses the ((…)) command and the $((…)) variable syntax for this purpose.", "Its syntax simplifies I/O redirection.", "For example, it can redirect standard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr) at the same time using the &> operator.", "This is simpler to type than the Bourne shell equivalent 'command > file 2>&1'.", "Bash supports process substitution using the and >(command)syntax, which substitutes the output of (or input to) a command where a filename is normally used.", "(This is implemented through ''/proc/fd/'' unnamed pipes on systems that support that, or via temporary named pipes where necessary).When using the 'function' keyword, Bash function declarations are not compatible with Bourne/Korn/POSIX scripts (the KornShell has the same problem when using 'function'), but Bash accepts the same function declaration syntax as the Bourne and Korn shells, and is POSIX-conformant.", "Because of these and other differences, Bash shell scripts are rarely runnable under the Bourne or Korn shell interpreters unless deliberately written with that compatibility in mind, which is becoming less common as Linux becomes more widespread.", "But in POSIX mode, Bash conforms with POSIX more closely.Bash supports here documents.", "Since version 2.05b Bash can redirect standard input (stdin) from a \"here string\" using the operator.Bash 3.0 supports in-process regular expression matching using a syntax reminiscent of Perl.In February 2009, Bash 4.0 introduced support for associative arrays.Associative array indices are strings, in a manner similar to AWK or Tcl.", "They can be used to emulate multidimensional arrays.", "Bash 4 also switches its license to GPL-3.0-or-later; some users suspect this licensing change is why MacOS continues to use older versions.", "Apple finally stopped using Bash in its operating systems as default shell with the release of MacOS Catalina in 2019.===Brace expansion===Brace expansion, also called alternation, is a feature copied from the C shell.", "It generates a set of alternative combinations.", "Generated results need not exist as files.", "The results of each expanded string are not sorted and left to right order is preserved:$ echo a{p,c,d,b}eape ace ade abe$ echo {a,b,c}{d,e,f}ad ae af bd be bf cd ce cfUsers should not use brace expansions in portable shell scripts, because the Bourne shell does not produce the same output.$ # bash shell$/bin/bash -c 'echo a{p,c,d,b}e'ape ace ade abe$ # A traditional shell does not produce the same output$ /bin/sh -c 'echo a{p,c,d,b}e'a{p,c,d,b}eWhen brace expansion is combined with wildcards, the braces are expanded first, and then the resulting wildcards are substituted normally.", "Hence, a listing of JPEG and PNG images in the current directory could be obtained using:ls *.", "{jpg,jpeg,png} # expands to *.jpg *.jpeg *.png - after which, # the wildcards are processedecho *.", "{png,jp{e,}g} # echo just shows the expansions - # and braces in braces are possible.In addition to alternation, brace expansion can be used for sequential ranges between two integers or characters separated by double dots.", "Newer versions of Bash allow a third integer to specify the increment.$ echo {1..10}1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10$ echo {01..10}01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10$ echo file{1..4}.txtfile1.txt file2.txt file3.txt file4.txt$ echo {a..e}a b c d e$ echo {1..10..3}1 4 7 10$ echo {a..j..3}a d g jWhen brace expansion is combined with variable expansion (A.K.A.", "''parameter expansion'' and ''parameter substitution'') the variable expansion is performed ''after'' the brace expansion, which in some cases may necessitate the use of the eval built-in, thus:$ start=1; end=10$ echo {$start..$end} # fails to expand due to the evaluation order{1..10}$ eval echo {$start..$end} # variable expansion occurs then resulting string is evaluated1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10===Startup scripts===When Bash starts, it executes the commands in a variety of dot files.", "Unlike Bash shell scripts, dot files do typically have neither the execute permission enabled nor an interpreter directive like #!/bin/bash.==== Legacy-compatible Bash startup example ====The example ~/.bash_profile below is compatible with the Bourne shell and gives semantics similar to csh for the ~/.bashrc and ~/.bash_login.", "The -r ''filename'' && cmd is a short-circuit evaluation that tests if ''filename'' exists and is readable, skipping the part after the && if it is not.", "-r ~/.profile && .", "~/.profile # set up environment, once, Bourne-sh syntax onlyif -n \"$PS1\" ; then # are we interactive?", "-r ~/.bashrc && .", "~/.bashrc # tty/prompt/function setup for interactive shells -r ~/.bash_login && .", "~/.bash_login # any at-login tasks for login shell onlyfi # End of \"if\" block====Operating system issues in Bash startup====Some versions of Unix and Linux contain Bash system startup scripts, generally under the /etc directory.", "Bash executes these files as part of its standard initialization, but other startup files can read them in a different order than the documented Bash startup sequence.", "The default content of the root user's files may also have issues, as well as the skeleton files the system provides to new user accounts upon setup.", "The startup scripts that launch the X window system may also do surprising things with the user's Bash startup scripts in an attempt to set up user-environment variables before launching the window manager.", "These issues can often be addressed using a ~/.xsession or ~/.xprofile file to read the ~/.profile — which provides the environment variables that Bash shell windows spawned from the window manager need, such as xterm or Gnome Terminal.===Portability===:See also: Major Differences From The Bourne ShellInvoking Bash with the --posix option or stating set -o posix in a script causes Bash to conform very closely to the POSIX 1003.2 standard.", "Bash shell scripts intended for portability should take into account at least the POSIX shell standard.", "Some bash features not found in POSIX are:* Certain extended invocation options* Brace expansion* Arrays and associative arrays* The double bracket extended test construct and its regex matching* The double-parentheses arithmetic-evaluation construct (only ; is POSIX)* Certain string-manipulation operations in parameter expansion* for scoped variables* Process substitution* Bash-specific builtins* Coprocesses* $EPOCHSECONDS and $EPOCHREALTIME variables If a piece of code uses such a feature, it is called a \"bashism\" – a problem for portable use.", "Debian's and Vidar Holen's can be used to make sure that a script does not contain these parts.", "The list varies depending on the actual target shell: Debian's policy allows some extensions in their scripts (as they are in the dash shell), while a script intending to support pre-POSIX Bourne shells, like autoconf's , are even more limited in the features they can use.===Keyboard shortcuts===Bash uses GNU Readline to provide keyboard shortcuts for command line editing using the default (Emacs) key bindings.", "Vi-bindings can be enabled by running set -o vi.===Process management (Job control)===The Bash shell has two modes of execution for commands: batch (asynchronous), and concurrent (synchronous).To execute commands in batch mode (i.e., in sequence) they must be separated by the character \";\", or on separate lines:command1; command2command3In this example, when command1 is finished, command2 is executed, and when command2 has completed, command3 will execute.A background execution of command1 can occur using (symbol &) at the end of an execution command, and process will be executed in background while returning immediately control to the shell and allowing continued execution of commands.command1 &Or to have a concurrent execution of two command1 and command2, they must be executed in the Bash shell in the following way:command1 & command2In this case command1 is executed in the background ''&'' symbol, returning immediately control to the shell that executes command2 in the foreground.A process can be stopped and control returned to bash by typing while the process is running in the foreground.A list of all processes, both in the background and stopped, can be achieved by running jobs:$ jobs1- Running command1 &2+ Stopped command2In the output, the number in brackets refers to the job id.", "The plus sign signifies the default process for bg and fg.", "The text \"Running\" and \"Stopped\" refer to the process state.", "The last string is the command that started the process.The state of a process can be changed using various commands.", "The fg command brings a process to the foreground, while bg sets a stopped process running in the background.", "bg and fg can take a job id as their first argument, to specify the process to act on.", "Without one, they use the default process, identified by a plus sign in the output of jobs.", "The kill command can be used to end a process prematurely, by sending it a signal.", "The job id must be specified after a percent sign:kill %1===Conditional execution===Bash supplies \"conditional execution\" command separators that make execution of a command contingent on the exit code set by a precedent command.", "For example:cd \"$SOMEWHERE\" && ./do_something echo \"An error occurred\" >&2Where ''./do_something'' is only executed if the ''cd'' (change directory) command was \"successful\" (returned an exit status of zero) and the ''echo'' command would only be executed if either the ''cd'' or the ''./do_something'' command return an \"error\" (non-zero exit status).For all commands the exit status is stored in the special variable $?.", "Bash also supports and forms of conditional command evaluation.===Bug reporting===An external command called ''bashbug'' reports Bash shell bugs.", "When the command is invoked, it brings up the user's default editor with a form to fill in.", "The form is mailed to the Bash maintainers (or optionally to other email addresses).===Programmable completion===Bash supports programmable completion via built-in complete, , and compgen commands.", "The feature has been available since the beta version of 2.04 released in 2000.These commands enable complex and intelligent completion specification for commands (i.e.", "installed programs), functions, variables, and filenames.The complete and two commands specify how arguments of some available commands or options are going to be listed in the readline input.", "As of version 5.1 completion of the command or the option is usually activated by the keystroke after typing its name.=== Program name ===The program's name is a figure of speech or witticism which begins with an homage to Stephen Bourne, the creator of one of the shell programs which have sometimes been considered superseded by the bash shell.", "His name is used as a pun on the image of childbirth, and with that pun is added an allusion to the Christian idiom of being \"born again,\" or possibly the Buddhist idea of reincarnation.", "Sometimes considered a reference to John 3 of the Christian New Testament, Merriam-Webster has \"born-again\" defined as \"person who has made a renewed ... ''commitment'' of faith.\"", "This idiom is then used to name the program: the ''Bourne Again SHell''.", "The acronym of that name then is \"bash,\" a word meaning \"to strike violently.\"", "In the context of computer programming, to \"violently hit something,\" such as a computer keyboard, could be considered a hyperbolic image of some ''frustration''.", "Such imagery of negative emotionality could be seen as standing in direct juxtaposition to the idea of becoming \"born again.\"", "The naming could be considered an instance of verbal irony or accidental innuendo.", "Bash grammar was initially based on the grammars of the most popular Unix shell programs then currently in use, some of which were considered particularly difficult to use or ''frustrating'' at that time.", "As the years progressed, bash development has made its grammar more user-friendly, so much so that it seems likely that the bash project has been ''committed'' to improving its usablilty.", "Since then, bash has become the de facto default shell program in most Linux and Unix operating systems.", "=== Documentation ===The Linux man page is intended to be the controlling, authoritative source document for understanding how bash operates, while the GNU manual is more user-friendly for reading.", "\"You may also find information about Bash by running info bash ... or by looking at /usr/share/doc/bash/, /usr/local/share/doc/bash/, or similar directories on your system.", "A brief summary is available by running bash --help.\"", "\"The maintainer also has a Bash page which includes Frequently Asked Questions.\"", "As the standard upon which bash is based, POSIX.1-2017 is also highly informative.", "Information on shell builtin commands can be found by executing help or help builtin name at a terminal prompt where bash is installed." ], [ "Release history", " Version Release dateRelease notes bash-5.2.15 2022-12-13 NEWS bash-5.2 2022-09-26 bash-5.1 2020-12-07 github version history NEWS bash-5.0 2019-01-07 bash-5.0-rc1 2018-12-20 bash-5.0-beta2 2018-11-28 bash-5.0-beta 2018-09-17 bash-5.0-alpha 2018-05-22 bash-4.4 2016-09-15 github version history NEWS v4.4 bash-4.4-rc2 2016-08-22 bash-4.4-rc1 2016-02-24 bash-4.4-beta2 2016-07-11 bash-4.4-beta 2015-10-12 bash-4.3 2014-02-26 bash-4.2 2011-02-13 bash-4.1 2009-12-31 bash-4.0 2009-02-20 bash-4.0-rc1 2009-01-12 bash-3.2 2006-10-11 bash-3.1 2005-12-08 bash-3.0 2004-08-03 bash-2.05b 2002-07-17 bash-2.05a 2001-11-16 bash-2.05 2001-04-09 bash-2.04 2000-03-21 bash-2.03 1999-02-19 bash-2.02 1998-04-18 bash-2.01 1997-06-05 bash-2.0 1996-12-31" ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of command shells" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * (interview with GNU Bash's maintainer, Chet Ramey)" ] ]

[ [ "Blizzard" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''blizzard''' is a severe snowstorm characterized by strong sustained winds and low visibility, lasting for a prolonged period of time—typically at least three or four hours.", "A ground blizzard is a weather condition where snow is not falling but loose snow on the ground is lifted and blown by strong winds.", "Blizzards can have an immense size and usually stretch to hundreds or thousands of kilometres.Tochal Skiing resort, Tehran and affected skiers.A late night heavy blizzard in Ontario, Canada." ], [ "Definition and etymology", "In the United States, the National Weather Service defines a blizzard as a severe snow storm characterized by strong winds causing blowing snow that results in low visibilities.", "The difference between a blizzard and a snowstorm is the strength of the wind, not the amount of snow.", "To be a blizzard, a snow storm must have sustained winds or frequent gusts that are greater than or equal to with blowing or drifting snow which reduces visibility to or less and must last for a prolonged period of time—typically three hours or more.Environment Canada defines a blizzard as a storm with wind speeds exceeding accompanied by visibility of or less, resulting from snowfall, blowing snow, or a combination of the two.", "These conditions must persist for a period of at least four hours for the storm to be classified as a blizzard, except north of the arctic tree line, where that threshold is raised to six hours.Drifted snow near Burrow-with-Burrow, Lancashire, England, January 1963The Australia Bureau of Meteorology describes a blizzard as, \"Violent and very cold wind which is laden with snow, some part, at least, of which has been raised from snow covered ground.", "\"A view of Jätkäsaari, Helsinki, Finland, during a brief but intense blizzard on a March evening.While severe cold and large amounts of drifting snow may accompany blizzards, they are not required.", "Blizzards can bring whiteout conditions, and can paralyze regions for days at a time, particularly where snowfall is unusual or rare.A severe blizzard has winds over , near zero visibility, and temperatures of or lower.", "In Antarctica, blizzards are associated with winds spilling over the edge of the ice plateau at an average velocity of .Ground blizzard refers to a weather condition where loose snow or ice on the ground is lifted and blown by strong winds.", "The primary difference between a ground blizzard as opposed to a regular blizzard is that in a ground blizzard no precipitation is produced at the time, but rather all the precipitation is already present in the form of snow or ice at the surface.The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' concludes the term ''blizzard'' is likely onomatopoeic, derived from the same sense as ''blow, blast, blister, and bluster''; the first recorded use of it for weather dates to 1829, when it was defined as a \"violent blow\".", "It achieved its modern definition by 1859, when it was in use in the western United States.", "The term became common in the press during the harsh winter of 1880–81." ], [ "United States storm systems", "Near-whiteout conditions dim the far end of Times Square in New York City, 2015.March blizzard in North Dakota, 1966.The Brooklyn Bridge during the Great Blizzard of 1888.In the United States, storm systems powerful enough to cause blizzards usually form when the jet stream dips far to the south, allowing cold, dry polar air from the north to clash with warm, humid air moving up from the south.When cold, moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward to the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains, and warmer, moist air moves north from the Gulf of Mexico, all that is needed is a movement of cold polar air moving south to form potential blizzard conditions that may extend from the Texas Panhandle to the Great Lakes and Midwest.", "A blizzard also may be formed when a cold front and warm front mix together and a blizzard forms at the border line.Another storm system occurs when a cold core low over the Hudson Bay area in Canada is displaced southward over southeastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and New England.", "When the rapidly moving cold front collides with warmer air coming north from the Gulf of Mexico, strong surface winds, significant cold air advection, and extensive wintry precipitation occur.Conditions approaching a blizzard whiteout in Minnesota, on March 1, 2007.Note the unclear horizon near the center.Low pressure systems moving out of the Rocky Mountains onto the Great Plains, a broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, can cause thunderstorms and rain to the south and heavy snows and strong winds to the north.", "With few trees or other obstructions to reduce wind and blowing, this part of the country is particularly vulnerable to blizzards with very low temperatures and whiteout conditions.", "In a true whiteout, there is no visible horizon.", "People can become lost in their own front yards, when the door is only away, and they would have to feel their way back.", "Motorists have to stop their cars where they are, as the road is impossible to see.===Nor'easter blizzards===Illustration of the Great Blizzard of 1888A nor'easter is a macro-scale storm that occurs off the New England and Atlantic Canada coastlines.", "It gets its name from the direction the wind is coming from.", "The usage of the term in North America comes from the wind associated with many different types of storms, some of which can form in the North Atlantic Ocean and some of which form as far south as the Gulf of Mexico.", "The term is most often used in the coastal areas of New England and Atlantic Canada.", "This type of storm has characteristics similar to a hurricane.", "More specifically, it describes a low-pressure area whose center of rotation is just off the coast and whose leading winds in the left-forward quadrant rotate onto land from the northeast.", "High storm waves may sink ships at sea and cause coastal flooding and beach erosion.", "Notable nor'easters include The Great Blizzard of 1888, one of the worst blizzards in U.S. history.", "It dropped of snow and had sustained winds of more than that produced snowdrifts in excess of .", "Railroads were shut down and people were confined to their houses for up to a week.", "It killed 400 people, mostly in New York." ], [ "Historic events", "===1972 Iran blizzard===The 1972 Iran blizzard, which caused 4,000 reported deaths, was the deadliest blizzard in recorded history.", "Dropping as much as of snow, it completely covered 200 villages.", "After a snowfall lasting nearly a week, an area the size of Wisconsin was entirely buried in snow.===2008 Afghanistan blizzard===The 2008 Afghanistan blizzard, was a fierce blizzard that struck Afghanistan on 10 January 2008.Temperatures fell to a low of , with up to of snow in the more mountainous regions, killing at least 926 people.", "It was the third deadliest blizzard in history.", "The weather also claimed more than 100,000 sheep and goats, and nearly 315,000 cattle died.===The Snow Winter of 1880–1881===A snow blockade in southern Minnesota, central US.", "On March 29, 1881, snowdrifts in Minnesota were higher than locomotives.The winter of 1880–1881 is widely considered the most severe winter ever known in many parts of the United States.", "The initial blizzard in October 1880 brought snowfalls so deep that two-story homes experienced ''accumulations'', as opposed to drifts, up to their second-floor windows.", "No one was prepared for deep snow so early in the winter.", "Farmers from North Dakota to Virginia were caught flat with fields unharvested, what grain that had been harvested unmilled, and their suddenly all-important winter stocks of wood fuel only partially collected.", "By January train service was almost entirely suspended from the region.", "Railroads hired scores of men to dig out the tracks but as soon as they had finished shoveling a stretch of line a new storm arrived, burying it again.Stereoscopic view card showing \"Blasting ice with dynamite from in front of steamer on the ways, by Stanley J. Morrow\" ~ A view of Yankton's riverfront after the flood of March 1881.There were no winter thaws and on February 2, 1881, a second massive blizzard struck that lasted for nine days.", "In towns the streets were filled with solid drifts to the tops of the buildings and tunneling was necessary to move about.", "Homes and barns were completely covered, compelling farmers to construct fragile tunnels in order to feed their stock.When the snow finally melted in late spring of 1881, huge sections of the plains experienced flooding.", "Massive ice jams clogged the Missouri River, and when they broke the downstream areas were inundated.", "Most of the town of Yankton, in what is now South Dakota, was washed away when the river overflowed its banks after the thaw.==== Novelization ====Many children—and their parents—learned of \"The Snow Winter\" through the children's book ''The Long Winter'' by Laura Ingalls Wilder, in which the author tells of her family's efforts to survive.", "The snow arrived in October 1880 and blizzard followed blizzard throughout the winter and into March 1881, leaving many areas snowbound throughout the entire winter.", "Accurate details in Wilder's novel include the blizzards' frequency and the deep cold, the Chicago and North Western Railway stopping trains until the spring thaw because the snow made the tracks impassable, the near-starvation of the townspeople, and the courage of her future husband Almanzo and another man, Cap Garland, who ventured out on the open prairie in search of a cache of wheat that no one was even sure existed.===The Storm of the Century===Under the weight of snow, a tree falls next to a car in Asheville, North CarolinaThe Storm of the Century, also known as the Great Blizzard of 1993, was a large cyclonic storm that formed over the Gulf of Mexico on March 12, 1993, and dissipated in the North Atlantic Ocean on March 15.It is unique for its intensity, massive size and wide-reaching effect.", "At its height, the storm stretched from Canada towards Central America, but its main impact was on the United States and Cuba.", "The cyclone moved through the Gulf of Mexico, and then through the Eastern United States before moving into Canada.", "Areas as far south as northern Alabama and Georgia received a dusting of snow and areas such as Birmingham, Alabama, received up to with hurricane-force wind gusts and record low barometric pressures.", "Between Louisiana and Cuba, hurricane-force winds produced high storm surges across northwestern Florida, which along with scattered tornadoes killed dozens of people.", "In the United States, the storm was responsible for the loss of electric power to over 10 million customers.", "It is purported to have been directly experienced by nearly 40 percent of the country's population at that time.", "A total of 310 people, including 10 from Cuba, perished during this storm.", "The storm cost $6 to $10 billion in damages." ], [ "List of blizzards", "===North America======= 1700 to 1799 ====*The Great Snow 1717 series of four snowstorms between February 27 and March 7, 1717.There were reports of about five feet of snow already on the ground when the first of the storms hit.", "By the end, there were about ten feet of snow and some drifts reaching , burying houses entirely.", "In the colonial era, this storm made travel impossible until the snow simply melted.", "* Blizzard of 1765.March 24, 1765.Affected area from Philadelphia to Massachusetts.", "High winds and over of snowfall recorded in some areas.", "* Blizzard of 1772.", "\"The Washington and Jefferson Snowstorm of 1772\".", "January 26–29, 1772.One of largest D.C. and Virginia area snowstorms ever recorded.", "Snow accumulations of recorded.", "* The \"Hessian Storm of 1778\".", "December 26, 1778.Severe blizzard with high winds, heavy snows and bitter cold extending from Pennsylvania to New England.", "Snow drifts reported to be high in Rhode Island.", "Storm named for stranded Hessian troops in deep snows stationed in Rhode Island during the Revolutionary War.", "* The Great Snow of 1786.December 4–10, 1786.Blizzard conditions and a succession of three harsh snowstorms produced snow depths of to from Pennsylvania to New England.", "Reportedly of similar magnitude of 1717 snowstorms.", "* The Long Storm of 1798.November 19–21, 1798.Heavy snowstorm produced snow from Maryland to Maine.==== 1800 to 1850 ====* Blizzard of 1805.January 26–28, 1805.Cyclone brought heavy snowstorm to New York City and New England.", "Snow fell continuously for two days where over of snow accumulated.", "* New York City Blizzard of 1811.December 23–24, 1811.Severe blizzard conditions reported on Long Island, in New York City, and southern New England.", "Strong winds and tides caused damage to shipping in harbor.", "* Luminous Blizzard of 1817.January 17, 1817.In Massachusetts and Vermont, a severe snowstorm was accompanied by frequent lightning and heavy thunder.", "St. Elmo's fire reportedly lit up trees, fence posts, house roofs, and even people.", "John Farrar professor at Harvard, recorded the event in his memoir in 1821.", "* Great Snowstorm of 1821.January 5–7, 1821.Extensive snowstorm and blizzard spread from Virginia to New England.", "* Winter of Deep Snow in 1830.December 29, 1830.Blizzard storm dumped in Kansas City and in Illinois.", "Areas experienced repeated storms thru mid-February 1831.", "* \"The Great Snowstorm of 1831\" January 14–16, 1831.Produced snowfall over widest geographic area that was only rivaled, or exceeded by, the 1993 Blizzard.", "Blizzard raged from Georgia, to Ohio Valley, all the way to Maine.", "* \"The Big Snow of 1836\" January 8–10, 1836.Produced to of snowfall in interior New York, northern Pennsylvania, and western New England.", "Philadelphia got a reported and New York City of snow.==== 1851 to 1900 ====* Plains Blizzard of 1856.December 3–5, 1856.Severe blizzard-like storm raged for three days in Kansas and Iowa.", "Early pioneers suffered.", "* \"The Cold Storm of 1857\" January 18–19, 1857.Produced severe blizzard conditions from North Carolina to Maine.", "Heavy snowfalls reported in east coast cities.", "* Midwest Blizzard of 1864.January 1, 1864.Gale-force winds, driving snow, and low temperatures all struck simultaneously around Chicago, Wisconsin and Minnesota.", "* Plains Blizzard of 1873.January 7, 1873.Severe blizzard struck the Great Plains.", "Many pioneers from the east were unprepared for the storm and perished in Minnesota and Iowa.", "* Great Plains Easter Blizzard of 1873.April 13, 1873* Seattle Blizzard of 1880.January 6, 1880.Seattle area's greatest snowstorm to date.", "An estimated fell around the town.", "Many barns collapsed and all transportation halted.", "* The Hard Winter of 1880-81.October 15, 1880.A blizzard in eastern South Dakota marked the beginning of this historically difficult season.", "Laura Ingalls Wilder's book ''The Long Winter'' details the effects of this season on early settlers.", "* In the three year winter period from December 1885 to March 1888, the Great Plains and Eastern United States suffered a series of the worst blizzards in this nation's history ending with the Schoolhouse Blizzard and the Great Blizzard of 1888.The massive explosion of the volcano Krakatoa in the South Pacific late in August 1883 is a suspected cause of these huge blizzards during these several years.", "The clouds of ash it emitted continued to circulate around the world for many years.", "Weather patterns continued to be chaotic for years, and temperatures did not return to normal until 1888.Record rainfall was experienced in Southern California during July 1883 to June 1884.The Krakatoa eruption injected an unusually large amount of sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas high into the stratosphere which reflects sunlight and helped cool the planet over the next few years until the suspended atmospheric sulfur fell to ground.", "* Plains Blizzard of late 1885.In Kansas, heavy snows of late 1885 had piled drifts high.", "* Kansas Blizzard of 1886.First week of January 1886.Reported that 80 percent of the cattle were frozen to death in that state alone from the cold and snow.", "* January 1886 Blizzard.", "January 9, 1886.Same system as Kansas 1886 Blizzard that traveled eastward.", "* Great Plains Blizzards of late 1886.On November 13, 1886, it reportedly began to snow and did not stop for a month in the Great Plains region.", "* Great Plains Blizzard of 1887.January 9–11, 1887.Reported 72-hour blizzard that covered parts of the Great Plains in more than of snow.", "Winds whipped and temperatures dropped to around .", "So many cows that were not killed by the cold soon died from starvation.", "When spring arrived, millions of the animals were dead, with around 90 percent of the open range's cattle rotting where they fell.", "Those present reported carcasses as far as the eye could see.", "Dead cattle clogged up rivers and spoiled drinking water.", "Many ranchers went bankrupt and others simply called it quits and moved back east.", "The \"Great Die-Up\" from the blizzard effectively concluded the romantic period of the great Plains cattle drives.", "*Schoolhouse Blizzard of 1888 North American Great Plains.", "January 12–13, 1888.What made the storm so deadly was the timing (during work and school hours), the suddenness, and the brief spell of warmer weather that preceded it.", "In addition, the very strong wind fields behind the cold front and the powdery nature of the snow reduced visibilities on the open plains to zero.", "People ventured from the safety of their homes to do chores, go to town, attend school, or simply enjoy the relative warmth of the day.", "As a result, thousands of people—including many schoolchildren—got caught in the blizzard.", "*Great Blizzard of March 1888 March 11–14, 1888.One of the most severe recorded blizzards in the history of the United States.", "On March 12, an unexpected northeaster hit New England and the mid-Atlantic, dropping up to of snow in the space of three days.", "New York City experienced its heaviest snowfall recorded to date at that time, all street railcars were stranded, and the storm led to the creation of the NYC subway system.", "Snowdrifts reached up to the second story of some buildings.", "Some 400 people died from this blizzard, including many sailors aboard vessels that were beset by gale-force winds and turbulent seas.", "*Great Blizzard of 1899 February 11–14, 1899.An extremely unusual blizzard in that it reached into the far southern states of the US.", "It hit in February, and the area around Washington, D.C., experienced 51 hours straight of snowfall.", "The port of New Orleans was totally iced over; revelers participating in the New Orleans Mardi Gras had to wait for the parade routes to be shoveled free of snow.", "Concurrent with this blizzard was the extremely cold arctic air.", "Many city and state record low temperatures date back to this event, including all-time records for locations in the Midwest and South.", "State record lows: Nebraska reached , Ohio experienced , Louisiana bottomed out at , and Florida dipped below zero to .==== 1901 to 1939 ====*Great Lakes Storm of 1913 November 7–10, 1913.", "\"The White Hurricane\" of 1913 was the deadliest and most destructive natural disaster ever to hit the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and the Canadian province of Ontario.", "It produced wind gusts, waves over high, and whiteout snowsqualls.", "It killed more than 250 people, destroyed 19 ships, and stranded 19 others.", "* Blizzard of 1918.January 11, 1918.Vast blizzard-like storm moved through Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.", "*1920 North Dakota blizzard March 15–18, 1920*Knickerbocker Storm January 27–28, 1922==== 1940 to 1949 ====*Armistice Day Blizzard of 1940 November 10–12, 1940.Took place in the Midwest region of the United States on Armistice Day.", "This \"Panhandle hook\" winter storm cut a through the middle of the country from Kansas to Michigan.", "The morning of the storm was unseasonably warm but by mid afternoon conditions quickly deteriorated into a raging blizzard that would last into the next day.", "A total of 145 deaths were blamed on the storm, almost a third of them duck hunters who had taken time off to take advantage of the ideal hunting conditions.", "Weather forecasters had not predicted the severity of the oncoming storm, and as a result the hunters were not dressed for cold weather.", "When the storm began many hunters took shelter on small islands in the Mississippi River, and the winds and waves overcame their encampments.", "Some became stranded on the islands and then froze to death in the single-digit temperatures that moved in over night.", "Others tried to make it to shore and drowned.", "*North American blizzard of 1947 December 25–26, 1947.Was a record-breaking snowfall that began on Christmas Day and brought the Northeast United States to a standstill.", "Central Park in New York City got of snowfall in 24 hours with deeper snows in suburbs.", "It was not accompanied by high winds, but the snow fell steadily with drifts reaching .", "Seventy-seven deaths were attributed to the blizzard.", "* The Blizzard of 1949 - The first blizzard started on Sunday, January 2, 1949; it lasted for three days.", "It was followed by two more months of blizzard after blizzard with high winds and bitter cold.", "Deep drifts isolated southeast Wyoming, northern Colorado, western South Dakota and western Nebraska, for weeks.", "Railroad tracks and roads were all drifted in with drifts of and more.", "Hundreds of people that had been traveling on trains were stranded.", "Motorists that had set out on January 2 found their way to private farm homes in rural areas and hotels and other buildings in towns; some dwellings were so crowded that there wasn't enough room for all to sleep at once.", "It would be weeks before they were plowed out.", "The Federal government quickly responded with aid, airlifting food and hay for livestock.", "The total rescue effort involved numerous volunteers and local agencies plus at least ten major state and federal agencies from the U.S. Army to the National Park Service.", "Private businesses, including railroad and oil companies, also lent manpower and heavy equipment to the work of plowing out.", "The official death toll was 76 people and one million livestock.", "Youtube video ''Storm of the Century - the Blizzard of '49'' Storm of the Century - the Blizzard of '49==== 1950 to 1959 ====*Great Appalachian Storm of November 1950 November 24–30, 1950*March 1958 Nor'easter blizzard March 18–21, 1958.", "* The Mount Shasta California Snowstorm of 1959 – The storm dumped of snow on Mount Shasta.", "The bulk of the snow fell on unpopulated mountainous areas, barely disrupting the residents of the Mount Shasta area.", "The amount of snow recorded is the largest snowfall from a single storm in North America.==== 1960 to 1969 ====*March 1960 Nor'easter blizzard March 2–5, 1960*December 1960 Nor'easter blizzard December 12–14, 1960.Wind gusts up to .", "*March 1962 Nor'easter Great March Storm of 1962 – Ash Wednesday.", "North Carolina and Virginia blizzards.", "Struck during Spring high tide season and remained mostly stationary for almost 5 days causing significant damage along eastern coast, Assateague island was under water, and dumped of snow in Virginia.", "*North American blizzard of 1966 January 27–31, 1966*Chicago Blizzard of 1967 January 26–27, 1967*February 1969 nor'easter February 8–10, 1969*March 1969 Nor'easter blizzard March 9, 1969*December 1969 Nor'easter blizzard December 25–28, 1969.==== 1970 to 1979 ====*The Great Storm of 1975 known as the \"Super Bowl Blizzard\" or \"Minnesota's Storm of the Century\".", "January 9–12, 1975.Wind chills of to recorded, deep snowfalls.", "*Groundhog Day gale of 1976 February 2, 1976*Buffalo Blizzard of 1977 January 28 – February 1, 1977.There were several feet of packed snow already on the ground, and the blizzard brought with it enough snow to reach Buffalo's record for the most snow in one season – .", "*Great Blizzard of 1978 also called the \"Cleveland Superbomb\".", "January 25–27, 1978.Was one of the worst snowstorms the Midwest has ever seen.", "Wind gusts approached , causing snowdrifts to reach heights of in some areas, making roadways impassable.", "Storm reached maximum intensity over southern Ontario Canada.", "*Northeastern United States Blizzard of 1978 – February 6–7, 1978.Just one week following the Cleveland Superbomb blizzard, New England was hit with its most severe blizzard in 90 years since 1888.", "*Chicago Blizzard of 1979 January 13–14, 1979==== 1980 to 1989 ====*February 1987 Nor'easter blizzard February 22–24, 1987==== 1990 to 1999 ====*1991 Halloween blizzard Upper Mid-West US, October 31 – November 3, 1991*December 1992 Nor'easter blizzard December 10–12, 1992*1993 Storm of the Century March 12–15, 1993.While the southern and eastern U.S. and Cuba received the brunt of this massive blizzard, the Storm of the Century impacted a wider area than any in recorded history.", "*February 1995 Nor'easter blizzard February 3–6, 1995*Blizzard of 1996 January 6–10, 1996*April Fool's Day Blizzard March 31 – April 1, 1997.US East Coast*1997 Western Plains winter storms October 24–26, 1997*Mid West Blizzard of 1999 January 2–4, 1999==== 2000 to 2009 ====*January 25, 2000 Southeastern United States winter storm January 25, 2000.North Carolina and Virginia*December 2000 Nor'easter blizzard December 27–31, 2000*North American blizzard of 2003 February 14–19, 2003 (Presidents' Day Storm II)*December 2003 Nor'easter blizzard December 6–7, 2003*North American blizzard of 2005 January 20–23, 2005*North American blizzard of 2006 February 11–13, 2006*Early winter 2006 North American storm complex Late November 2006*Colorado Holiday Blizzards (2006–07) December 20–29, 2006 Colorado*February 2007 North America blizzard February 12–20, 2007*January 2008 North American storm complex January, 2008 West Coast US*North American blizzard of 2008 March 6–10, 2008*2009 Midwest Blizzard 6–8 December 2009, a bomb cyclogenesis event that also affected parts of Canada*North American blizzard of 2009 December 16–20, 2009*2009 North American Christmas blizzard December 22–28, 2009==== 2010 to 2019 ====*February 5–6, 2010 North American blizzard February 5–6, 2010 Referred to at the time as Snowmageddon was a Category 3 (\"major\") nor'easter and severe weather event.", "*February 9–10, 2010 North American blizzard February 9–10, 2010*February 25–27, 2010 North American blizzard February 25–27, 2010*October 2010 North American storm complex October 23–28, 2010*December 2010 North American blizzard December 26–29, 2010*January 31 – February 2, 2011 North American blizzard January 31 – February 2, 2011.Groundhog Day Blizzard of 2011*2011 Halloween nor'easter October 28 – Nov 1, 2011*Hurricane Sandy October 29–31, 2012.West Virginia, western North Carolina, and southwest Pennsylvania received heavy snowfall and blizzard conditions from this hurricane*November 2012 nor'easter November 7–10, 2012*December 17–22, 2012 North American blizzard December 17–22, 2012*Late December 2012 North American storm complex December 25–28, 2012*February 2013 nor'easter February 7–20, 2013*February 2013 Great Plains blizzard February 19 – March 6, 2013*March 2013 nor'easter March 6, 2013*October 2013 North American storm complex October 3–5, 2013* Buffalo, NY blizzard of 2014.Buffalo got over of snow during November 18–20, 2014.", "*January 2015 North American blizzard January 26–27, 2015*Late December 2015 North American storm complex December 26–27, 2015 Was one of the most notorious blizzards in the state of New Mexico and West Texas ever reported.", "It had sustained winds of over and continuous snow precipitation that lasted over 30 hours.", "Dozens of vehicles were stranded in small county roads in the areas of Hobbs, Roswell, and Carlsbad New Mexico.", "Strong sustained winds destroyed various mobile homes.", "*January 2016 United States blizzard January 20–23, 2016*February 2016 North American storm complex February 1–8, 2016*February 2017 North American blizzard February 6–11, 2017*March 2017 North American blizzard March 9–16, 2017*Early January 2018 nor’easter January 3–6, 2018*March 2019 North American blizzard March 8–16, 2019*April 2019 North American blizzard April 10–14, 2019==== 2020 to present ====*December 5–6, 2020 nor'easter December 5–6, 2020*January 31 – February 3, 2021 nor'easter January 31 – February 3, 2021*February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm February 13–17, 2021*March 2021 North American blizzard March 11–14, 2021*January 2022 North American blizzard January 27–30, 2022*Late December 2022 North American winter storm December 21–26, 2022===Canada===* The Eastern Canadian Blizzard of 1971 – Dumped a foot and a half (45.7 cm) of snow on Montreal and more than elsewhere in the region.", "The blizzard caused the cancellation of a Montreal Canadiens hockey game for the first time since 1918.", "*Saskatchewan blizzard of 2007 – January 10, 2007, Canada===United Kingdom===*Great Frost of 1709*Blizzard of January 1881*Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom*Winter of 1946–1947 in the United Kingdom*Winter of 1962–1963 in the United Kingdom*January 1987 Southeast England snowfall*Winter of 1990–91 in Western Europe*February 2009 Great Britain and Ireland snowfall*Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland*Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland*Early 2012 European cold wave===Other locations===*1954 Romanian blizzard*1972 Iran blizzard*Winter of 1990–1991 in Western Europe*2008 Afghanistan blizzard*2008 Chinese winter storms*Winter storms of 2009–2010 in East Asia" ], [ "See also", "* Cold wave* Lake-effect snow* Nor'easter* European windstorm* Whiteout (weather)* Blowing snow advisory* Ground blizzard* Severe weather terminology (Canada)* Snowsquall* Blowing snow* List of blizzards" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Digital Snow Museum Photos of historic blizzards and snowstorms.", "* Farmers Almanac List of Worst Blizzards in the United States* United States Search and Rescue Task Force: About Blizzards* A Historical Review On The Origin and Definition of the Word Blizzard Dr Richard Wild" ] ]

[ [ "Bikini" ], [ "Introduction", "Mexican actress Dolores del Río posing in a publicity photograph for the film ''In Caliente'' (1935).", "Del Río was a pioneer in wearing a two piece swimsuit.A woman wearing a black bikini at a beach in 2009A '''bikini''' is a two-piece swimsuit primarily worn by girls and women that features one piece on top that covers the breasts, and a second piece on the bottom: the front covering the pelvis but usually exposing the navel, and the back generally covering the intergluteal cleft and a little, some, or all of the buttocks.", "The size of the top and bottom can vary, from bikinis that offer full coverage of the breasts, pelvis, and buttocks, to more revealing designs with a thong or G-string bottom that covers only the mons pubis, but exposes the buttocks, and a top that covers only the areolae.", "Bikini bottoms covering about half the buttocks may be described as \"Brazilian-cut\".The modern bikini swimsuit was introduced by French clothing designer Louis Réard in July 1946, and was named after the Bikini Atoll, where the first public test of a nuclear bomb had taken place four days before.Due to its revealing design, the bikini was once considered controversial, facing opposition from a number of groups and being accepted only very slowly by the general public.", "In many countries, the design was banned from beaches and other public places: in 1949, France banned the bikini from being worn on its coastlines; Germany banned the bikini from public swimming pools until the 1970s, and some communist groups condemned the bikini as a \"capitalist decadence\".", "The bikini also faced criticism from some feminists, who reviled it as a garment designed to suit men's tastes, and not those of women.", "Despite this backlash, however, the bikini still sold well throughout the mid to late 20th century.The bikini gained increased exposure and acceptance as film stars like Brigitte Bardot, Raquel Welch, and Ursula Andress wore it and were photographed on public beaches and seen in film.", "The minimalist bikini design became common in most Western countries by the mid-1960s as both swimwear and underwear.", "By the late 20th century, it was widely used as sportswear in beach volleyball and bodybuilding.", "There are a number of modern stylistic variations of the design used for marketing purposes and as industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, skirtini, thong, and g-string.", "A man's single piece brief swimsuit may also be called a bikini or \"bikini brief\", particularly if it has slimmer sides.", "Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear.", "The bikini has gradually gained wide acceptance in Western society.", "By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a US$811 million business annually, and boosted spin off services such as bikini waxing and sun tanning." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "While the two-piece swimsuit as a design existed in classical antiquity, the modern design first attracted public notice in Paris on July 5, 1946.Operation Crossroads was a nuclear test series at the Bikini Atoll, and the inspiration for the naming of two French swimsuit designs at the time, including the bikini.In May 1946, Parisian fashion designer Jacques Heim released a two-piece swimsuit design that he named the ('Atom') and advertised as \"the smallest swimsuit in the world\".", "Like swimsuits of the era, it covered the wearer's belly button, and it failed to attract much attention.", "French automotive engineer Louis Réard introduced a design he named the \"Bikini\", adopting the name from the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean, which was the colonial name the Germans gave to the atoll, borrowed from the Marshallese name for the island, .", "Four days earlier, the United States had initiated its first peacetime nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads.", "Unlike the prior Trinity test, or most subsequent nuclear test series, the United States allowed both international observers and the global press to observe Crossroads, creating an intense international interest in the new weapon and its testing.", "Réard never explained why he chose the name \"Bikini\" for the swimsuit.", "Various motivations have been attributed to his choosing of the name, including the idea that he hoped it would create \"explosive commercial and cultural reaction\" similar to the explosion at Bikini Atoll, that it was meant to be associated with the \"exotic allure of the tropical Pacific\", from the \"comparison of the effects of a scantily clad woman to the atomic bomb,\" and the idea that Reard's design had out-done Heim's design and \"split the ''atome''\".", "Réard's advertising slogan was that the Bikini was \"smaller than the smallest bathing suit in the world.\"", "The swimsuit's name was typically capitalized for several years after its coining.It has been frequently cited as a major example of a \"psychological link between atomic destruction and sexuality\" in popular culture, which includes the stenciling of Rita Hayworth onto one of the bombs detonated at Crossroads, and its persistence in language has been argued as having \"trivialized and downplayed the reality of nuclear testing,\" given the contamination done by especially later US thermonuclear tests at Bikini and other Marshallese atolls.By making an analogy with words like ''bilingual'' and ''bilateral'' containing the Latin prefix \"bi-\" (meaning \"two\" in Latin), the word ''bikini'' was first back-derived as consisting of two parts, ''bi'' + ''kini'' by Rudi Gernreich, who introduced the monokini in 1964.Later swimsuit designs like the tankini and trikini further cemented this derivation.", "Over time the \"''–kini'' family\" (as dubbed by author William Safire), including the \"''–ini'' sisters\" (as dubbed by designer Anne Cole), expanded into a variety of swimwear including the monokini (also known as a numokini or unikini), seekini, tankini, camikini, (also hipkini), minikini, face-kini, burkini, and microkini.", "The ''Language Report'', compiled by lexicographer Susie Dent and published by the Oxford University Press (OUP) in 2003, considers lexicographic inventions like bandeaukini and camkini, two variants of the tankini, important to observe.", "Although \"bikini\" was originally a registered trademark of Réard, it has since become genericized.Variations of the term are used to describe stylistic variations for promotional purposes and industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, bandeaukini and skirtini.", "A man's brief swimsuit may also be referred to as a bikini.", "Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear." ], [ "History", "=== In antiquity ===The ancient Roman Villa Romana del Casale (286–305 AD) in Sicily has one of the earliest known bikini images.According to archaeologist James Mellaart, a mural from the Chalcolithic era (around 5600 BC) in Çatalhöyük, Anatolia depicts a mother goddess astride two leopards wearing a costume somewhat like a bikini.", "The two-piece swimsuit can be traced back to the Greco-Roman world, where bikini-like garments worn by women athletes are depicted on urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BC.In ''Coronation of the Winner,'' a mosaic in the floor of a Roman villa in Sicily that dates from the Diocletian period (286–305 AD), young women participate in weightlifting, discus throwing, and running ball games dressed in bikini-like garments (technically bandeaukinis in modern lexicon).", "The mosaic, found in the Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale, features ten maidens who have been anachronistically dubbed the \"Bikini Girls\".", "Other Roman archaeological finds depict the goddess Venus in a similar garment.", "In Pompeii, depictions of Venus wearing a bikini were discovered in the Casa della Venere, in the ''tablinum'' of the House of Julia Felix, and in an atrium garden of Via Dell'Abbondanza.=== Precursors in the West ===Swimming or bathing outdoors was discouraged in the Christian West, so there was little demand or need for swimming or bathing costumes until the 18th century.", "The bathing gown of the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise-type gown made of wool or flannel that retained coverage and modesty.In 1907, Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellermann was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing form-fitting sleeveless one-piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe, a costume she adopted from England, although it became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910.In 1913, designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two-piece swimwear.", "Inspired by the introduction of females into Olympic swimming he designed a close-fitting costume with shorts for the bottom and short sleeves for the top.During the 1920s and 1930s, people began to shift from \"taking in the water\" to \"taking in the sun\", at bathhouses and spas, and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features.", "Rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but durability issues, especially when wet, proved problematic.", "Jersey and silk were also sometimes used.", "By the 1930s, manufacturers had lowered necklines in the back, removed sleeves, and tightened the sides.", "With the development of new clothing materials, particularly latex and nylon, swimsuits gradually began hugging the body through the 1930s, with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning.Women's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure.", "The 1932 Hollywood film ''Three on a Match'' featured a midriff-baring two-piece bathing suit.", "Actress Dolores del Río was the first major star to wear a two-piece women's bathing suit onscreen in ''Flying Down to Rio'' (1933).Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff-baring suits and tops.", "However, midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public.", "Hollywood endorsed the new glamor in films like 1949's ''Neptune's Daughter'' in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as \"Double Entendre\" and \"Honey Child\".Wartime production during World War II required vast amounts of cotton, silk, nylon, wool, leather, and rubber.", "In 1942, the United States War Production Board issued Regulation L-85, cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing and mandating a 10% reduction in the amount of fabric in women's beachwear.", "To comply with the regulations, swimsuit manufacturers removed skirt panels and other attachments, while increasing production of the two-piece swimsuit with bare midriffs.", "At the same time, demand for all swimwear declined as there was not much interest in going to the beach, especially in Europe.=== Modern bikini ===Micheline Bernardini on 5 July 1946 at the Piscine Molitor modeling Réard's bikini, which was small enough to fit into the box she is holding.In the summer of 1946, Western Europeans enjoyed their first war-free summer in many years.", "French designers sought to deliver fashions that matched the liberated mood of the people.", "Fabric was still in short supply, and in an endeavor to resurrect swimwear sales, two French designers – Jacques Heim and Louis Réard – almost simultaneously launched new two-piece swimsuit designs in 1946.Heim launched a two-piece swimsuit design in Paris that he called the ''atome'', after the smallest known particle of matter.", "He announced that it was the \"world's smallest bathing suit.\"", "Although briefer than the two-piece swimsuits of the 1930s, the bottom of Heim's new two-piece beach costume still covered the wearer's navel.Soon after, Louis Réard created a competing two-piece swimsuit design, which he called the ''bikini''.", "He noticed that women at the beach rolled up the edges of their swimsuit bottoms and tops to improve their tan.", "On 5 July, Réard introduced his design at a swimsuit review held at a popular Paris public pool, Piscine Molitor, four days after the first test of a US nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll.", "The newspapers were full of news about it and Réard hoped for the same with his design.", "Réard's ''bikini'' undercut Heim's ''atome'' in its brevity.", "His design consisted of two side-by-side triangles of fabric forming a bra, and two front-and-back triangular pieces of fabric covering the mons pubis and the buttocks, respectively, connected by string.", "When he was unable to find a fashion model willing to showcase his revealing design, Réard hired Micheline Bernardini, an 18-year old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris.", "He announced that his swimsuit, was \"smaller than the world's smallest bathing suit\".", "Réard said that \"like the atom bomb, the bikini is small and devastating\".", "Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the \"atom bomb of fashion\".", "Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men.Photographs of Bernardini and articles about the event were widely carried by the press.", "The ''International Herald Tribune'' alone ran nine stories on the event.", "French newspaper ''Le Figaro'' wrote, \"People were craving the simple pleasures of the sea and the sun.", "For women, wearing a bikini signaled a kind of second liberation.", "There was really nothing sexual about this.", "It was instead a celebration of freedom and a return to the joys in life.", "\"Heim's ''atome'' was more in keeping with the sense of propriety of the 1940s, but Réard's design won the public's attention.", "Although Heim's design was the first worn on the beach and initially sold more swimsuits, it was Réard's description of the two-piece swimsuit as a ''bikini'' that stuck.", "As competing designs emerged, he declared in advertisements that a swimsuit could not be a genuine bikini \"unless it could be pulled through a wedding ring.\"", "Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey.=== Social resistance ===A bikini contest in 2009, featuring popular modern designs such as triangle tops and thong-style bottomsDespite the garment's initial success in France, women worldwide continued to wear traditional one-piece swimsuits.", "When his sales stalled, Réard went back to designing and selling orthodox knickers.", "In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole, owner of mass market swimwear firm Cole of California, told ''Time'' that he had \"little but scorn for France's famed Bikinis.\"", "Réard himself would later describe it as a \"two-piece bathing suit which reveals everything about a girl except for her mother's maiden name.\"", "Fashion magazine ''Modern Girl Magazine'' in 1957 stated that \"it is hardly necessary to waste words over the so-called bikini since it is inconceivable that any girl with tact and decency would ever wear such a thing\".In 1951, Eric Morley organized the ''Festival Bikini Contest'', a beauty contest and swimwear advertising opportunity at that year's Festival of Britain.", "The press, welcoming the spectacle, referred to it as ''Miss World'', a name Morley registered as a trademark.", "The winner was Kiki Håkansson of Sweden, who was crowned in a bikini.", "After the crowning, Håkansson was condemned by Pope Pius XII, while Spain and Ireland threatened to withdraw from the pageant.", "In 1952, bikinis were banned from the pageant and replaced by evening gowns.", "As a result of the controversy, the bikini was explicitly banned from many other beauty pageants worldwide.", "Although some regarded the bikini and beauty contests as bringing freedom to women, they were opposed by some feminists as well as religious and cultural groups who objected to the degree of exposure of the female body.Paula Stafford was an Australian fashion designer credited with introducing the bikini to Australia; in a famous incident in 1952, model Ann Ferguson was asked to leave a beach in Surfers Paradise because her Paula Stafford bikini was too revealing.", "The bikini was banned in Australia, on the French Atlantic coastline, in Spain, in Italy, and in Portugal, and was prohibited or discouraged in a number of US states.", "The United States Motion Picture Production Code, also known as the Hays Code, enforced from 1934, allowed two-piece gowns but prohibited the display of navels in Hollywood films.", "The National Legion of Decency, a Roman Catholic body overseeing American media content, also pressured Hollywood and foreign film producers to keep bikinis from being featured in Hollywood movies.", "As late as 1959 one of the United States' largest swimsuit designers, Anne Cole of the Anne Cole brand, said, \"It's nothing more than a G-string.", "It's at the razor's edge of decency.\"", "The Hays Code was abandoned by the mid-1960s, and with it the prohibition of female navel exposure, as well as other restrictions.", "The influence of the National Legion of Decency also waned by the 1960s.=== Rise to popularity ===Increasingly common glamour shots of popular actresses and models on either side of the Atlantic played a large part in bringing the bikini into the mainstream.", "During the 1950s, Hollywood stars such as Ava Gardner, Rita Hayworth, Lana Turner, Elizabeth Taylor, Tina Louise, Marilyn Monroe, Esther Williams, and Betty Grable took advantage of the risqué publicity associated with the bikini by posing for photographs wearing them—pin-ups of Hayworth and Williams in costume were especially widely distributed in the United States.", "In 1950, Elvira Pagã walked at the Rio Carnival, Brazil in a golden bikini, starting the bikini tradition of the carnival.In Europe, 17-year-old Brigitte Bardot wore scanty bikinis (by contemporary standards) in the French film ''Manina, la fille sans voiles'' (\"Manina, the girl unveiled\").", "The promotion for the film, released in France in March 1953, drew more attention to Bardot's bikinis than to the film itself.", "By the time the film was released in the United States in 1958, it was re-titled ''Manina, the Girl in the Bikini''.", "Bardot was also photographed wearing a bikini on the beach during the 1957 Cannes Film Festival.", "Working with her husband and agent Roger Vadim, she garnered significant attention with photographs of her wearing a bikini on every beach in the south of France.Similar photographs were taken of Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren, among others.", "According to ''The Guardian'', Bardot's photographs in particular turned Saint-Tropez into the beachwear capital of the world, with Bardot identified as the original Cannes bathing beauty.", "Bardot's photography helped to enhance the public profile of the festival, and Cannes in turn played a crucial role in her career.Brian Hyland's novelty-song hit \"Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini\" became a ''Billboard'' No.", "1 hit during the summer of 1960: the song tells a story about a young girl who is too shy to wear her new bikini on the beach, thinking it too risqué.", "''Playboy'' first featured a bikini on its cover in 1962; the ''Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue'' debut two years later featured Babette March in a white bikini on the cover.", "This has been credited with making the bikini a legitimate piece of clothing.Ursula Andress, appearing as Honey Ryder in the 1962 British James Bond film, ''Dr.", "No'', wore a white bikini, which became known as the \"Dr. No bikini\".", "It became one of the most famous bikinis of all time and an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history.", "Andress said that she owed her career to that white bikini, remarking, \"This bikini made me into a success.", "As a result of starring in ''Dr.", "No'' as the first Bond girl, I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent.", "\"The bikini finally caught on, and in 1963, the movie ''Beach Party'', starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon, led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop-culture symbol, though Funicello was barred from wearing Réard's bikini unlike the other young females in the films.", "In 1965, a woman told ''Time'' that it was \"almost square\" not to wear a bikini; the magazine wrote two years later that \"65% of the young set had already gone over\".Raquel Welch's fur bikini in ''One Million Years B.C.''", "(1966) gave the world the most iconic bikini shot of all time and the poster image became an iconic moment in cinema history.", "Her deer skin bikini in ''One Million Years B.C.", "'', advertised as \"mankind's first bikini\", (1966) was later described as a \"definitive look of the 1960s\".", "Her role wearing the leather bikini made Welch a fashion icon and the photo of her in the bikini became a best-selling pinup poster.Stretch nylon bikini briefs and bras complemented the adolescent boutique fashions of the 1960s, allowing those to be minimal.", "DuPont introduced lycra (DuPont's name for spandex) in the same decade.", "Spandex expanded the range of novelty fabrics available to designers which meant suits could be made to fit like a second skin without heavy linings.", "\"The advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini,\" wrote Kelly Killoren Bensimon, a former model and author of ''The Bikini Book'', \"It didn't sag, it didn't bag, and it concealed and revealed.", "It wasn't so much like lingerie anymore.\"", "Increased reliance on stretch fabric led to simplified construction.", "This fabric allowed designers to create the string bikini, and allowed Rudi Gernreich to create the topless monokini.", "Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early '70s.=== Mass acceptance ===A woman wearing a modern bikini in a casual outdoor setting; this neon green swimsuit features a triangle top and thong bottomsRéard's company folded in 1988, four years after his death.", "Meanwhile, the bikini had become the most popular beachwear around the globe.", "According to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard, this was due to \"the power of women, and not the power of fashion\".", "By 1988 the bikini made up nearly 20% of swimsuit sales, more than any other model in the US, though one-piece suits made a comeback during the 1980s and early 1990s.", "In 1997, Miss Maryland Jamie Fox became the first contestant in 50 years to compete in a two-piece swimsuit at the Miss America Pageant.", "Actresses in action films like ''Blue Crush'' (2002) and ''Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle'' (2003) made the two-piece \"the millennial equivalent of the power suit\", according to Gina Bellafonte of ''The New York Times.", "''Women in bikinis at the Hietaniemi Beach in Helsinki, Finland, in 2014|left|212x212pxAccording to Beth Dincuff Charleston, research associate at the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, \"The bikini represents a social leap involving body consciousness, moral concerns, and sexual attitudes.\"", "By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a $811 million business annually, according to the NPD Group, a consumer and retail information company, and had boosted spin-off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning industries.", "The first bikini museum in the world is being built in Bad Rappenau in Germany.", "The development of swimwear from 1880 to the present is presented on 2,000 square metres of exhibition space.By 2017, the global swimwear market was valued at US$18,5 billion with a compound annual growth rate of 6.2%.", "Part of the increased consumption of bikinis and swimwears can be attributed to influencers who promote and endorse various brands around the year.", "Soccer player and best selling author Mo Isom describes it as, \"We're flooded with Instagram bikini pics.\"", "It was estimated in 2016 that in 2019 the USA would be the largest swimwear market (US$10 billion), followed by Europe (US$5 billion), Asia-Pacific (US$4 billion) and Middle East and Africa (about 1 billion).=== Outside the Western world ===The 1967 Bollywood film ''An Evening in Paris'' is mostly remembered because it featured actress Sharmila Tagore as the first Indian actress to wear a bikini on film.", "She also posed in a bikini for the glossy ''Filmfare'' magazine.", "The costume shocked a conservative Indian audience, but it also set in motion a trend carried forward by Zeenat Aman in ''Heera Panna'' (1973) and ''Qurbani'' (1980), Dimple Kapadia in ''Bobby'' (1973), and Parveen Babi in ''Yeh Nazdeekiyan'' (1982).", "Indonesian actress Nurnaningsih's bikini clad photos were widely distributed in early 1950s, though she was banned in Kalimantan.Indian women generally wear bikinis when they vacation abroad or in Goa without the family.", "But, despite the conservative ideas prevalent in India, bikinis also become more popular in summer when women, from Bollywood stars to the middle class, take up swimming, often in a public space.", "A lot of tankinis, shorts and single-piece swimsuits are sold in the summer, along with real bikinis and bandeaukinis.", "The maximum sales for bikinis happen in the winter, the honeymoon season.", "For more coverage, designers Shivan Bhatiya and Narresh Kukreja invented the bikini-saree popularised by TV anchor Mandira Bedi.By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the Chinese bikini industry became a serious international threat for the Brazilian bikini industry.", "Huludao, Liaoning, China set the world record for the largest bikini parade in 2012, with 1,085 participants and a photo shoot involving 3,090 women.", "\"Beijing Bikini\" refers to the Chinese urban practice of men rolling up their shirts to expose their midriff to cool off in public in the summer.", "In Japan, wearing a bikini is common on the beach and at baths or pools.", "But, according to a 2013 study, 94% women are not body confident enough to wear a bikini in public without resorting to sarongs, zip-up sweatshirts, T-shirts, or shorts.", "Japanese women also often wear a \"facekini\" to protect their face from sunburns.In most parts of the Middle East, bikinis are either banned or are highly controversial.", "On March 18, 1973, when Lebanese magazine ''Ash-Shabaka'' printed a bikini-clad woman on the cover, they had to make a second version with only the face of the model.", "In 2011, when Huda Naccache (Miss Earth 2011) posed for the cover of ''Lilac'' (based in Israel), she became the first bikini-clad Arab model on the cover of an Arabic magazine.", "Lebanese-Australian fashion designer Aheda Zanetti created the \"burkini\" as a modest option to the bikini, which has become very popular among Muslims.", "Rehab Shaaban, an Egyptian designer, tried an even more abaya-like design, but her design was banned due to safety reasons." ], [ "Variants", "While the name \"bikini\" was at first applied only to beachwear that revealed the wearer's navel, today the fashion industry considers any two-piece swimsuit a bikini.", "Modern bikini fashions are characterized by a simple, brief design: two triangles of fabric that form a bra and cover the woman's breasts and a third that forms a panty cut below the navel that covers the groin and the intergluteal cleft.Bikinis can and have been made out of almost every possible clothing material, and the fabrics and other materials used to make bikinis are an essential element of their design.", "Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey, but in the 1960s, Lycra became the common material.", "Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early 1970s.In a single fashion show in 1985, there were two-piece suits with cropped tank tops instead of the usual skimpy bandeaux, suits that resembled bikinis from the front and one-pieces from the back, suspender straps, ruffles, and deep navel-baring cutouts.", "Metal and stone jewelry pieces are now often used to dress up look and style according to tastes.", "To meet the fast pace of demands, some manufacturers now offer made-to-order bikinis ready in as few as seven minutes.", "The world's most expensive bikini was designed in February 2006 by Susan Rosen; containing of diamond, it was valued at £20 million.=== Major styles ===There is a range of distinct bikini styles available — string/tie-side bikinis, monokinis (topless or top and bottom connected), trikinis (three pieces instead of two), tankinis (tank top, bikini bottom), camikinis (camisole top, bikini bottom), bandeaukinis (bandeau top, bikini bottom), skirtinis (bikini top, skirt bottom), microkinis, sling bikinis (or suspender bikinis), thong and g-string bikinis, and teardrop bikinis.", "Variant Image Year Description '''Bandeaukini''' 168x168px A '''bandeaukini''' (alternatively called a '''bandini''') is a bandeau top (no straps going over the shoulders) worn with any bikini bottom.", "It is the oldest form of bikini, with one of the earliest examples found in Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale (dubbed the \"Bikini Girls\"), dating back to the 4th century AD.", "Reintroduced, its appeal grew fast among young women, with bandeau tops edging into the sales of the classic tankini.", "'''Microkini''' 149x149px 1995 A '''microkini''', also known as a '''micro bikini''', is an exceptionally meager bikini.", "The designs for both women and men typically use only enough fabric to cover the genitals and, for women, the nipples.", "Some variations of the microkini use adhesive or wire to hold the fabric in place over the genitals.", "Microkinis keep the wearer just within legal limits of decency and fill a niche between nudism and conservative swimwear.", "They are often accepted in Western cultures, including in Europe and the United States; however, they are considered inappropriate in more conservative nations and/or in family settings.", "'''Monokini''' 150x150px 1964 A '''monokini''' (also called '''topless swimsuit''', '''unikini''' or '''numokini''') is a women's one-piece garment equivalent to the lower half of a bikini.", "The design was originally conceived by Rudi Gernreich in 1964.An extreme version of the monokini, the thong-style '''pubikini''' (which exposed the pubic region), was also designed by Gernreich in 1985.Today, monokinis usually refer to swimsuits in which the top and bottom are connected but provide coverage of the breasts as to be accepted in most western cultures.", "'''Skirtini''' 160px The '''skirtini''', which features a bikini top and a small, skirted bottom, is also an innovation for bikini-style clothes with more coverage.", "Two-piece swimsuits with skirt panels were popular in the US before the government ordered a 10% reduction in fabric used in woman's swimwear in 1943 as wartime rationing.", "In 2011, ''The Daily Telegraph'' identified the skirted bikini as one of the top 10 swimwear designs of that season.", "'''Sling bikini''' 158x158px The '''sling bikini''' (also known as '''sling-kini''', '''onepiecekini''' or '''sling swimsuit''') is an unbroken suit, technically one-piece, which resembles a bikini bottom with the side straps extending upwards to cover the breasts and go over the shoulders, or encircling the neck while a second set of straps pass around the midriff (also known as '''pretzel bikini''' or ''pretzel swimsuit'').", "Sling swimsuits emerged in the early 1990s, and were introduced into the mainstream in 1994.When designed for or worn by a man, it is called a '''mankini''', popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen in the film ''Borat''.", "'''String bikini''' 145x145px 1974 A '''string bikini''' (or a '''tie-side bikini''') gets its name from its design that consists of two triangular shaped pieces connected at the groin but not at the sides, where a thin \"string\" wraps around the waist tied together to connect the two parts.", "The structure of the side tie bottom leaves the hips bare.", "The first formal presentation of string bikini was done by fashion model Brandi Perret-DuJon, for the opening of Le Petite Centre, a shopping area in the French Quarter of the New Orleans, Louisiana in 1974.String bikinis are one of the most popular variations of bikini.", "'''Tankini''' 100px 1998 The '''tankini''' is a swimsuit combining a tank top and a bikini bottom.", "Tankinis can be made of spandex-and-cotton or Lycra-and-nylon.", "Designer Anne Cole, the US swimwear mogul, was the originator of this style in 1998.A variation is named '''camkini''', with spaghetti straps instead of tank-shaped straps over a bikini bottom.", "'''Trikini''' 100px 1967 The '''trikini''' appeared briefly in 1967, defined as \"a handkerchief and two small saucers.\"", "It reappeared in the 1990s as a bikini bottom with a stringed halter of two triangular pieces covering the breasts, and in the 2000s as a costume of three separate pieces.", "The trikini top comes essentially in two separate parts.", "The name of this woman's bathing suit is formed from the word \"bikini\", replacing \"bi-\", meaning \"two\", with \"tri-\", meaning \"three\".", "In a variation the three pieces are sold as part of one continuous garment." ], [ "In sport", "Bikinis have become a major component of marketing various women's sports.", "It is an official uniform for beach volleyball and is widely worn in athletics and other sports.", "Sports bikinis have gained popularity since the 1990s.", "However, the trend has raised significant criticism in recent years among people who view it as an attempt to sell sex.", "Female swimmers do not commonly wear bikinis in competitive swimming.", "The International Swimming Federation (FINA) voted to prohibit female swimmers from racing in bikinis in its meeting at Rome in 1960.=== Beach volleyball ===US women's beach volleyball team has cited several advantages to bikini uniforms, such as comfort while playing on sand during hot weather.", "Photo shows US beach volleyball players Jennifer Fopma and Brooke Sweat in their uniforms.In 1994, the bikini became the official uniform of women's Olympic beach volleyball.", "In 1999, the International Volleyball Federation (FIVB) standardized beach volleyball uniforms, with the bikini becoming the required uniform for women.", "That regulation bottom is called a \"bun-hugger\", and players names are often written on the back of the bottom.The uniform made its Olympic debut at Bondi Beach, Sydney during the 2000 Summer Olympics amid some criticism.", "It was the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the 2000 Games.", "Much of the interest was because of the sex appeal of bikini-clad players along with their athletic ability.", "Bikini-clad dancers and cheerleaders entertain the audience during match breaks in many beach volleyball tournaments, including the Olympics.", "Even indoor volleyball costumes followed suit to become smaller and tighter.However, the FIVB's mandating of the bikini ran into problems.", "Some sports officials consider it exploitative and impractical in colder weather.", "It also drew the ire of some athletes.", "At the 2006 Asian Games at Doha, Qatar, only one Muslim country – Iraq – fielded a team in the beach volleyball competition because of concerns that the uniform was inappropriate.", "They refused to wear bikinis.", "The weather during the evening games in 2012 London Olympics was so cold that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings.", "Earlier in 2012, FIVB had announced it would allow shorts (maximum length above the knee) and sleeved tops at the games.", "Richard Baker, the federation spokesperson, said that \"many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible\".The bikini remains preferred by most players and corporate sponsors.", "US women's team has cited several advantages of bikini uniforms, such as comfort while playing on sand during hot weather.", "Competitors Natalie Cook and Holly McPeak support the bikini as a practical uniform for a sport played on sand during the heat of summer.", "Olympic gold medal winner Kerry Walsh said, \"I love our uniforms.\"", "According to fellow gold medalist Misty May-Treanor and Walsh it does not restrict movement.One feminist viewpoint sees the bikini uniform as objectification of women athletes.", "US beach volleyball player Gabrielle Reece described the bikini bottoms as uncomfortable with constant \"yanking and fiddling.\"", "Many female beach volleyball players have sustained injuries by over-training the abdominal muscles while many others have gone through augmentation mammoplasty to look appealing in their uniforms.", "Australian competitor Nicole Sanderson said about match break entertainment that \"it's kind of disrespectful to the female players.", "I'm sure the male spectators love it, but I find it a little bit offensive.", "\"Sports journalism expert Kimberly Bissell conducted a study on the camera angles used during the 2004 Summer Olympics beach volleyball games.", "Bissell found that 20% of the camera angles were focused on the women's chests, and 17% on their buttocks.", "Bissell theorized that the appearance of the players draws fans attention more than their actual athleticism.Sports commentator Jeanne Moos commented, \"Beach volleyball has now joined go-go girl dancing as perhaps the only two professions where a bikini is the required uniform.\"", "British Olympian Denise Johns argues that the regulation uniform is intended to be \"sexy\" and to attract attention.", "Rubén Acosta, president of the FIVB, says that it makes the game more appealing to spectators.=== Bodybuilding ===From the 1950s to mid-1970s, men's bodybuilding contest formats were often supplemented with women's beauty contests or bikini shows.", "The winners earned titles like Miss Body Beautiful, Miss Physical Fitness and Miss Americana, and also presented trophies to the winners of the men's contest.", "In the 1980s, the Ms Olympia competition started in the US and in the UK the NABBA (National Amateur Body Building Association) renamed Miss Bikini International to Ms Universe.", "In 1986, the Ms Universe competition was divided into two sections – \"physique\" (for a more muscular physique) and \"figure\" (traditional feminine presentation in high heels).", "In November 2010 the IFBBF (International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness) introduced a women's bikini contest for women who do not wish to build their muscles to figure competition levels.Costumes are regulation \"posing trunks\" (bikini briefs) for both men and women.", "Female bodybuilders in America are prohibited from wearing thongs or T-back swimsuits in contests filmed for television, though they are allowed to do so by certain fitness organizations in closed events.", "For men, the dress code specifies \"swim trunks only (no shorts, cut-off pants, or Speedos).", "\"=== Other sports ===Women in athletics often wear bikinis of similar size as those worn in beach volleyball.", "Amy Acuff, a US high-jumper, wore a black leather bikini instead of a track suit at the 2000 Summer Olympics.", "Runner Florence Griffith-Joyner mixed bikini bottoms with one-legged tights at the 1988 Summer Olympics, earning her more attention than her record-breaking performance in the women's 200 meters event.", "In the 2007 South Pacific Games, the rules were adjusted to allow players to wear less revealing shorts and cropped sports tops instead of bikinis.", "At the 2006 Asian Games, organizers banned bikini-bottoms for female athletes and asked them to wear long shorts.String bikinis and other revealing clothes are common in surfing, though most surfing bikinis are more robust with more coverage than sunning bikinis.", "''Surfing Magazine'' printed a pictorial of Kymberly Herrin, ''Playboy'' Playmate March 1981, surfing in a revealing bikini, and eventually started an annual bikini issue.", "The Association of Surfing Professionals often pairs female surf meets with bikini contests, an issue that divides the female pro-surfing community into two parts.", "It has often been more profitable to win the bikini contest than the female surfing event." ], [ "Body ideals", "Six-time Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue cover model Elle Macpherson, nicknamed \"The Body\" by ''Time'', epitomized the bikini body ideal (''but note this is not an image of Elle McPherson, but seems to be a photo of one of her lingerie products'') In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole, owner of Cole of California, told ''Time'' that bikinis were designed for \"diminutive Gallic women\", as because \"French girls have short legs... swimsuits have to be hiked up at the sides to make their legs look longer.\"", "In 1961, ''The New York Times'' reported the opinion that the bikini is permissible for people who are not \"too fat or too thin\".", "In the 1960s etiquette writer Emily Post decreed that \"A bikini is for perfect figures only, and for the very young.\"", "In ''The Bikini Book'' by Kelly Killoren Bensimon, swimwear designer Norma Kamali says, \"Anyone with a tummy\" should not wear a bikini.", "Since then, a number of bikini designers including Malia Mills have encouraged women of all ages and body types to take up the style.", "The 1970s saw the rise of the lean ideal of female body and figures like Cheryl Tiegs.", "Her figure remained in vogue in the 21st century.The fitness boom of the 1980s led to one of the biggest leaps in the evolution of the bikini.", "According to Mills, \"The leg line became superhigh, the front was superlow, and the straps were superthin.\"", "Women's magazines used terms like \"Bikini Belly\", and workout programs were launched to develop a \"bikini-worthy body\".", "The tiny \"fitness-bikinis\" made of lycra were launched to cater to this hardbodied ideal.", "Movies like ''Blue Crush'' and TV reality shows like ''Surf Girls'' merged the concepts of bikini models and athletes together, further accentuating the toned body ideal.", "Motivated by yearly Spring Break festivities that mark the start of the bikini season in North America, many women diet in an attempt to achieve the ideal bikini body; some take this to extremes including self-starvation, leading to eating disorders.In 1993, Suzy Menkes, then Fashion Editor of the ''International Herald Tribune'', suggested that women had begun to \"revolt\" against the \"body ideal\" and bikini \"exposure.\"", "She wrote, \"Significantly, on the beaches as on the streets, some of the youngest and prettiest women (who were once the only ones who dared to bare) seem to have decided that exposure is over.\"", "Nevertheless, professional beach volleyball player Gabrielle Reece, who competes in a bikini, claims that \"confidence\" alone can make a bikini sexy.", "One survey commissioned by Diet Chef, a UK home delivery service, reported by ''The Today Show'' and ridiculed by ''More'' magazine, showed that women should stop wearing bikinis by the age of 47." ], [ "Bikini underwear", "Certain types of underwear are described as bikini underwear and are designed for men and women.", "For women, bikini or bikini-style underwear is underwear that is similar in size and form to a regular bikini.", "It can refer to virtually any undergarment that provides less coverage to the midriff than lingerie, panties or knickers, especially suited to clothing such as crop tops.", "For men, bikini briefs are underpants that resemble women's bikini bottoms, being smaller and more revealing than men's classic briefs.", "Men's bikini briefs can be low- or high-side that are usually lower than the true waist, often at hips, and usually have no access pouch or flap, nor leg bands at tops of thighs.", "String bikini briefs have front and rear sections that meet in the crotch but not at the waistband, with no fabric on the side of the legs.Swimwear and underwear have similar design considerations, both being form-fitting garments.", "The main difference is that, unlike underwear, swimwear is open to public view.", "The swimsuit was, and is, following underwear styles, and at about the same time that attitudes towards the bikini began to change, underwear underwent a redesign towards a minimal, unboned design that emphasized comfort first.=== History ===As the swimsuit was evolving, underwear also started to change.", "Between 1900 and 1940, swimsuit lengths followed the changes in underwear designs.", "In the 1920s women started discarding the corset, while the Cadole company of Paris started developing something they called the \"breast girdle\".", "During the Great Depression, panties and bras became softly constructed and were made of various elasticized yarns making underwear fit like a second skin.", "By the 1930s underwear styles for both women and men were influenced by the new brief models of swimwear from Europe.", "Although the waistband was still above the navel, the leg openings of the panty brief were cut in an arc to rise from the crotch to the hip joint.", "The brief served as a template for most variations of panties for the rest of the century.", "Warner standardized the concept of Cup size in 1935.The first underwire bra was developed in 1938.Beginning in the late thirties, , a type of men's briefs, were introduced, featuring very high-cut leg openings and a lower rise to the waistband.", "Howard Hughes designed a push-up bra to be worn by Jane Russell in ''The Outlaw'' in 1943, although Russell stated in interviews that she never wore the 'contraption'.", "In 1950 Maidenform introduced the first official bust enhancing bra.By the 1960s, the bikini swimsuit influenced panty styles and coincided with the cut of the new lower rise jeans and pants.", "In the seventies, with the emergence of skintight jeans, thong versions of the panty became mainstream, since the open, stringed back eliminated any tell-tale panty lines across the rear and hips.", "By the 1980s the design of the French-cut panty pushed the waistband back up to the natural waistline and the rise of the leg openings was nearly as high (French Cut panties come up to the waist, has a high cut leg, and usually are full in the rear).", "As with the bra and other type of lingerie, manufacturers of the last quarter of the century marketed panty styles that were designed primarily for their sexual allure.", "From this decade sexualization and eroticization of the male body was on the rise.", "The male body was celebrated through advertising campaigns for brands such as Calvin Klein, particularly by photographers Bruce Weber and Herb Ritts.", "Male bodies and men's undergarments were commodified and packaged for mass consumption, and swimwear and sportswear were influenced by sports photography and fitness.", "Over time, swimwear evolved from weighty wool to high-tech skin-tight garments, eventually cross-breeding with sportswear, underwear and exercise wear, resulting in the interchangeable fashions of the 1990s." ], [ "Men's bikini", "120x200pxMankiniThe term ''men's bikini'' is sometimes used to describe swim briefs.", "Men's bikinis can have high or low side panels, and string sides or tie sides.", "Most lack a button or flap front.", "Unlike swim briefs, bikinis are not designed for drag reduction and generally lack a visible waistband.", "Suits less than 1.5 inches wide at the hips are less common for sporting purposes and are most often worn for recreation, fashion, and sun tanning.", "The posing brief standard to bodybuilding competitions is an example of this style.", "Male punk rock musicians have performed on the stage wearing bikini briefs.", "The 2000 Bollywood film ''Hera Pheri'' shows men sunbathing in bikinis, who were mistakenly believed to be women from a distance.Male bikini tops also exist and are often used as visual gags.", "A ''mankini'' is a type of sling swimsuit worn by men.", "The term is inspired by the word bikini.", "It was popularized by English comedian Sacha Baron Cohen when he donned one for comic effect in the film ''Borat''." ], [ "Bikini waxing", "Bikini waxing is the epilation of pubic hair beyond the bikini line by use of waxing.", "The bikini line delineates the part of a woman's pubic area to be covered by the bottom part of a bikini, which means any pubic hair visible beyond the boundaries of a swimsuit.", "Visible pubic hair is widely culturally disapproved, considered to be embarrassing, and often removed.As popularity of bikinis grew, the acceptability of pubic hair diminished.", "But, with certain styles of women's swimwear, pubic hair may become visible around the crotch area of a swimsuit.", "With the reduction in the size of swimsuits, especially since the advent of the bikini after 1945, the practice of bikini waxing has also become popular.", "The Brazilian style which became popular with the rise of thong bottoms.Depending on the style of bikini-bottom and the amount of skin visible outside the bikini, pubic hair may be styled into several styles: American waxing (removal of pubic hair from the sides, top of the thighs, and under the navel), French waxing (leaving only a vertical strip in front), or Brazilian waxing (removal of all hair in the pelvic area, particularly suitable for thong bottoms)." ], [ "Bikini tan", "Tan lines created by the wearing of a bikiniThe tan lines created by the wearing of a bikini while tanning are known as a bikini tan.", "These tan lines separate pale breasts, crotch, and buttocks from otherwise tanned skin.", "Prominent bikini tan lines were popular in the 1990s, and a spa in Brazil started offering perfect bikini tan lines using masking tapes in 2016.As bikini-style swimsuits leave most of the body exposed to potentially dangerous UV radiation, overexposure can cause sunburn, skin cancer, as well as other acute and chronic health effects on the skin, eyes, and immune system.", "As a result, medical organizations recommend that bikini wearers protect themselves from UV radiation by using broad-spectrum sunscreen, which has been shown to protect against sunburn, skin cancer, wrinkling and sagging skin.A 1969 innovation of tan-through swimwear uses fabric which is perforated with thousands of micro holes that are nearly invisible to the naked eye, but which let enough sunlight through to produce a line-free tan." ], [ "See also", "* Cultural views on the navel*Bikini in popular culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition—The Bikini* The California Swimsuit* Two-Piece Be With You: LIFE Celebrates the Bikini" ] ]

[ [ "Babur" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Babur''' (; ; 14 February 148326 December 1530; born '''Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad''') was the founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent.", "He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his father and mother respectively.", "He was also given the posthumous name of ''Firdaws Makani'' ('Dwelling in Paradise').Born in Andijan in the Fergana Valley (now in Uzbekistan), Babur was the eldest son of Umar Shaikh Mirza II (1456–1494, governor of Fergana from 1469 to 1494) and a great-great-great-grandson of Timur (1336–1405).", "Babur ascended the throne of Fergana in its capital Akhsikath in 1494 at the age of twelve and faced rebellion.", "He conquered Samarkand two years later, only to lose Fergana soon after.", "In his attempt to reconquer Fergana, he lost control of Samarkand.", "In 1501, his attempt to recapture both the regions failed when the Uzbek prince Muhammad Shaybani defeated him and founded the Khanate of Bukhara.In 1504, he conquered Kabul, which was under the putative rule of Abdur Razaq Mirza, the infant heir of Ulugh Beg II.", "Babur formed a partnership with the Safavid emperor Ismail I and reconquered parts of Turkestan, including Samarkand, only to again lose it and the other newly conquered lands to the Shaybanids.After losing Samarkand for the third time, Babur turned his attention to India and employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman empires.", "He defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and founded the Mughal Empire.", "Before the defeat of Lodi at Delhi, the Sultanate of Delhi had been a spent force, long in a state of decline.The rival adjacent Kingdom of Mewar under the rule of Rana Sanga had aspirations of becoming the major power in North India.Sanga unified several Rajput clans for the first time after Prithviraj Chauhan and advanced on Babur with a grand coalition of 100,000 Rajputs, engaging Babur in the Battle of Khanwa.", "Babur arrived at Kanwah with less than 10,000 soldiers.", "Nonetheless, Sanga suffered a major defeat due to Babur's skilful troop positioning and use of gunpowder, specifically matchlocks and small cannons.The Battle of Khanwa was one of the most decisive battles in Indian history, more so than the First Battle of Panipat, as the defeat of Rana Sanga was a watershed event in the Mughal conquest of North India.Religiously, Babur started his life as a staunch Sunni Muslim, but he underwent significant evolution.", "Babur became more tolerant as he conquered new territories and grew older, allowing other religions to peacefully coexist in his empire and at his court.", "He also displayed a certain attraction to theology, poetry, geography, history, and biology—disciplines he promoted at his court—earning him a frequent association with representatives of the Timurid Renaissance.", "His religious and philosophical stances are characterized as humanistic.Babur married several times.", "Notable among his children are Humayun, Kamran Mirza, Hindal Mirza, Masuma Sultan Begum, and the author Gulbadan Begum.Babur died in 1530 in Agra and Humayun succeeded him.", "Babur was first buried in Agra but, as per his wishes, his remains were moved to Kabul and reburied.", "He ranks as a national hero in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.", "Many of his poems have become popular folk songs.", "He wrote the ''Baburnama'' in Chaghatai Turkic; it was translated into Persian during the reign (1556–1605) of his grandson, the emperor Akbar." ], [ "Name", "''Ẓahīr-ud-Dīn'' is Arabic for \"Defender of the Faith\" (of Islam), and ''Muhammad'' honours the Islamic prophet.", "The name was chosen for Babur by the Sufi saint Khwaja Ahrar, who was the spiritual master of his father.", "The difficulty of pronouncing the name for his Central Asian Turco-Mongol army may have been responsible for the greater popularity of his nickname Babur, also variously spelled '''Baber''', '''Babar''', and '''Bābor'''.", "The name is generally taken in reference to the Persian word ''babur'' (), meaning \"tiger\" or \"panther\".", "The word repeatedly appears in Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh'' and was borrowed into the Turkic languages of Central Asia." ], [ "Background", "Babur Family Tree17th-century portrait of BaburBabur's memoirs form the main source for details of his life.", "They are known as the ''Baburnama'' and were written in Chagatai, his first language, though, according to Dale, \"his Turkic prose is highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology or word formation and vocabulary.\"", "''Baburnama'' was translated into Persian during the rule of Babur's grandson Akbar.Babur was born on 14 February 1483 in the city of Andijan, Fergana Valley, contemporary Uzbekistan.", "He was the eldest son of Umar Shaikh Mirza II, ruler of the Fergana Valley, the son of Abū Saʿīd Mirza (and grandson of Miran Shah, who was himself son of Timur) and his wife Qutlugh Nigar Khanum, daughter of Yunus Khan, the ruler of Moghulistan (a descendant of Genghis Khan).Babur hailed from the Barlas tribe, which was of Mongol origin and had embraced the Turco-Persian tradition They had also converted to Islam centuries earlier and resided in Turkestan and Khorasan.Aside from the Chaghatai language, Babur was equally fluent in Classical Persian, the lingua franca of the Timurid elite.Some of Babur's relatives, such as his uncles Mahmud Khan (Moghul Khan) and Ahmad Khan, continued to identify as Mongols, and allowed him to use their Mongol troops to help recover his fortunes in the turbulent years that followed.Hence, Babur, though nominally a Mongol (or ''Moghul'' in Persian language), drew much of his support from the local Turkic and Iranian people of Central Asia, and his army was diverse in its ethnic makeup.", "It included Sarts, Tajiks, ethnic Afghans, Arabs, as well as Barlas and Chaghatayid Turko-Mongols from Central Asia." ], [ "Ruler of Central Asia", "=== As ruler of Fergana ===In 1494, eleven-year-old Babur became the ruler of Fergana, in present-day Uzbekistan, after Umar Sheikh Mirza died \"while tending pigeons in an ill-constructed dovecote that toppled into the ravine below the palace\".", "During this time, two of his uncles from the neighbouring kingdoms, who were hostile to his father, and a group of nobles who wanted his younger brother Jahangir to be the ruler, threatened his succession to the throne.", "His uncles were relentless in their attempts to dislodge him from this position as well as from many of his other territorial possessions to come.", "Babur was able to secure his throne mainly because of help from his maternal grandmother, Aisan Daulat Begum, although there was also some luck involved.Most territories around his kingdom were ruled by his relatives, who were descendants of either Timur or Genghis Khan, and were constantly in conflict.", "At that time, rival princes were fighting over the city of Samarkand to the west, which was ruled by his paternal cousin.", "Babur had a great ambition to capture the city.", "In 1497, he besieged Samarkand for seven months before eventually gaining control over it.", "He was fifteen years old and for him the campaign was a huge achievement.", "Babur was able to hold the city despite desertions in his army, but he later fell seriously ill.", "Meanwhile, a rebellion back home, approximately away, amongst nobles who favoured his brother, robbed him of Fergana.", "As he was marching to recover it, he lost Samarkand to a rival prince, leaving him with neither.", "He had held Samarkand for 100 days, and he considered this defeat as his biggest loss, obsessing over it even later in his life after his conquests in India.For three years, Babur concentrated on building a strong army, recruiting widely amongst the Tajiks of Badakhshan in particular.", "In 1500–1501, he again laid siege to Samarkand, and indeed he took the city briefly, but he was in turn besieged by his most formidable rival, Muhammad Shaybani, Khan of the Uzbeks.", "The situation became such that Babar was compelled to give his sister, Khanzada, to Shaybani in marriage as part of the peace settlement.", "Only after this were Babur and his troops allowed to depart the city in safety.", "Samarkand, his lifelong obsession, was thus lost again.", "He then tried to reclaim Fergana, but lost the battle there also and, escaping with a small band of followers, he wandered the mountains of central Asia and took refuge with hill tribes.", "By 1502, he had resigned all hopes of recovering Fergana; he was left with nothing and was forced to try his luck elsewhere.", "He finally went to Tashkent, which was ruled by his maternal uncle, but he found himself less than welcome there.", "Babur wrote, \"During my stay in Tashkent, I endured much poverty and humiliation.", "No country, or hope of one!\"", "Thus, during the ten years since becoming the ruler of Fergana, Babur suffered many short-lived victories and was without shelter and in exile, aided by friends and peasants.=== At Kabul ===Coin minted by Babur during his time as ruler of Kabul.", "Dated 1507/8Kabul was ruled by Babur's paternal uncle Ulugh Beg II, who died leaving only an infant as heir.", "The city was then claimed by Mukin Begh, who was considered to be a usurper and was opposed by the local populace.", "In 1504, Babur was able to cross the snowy Hindu Kush mountains and capture Kabul from the remaining Arghunids, who were forced to retreat to Kandahar.", "With this move, he gained a new kingdom, re-established his fortunes and would remain its ruler until 1526.In 1505, because of the low revenue generated by his new mountain kingdom, Babur began his first expedition to India; in his memoirs, he wrote, \"My desire for Hindustan had been constant.", "It was in the month of Shaban, the Sun being in Aquarius, that we rode out of Kabul for Hindustan\".", "It was a brief raid across the Khyber Pass.Babur leaves for Hindustan from KabulIn the same year, Babur united with Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqarah of Herat, a fellow Timurid and distant relative, against their common enemy, the Uzbek Shaybani.", "However, this venture did not take place because Husayn Mirza died in 1506 and his two sons were reluctant to go to war.", "Babur instead stayed at Herat after being invited by the two Mirza brothers.", "It was then the cultural capital of the eastern Muslim world.", "Though he was disgusted by the vices and luxuries of the city, he marvelled at the intellectual abundance there, which he stated was \"filled with learned and matched men\".", "He became acquainted with the work of the Chagatai poet Mir Ali Shir Nava'i, who encouraged the use of Chagatai as a literary language.", "Nava'i's proficiency with the language, which he is credited with founding, may have influenced Babur in his decision to use it for his memoirs.", "He spent two months there before being forced to leave because of diminishing resources; it later was overrun by Shaybani and the Mirzas fled.Babur became the only reigning ruler of the Timurid dynasty after the loss of Herat, and many princes sought refuge with him at Kabul because of Shaybani's invasion in the west.", "He thus assumed the title of ''Padshah'' (emperor) among the Timurids—though this title was insignificant since most of his ancestral lands were taken, Kabul itself was in danger and Shaybani continued to be a threat.", "Babur prevailed during a potential rebellion in Kabul, but two years later a revolt among some of his leading generals drove him out of Kabul.", "Escaping with very few companions, Babur soon returned to the city, capturing Kabul again and regaining the allegiance of the rebels.", "Meanwhile, Shaybani was defeated and killed by Ismail I, Shah of Shia Safavid Persia, in 1510.Babur and the remaining Timurids used this opportunity to reconquer their ancestral territories.", "Over the following few years, Babur and Shah Ismail formed a partnership in an attempt to take over parts of Central Asia.", "In return for Ismail's assistance, Babur permitted the Safavids to act as a suzerain over him and his followers.", "Thus, in 1513, after leaving his brother Nasir Mirza to rule Kabul, he managed to take Samarkand for the third time; he also took Bokhara but lost both again to the Uzbeks.", "Shah Ismail reunited Babur with his sister Khānzāda, who had been imprisoned by and forced to marry the recently deceased Shaybani.", "Babur returned to Kabul after three years in 1514.The following 11 years of his rule mainly involved dealing with relatively insignificant rebellions from Afghan tribes, his nobles and relatives, in addition to conducting raids across the eastern mountains.", "Babur began to modernise and train his army despite it being, for him, relatively peaceful times." ], [ "Foreign relations", "The meeting between Babur and Sultan Ali Mirza near SamarkandDetermined to conquer the Uzbeks and recapture his ancestral homeland, Babur was wary of their allies the Ottomans, and made no attempt to establish formal diplomatic relations with them.", "He did, however, employ the matchlock commander Mustafa Rumi and several other Ottomans.", "From them, he adopted the tactic of using matchlocks and cannons in the field (rather than only in sieges), which gave him an important advantage in India." ], [ "Formation of the Mughal Empire", "Babur's coin, based on Bahlol Lodhi's standard, Qila Agra, AH 936|170x170pxBabur still wanted to escape from the Uzbeks, and he chose India as a refuge instead of Badakhshan, which was to the north of Kabul.", "He wrote, \"In the presence of such power and potency, we had to think of some place for ourselves and, at this crisis and in the crack of time there was, put a wider space between us and the strong foeman.\"", "After his third loss of Samarkand, Babur gave full attention to the conquest of North India, launching a campaign; he reached the Chenab River, now in Pakistan, in 1519.Until 1524, his aim was to only expand his rule to Punjab, mainly to fulfill the legacy of his ancestor Timur, since it used to be part of his empire.", "At the time parts of North India were part of the Delhi Sultanate, ruled by Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the sultanate was crumbling and there were many defectors.", "Babur received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab and Ala-ud-Din, uncle of Ibrahim.", "He sent an ambassador to Ibrahim, claiming himself the rightful heir to the throne, but the ambassador was detained at Lahore, Punjab, and released months later.Babur at Mughal Dastarkhan in 1507 in a painting from Babur started for Lahore in 1524 but found that Daulat Khan Lodi had been driven out by forces sent by Ibrahim Lodi.", "When Babur arrived at Lahore, the Lodi army marched out and his army was routed.", "In response, Babur burned Lahore for two days, then marched to Dibalpur, placing Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of Lodi, as governor.", "Alam Khan was quickly overthrown and fled to Kabul.", "In response, Babur supplied Alam Khan with troops who later joined up with Daulat Khan Lodi, and together with about 30,000 troops, they besieged Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi.", "The sultan easily defeated and drove off Alam's army, and Babur realised that he would not allow him to occupy the Punjab.=== First battle of Panipat ===Mughal artillery and troops in action during the Battle of Panipat (1526)In November 1525 Babur got news at Peshawar that Daulat Khan Lodi had switched sides, and Babur drove out Ala-ud-Din.", "Babur then marched onto Lahore to confront Daulat Khan Lodi, only to see Daulat's army melt away at their approach.", "Daulat surrendered and was pardoned.", "Thus within three weeks of crossing the Indus River Babur had become the master of Punjab.Babur marched on to Delhi via Sirhind.", "He reached Panipat on 20 April 1526 and there met Ibrahim Lodi's numerically superior army of about 100,000 soldiers and 100 elephants.", "In the battle that began on the following day, Babur used the tactic of ''Tulugma'', encircling Ibrahim Lodi's army and forcing it to face artillery fire directly, as well as frightening its war elephants.", "Ibrahim Lodi died during the battle, thus ending the Lodi dynasty.Babur wrote in his memoirs about his victory:After the battle, Babur occupied Delhi and Agra, took the throne of Lodi, and laid the foundation for the eventual rise of Mughal rule in India.", "However, before he became North India's ruler, he had to fend off challengers, such as Rana Sanga.Many of Babur's men allegedly wanted to leave India due to its warm climate, but Babur motivated them to stay and expand his empire.=== Battle of Khanwa ===Urvah valley in Gwalior in 1527.He ordered them to be destroyedThe Battle of Khanwa was fought between Babur and the Rajput ruler of Mewar, Rana Sanga on 16 March 1527.Rana Sanga wanted to overthrow Babur, whom he considered to be a foreigner ruling in India, and also to extend the Rajput territories by annexing Delhi and Agra.", "He was supported by Afghan chiefs who felt Babur had been deceptive by refusing to fulfil promises made to them.", "Upon receiving news of Rana Sangha's advance towards Agra, Babur took a defensive position at Khanwa (currently in the Indian state of Rajasthan), from where he hoped to launch a counterattack later.", "According to K.V.", "Krishna Rao, Babur won the battle because of his \"superior generalship\" and modern tactics; the battle was one of the first in India that featured cannons and muskets.", "Rao also notes that Rana Sanga faced \"treachery\" when the Hindu chief Silhadi joined Babur's army with a garrison of 6,000 soldiers.Babur recognised Sanga's skill in leadership, calling him one of the two greatest non-Muslim Indian kings of the time, the other being Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara.=== Battle of Chanderi ===The Battle of Chanderi took place the year after the Battle of Khanwa.", "On receiving news that Rana Sanga had made preparations to renew the conflict with him, Babur decided to isolate the Rana by defeating one of his staunchest allies, Medini Rai, who was the ruler of Malwa.Upon reaching Chanderi, on 20 January 1528, Babur offered Shamsabad to Medini Rao in exchange for Chanderi as a peace overture, but the offer was rejected.", "The outer fortress of Chanderi was taken by Babur's army at night, and the next morning the upper fort was captured.", "Babur himself expressed surprise that the upper fort had fallen within an hour of the final assault.", "Seeing no hope of victory, Medini Rai organized a ''jauhar'', during which women and children within the fortress immolated themselves.", "A small number of soldiers also collected in Medini Rao's house and killed each other in collective suicide.", "This sacrifice does not seem to have impressed Babur, who did not express a word of admiration for the enemy in his autobiography." ], [ "Religious policy", "Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan of the Lodi dynasty, in 1526.Babur ruled for 4 years and was succeeded by his son Humayun whose reign was temporarily usurped by the Suri dynasty.", "During their 30-year rule, religious violence continued in India.", "Records of the violence and trauma, from Sikh-Muslim perspective, include those recorded in Sikh literature of the 16th century.", "The violence of Babur in the 1520s was witnessed by Guru Nanak, who commented upon it in four hymns.", "Historians suggest the early Mughal period of religious violence contributed to introspection and then the transformation in Sikhism from pacifism to militancy for self-defense.", "According to Babur's autobiography, ''Baburnama'', his campaign in northwest India targeted Hindus and Sikhs as well as apostates (non-Sunni sects of Islam), and an immense number were killed, with Muslim camps building \"towers of skulls of the infidels\" on hillocks." ], [ "Personal life and relationships", "There are no descriptions about Babur's physical appearance, except from the paintings in the translation of the ''Baburnama'' prepared during the reign of Akbar.", "In his autobiography, Babur claimed to be strong and physically fit, and that he had swum across every major river he encountered, including twice across the Ganges River in North India.Babur did not initially know Old Hindi; however, his Turkic poetry indicates that he picked up some of its vocabulary later in life.Unlike his father, he had ascetic tendencies and did not have any great interest in women.", "In his first marriage, he was \"bashful\" towards Aisha Sultan Begum, later losing his affection for her.", "Babur showed similar shyness in his interactions with Baburi, a boy in his camp with whom he had an infatuation around this time, recounting that: However, Babur acquired several more wives and concubines over the years, and as required for a prince, he was able to ensure the continuity of his line.Babur crossing the Indus RiverBabur's first wife, Aisha Sultan Begum, was his paternal cousin, the daughter of Sultan Ahmad Mirza, his father's brother.", "She was an infant when betrothed to Babur, who was himself five years old.", "They married eleven years later, .", "The couple had one daughter, Fakhr-un-Nissa, who died within a year in 1500.Three years later, after Babur's first defeat at Fergana, Aisha left him and returned to her father's household.", "In 1504, Babur married Zaynab Sultan Begum, who died childless within two years.", "In the period 1506–08, Babur married four women, Maham Begum (in 1506), Masuma Sultan Begum, Gulrukh Begum and Dildar Begum.", "Babur had four children by Maham Begum, of whom only one survived infancy.", "This was his eldest son and heir, Humayun.", "Masuma Sultan Begum died during childbirth; the year of her death is disputed (either 1508 or 1519).", "Gulrukh bore Babur two sons, Kamran and Askari, and Dildar Begum was the mother of Babur's youngest son, Hindal.", "Babur later married Mubaraka Yusufzai, a Pashtun woman of the Yusufzai tribe.", "Gulnar Aghacha and Nargul Aghacha were two Circassian slaves given to Babur as gifts by Tahmasp Shah Safavi, the Shah of Persia.", "They became \"recognized ladies of the royal household.", "\"During his rule in Kabul, when there was a time of relative peace, Babur pursued his interests in literature, art, music and gardening.", "Previously, he never drank alcohol and avoided it when he was in Herat.", "In Kabul, he first tasted it at the age of thirty.", "He then began to drink regularly, host wine parties and consume preparations made from opium.", "Though religion had a central place in his life, Babur also approvingly quoted a line of poetry by one of his contemporaries: \"I am drunk, officer.", "Punish me when I am sober\".", "He quit drinking for health reasons before the Battle of Khanwa, just two years before his death, and demanded that his court do the same.", "But he did not stop chewing narcotic preparations, and did not lose his sense of irony.", "He wrote, \"Everyone regrets drinking and swears an oath (of abstinence); I swore the oath and regret that.", "\"Babur was opposed to the blind obedience towards the Chinggisid laws and customs that were influential in Turco-Mongol society:\"Previously our ancestors had shown unusual respect for the Chingizid code ().", "They did not violate this code sitting and rising at councils and court, at feasts and dinners.", "However Chingez Khan’s code is not a ''nass qati'' (categorical text) that a person must follow.", "Whenever one leaves a good custom, it should be followed.", "If ancestors leave a bad custom, however it is necessary to substitute a good one.", "\"Making clear that to him, the categorical text (i.e.", "the Quran) had displaced Genghis Khan's ''Yassa'' in moral and legal matters." ], [ "Poetry", "Illustrations in the ''Baburnama'' regarding the fauna of India.Babur was an acclaimed writer, who had a profound love for literature.", "His library was one of his most beloved possessions that he always carried around with him, and books were one of the treasures he searched for in new conquered lands.", "In his memoirs, when he listed sovereigns and nobles of a conquered land, he also mentioned poets, musicians and other educated people.", "During his 47-year life, Babur left a rich literary and scientific heritage.", "He authored his famous memoir the Bāburnāma, as well as beautiful lyrical works or ''ghazals'', treatises on Muslim jurisprudence (Mubayyin), poetics (Aruz risolasi), music, and a special calligraphy, known as ''khatt-i Baburi''.Babur's Bāburnāma is a collection of memoirs, written in the Chagatai language and later translated into Persian, the usual literary language of the Mughal court, during the rule of emperor Akbar.", "However, Babur's Turkic prose in Bāburnāma is already highly Persianized in its sentence structure, vocabulary, and morphology, and also consists of several phrases and minor poems in Persian.Babur wrote most of his poems in Chagatai Turkic, known to him as ''Türki'', but he also composed in Persian.", "However, he was mostly praised for his literary works written in Turkic, which drew comparison with the poetry of Ali-Shir Nava'i.The following ruba'i is an example of Babur's poetry written in Turkic, composed in the aftermath of his famous victory in North India to celebrate his ghazi status.I am become a desert wanderer for Islam,Having joined battle with infidels and HindusI readied myself to become a martyr,God be thanked I am become a ghazi." ], [ "Family", "=== Consorts ===*Aisha Sultan Begum ( 1499; 1503), daughter of Sultan Ahmed Mirza — First wife of Babur*Zainab Sultan Begum ( 1504; 1506–07), daughter of Sultan Mahmud Mirza*Maham Begum ( 1506) — Babur's chief and favourite consort*Masuma Sultan Begum ( 1507; 1509), daughter of Sultan Ahmed Mirza and half-sister of Aisha Sultan Begum*Bibi Mubarika ( 1519), Pashtun of the Yusufzai tribe*Gulrukh Begum (not to be confused with Babur's daughter Gulrukh Begum, who was also known as Gulbarg Begum)*Dildar Begum*Gulnar Aghacha, Circassian concubine*Nargul Aghacha, Circassian concubineThe identity of the mother of one of Babur's daughters, Gulrukh Begum is disputed.", "Gulrukh's mother may have been the daughter of Sultan Mahmud Mirza by his wife Pasha Begum who is referred to as Saliha Sultan Begum in certain secondary sources, however this name is not mentioned in the Baburnama or the works of Gulbadan Begum, which casts doubt on her existence.", "This woman may never have existed at all or she may even be the same woman as Dildar Begum.=== Issue ===The sons of Babur were:*Humayun ( 1508; 1556) — with Maham Begum — succeeded Babur as the second Mughal Emperor*Kamran Mirza ( 1512; 1557) — with Gulrukh Begum*Askari Mirza ( 1518; 1557) — with Gulrukh Begum*Hindal Mirza ( 1519; 1551) — with Dildar Begum*Ahmad Mirza ( young) — with Gulrukh Begum*Shahrukh Mirza ( young) — with Gulrukh Begum*Barbul Mirza ( infancy) — with Maham Begum*Alwar Mirza ( young) — with Dildar Begum*Faruq Mirza ( infancy) — with Maham BegumThe daughters of Babur were:*Fakhr-un-Nissa Begum ( & 1501) — with Aisha Sultan Begum*Aisan Daulat Begum ( infancy) — with Maham Begum*Mehr Jahan Begum ( infancy) — with Maham Begum*Masuma Sultan Begum ( 1508) — with Masuma Sultan Begum — Married to Muhammad Zaman Mirza.", "*Gulzar Begum ( infancy) — with Gulrukh Begum*Gulrukh Begum (Gulbarg Begum) — Identity of mother is disputed, may have been Dildar Begum or Saliha Sultan Begum — Married to Nuruddin Muhammad Mirza, son of Khwaja Hasan Naqshbandi, with whom she had Salima Sultan Begum, wife of Bairam Khan and later the Mughal Emperor Akbar.", "*Gulbadan Begum ( – 1603) — with Dildar Begum — Married Khizr Khwaja Khan, son of her father's cousin Aiman Khwajah Sultan of Moghulistan, son of Ahmad Alaq of Moghulistan, the maternal uncle of Emperor Babur.", "*Gulchehra Begum ( – 1557) — with Dildar Begum — Married firstly in 1530 to Sultan Tukhta Bugha Khan, son of Ahmad Alaq of Moghulistan, the maternal uncle of Emperor Babur.", "Married secondly to Abbas Sultan Uzbeg.", "*Gulrang Begum — with Dildar Begum — Married in 1530 to Isan Timur Sultan, ninth son of Ahmad Alaq of Moghulistan, the maternal uncle of Emperor Babur." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Babur and his heir thumbBabur died in Agra at the age of 47 on and was succeeded by his eldest son, Humayun.", "He was first buried in Agra but, as per his wishes, his mortal remains were moved to Kabul and reburied in Bagh-e Babur in Kabul sometime between 1539 and 1544.Bobur Square, Andijan, Uzbekistan in 2012It is generally agreed that, as a Timurid, Babur was not only significantly influenced by the Persian culture, but also that his empire gave rise to the expansion of the Persianate ethos in the Indian subcontinent.", "He emerged in his own telling as a Timurid Renaissance inheritor, leaving signs of Islamic, artistic literary, and social aspects in India.For example, F. Lehmann states in the ''Encyclopædia Iranica'':Although all applications of modern Central Asian ethnicities to people of Babur's time are anachronistic, Soviet and Uzbek sources regard Babur as an ethnic Uzbek.", "At the same time, during the Soviet Union Uzbek scholars were censored for idealising and praising Babur and other historical figures such as Ali-Shir Nava'i.The tomb of the first Mughal Emperor Babur in 176x176pxBabur is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan.", "On 14 February 2008, stamps in his name were issued in the country to commemorate his 525th birth anniversary.", "Many of Babur's poems have become popular Uzbek folk songs, especially by Sherali Jo'rayev.", "Some sources claim that Babur is a national hero in Kyrgyzstan too.", "In October 2005, Pakistan developed the Babur Cruise Missile, named in his honour.", "''Shahenshah Babar'', an Indian film about the emperor directed by Wajahat Mirza was released in 1944.The 1960 Indian biographical film ''Babar'' by Hemen Gupta covered the emperor's life with Gajanan Jagirdar in the lead role.One of the enduring features of Babur's life was that he left behind the lively and well-written autobiography known as ''Baburnama''.", "Quoting Henry Beveridge, Stanley Lane-Poole writes:In his own words, \"The cream of my testimony is this, do nothing against your brothers even though they may deserve it.\"", "Also, \"The new year, the spring, the wine and the beloved are joyful.", "Babur make merry, for the world will not be there for you a second time.", "\"177x177px=== Babri Masjid ===The Babri Masjid (\"Babur's Mosque\") in Ayodhya is said to have been constructed on the orders of Mir Baqi, one of the commanders of his army.", "In 2003 the Allahabad High Court ordered the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a more in-depth study and an excavation to ascertain the type of structure beneath the mosque.", "The excavation was conducted from 12 March 2003 to 7 August 2003, resulting in 1360 discoveries.The summary of the ASI report indicated the presence of a 10th-century temple under the mosque.", "The ASI team said that, human activity at the site dates back to the 13th century BCE.", "The next few layers date back to the Shunga period (second-first century BCE) and the Kushan period.", "During the early medieval period (11–12th century CE), a huge but short-lived structure of nearly 50 metres north–south orientation was constructed.", "On the remains of this structure, another massive structure was constructed: this structure had at least three structural phases and three successive floors attached with it.", "The report concluded that it was over the top of this construction that the disputed structure was constructed during the early 16th century.", "Archaeologist KK Muhammed, the only Muslim member in the team of people surveying the excavation, also confirmed individually that there existed a temple like structure before the Babri Masjid was constructed over it.", "The Supreme Court judgement of 2019 granted the entire disputed land to the Hindus for construction of a temple, stating that Hindus continues to worship at the site and continued to hold the land outside the yard.", "It also held that there is nothing to prove that the structure, which was present before the construction of the mosque, was demolished for the purpose of building mosque or was already in ruins." ], [ "Citations", "=== References ===* * * * *" ], [ "Books", "* * Thackston Jr., W.M., ''The Baburnama,'' (New York) 2010.", "* * Gascoigne, Bamber ''The Great Moghuls'' (London) 1971.", "(''Last revised 1987'')* Gommans, Jos ''Mughal Warfare'' (London) 2002* Gordon, Stewart.", "''When Asia was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks who created the \"Riches of the East\"'' Da Capo Press, Perseus Books, 2008..* * Irvine, William ''The Army of the Indian Moghuls''.", "(London) 1902.", "(''Last revised 1985'')* Jackson, Peter ''The Delhi Sultanate.", "A Political and Military History'' (Cambridge) 1999* Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire'' (Cambridge) 1993* *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Bernard of Clairvaux" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bernard of Clairvaux''', O. Cist.", "(; 109020 August 1153), venerated as '''Saint Bernard''', was an abbot, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templar, and a major leader in the reformation of the Benedictine Order through the nascent Cistercian Order.He was sent to found Clairvaux Abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the ''Val d'Absinthe'', about southeast of Bar-sur-Aube.", "In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar, which soon became an ideal of Christian nobility.On the death of Pope Honorius II in 1130, a schism arose in the church.", "Bernard was a major proponent of Pope Innocent II, arguing effectively for his legitimacy over the Antipope Anacletus II.Bernard advocated crusades in general and convinced many to participate in the unsuccessful Second Crusade, notably through a famous sermon at Vézelay (1146).Bernard was canonized just 21 years after his death by Pope Alexander III.", "In 1830 Pope Pius VIII declared him a Doctor of the Church." ], [ "Early life (1090–1113)", "Bernard's parents were Tescelin de Fontaine, lord of Fontaine-lès-Dijon, and , both members of the highest nobility of Burgundy.", "Bernard was the third of seven children, six of whom were sons.", "Aged nine, he was sent to a school at Châtillon-sur-Seine run by the secular canons of Saint-Vorles.", "Bernard had an interest in literature and rhetoric.", "He had a special devotion to the Virgin Mary, and he later wrote several works about the Queen of Heaven.", "''The Vision of St Bernard'', by Fra Bartolommeo, (Uffizi)Bernard emphasized the value of a personally held faith, with the life of Christ as a model and new emphasis on the Virgin Mary.", "In opposition to the rational approach to divine understanding used by the scholastics, Bernard preached an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary.Bernard was nineteen years old when his mother died.", "During his youth, he did not escape trying temptations and around this time he thought of living a life of solitude and prayer.In 1098, a group led by Robert of Molesme had founded Cîteaux Abbey, near Dijon, with the purpose of living literally according to the Rule of St Benedict and thereby effectively creating a new order, known, after the abbey, as the Order of Cistercians.", "After his mother died, Bernard decided to go to Cîteaux.", "In 1113 he and thirty other young noblemen of Burgundy sought admission into the new monastery.", "Bernard's example was so convincing that scores followed him into the monastic life." ], [ "Abbot of Clairvaux (1115–28)", "Bernard exorcising a possession, altarpiece by Jörg Breu the Elder, Bernard holding a demon at his feet, oil on canvas by Marcello Baschenis, The little community of reformed Benedictines at Cîteaux grew rapidly.", "Three years after entering, Bernard was sent with a group of twelve monks to found a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, in the Diocese of Langres.", "This Bernard named ''Claire Vallée'', or ''Clairvaux'', on 25 June 1115, and the names of Bernard and Clairvaux soon became inseparable.", "During the absence of the Bishop of Langres, Bernard was blessed as abbot by William of Champeaux, Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne.", "From then on a strong friendship grew between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris and the founder of St. Victor Abbey in Paris.The beginnings of Clairvaux Abbey were austere; Bernard soon became ill.", "Nonetheless, candidates for the monastic life flocked to it in great numbers.", "Even his father and all his brothers entered Cîteaux, leaving only Humbeline, his sister, in the secular world.", "She, with the consent of her husband, later took the veil in the Benedictine nunnery of Jully-les-Nonnains.", "Gerard of Clairvaux, Bernard's older brother, became the cellarer of Cîteaux.", "Clairvaux soon started founding new communities.", "In 1118 Trois-Fontaines Abbey was founded in the diocese of Châlons; in 1119 Fontenay Abbey in the Diocese of Autun; and in 1121 Foigny Abbey near Vervins.In addition to successes, Bernard also had his trials.", "During an absence from Clairvaux, the Grand Prior of the Abbey of Cluny went to Clairvaux and enticed away Bernard's cousin, Robert of Châtillon.", "This was the occasion of the longest and most emotional of Bernard's letters.The abbey of Cluny as it would have looked in Bernard's timeThe monks of the powerful Benedictine abbey of Cluny were unhappy to see Cîteaux take the lead role among the monastic orders.", "They criticized the Cistercian way of life.", "At the solicitation of William of St.-Thierry, Bernard defended the Cistercians with his ''Apology''.", "Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, answered Bernard and assured him of his admiration and friendship.", "In the meantime, Cluny launched a reform and Abbot Suger, the minister of Louis VI of France, was converted by Bernard's ''Apology''." ], [ "Doctor of the Church", "Christ Embracing St. Bernard by Francisco RibaltaIn 1128, Bernard participated in the Council of Troyes, which had been convoked by Pope Honorius II, and was presided over by Cardinal Matthew of Albano.", "The purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of Paris, and regulate other matters of the Church of France.", "The bishops made Bernard secretary of the council, and charged him with drawing up the synodal statutes.", "After the council, the bishop of Verdun was deposed.", "It was at this council that Bernard composed a rule for the Knights Templar; it soon became an ideal of Christian nobility.", "Around this time, he praised them in his .===Schism===Bernard's influence was soon felt in provincial affairs.", "He defended the rights of the Church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henri Sanglier, archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, bishop of Paris.", "When Honorius II died in 1130, a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes, Pope Innocent II and Antipope Anacletus II.", "Innocent, having been banished from Rome by Anacletus, took refuge in France.", "King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Étampes and Bernard, summoned there by the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes.", "He decided in favour of Innocent.Bernard travelled on to Italy and reconciled Pisa with Genoa, and Milan with the pope.", "The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II.", "He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X, Duke of Aquitaine, from the cause of Anacletus.", "''Saint Bernard and the Duke of Aquitaine'', by Marten PepijnGermany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernard's.", "However, Innocent insisted on Bernard's company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor.", "Lothair II became Innocent's strongest ally among the nobility.", "Although the councils of Étampes, Würzburg, Clermont, and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus.In a letter by Bernard to German Emperor Lothair regarding Antipope Anacletus, Bernard wrote, \"It is a disgrace for Christ that a Jew sits on the throne of St. Peter's\" and \"Anacletus has not even a good reputation with his friends, while Innocent is illustrious beyond all doubt.", "\"Bernard wrote to Gerard of Angoulême (a letter known as Letter 126), which questioned Gerard's reasons for supporting Anacletus.", "Bernard later commented that Gerard was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism.", "After persuading Gerard, Bernard traveled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine.", "He was the hardest for Bernard to convince.", "He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135.After that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent.", "The conflict ended when Anacletus died in 1138.In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny the pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey.", "This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years.", "In May of that year, the pope, supported by the army of Lothair III, entered Rome, but Lothair III, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133.Bernard had returned to France in June and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130.Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism.", "Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre.", "At the Eucharist, he \"admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants\".", "William yielded and the schism ended.", "Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent.", "He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the pope as they had followed the deposed Anselm V, Archbishop of Milan.", "For this, he was offered, and he refused, the see of Milan.", "He then returned to Clairvaux.", "Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself to the composition of the works which won for him the title of \"Doctor of the Church\".", "He wrote at this time his sermons on the Song of Songs.", "In 1137, he was again forced to leave the abbey by order of the pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothair and Roger of Sicily.", "At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II.", "He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism.", "Anacletus died of \"grief and disappointment\" in 1138, and with him the schism ended.In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned.", "About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by Malachy, Primate of All Ireland, and a very close friendship formed between them.", "Malachy wanted to become a Cistercian, but the pope would not give his permission.", "Malachy died at Clairvaux in 1148.===Conflict with Abelard===Towards the close of the 11th century, a spirit of independence flourished within schools of philosophy and theology.", "The movement found an ardent and powerful advocate in Peter Abelard.", "Abelard's treatise on the Trinity had been condemned as heretical in 1121, and he was compelled to throw his own book into a fire.", "However, Abelard continued to develop his controversial teachings.", "Bernard is said to have held a meeting with Abelard intending to persuade him to amend his writings, during which Abelard repented and promised to do so.", "But once out of Bernard's presence, he reneged.", "Bernard then denounced Abelard to the pope and cardinals of the Curia.", "Abelard sought a debate with Bernard, but Bernard initially declined, saying he did not feel matters of such importance should be settled by logical analyses.", "Bernard's letters to William of St-Thierry also express his apprehension about confronting the preeminent logician.", "Abelard continued to press for a public debate, and made his challenge widely known, making it hard for Bernard to decline.", "In 1141, at the urgings of Abelard, the archbishop of Sens called a council of bishops, where Abelard and Bernard were to put their respective cases so Abelard would have a chance to clear his name.", "Bernard lobbied the prelates on the evening before the debate, swaying many of them to his view.", "The next day, after Bernard made his opening statement, Abelard decided to retire without attempting to answer.", "The council found in favour of Bernard and their judgment was confirmed by the pope.", "Abelard submitted without resistance, and he retired to Cluny to live under the protection of Peter the Venerable, where he died two years later.===Cistercian Order and heresy===Bernard had occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his overcrowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy.", "Some of these, at the command of Innocent II, took possession of Tre Fontane Abbey, from which Eugene III was chosen in 1145.Pope Innocent II died in the year 1143.His two successors, Pope Celestine II and Pope Lucius II, reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, and known thereafter as Eugene III, raised to the Chair of Saint Peter.", "Bernard sent him, at the pope's own request, various instructions which comprise the ''Book of Considerations,'' the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the Church ought to commence with the sanctity of the pope.", "Temporal matters are merely accessories; the principles according to Bernard's work were that piety and meditation were to precede action.Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy.", "Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, had adopted the teachings of the Petrobrusians, followers of Peter of Bruys and spread them in a modified form after Peter's death.", "Henry of Lausanne's followers became known as Henricians.", "In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard traveled in southern France.", "His preaching, aided by his ascetic looks and simple attire, helped doom the new sects.", "Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian faiths began to die out by the end of that year.", "Soon afterwards, Henry of Lausanne was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life.", "In a letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy.", "He also preached against Catharism." ], [ "Crusade preaching", "===Second Crusade (1146–49)===Saint Bernard preaching the second crusade in Vézelay in 1146.News came at this time from the Holy Land that alarmed Christendom.", "Christians had been defeated at the Siege of Edessa and most of the county had fallen into the hands of the Seljuk Turks.", "The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states were threatened with similar disaster.", "Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited aid from the pope, and the King of France also sent ambassadors.", "In 1144 Eugene III commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade.There was at first virtually no popular enthusiasm for the crusade as there had been in 1095.Bernard found it expedient to dwell upon taking the cross as a potent means of gaining absolution for sin and attaining grace.", "On 31 March, with King Louis VII of France present, he preached to an enormous crowd in a field at Vézelay, making \"the speech of his life\".", "The full text has not survived, but a contemporary account says that \"his voice rang out across the meadow like a celestial organ\"James Meeker Ludlow describes the scene romantically in his book ''The Age of the Crusades'':When Bernard was finished the crowd enlisted en masse; they supposedly ran out of cloth to make crosses.", "Bernard is said to have flung off his own robe and began tearing it into strips to make more.", "Others followed his example and he and his helpers were supposedly still producing crosses as night fell.Unlike the First Crusade, the new venture attracted royalty, such as Eleanor of Aquitaine, Queen of France; Thierry of Alsace, Count of Flanders; Henry, the future Count of Champagne; Louis's brother Robert I of Dreux; Alphonse I of Toulouse; William II of Nevers; William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey; Hugh VII of Lusignan, Yves II, Count of Soissons; and numerous other nobles and bishops.", "But an even greater show of support came from the common people.", "Bernard wrote to the pope a few days afterwards, \"Cities and castles are now empty.", "There is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still-living husbands.", "\"Bernard then passed into Germany, and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission.", "Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, received the cross from the hand of Bernard.", "Pope Eugenius came in person to France to encourage the enterprise.", "As in the First Crusade, the preaching led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Radulphe was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, and Speyer, with Radulphe claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land.", "The archbishop of Cologne and the archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks and asked Bernard to denounce them.", "This he did, but when the campaign continued, Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person.", "He then found Radulphe in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery.The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by the failure of the Second Crusade he had preached, the entire responsibility for which was thrown upon him.", "Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his ''\"Book of Considerations\".''", "There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures.=== Wendish Crusade (1147) ===Bernard preached the Wendish Crusade against Western Slavs, setting a goal to the crusade of battling them \"until such a time as, by God's help, they shall either be converted or deleted\"." ], [ "Final years (1149–53)", "Bernard receiving milk from the breast of the Virgin Mary.", "The scene is a legend which took place at Speyer Cathedral in 1146.The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Bernard of his own approaching end.", "The first to die was Suger in 1152, of whom Bernard wrote to Eugene III, \"If there is any precious vase adorning the palace of the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger\".", "Conrad III and his son Henry died the same year.", "Bernard died at age sixty-three on 20 August 1153, after forty years of monastic life.", "He was buried at Clairvaux Abbey, and after its dissolution in 1792 by the French revolutionary government his remains were transferred to Troyes Cathedral." ], [ "Theology", "Bernard was named a Doctor of the Church in 1830.At the 800th anniversary of his death, Pope Pius XII issued an encyclical about him, titled ''Doctor Mellifluus'', in which he labeled him \"The Last of the Fathers\".", "The central elements of Bernard's Mariology are how he explained the virginity of Mary, ''the \"Star of the Sea\"'', and her role as Mediatrix.The first abbot of Clairvaux developed a rich theology of sacred space and music, writing extensively on both.John Calvin and Martin Luther quoted Bernard several times in support of the doctrine of ''Sola Fide.''", "Calvin also quotes him in setting forth his doctrine of a forensic alien righteousness, or as it is commonly called imputed righteousness." ], [ "Spirituality", "Stained glass representing Bernard.", "Upper Rhine, Bernard was instrumental in re-emphasizing the importance of ''lectio divina'' and contemplation for monks.", "Bernard had observed that when ''lectio divina'' was neglected, monasticism suffered.", "Bernard \"noted centuries ago: the people who are their own spiritual directors have fools for disciples.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Bernard's theology and Mariology continue to be of major importance, particularly within the Cistercian and Trappist Orders.", "Bernard helped found 163 monasteries in different parts of Europe.", "His influence led Alexander III to launch reforms that led to the establishment of canon law.", "He was canonized by Alexander III 18 January 1174.He is labeled the \"Mellifluous Doctor\" for his eloquence.", "Cistercians honour him as one of the greatest early Cistercians.His feast day (observed in several denominations) is 20 August.Bernard is Dante Alighieri's last guide, in ''Divine Comedy'', as he travels through the Empyrean.", "Dante's choice appears to be based on Bernard's contemplative mysticism, his devotion to Mary, and his reputation for eloquence.The Couvent et Basilique Saint-Bernard, a collection of buildings dating from the 12th, 17th and 19th centuries, is dedicated to Bernard and stands in his birthplace of Fontaine-lès-Dijon.===Hymns===Bernard of Clairvaux is the attributed author of poems often translated in English hymnals as:* \"O Sacred Head, Now Wounded\"* \"Jesus the Very Thought of Thee\"* \"Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts\"" ], [ "Works", "An engraving of The Lactation of Saint Bernard.", "The Virgin Mary is shooting milk into the eye of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux from her right breast.The modern critical edition is '''' (1957–1977), edited by Jean Leclercq.Bernard's works include:** Written in the defence of the Cistercians against the claims of the monks of Cluny.**.", "**** Addressed to Pope Eugene III.", "* *''De moribus et officio episcoporum'' (in Latin).", "A letter to Henri Sanglier, Archbishop of Sens on the duties of bishops.His sermons are also numerous:* Most famous are his '''' (''Sermons on the Song of Songs'').", "Although it has at times been suggested that the sermon form is a rhetorical device in a set of works which were only ever designed to be read, since such finely polished and lengthy literary pieces could not accurately have been recorded by a monk while Bernard was preaching, recent scholarship has tended toward the theory that, although what exists in these texts was certainly the product of Bernard's writing, they likely found their origins in sermons preached to the monks of Clairvaux.", "Bernard began to write these in 1135 but died without completing the series, with 86 sermons complete.", "These sermons contain an autobiographical passage, sermon 26, mourning the death of his brother, Gerard.", "After Bernard died, the English Cistercian Gilbert of Hoyland continued Bernard's incomplete series of 86 sermons on the biblical Song of Songs.", "Gilbert wrote 47 sermons before he died in 1172, taking the series up to Chapter 5 of the Song of Songs.", "Another English Cistercian abbot, John of Ford, wrote another 120 sermons on the Song of Songs, so completing the Cistercian sermon-commentary on the book.", "* There are 125 surviving '''' (''Sermons on the Liturgical Year'').", "* There are also the '''' (''Sermons on Different Topics'').", "* 547 letters survive.", "Many letters, treatises, and other works, falsely attributed to him survive, and are now referred to as works by pseudo-Bernard.", "These include:** This was probably written at some point in the thirteenth century.", "It circulated extensively in the Middle Ages under Bernard's name and was one of the most popular religious works of the later Middle Ages.", "Its theme is self-knowledge as the beginning of wisdom; it begins with the phrase \"Many know much, but do not know themselves\".", "*===Translations===* ''On consideration'', trans by George Lewis, (Oxford, 1908) https://books.google.com/books?id=kkoJAQAAIAAJ* ''Select treatises of S. Bernard of Clairvaux: De diligendo Deo & De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae'', (Cambridge: CUP, 1926)* ''On loving God, and selections from sermons'', edited by Hugh Martin, (London: SCM Press, 1959) reprinted as (Westport, CO: Greenwood Press, 1981)* ''Cistercians and Cluniacs: St. Bernard's Apologia to Abbot William'', trans M Casey.", "Cistercian Fathers series no.", "1, (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 1970)* ''The works of Bernard of Clairvaux.", "Vol.1, Treatises, 1'', edited by M. Basil Pennington.", "Cistercian Fathers Series, no.", "1.", "(Spencer, Mass.", ": Cistercian Publications, 1970) contains the treatises ''Apologia to Abbot William'' and ''On Precept and Dispensation'', and two shorter liturgical treatises* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''On the Song of Songs'', 4 vols, Cistercian Fathers series nos 4, 7, 31, 40, (Spencer, MA: Cistercian Publications, 1971–80)* ''Letter of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux on revision of Cistercian chant = Epistola Sancti Bernardi de revisione cantus Cisterciensis'', edited and translated by Francis J. Guentner, (American Institute of Musicology, 1974)* ''Treatises II : The steps of humility and pride on loving God'', Cistercian Fathers series no.", "13, (Washington: Cistercian Publications, 1984)* ''Five books on consideration: advice to a Pope'', translated by John D. Anderson & Elizabeth T. Kennan.", "Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "37.", "(Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1976)* ''The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux.", "Volume Seven, Treatises III: On Grace and free choice.", "In praise of the new knighthood'', translated by Conrad Greenia.", "Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "19, (Kalamazoo, Michigan: Cistercian Publications Inc., 1977)* ''The life and death of Saint Malachy, the Irishman'' translated and annotated by Robert T. Meyer, (Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications, 1978)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''Homiliae in laudibus Virginis Matris'', in ''Magnificat: homilies in praise of the Blessed Virgin Mary'' translated by Marie-Bernard Saïd and Grace Perigo, Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "18, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1979)* ''Sermons on Conversion: on conversion, a sermon to clerics and Lenten sermons on the psalm \"He Who Dwells\".", "'', Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "25, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1981)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''Song of Solomon'', translated by Samuel J. Eales, (Minneapolis, MN: Klock & Klock, 1984)* ''St.", "Bernard's sermons on the Blessed Virgin Mary,'' translated from the original Latin by a priest of Mount Melleray, (Chumleigh: Augustine, 1984)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''The twelve steps of humility and pride; and, On loving God'', edited by Halcyon C. Backhouse, (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985)* ''St.", "Bernard's sermons on the Nativity'', translated from the original Latin by a priest of Mount Melleray, (Devon: Augustine, 1985)* ''Bernard of Clairvaux : selected works'', translation and foreword by G.R.", "Evans; introduction by Jean Leclercq; preface by Ewert H. Cousins, (New York: Paulist Press, 1987) Contains the treatises ''On conversion, On the steps of humility and pride, On consideration'', and ''On loving God''; extracts from ''Sermons on The song of songs'', and a selection of letters* Conrad Rudolph, ''The 'Things of Greater Importance': Bernard of Clairvaux's Apologia and the Medieval Attitude Toward Art'', (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990) Includes the ''Apologia'' in both Leclercq's Latin text and English translation* ''Love without measure: extracts from the writings of St Bernard of Clairvaux'', introduced and arranged by Paul Diemer, Cistercian studies series no.", "127, (Kalamazoo, Mich. : Cistercian Publications, 1990)* ''Sermons for the summer season: liturgical sermons from Rogationtide and Pentecost'', translated by Beverly Mayne Kienzle; additional translations by James Jarzembowski, (Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications, 1991)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''On loving God'', Cistercian Fathers series no.", "13B, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''The parables & the sentences'', edited by Maureen M. O'Brien.", "Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "55, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2000)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''On baptism and the office of bishops, on the conduct and office of bishops, on baptism and other questions: two letter-treatises'', translated by Pauline Matarasso.", "Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "67, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2004)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''Sermons for Advent and the Christmas season'' translated by Irene Edmonds, Wendy Mary Beckett, Conrad Greenia; edited by John Leinenweber; introduction by Wim Verbaal.", "Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "51, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2007)* Bernard of Clairvaux, ''Sermons for Lent and the Easter Season'', edited by John Leinenweber and Mark Scott, OCSO.", "Cistercian Fathers Series no.", "52, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2013)" ], [ "See also", "* List of Catholic saints* List of Latin nicknames of the Middle Ages: Doctors in theology* Scholasticism* St. Bernard de Clairvaux Church* Prayer to the shoulder wound of Jesus* Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, patron saint archive* Pope Eugene III" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===*** Pierre Aubé: Saint Bernard de Clairvaux, Paris, éd.", "Fayard, 2003, 812 pages.", "*** 6 tomes in 4 volumes.", "*** * ** *** *** * ****** * Adapted from ** * * **" ], [ "External links", "* * * * \"St. Bernard, Abbot\", ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''* ''Opera omnia Sancti Bernardi Claraevallensis'' his complete works, in Latin* Audio on the life of St. Bernard of Clairvaux from waysideaudio.com* Database with all known medieval representations of Bernard * Saint Bernard of Clairvaux at the Christian Iconography web site.", "* \"Here Followeth the Life of St. Bernard, the Mellifluous Doctor\" from the Caxton translation of the ''Golden Legend''* \"Two Accounts of the Early Career of St. Bernard\" by William of Thierry and Arnold of Bonneval* Saint Bernard of Clairvaux Abbot, Doctor of the Church-1153 at EWTN Global Catholic Network* Colonnade Statue St Peter's Square* Lewis E 26 De consideratione (On Consideration) at OPenn* MS 484/11 Super cantica canticorum at OPenn" ] ]

[ [ "Bishkek" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bishkek''' (, ; ), formerly '''Pishpek''' and '''Frunze''', is the capital and largest city of Kyrgyzstan.", "Bishkek is also the administrative centre of the Chüy Region.", "The region surrounds the city, although the city itself is not part of the region but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.", "Bishkek is situated near the border with Kazakhstan and has a population of 1,074,075, as of 2021.Bishkek is the primate city of Kyrgyzstan—it is the sole metropolis in the country, and about 17% of all inhabitants of the country live in Bishkek's metropolitan area.The Khanate of Kokand established the fortress of Pishpek in 1825 to control local caravan routes and to collect tribute from Kyrgyz tribes.", "On 4 September 1860, with the approval of the Kyrgyz, Russian forces led by Colonel Apollon Zimmermann destroyed the fortress.", "In the present day, the fortress ruins can be found just north of Jibek jolu street, near the new main mosque.", "A Russian settlement was established in 1868 on the site of the fortress under its original name, Pishpek.", "It lay within the General Governorship of Russian Turkestan and its Semirechye Oblast.The Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was established in 1925 in Russian Turkestan, promoting Pishpek to its capital.", "In 1926, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union renamed the city ''Frunze'', after Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), who was born there.", "Frunze became the capital of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, during the final stages of national delimitation in the Soviet Union.", "In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament changed the capital's name to Bishkek.Bishkek is situated at an altitude of about , just off the northern fringe of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range, an extension of the Tian Shan mountain range.", "These mountains rise to a height of .", "North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighbouring Kazakhstan.", "The river Chüy drains most of the area.", "Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan–Siberia Railway by a spur line.Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards.", "There are also thousands of smaller, privately built houses, mostly outside the city centre.", "Streets follow a grid pattern, with most flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels, which provide water to trees which provide shade during the hot summers." ], [ "Etymology", "Bishkek is supposedly named after the paddle used to churn the fermenting milk.The official website of the Bishkek's city hall provides the following etymological justification for the name of the city: the pregnant wife of a heo lost a paddle used to churn kumis.", "While looking for it, she suddenly gave birth to a boy, who she named Bishkek.", "Bishkek would grow up to be a noble figure and after his death, was buried on a mound near the banks of the Alamüdün.", "There, a tombstone was erected.", "The building was seen and described by travelers of the 17th and 18th centuries." ], [ "History", "Based on DNA evidence, the area near Bishkek is considered one of the possible origins of the Black Death between AD 1346 and 1353.===Kokhand rule===Originally a caravan rest stop, possibly founded by the Sogdians, on one of the branches of the Silk Road through the Tian Shan range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the khan of Kokand with a mud fort.", "In the last years of Kokhand rule, the Pishpek fortress was led by Atabek, the Datka.", "In 1844, the forces of Ormon Khan, the leader of the , briefly captured the fortress.===Tsarist era===In 1860, Imperial Russia annexed the area, and the military forces of Colonel took and razed the fort.", "Colonel Zimmermann rebuilt the town over the destroyed fort and appointed field-Poruchik Titov as head of a new Russian garrison.", "The Imperial Russian government redeveloped the site from 1877 onward, encouraging the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile land to develop.===Soviet era===Statue of Mikhail Frunze near the railway stationIn 1926, the city became the capital of the newly established Kirghiz ASSR and was renamed Frunze after Mikhail Frunze, Lenin's close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 and during the Russian Civil War of the early 1920s.===Independence era===The early 1990s were a tumultuous time for Bishkek.", "In June 1990, a state of emergency was declared following severe ethnic riots in southern Kyrgyzstan that threatened to spread to the capital.", "The city was renamed Bishkek on 5 February 1991, and Kyrgyzstan achieved independence later that year during the breakup of the Soviet Union.", "Before independence, the majority of Bishkek's population were ethnic Russians.", "In 2004, Russians made up approximately 20% of the city's population, and about in 2011.Bishkek is Kyrgyzstan's financial centre, with all of the country's 21 commercial banks headquartered there.", "During the Soviet era, the city was home to many industrial plants, but most have been shut down since 1991 or now operate on a much-reduced scale.", "One of Bishkek's largest employment centres today is the Dordoy Bazaar open market, where many of the Chinese goods imported to CIS countries are sold." ], [ "Geography", "AMS, 1948)===Orientation===Although Bishkek itself is relatively young, its surrounding area has some sites of interest dating to prehistoric times.", "There are also sites from the Greco-Buddhist period, the period of Nestorian influence, the era of the Central Asian ''khanates'', and the Soviet period.Russian Orthodox cathedral of the Holy ResurrectionThe central part of the city is laid out on a rectangular grid plan.", "The city's main street is the east-west Chüy Avenue (Chüy Prospekti), named after the region's main river.", "In the Soviet era, it was called Lenin Avenue.", "Along or near it are many important government buildings and universities.", "These include the Academy of Sciences compound.", "The westernmost section of the avenue is known as Deng Xiaoping Avenue.The main north–south street is Yusup Abdrakhmanov Street, still commonly referred to by its old name, Sovietskaya Street.", "Its northern and southern sections are called, respectively, Yelebesov and Baityk Batyr Streets.", "Several major shopping centres are located along with it, and in the north, it provides access to Dordoy Bazaar.Erkindik (\"Freedom\") Boulevard runs from north to south, from the main railroad station (Bishkek II) south of Chüy Avenue to the museum quarter and sculpture park just north of Chüy Avenue, and further north toward the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "In the past, it was called Dzerzhinsky Boulevard, named after a Communist revolutionary, Felix Dzerzhinsky, and its northern continuation is still called Dzerzhinsky Street.An important east–west street is Jibek Jolu ('Silk Road').", "It runs parallel to Chüy Avenue about north of it and is part of the main east–west road of Chüy Region.", "Both the eastern and western bus terminals are located along Jibek Jolu.There is a Roman Catholic church located at ul.", "Vasiljeva 197 (near Rynok Bayat).", "It is the only Catholic cathedral in Kyrgyzstan.A stadium named in honour of Dolon Omurzakov is located near the centre of Bishkek.", "This is the largest stadium in the Kyrgyz Republic.===City centre===* Kyrgyz State Historical Museum, located in Ala-Too Square, the main city square.", "* State Museum of Applied Arts, containing examples of traditional Kyrgyz handicrafts.", "* Frunze House Museum.", "* Statue of Ivan Panfilov in the park near the White House.", "* An equestrian statue of Mikhail Frunze stands in a large park (Boulevard Erkindik) across from the train station.", "* The train station was built in 1946 by German prisoners of war and has survived since then without further renovation or repairs; most of those who built it perished and were buried in unmarked pits near the station.", "* The main government building, the White House, is a large seven-story marble building and the former headquarters of the Communist Party of the Kirghiz SSR.", "* At Ala-Too Square there is an independence monument where the changing of the guards may be watched.", "*Osh Bazaar, west of the city centre, is a large, picturesque produce market.", "*Kyrgyz National Philharmonic, concert hall.===Outer neighbourhoods===The Dordoy Bazaar, just inside the bypass highway on the north-eastern edge of the city, is a major retail and wholesale market.===Outside the city===The Kyrgyz Ala-Too mountain range, some away, provides a spectacular backdrop to the city; the Ala Archa National Park is only a 30 to 45 minutes drive away.===Distances===Bishkek is about 300 km away directly from the country's second largest city Osh.", "However, its nearest large city is Almaty of Kazakhstan, which is 190 km to the east.", "Furthermore, it is 470 km from Tashkent (Uzbekistan), 680 km from Dushanbe (Tajikistan), and about 1,000 km each from Astana (Kazakhstan), Ürümqi (China), Islamabad (Pakistan), and Kabul (Afghanistan).===Climate===Bishkek has a Mediterranean-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification ''Dsa''), as the average mean temperature in the winter is below .", "Average precipitation is around per year.", "Average daily high temperatures range from in January to about during July.", "The summer months are dominated by dry periods, punctuated by the occasional thunderstorm, which produces strong gusty winds and rare dust storms.", "The mountains to the south provide a natural boundary and protection from damaging weather, as does the smaller mountain chain that runs north-west to south-east.", "In the winter months, sparse snow storms and frequent heavy fog are the dominating features.", "There are sometimes temperature inversions, during which the fog can last for days at a time." ], [ "Demographics", "Bishkek is the most populated city in Kyrgyzstan.", "Its population, estimated in 2021, was 1,074,075.From the foundation of the city to the mid-1990s, ethnic Russians and other peoples of European descent (Ukrainians, Germans) comprised the majority of the city's population.", "According to the 1970 census, the ethnic Kyrgyz were only 12.3%, while Europeans comprised more than 80% of the Frunze population.", "Now Bishkek is a predominantly Kyrgyz city, with 75% of its residents Kyrgyz, while European peoples make up around 15% of the population.", "Despite this fact, Russian is the main language while Kyrgyz continues losing ground, especially among the younger generations." ], [ "Ecology and environment", "===Air quality===Emissions of air pollutants in Bishkek amounted to 14,400 tons in 2010.Among all cities in Kyrgyzstan, the level of air pollution in Bishkek is the highest, occasionally exceeding maximum allowable concentrations by several times, especially in the city centre.", "For example, concentrations of formaldehyde occasionally exceed maximum allowable limits by a factor of four.Responsibility for ambient air quality monitoring in Bishkek lies with the Kyrgyz State Agency of Hydrometeorology.", "There are seven air-quality monitoring stations in Bishkek, measuring levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, and ammonia." ], [ "Economy", "Dordoy BazaarBishkek uses the Kyrgyzstan currency, the som.", "The som's value fluctuates regularly but averaged around 85 som per U.S. dollar as of March 2023.The economy in Bishkek is primarily agricultural, and agricultural products are sometimes bartered in the outlying regions.", "The streets of Bishkek are regularly lined with produce vendors in a market-style venue.", "In most of the downtown area there is a more urban cityscape with banks, stores, markets, and malls.", "Sought-after goods include hand-crafted artisan pieces, such as statues, carvings, paintings, and many nature-based sculptures.=== Housing ===As with many cities in post-Soviet states, housing in Bishkek has undergone extensive changes since the collapse of the Soviet Union.", "While housing was formerly distributed to citizens in the Soviet era, housing in Bishkek has since become privatised.Though single-family houses are slowly becoming more popular, the majority of the residents live in Soviet-era apartments.", "Despite the Kyrgyz economy experiencing growth, increases in available housing have been slow with very little new construction.", "As a result of this growing prosperity and the lack of new formal housing, prices have been rising significantly—doubling from 2001 to 2002.Those unable to afford the high housing price within Bishkek, notably internal migrants from rural villages and small provincial towns, often have to resort to informal squatter settlements on the city's outskirts.", "These settlements are estimated to house 400,000 people or about 30 percent of Bishkek's population.", "While many of the settlements have lacked basic necessities such as electricity and running water, recently, the local government has pushed to provide these services." ], [ "Government", "Local government is administered by the Bishkek Mayor's Office.", "Askarbek Salymbekov was mayor until his resignation in August 2005, after which his deputy, Arstanbek Nogoev, took over the mayorship.", "Nogoev was in turn removed from his position in October 2007 through a decree of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and replaced by businessman and former first deputy prime minister Daniar Usenov.", "In July 2008 former head of the Kyrgyz Railways Nariman Tuleyev was appointed mayor, who was dismissed by the interim government after 7 April 2010.From April 2010 to February 2011 Isa Omurkulov, also a former head of the Kyrgyz Railways, was an interim mayor, and from 4 February 2011 to 14 December 2013 he was re-elected the mayor of Bishkek.", "Kubanychbek Kulmatov was nominated for election by parliamentary group of Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan in city kenesh, and he was elected as a new mayor on 15 January 2014, and stepped down on 9 February 2016.The next mayor, Albek Sabirbekovich Ibraimov, was also nominated for election by parliamentary group of Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan in city kenesh, and Bishkek City Kenesh elected him on 27 February 2016.The current mayor is Emil Abdykadyrov, who was elected on 24 February 2022.===Administrative divisions===Bishkek city covers and is administered separately and not part of any region.", "Besides the city proper, one urban-type settlement and one village are administered by the city: Chong-Aryk and Orto-Say.", "The city is divided into 4 districts: Birinchi May, Lenin, Oktyabr and Sverdlov.", "Chong-Aryk and Orto-Say are part of Lenin District.", "Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, there has been discussion of replacing the Soviet era district names with ones that reflect Kyrgyz identity and history.", "Other former Soviet republics have widely replaced Soviet era place names; despite renaming the capital in 1991, Kyrgyzstan is the only nation in Central Asia to retain Soviet era names for districts in its capital." ], [ "Culture", "Bishkek is culturally the country's most important city.", "It is home to the National Library of the Kyrgyz Republic as well as a number of museums, e.g.", "the Kyrgyz State Historical Museum or the M. V. Frunze Museum.", "The national public broadcasting service KTRK or Kyrgyz Television is based in Bishkek.", "Newspapers in Bishkek include the English-language Bishkek Observer, the world's only dungan-language newspaper called Huimin bao and the Russian-language Vecherniy Bishkek newspaper.===Religion===The largest religion is Sunni Islam, but since many Russians live in Kyrgyzstan, there is also a large Russian Orthodox community.", "The Bishkek Central Mosque is one of the largest in Central Asia.", "Bishkek is home to the Roman Catholic Apostolic Administration of Kyrgyzstan.===Sports===Bishkek is home to Dolen Omurzakov Stadium, the largest football stadium in Kyrgyzstan and the only one eligible to host international matches.", "Several Bishkek-based football teams play on this pitch, including six-time Kyrgyzstan League champions, Dordoi Bishkek.", "Others include Alga Bishkek, Ilbirs Bishkek, and RUOR-Guardia Bishkek.Bishkek hosted the 2014 IIHF Challenge Cup of Asia – Division I." ], [ "Education", "Educational institutions in Bishkek include:* APAP KR* American University of Central Asia* Arabaev Kyrgyz State University* Bishkek Humanities University* International Atatürk-Alatoo University* International University of Kyrgyzstan* Kyrgyz International University NRZ* Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University* I.K.", "Akhunbaev Kyrgyz State Medical Academy* Kyrgyz State National University* Kyrgyz Technical University* Kyrgyz-Russian State University* Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University* Kyrgyz Uzbek University* Plato University of Management and Design* University of Central AsiaIn addition, the following international schools serve the expatriate community in Bishkek:* European School in Central Asia* Oxford International School Bishkek* Hope Academy of Bishkek* QSI International School of Bishkek* Silk Road International School" ], [ "Transportation", "A typical Bishkek passenger van passes by the East Bus Terminal.The electronic board in the main hall of Bishkek-2, the main train station, shows Bishkek and Moscow time.Bishkek-2 railway station===Mass public transport===Public transportation includes buses, electric trolleybuses, and public vans (known in Russian as ''marshrutka'').", "The first bus and trolley bus services in Bishkek were introduced in 1934 and 1951, respectively.Taxi cabs can be found throughout the city.The city is considering designing and building a light rail system.===Commuter and long-distance buses===There are two main bus stations in Bishkek.", "The smaller old Eastern Bus Station is primarily the terminal for minibusses to various destinations within or just beyond the eastern suburbs, such as Kant, Tokmok, Kemin, Issyk Ata, or the Korday border crossing.Long-distance regular bus and minibus services to all parts of the country, as well as to Almaty (the largest city in neighbouring Kazakhstan) and Kashgar, China, run mostly from the newer grand Western Bus Station; only a smaller number run from the Eastern Station.The Dordoy Bazaar on the north-eastern outskirts of the city also contains makeshift terminals for frequent minibusses to suburban towns in all directions (from Sokuluk in the west to Tokmak in the east) and to some buses taking traders to Kazakhstan and Siberia.===Rail===, the Bishkek-2 railway station sees only a few trains a day.", "It offers a popular three-day train service from Bishkek to Moscow.There are also long-distance trains that leave for Siberia (Novosibirsk and Novokuznetsk), via Almaty, over the TurkSib route, and to Yekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk) in the Urals, via Astana.", "These services are remarkably slow (over 48 hours to Yekaterinburg), due to long stops at the border and the indirect route (the trains first have to go west for more than a before they enter the main TurkSib line and can continue to the east or north).", "For example, as of the fall of 2008, train No.", "305 Bishkek-Yekaterinburg was scheduled to take 11 hours to reach the Shu junction—a distance of some by rail, and less than half of that by road.===Air===The city is served by Manas International Airport (IATA code FRU), located approximately north-west of the city centre.In 2001, the United States obtained the right to use Manas International Airport as an air base for its military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.", "Russia subsequently (2003) established an airbase of its own (Kant Air Base) near Kant, some east of Bishkek.", "It is based at a facility that used to be home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, Hosni Mubarak, later became president of Egypt." ], [ "Notable people", "* Talant Dujshebaev (born 1968), handball coach and former handball player (voted 2nd IHF World Player of the Century)* Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), after whom the city was named from 1926 to 1991* Nasirdin Isanov (1943–1991), first prime minister of Kyrgyzstan* Denis Ivanov (born 1983), former Russian professional football player* Sergei B. Korolev (born 1962), First Deputy Director of the Federal Security Service* Alexander Mashkevitch (born 1954), Kazakh-Israeli billionaire businessman and investor* Orzubek Nazarov (born 1966), former WBA lightweight boxing champion* Roza Isakovna Otunbayeva (born 1950), third president of Kyrgyzstan* Vladimir Perlin (born 1942), cellist*Denis Petrashov (born 2000), swimmer, Youth Games and Maccabiah Games medalist* Salizhan Sharipov (born 1964), first cosmonaut of the independent Kyrgyz Republic* Antonina Shevchenko (born 1984), kickboxer* Valentina Shevchenko (born 1988), kickboxer and UFC champion* Tugelbay Sydykbekov (1912–1997), writer* Natalya Tsyganova (born 1971), 800m medallist at the World and European championships, representing Russia" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Bishkek is twinned with:* Almaty, Kazakhstan (1994)* Ankara, Turkey (1992)* Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (2018)* Colorado Springs, United States (1994)* Doha, Qatar (2014)* Gumi, South Korea (1991)* İzmir, Turkey (1994)* Kyiv, Ukraine (1997)* Lianyungang, China (2015)* Astana, Kazakhstan (2011)* Qazvin, Iran (2003)* Samsun, Turkey* Vassal, Belgium (2012)* Shenzhen, China (2016)* Tashkent, Uzbekistan* Tehran, Iran (1994)* Trabzon, Turkey (2014)* Ufa, Russia (2017)* Ürümqi, China (1993)* Wuhan, China (2016)* Yinchuan, China (2000)" ], [ "See also", "* List of monuments of Bishkek* Outline of Kyrgyzstan" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* The Spektator – society, culture, and travel articles on Kyrgyzstan and Bishkek city guide (archived)" ] ]

[ [ "Braveheart" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Braveheart''''' is a 1995 American epic historical drama film directed by, produced by, and starring Mel Gibson.", "Gibson portrays Sir William Wallace, a late-13th century Scottish warrior who led the Scots in the First War of Scottish Independence against King Edward I of England.", "The film also stars Sophie Marceau, Patrick McGoohan and Catherine McCormack.", "The story is inspired by Blind Harry's 15th century epic poem ''The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace'' and was adapted for the screen by Randall Wallace.Development on the film initially started at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) when producer Alan Ladd Jr. picked up the project from Wallace, but when MGM was going through new management, Ladd left the studio and took the project with him.", "Despite initially declining, Gibson eventually decided to direct the film, as well as star as Wallace.", "''Braveheart'' was filmed in Scotland and Ireland from June to October 1994.The film, which was produced by Gibson's Icon Productions and The Ladd Company, was distributed by Paramount Pictures in North America and by 20th Century Fox internationally.Released on May 24, 1995, ''Braveheart'' was a critical and commercial success.", "The film received praise for its action, drama, and romance, though it was criticized for its historical inaccuracies.", "A legacy sequel, ''Robert the Bruce'', was released on June 28, 2019, with Angus Macfadyen reprising his role." ], [ "Plot", "In 1280, Edward I of England, known as \"Longshanks\", conquers Scotland following the death of the Scots' king, who left no heir.", "Young William Wallace witnesses Longshanks' execution of several Scottish nobles, then loses his father and brother when they resist the English.", "He is taken on by his paternal uncle, who educates him.Years later, Longshanks grants his noblemen land and privileges in Scotland, including ''ius primae noctis'', while his son marries Isabella of France.", "Meanwhile, a grown Wallace returns home and secretly marries his childhood friend Murron MacClannough.", "Wallace rescues Murron from being raped by English soldiers, but as he fights off the soldiers, Murron is captured and publicly executed.", "In retribution, Wallace and the locals overthrow the English garrison, beginning a rebellion.", "Longshanks orders his son to stop Wallace while he campaigns in France.", "Wallace defeats an English army at Stirling, then invades England and sacks York.", "He also connects with Robert the Bruce, a contender for the Scottish crown.", "Upon returning to England and confronting his son, Longshanks sends Isabella to negotiate with Wallace as a distraction from the arrival of Longshanks' forces.", "After meeting Wallace, Isabella becomes enamored with him.", "She warns him of Longshanks' plans, and Wallace implores the Scottish nobility to help him.", "Wallace faces Longshanks at Falkirk.", "During the battle, nobles Mornay and Lochlan withdraw, having been bribed by Longshanks, resulting in Wallace's army being overwhelmed.", "Wallace also discovers Robert the Bruce had joined Longshanks.", "After the battle, Robert vows to not be on the wrong side again.Wallace kills Mornay and Lochlan for their betrayal and foils an assassination plot with Isabella's help, and then has sex with her, while Longshanks' health declines.", "At a meeting in Edinburgh, Wallace is captured.", "Learning of his father's responsibility, Robert disowns his father.", "In England, Wallace is tried for high treason and condemned to execution.", "After a final meeting with Wallace, Isabella tells Longshanks, who can no longer speak, that his bloodline will end upon his death as she is pregnant with Wallace's child and will ensure that Longshanks' son spends as short a time as possible as monarch before Wallace's child replaces him.", "At his execution, Wallace refuses to submit, even while being disemboweled.", "The magistrate encourages Wallace to seek mercy and be granted a quick death.", "Wallace instead shouts, \"Freedom!", "\", while Longshanks dies.", "Before being beheaded, Wallace sees a vision of Murron in the crowd.In 1314, Robert, now Scotland's king, faces the English at Bannockburn, and implores his men to fight with him as they did with Wallace.", "Wallace's former comrade, Hamish, throws Wallace's sword to land point-down in the ground, then Robert leads the Scots to a final victory." ], [ "Cast", "* Mel Gibson as William Wallace** James Robinson as young William Wallace* Sophie Marceau as Princess Isabella of France* Angus Macfadyen as Robert the Bruce* Patrick McGoohan as King Edward \"Longshanks\"* Catherine McCormack as Murron MacClannough** Mhairi Calvey as young Murron MacClannough* Brendan Gleeson as Hamish** Andrew Weir as young Hamish* Peter Hanly as Prince Edward* James Cosmo as Campbell* David O'Hara as Stephen of Ireland* Ian Bannen as Bruce's father* Seán McGinley as MacClannough* Brian Cox as Argyle Wallace* Sean Lawlor as Malcolm Wallace* Sandy Nelson as John Wallace* Stephen Billington as Phillip* John Kavanagh as Craig* Alun Armstrong as Mornay* John Murtagh as Lochlan* Tommy Flanagan as Morrison* Donal Gibson as Stewart* Jeanne Marine as Nicolette* Michael Byrne as Smythe* Malcolm Tierney as Magistrate* Bernard Horsfall as Balliol* Peter Mullan as Veteran* Gerard McSorley as Cheltham* Richard Leaf as Governor of York* Mark Lees as Old Crippled Scotsman* Tam White as MacGregor* Jimmy Chisholm as Faudron* David Gant as the Royal Magistrate" ], [ "Production", "=== Development ===Producer Alan Ladd Jr. initially had the project at MGM-Pathé Communications when he picked up the script from Wallace.", "When Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) was going through new management in 1993, Ladd left the studio and took some of its top properties, including ''Braveheart''.", "Gibson came across the script and even though he liked it, he initially passed on it.", "However, the thought of it kept coming back to him, and he ultimately decided to take on the project.", "Terry Gilliam was offered to direct the film, but he declined.", "Gibson was initially interested in directing only and considered Brad Pitt in the role of Sir William Wallace, but later reluctantly agreed to play Wallace as well.", "He also considered Jason Patric for the role.", "Sean Connery was approached to play King Edward, but he declined due to other commitments.", "Gibson said that Connery's pronunciation of \"Goulash\" helped him for the Scottish accent for the film.", "Gibson (right) on set with 20th Century Fox executive Scott NeesonGibson and his production company, Icon Productions, had difficulty raising enough money for the film.", "Warner Bros. was willing to fund the project on the condition that Gibson sign for another ''Lethal Weapon'' sequel, which he refused.", "Gibson eventually gained enough financing for the film, with Paramount Pictures financing a third of the budget in exchange for North American distribution rights to the film, and 20th Century Fox putting up the other two-thirds in exchange for international distribution rights.=== Filming ===Principal photography on the film began on June 6, 1994.While the crew spent three weeks shooting on location in Scotland, the major battle scenes were shot in Ireland using members of the Irish Army Reserve as extras.", "To lower costs, Gibson had the same extras, up to 1,600 in some scenes, portray both armies.", "The reservists had been given permission to grow beards and swapped their military uniforms for medieval garb.", "Principal photography ended on October 28, 1994.The film was shot in the anamorphic format with Panavision C- and E-Series lenses.", "Gibson also later said that while filming a battle scene a horse nearly \"killed him\" but his stunt double was able to save him as the horse fell.Gibson had to tone down the film's battle scenes to avoid an NC-17 rating from the MPAA; the final version was rated R for \"brutal medieval warfare\".", "Gibson and editor Steven Rosenblum initially had a film at 195 minutes, but Sherry Lansing, who was the head of Paramount at the time, requested Gibson and Rosenblum to cut the film down to 177 minutes.", "According to Gibson in a 2016 interview with ''Collider'', there is a four-hour version of the film, and he would be interested in reassembling it if both Paramount and Fox are interested." ], [ "Soundtrack", "The score was composed and conducted by James Horner and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra.", "It is Horner's second of three collaborations with Mel Gibson as director.", "The score has gone on to be one of the most commercially successful soundtracks of all time.", "It received considerable acclaim from film critics and audiences and was nominated for a number of awards, including the Academy Award, Saturn Award, BAFTA Award, and Golden Globe Award." ], [ "Release", "''Braveheart'' premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival on May 18, 1995, and received its wide release in U.S. cinemas six days later.=== Home media ===''Braveheart'' was released on LaserDisc in both pan and scan and widescreen on March 12, 1996.That same day, it also was made available on VHS in pan and scan only and was re-issued in widescreen on August 27.The film was released on DVD on August 29, 2000.This edition included the film only in widescreen, a commentary track by Gibson, a behind-the-scenes featurete, along the trailers.", "It was released on Blu-ray as part of the ''Paramount Sapphire Series'' on September 1, 2009.It incuded the DVD features along with new bonus material.", "It was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray as part of the 4K upgrade of the ''Paramount Sapphire Series'' on May 15, 2018." ], [ "Reception", "=== Box office ===On its opening weekend, ''Braveheart'' grossed $9,938,276 in the United States and $75.6 million in its box office run in the U.S. and Canada.", "Worldwide, the film grossed $210,409,945 and was the thirteenth-highest-grossing film of 1995.=== Critical response ===On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 75% and an average score of 7.20/10 based on 125 reviews.", "The site's consensus states: \"Distractingly violent and historically dodgy, Mel Gibson's ''Braveheart'' justifies its epic length by delivering enough sweeping action, drama, and romance to match its ambition.\"", "On Metacritic the film has a score of 68 out of 100 based on 20 critic reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A− on scale of A to F.Gibson won the Academy Award for Best Director for his work on ''Braveheart''.", "Caryn James of ''The New York Times'' praised the film, calling it \"one of the most spectacular entertainments in years.\"", "Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half out of four stars, calling it \"An action epic with the spirit of the Hollywood swordplay classics and the grungy ferocity of ''The Road Warrior''.\"", "In a positive review, Gene Siskel wrote that \"in addition to staging battle scenes well, Gibson also manages to recreate the filth and mood of 700 years ago.\"", "Peter Travers of ''Rolling Stone'' felt that \"though the film dawdles a bit with the shimmery, dappled love stuff involving Wallace with a Scottish peasant and a French princess, the action will pin you to your seat.\"", "The depiction of the Battle of Stirling Bridge was listed by CNN as one of the best battles in cinema history.Not all reviews were positive, Richard Schickel of ''Time'' magazine argued that \"everybody knows that a non-blubbering clause is standard in all movie stars' contracts.", "Too bad there isn't one banning self-indulgence when they direct.\"", "Peter Stack of ''San Francisco Chronicle'' felt \"at times the film seems an obsessive ode to Mel Gibson machismo.\"", "In a 2005 poll by British film magazine ''Empire'', ''Braveheart'' was No.", "1 on their list of \"The Top 10 Worst Pictures to Win Best Picture Oscar\".", "''Empire'' readers had previously voted ''Braveheart'' the best film of 1995.=== Effect on tourism ===The European premiere was on September 3, 1995, in Stirling.In 1996, the year after the film was released, the annual three-day \"Braveheart Conference\" at Stirling Castle attracted fans of ''Braveheart'', increasing the conference's attendance to 167,000 from 66,000 in the previous year.", "In the following year, research on visitors to the Stirling area indicated that 55% of the visitors had seen ''Braveheart''.", "Of visitors from outside Scotland, 15% of those who saw ''Braveheart'' said it influenced their decision to visit the country.", "Of all visitors who saw ''Braveheart'', 39% said the film influenced in part their decision to visit Stirling, and 19% said the film was one of the main reasons for their visit.", "In the same year, a tourism report said that the \"''Braveheart'' effect\" earned Scotland £7 million to £15 million in tourist revenue, and the report led to various national organizations encouraging international film productions to take place in Scotland.The film generated huge interest in Scotland and in Scottish history, not only around the world, but also in Scotland itself.", "At a ''Braveheart'' Convention in 1997, held in Stirling the day after the Scottish Devolution vote and attended by 200 delegates from around the world, ''Braveheart'' author Randall Wallace, Seoras Wallace of the Wallace Clan, Scottish historian David Ross and Bláithín FitzGerald from Ireland gave lectures on various aspects of the film.", "Several of the actors also attended including James Robinson (Young William), Andrew Weir (Young Hamish), Julie Austin (the young bride) and Mhairi Calvey (Young Murron).=== Awards and honors ===''Braveheart'' was nominated for many awards during the 1995 awards season, though it was not viewed by many as a major contender such as ''Apollo 13'', ''Il Postino: The Postman'', ''Leaving Las Vegas'', ''Sense and Sensibility'', and ''The Usual Suspects''.", "It wasn't until after the film won the Golden Globe Award for Best Director at the 53rd Golden Globe Awards that it was viewed as a serious Oscar contender.", "When the nominations were announced for the 68th Academy Awards, ''Braveheart'' received ten Academy Award nominations, and a month later, won five including Best Picture, Best Director for Gibson, Best Cinematography, Best Sound Effects Editing, and Best Makeup.", "''Braveheart'' became the ninth film to win Best Picture with no acting nominations and is one of only four films to win Best Picture without being nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, the others being ''The Shape of Water'' in 2017, ''Green Book'' in 2018, and ''Nomadland'' in 2020.The film also won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay.", "In 2010, the Independent Film & Television Alliance selected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years Award Category Recipient(s) Result 20/20 Awards Best Cinematography John Toll Best Costume Design Charles Knode Best Makeup Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell Best Original Score James Horner Best Sound Academy Awards Best Picture Mel Gibson, Bruce Davey and Alan Ladd Jr. Best Director Mel Gibson Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen Randall Wallace Best Cinematography John Toll Best Costume Design Charles Knode Best Film Editing Steven Rosenblum Best Makeup Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell Best Original Dramatic Score James Horner Best Sound Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, Anna Behlmer and Brian Simmons Best Sound Effects Editing Lon Bender and Per Hallberg American Cinema Editors Awards Best Edited Feature Film Steven Rosenblum American Cinema Foundation Awards Feature Film American Society of Cinematographers Awards Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Theatrical Releases John Toll Awards Circuit Community Awards Best Director Mel Gibson Best Original Screenplay Randall Wallace Best Art Direction Thomas E. Sanders and Peter Howitt Best Cinematography John Toll Best Costume Design Charles Knode Best Film Editing Steven Rosenblum Best Makeup & Hairstyling Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell Best Original Score James Horner Best Sound Best Stunt Ensemble British Academy Film Awards Best Direction Mel Gibson Best Cinematography John Toll Best Costume Design Charles Knode Best Film Music James Horner Best Makeup Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell Best Production Design Thomas E. Sanders Best Sound Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, Anna Behlmer and Brian Simmons Camerimage Golden Frog John Toll Cinema Audio Society Awards Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for Motion Pictures Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, Anna Behlmer and Brian Simmons Cinema Writers Circle Awards Best Foreign Film Mel Gibson Critics' Choice Awards Best Director Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards Best Picture Best Cinematography John Toll Directors Guild of America Awards Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures Mel Gibson Empire Awards Best Film Flaiano Prizes Best Foreign Actress Catherine McCormack Golden Globe Awards Best Motion Picture – Drama Best Director – Motion Picture Mel Gibson Best Screenplay – Motion Picture Randall Wallace Best Original Score – Motion Picture James Horner Golden Reel Awards Best Sound Editing – Dialogue Mark LaPointe Best Sound Editing – Sound Effects Lon Bender and Per Hallberg International Film Music Critics Association Awards Best Archival Release of an Existing Score – Re-Release or Re-Recording James Horner, Dan Goldwasser, Mike Matessino, Jim Titus and Jeff Bond Jupiter Awards Best International Director Mel Gibson Movieguide Awards Best Movie for Mature Audiences MTV Movie Awards Best Movie Best Male Performance Mel Gibson Most Desirable Male Best Action Sequence Battle of Stirling National Board of Review Awards Top Ten Films Special Filmmaking Achievement Mel Gibson Publicists Guild of America Awards Motion Picture Saturn Awards Best Action/Adventure Film Best Costume Design Charles Knode Best Music James Horner Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards Best Picture Turkish Film Critics Association Awards Best Foreign Film Writers Guild of America Awards Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screenplay Randall Wallace ;American Film Institute lists* AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – Nominated* AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – No.", "91* AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:** William Wallace – Nominated Hero* AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes:** \"They may take away our lives, but they'll never take our freedom!\"", "– Nominated* AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated* AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No.", "62* AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated* AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Epic Film=== Cultural effects and accusations of Anglophobia ===Lin Anderson, author of ''Braveheart: From Hollywood To Holyrood'', credits the film with playing a significant role in affecting the Scottish political landscape in the mid-to-late 1990s.", "Peter Jackson cited ''Braveheart'' as an influence in making the ''Lord of the Ring''s film trilogy.Sections of the English media accused the film of harbouring Anti-English sentiment.", "''The Economist'' called it \"xenophobic\", and John Sutherland writing in ''The Guardian'' stated that: \"''Braveheart'' gave full rein to a toxic Anglophobia\".", "In ''The Times'', Colin McArthur said \"the political effects are truly pernicious.", "It's a xenophobic film.\"", "Ian Burrell of ''The Independent'' has said, \"The ''Braveheart'' phenomenon, a Hollywood-inspired rise in Scottish nationalism, has been linked to a rise in anti-English prejudice\".=== Wallace Monument ===Tom Church's statueIn 1997, a , sandstone statue depicting Mel Gibson as William Wallace in ''Braveheart'' was placed in the car park of the Wallace Monument near Stirling, Scotland.", "The statue, which was the work of Tom Church, a monumental mason from Brechin, included the word 'Braveheart' on Wallace's shield.", "The installation became the cause of much controversy; one local resident stated that it was wrong to \"desecrate the main memorial to Wallace with a lump of crap\".", "In 1998, someone wielding a hammer vandalized the statue's face.", "After repairs were made, the statue was encased in a cage every night to prevent further vandalism.", "This only incited more calls for the statue to be removed, as it then appeared that the Gibson/Wallace figure was imprisoned.", "The statue was described as \"among the most loathed pieces of public art in Scotland\".", "In 2008, the statue was returned to its sculptor to make room for a new visitor centre being built at the foot of the Wallace Monument." ], [ "Historical inaccuracy", "Randall Wallace, who wrote the screenplay, has acknowledged Blind Harry's 15th-century epic poem ''The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie'' as a major inspiration for the film.", "In defending his script, Randall Wallace has said, \"Is Blind Harry true?", "I don't know.", "I know that it spoke to my heart and that's what matters to me, that it spoke to my heart.\"", "Blind Harry's poem is not regarded as historically accurate, and although some incidents in the film that are not historically accurate are taken from Blind Harry (e.g.", "the hanging of Scottish nobles at the start), there are large parts that are based neither on history nor Blind Harry (e.g.", "Wallace's affair with Princess Isabella).Elizabeth Ewan describes ''Braveheart'' as a film that \"almost totally sacrifices historical accuracy for epic adventure\".", "It has been described as one of the most historically inaccurate modern films.", "Sharon Krossa noted that the film contains numerous historical inaccuracies, beginning with the wearing of belted plaid by Wallace and his men.", "In that period \"no Scots ... wore belted plaids (let alone kilts of any kind).\"", "Moreover, when Highlanders finally did begin wearing the belted plaid, it was not \"in the rather bizarre style depicted in the film\".", "She compares the inaccuracy to \"a film about Colonial America showing the colonial men wearing 20th century business suits, but with the jackets worn back-to-front instead of the right way around.\"", "In a previous essay about the film, she wrote, \"The events aren't accurate, the dates aren't accurate, the characters aren't accurate, the names aren't accurate, the clothes aren't accurate—in short, just about nothing is accurate.\"", "The belted plaid (''feileadh mór léine'') was not introduced until the 16th century.", "Peter Traquair has referred to Wallace's \"farcical representation as a wild and hairy highlander painted with woad (1,000 years too late) running amok in a tartan kilt (500 years too early).", "\"Caroline White of ''The Times ''described the film as being made up of a \"litany of fibs.", "\"Irish historian Seán Duffy remarked that \"the battle of Stirling Bridge could have done with a bridge.", "\"In 2009, the film was second on a list of \"most historically inaccurate movies\" in ''The Times''.", "In the humorous non-fictional historiography ''An Utterly Impartial History of Britain'' (2007), author John O'Farrell claims that ''Braveheart'' could not have been more historically inaccurate, even if a Plasticine dog had been inserted in the film and the title changed to \"''William Wallace and Gromit''\".In the DVD audio commentary of ''Braveheart'', Mel Gibson acknowledges the historical inaccuracies but defends his choices as director, noting that the way events were portrayed in the film was much more \"cinematically compelling\" than the historical fact or conventional mythos.=== ''Jus primae noctis'' ===Edward Longshanks is shown invoking ''Jus primae noctis'' in the film, allowing the lord of a medieval estate to take the virginity of his serfs' maiden daughters on their wedding nights.", "Critical medieval scholarship regards this supposed right as a myth: \"the simple reason why we are dealing with a myth here rests in the surprising fact that practically all writers who make any such claims have never been able or willing to cite any trustworthy source, if they have any.", "\"=== Occupation and independence ===The film suggests Scotland had been under English occupation for some time, at least during Wallace's childhood, and in the run-up to the Battle of Falkirk Wallace says to the younger Bruce, \"We'll have what none of us have ever had before, a country of our own.\"", "In fact, Scotland had been invaded by England only the year before Wallace's rebellion; prior to the death of King Alexander III it had been a fully separate kingdom.=== Portrayal of William Wallace ===As John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett writes, \"Because William Wallace is one of Scotland's most important national heroes and because he lived in the very distant past, much that is believed about him is probably the stuff of legend.", "But there is a factual strand that historians agree to\", summarized from Scots scholar Matt Ewart:A. E. Christa Canitz writes about the historical William Wallace further: \"He was a younger son of the Scottish gentry, usually accompanied by his own chaplain, well-educated, and eventually, having been appointed Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland, engaged in diplomatic correspondence with the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck and Hamburg\".", "She finds that in ''Braveheart'', \"any hint of his descent from the lowland gentry (i.e., the lesser nobility) is erased, and he is presented as an economically and politically marginalized Highlander and 'a farmer'—as one with the common peasant, and with a strong spiritual connection to the land which he is destined to liberate.", "\"Colin McArthur writes that ''Braveheart'' \"constructs Wallace as a kind of modern, nationalist guerrilla leader in a period half a millennium before the appearance of nationalism on the historical stage as a concept under which disparate classes and interests might be mobilised within a nation state.\"", "Writing about ''Braveheart''s \"omissions of verified historical facts\", McArthur notes that Wallace made \"overtures to Edward I seeking less severe treatment after his defeat at Falkirk\", as well as \"the well-documented fact of Wallace's having resorted to conscription and his willingness to hang those who refused to serve.\"", "Canitz posits that depicting \"such lack of class solidarity\" as the conscriptions and related hangings \"would contaminate the movie's image of Wallace as the morally irreproachable ''primus inter pares'' among his peasant fighters.", "\"=== Portrayal of Isabella of France ===Isabella of France is shown having an affair with Wallace after the Battle of Falkirk.", "She later tells Edward I she is pregnant, implying that her son, Edward III, was a product of the affair.", "In reality, Isabella was around three years old and living in France at the time of the Battle of Falkirk, was not married to Edward II until he was already king, and Edward III was born seven years after Wallace died.", "The breakdown of the couple's relationship over his liaisons, and the menacing suggestion to a dying Longshanks that she would overthrow and destroy Edward II mirror and foreshadow actual facts; although not until 1326, over 20 years after Wallace's death, Isabella, her son Edward, and her lover Roger Mortimer would invade England to depose - and later allegedly murder - Edward II.=== Portrayal of Robert the Bruce ===Robert the Bruce did change sides between the Scots loyalists and the English more than once in the earlier stages of the Wars of Scottish Independence, but he probably did not fight on the English side at the Battle of Falkirk (although this claim does appear in a few medieval sources).", "Later, the Battle of Bannockburn was not a spontaneous battle soon after Wallace's execution; he had already been fighting a guerrilla campaign against the English for eight years.", "His title before becoming king was Earl of Carrick, not Earl of Bruce.", "Bruce's father is portrayed as an infirm leper, although it was Bruce himself who allegedly suffered from leprosy in later life.", "The actual Bruce's machinations around Wallace, rather than the meek idealist in the film, suggests the father-son relationship represent different aspects of the historical Bruce's character.", "In the film, Bruce's father betrays Wallace to his son's disgust, acknowledging it as the price of his crown, although in real life Wallace was betrayed by the nobleman John de Menteith and delivered to the English.=== Portrayal of Longshanks and Prince Edward ===The actual Edward I was ruthless and temperamental, but the film exaggerates his negative aspects for effect.", "Edward enjoyed poetry and harp music, was a devoted and loving husband to his wife Eleanor of Castile, and as a religious man, he gave generously to charity.", "The film's scene where he scoffs cynically at Isabella for distributing gold to the poor after Wallace refuses it as a bribe would have been unlikely.", "Furthermore, Edward died on campaign two years after Wallace's execution, not in bed at his home.The depiction of the future Edward II as an effeminate homosexual drew accusations of homophobia against Gibson.Gibson defended his depiction of Prince Edward as weak and ineffectual, saying:In response to Longshanks's murder of the Prince's male lover Phillip, Gibson replied: \"The fact that King Edward throws this character out a window has nothing to do with him being gay ...", "He's terrible to his son, to everybody.", "\"Gibson asserted that the reason Longshanks kills his son's lover is that the king is a \"psychopath\".=== Wallace's military campaign ===\"MacGregors from the next glen\" joining Wallace shortly after the action at Lanark is dubious, since it is questionable whether Clan Gregor existed at that stage, and when they did emerge their traditional home was Glen Orchy, some distance from Lanark.Wallace did win an important victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge, but the version in ''Braveheart'' is highly inaccurate, as it was filmed without a bridge (and without Andrew Moray, joint commander of the Scots army, who was fatally injured in the battle).", "Later, Wallace did carry out a large-scale raid into the north of England, but he did not get as far south as York, nor did he kill Longshanks's nephew.The \"Irish conscripts\" at the Battle of Falkirk are unhistorical; there were no Irish troops at Falkirk (although many of the English army were, in fact, Welsh).The two-handed long swords used by Gibson in the film were not in wide use in the period.", "A one-handed sword and shield would have been more accurate and more efficient, since in the enemy army there were a lot of archers.The depiction of English cavalry and infantry soldiers using uniform dress and armor is also historically inaccurate.", "In the feudal armies of the late 13th and early 14th century, cavalry would have been made up of nobility and knights all in their self-purchased armour and displaying their coats of arms on surcoats and shields.", "The armour depicted in the film, small metal plates sewn on a fabric, did not exist and would have been ineffective since it could have been easily pierced by swords, spears, arrows etc.", "Indeed, a knight of that time period would have worn mail chausses to protect his legs, a mail hauberk over a padded gambeson to protect his upper body and arms, as well as a mail coif and a great helm to protect his head.", "Another layer of protection, the coat-of-plates, would have been worn over the hauberk, but under the surcoat.", "Infantry would have looked very diverse, using any kind of armor they could obtain and afford.The Scottish fighters would have been dressed and armed in the same way as their English opponents.", "Kilts appeared only in the 16th century, two centuries after the events in the film.", "Warpaint as seen in the film was used in Scotland, but only by Celtic tribes over a millennium before the events of the film, primarily the Picts.", "In the time period in which Braveheart is set, Scotland had already been Christianized for many centuries and most ancient Celtic pagan traditions had disappeared.", "Back scabbard swords were never used at any time in the Middle Ages, except by some Japanese samurai and Chinese soldiers, and in those rare cases the scabbards were always removed from the back before the swords were unsheathed.", "The only times scabbards were carried on the back were by Celtic tribes during antiquity, and they were short, lightweight swords.", "However, the cavalry charge depicted at the Battle of Stirling Bridge (which did not actually take place at this battle) is a rare correct cinematic depiction of knights charging their enemies with laid-in lances rather than drawn swords." ], [ "Sequel", "A sequel, titled ''Robert the Bruce'', was released in 2019.The film continues directly on from ''Braveheart'' and follows the widow Moira, portrayed by Anna Hutchison, and her family (portrayed by Gabriel Bateman and Talitha Bateman), who save Robert the Bruce, with Angus Macfadyen reprising his role from ''Braveheart''.", "The cast includes Jared Harris, Patrick Fugit, Zach McGowan, Emma Kenney, Diarmaid Murtagh, Seoras Wallace, Shane Coffey, Kevin McNally, and Melora Walters.", "Richard Gray directed the film, with Macfadyen and Eric Belgau writing the script.", "Helmer Gray, Macfadyen, Hutchison, Kim Barnard, Nick Farnell, Cameron Nuggent, and Andrew Curry produced the film.", "Filming took place in 2019 and was completed with a limited cinematic release the same year." ], [ "See also", "*''Outlaw King''; although not a sequel, it depicts events that occurred immediately after the events in ''Braveheart''*''Rob Roy''; a historical action drama film featuring Robert Roy MacGregor, an 18th-century Scottish clan chief, and released in the same year." ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Brian Aldiss" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brian Wilson Aldiss''' (; 18 August 1925 – 19 August 2017) was an English writer, artist and anthology editor, best known for science fiction novels and short stories.", "His byline reads either '''Brian W. Aldiss''' or simply '''Brian Aldiss''', except for occasional pseudonyms during the mid-1960s.Greatly influenced by science fiction pioneer H. G. Wells, Aldiss was a vice-president of the international group in Wells' honour.", "He was (with Harry Harrison) co-president of the Birmingham Science Fiction Group.", "Aldiss was named a Grand Master by the Science Fiction Writers of America in 1999 and inducted by the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2004.He received two Hugo Awards, one Nebula Award and one John W. Campbell Memorial Award.", "He wrote the short story \"Supertoys Last All Summer Long\" (1969), the basis for the Stanley Kubrick-developed Steven Spielberg film ''A.I.", "Artificial Intelligence'' (2001).", "Aldiss was associated with the British New Wave of science fiction." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life, education and military service===Brian Wilson Aldiss was born on 18 August 1925, above his paternal grandfather's draper's shop in Dereham, Norfolk.", "When Aldiss's grandfather died, his father, Bill (the younger of two sons), sold his share in the shop and the family left Dereham.", "Aldiss's mother, Dot, was the daughter of a builder.", "He had an older sister who was stillborn and a younger sister.", "As a three-year-old, Aldiss started to write stories which his mother would bind and put on a shelf.At the age of 6, Aldiss went to Framlingham College, but moved to Devon and was sent to board at West Buckland School in 1939 after the outbreak of World War II.", "As a child, he discovered the pulp magazine ''Astounding Science Fiction''.", "He eventually read all the novels by H. G. Wells, Robert Heinlein, and Philip K. Dick.", "In 1943, he joined the Royal Signals and saw military action in Burma.===Writing and publishing===His army experience inspired the novel ''Hothouse'' and the Horatio Stubbs second and third books, ''A Soldier Erect'' and ''A Rude Awakening'', respectively.After the war, he worked as a bookseller in Oxford.", "He also wrote a number of short pieces for a booksellers' trade journal about life in a fictitious bookshop, which attracted the attention of Charles Monteith, an editor at the publisher Faber and Faber.", "As a result, Faber and Faber published Aldiss's first book, ''The Brightfount Diaries'' (1955), a 200-page novel in diary form about the life of a sales assistant in a bookshop.About this time he also began to write science fiction for various magazines.", "According to ISFDB, his first speculative fiction in print was the short story ''Criminal Record'', published by John Carnell in the July 1954 issue of ''Science Fantasy''.", "Several of his stories appeared in 1955, including three in monthly issues of ''New Worlds'', also edited by Carnell.In 1954, ''The Observer'' newspaper ran a competition for a short story set in the year 2500.Aldiss's story ''Not For An Age'' was ranked third following a reader vote.", "''The Brightfount Diaries'' had been a minor success, and Faber asked Aldiss if he had any more writing they could look at with a view to publishing.", "Aldiss confessed to being a science fiction author, to the delight of the publishers, who had a number of science fiction fans in high places, and so his first science fiction book was published, a collection of short stories entitled ''Space, Time and Nathaniel'' (Faber, 1957).", "By this time, his earnings from writing matched his wages in the bookshop, and he made the decision to become a full-time writer.In 2012Aldiss led the voting for Most Promising New Author of 1958 at the next year's Worldcon, but finished behind \"no award\".", "He was elected president of the British Science Fiction Association in 1960.He was the literary editor of the ''Oxford Mail'' newspaper from 1958 to 1969.Around 1964, he and long-time collaborator Harry Harrison started the first ever journal of science fiction criticism, ''Science Fiction Horizons'', which during its brief span of two issues published articles and reviews by such authors as James Blish, and featured a discussion among Aldiss, C. S. Lewis, and Kingsley Amis in the first issue and an interview with William S. Burroughs in the second.", "In 1967 Algis Budrys listed Aldiss, J. G. Ballard, Roger Zelazny and Samuel R. Delany as \"an earthshaking new kind of\" writers, and leaders of the New Wave.", "Aldiss supported the New Wave movement, helping the magazine New Worlds to get financial backing from a 1967 Arts Council grant and publishing some of his more experimental work in the magazine.Besides his own writings, he edited a number of anthologies.", "For Faber he edited ''Introducing SF'', a collection of stories typifying various themes of science fiction, and ''Best Fantasy Stories''.", "In 1961, he edited an anthology of reprinted short science fiction for the British paperback publisher Penguin Books under the title ''Penguin Science Fiction''.", "This was remarkably successful, went into numerous reprints, and was followed up by two further anthologies: ''More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1963) and ''Yet More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1964).", "The later anthologies enjoyed the same success as the first, and all three were eventually published together as ''The Penguin Science Fiction Omnibus'' (1973), which also went into a number of reprints.", "In the 1970s, he produced several large collections of classic grand-scale science fiction, under the titles ''Space Opera'' (1974), ''Space Odysseys'' (1975), ''Galactic Empires'' (1976), ''Evil Earths'' (1976) and ''Perilous Planets'' (1978).", "Around this time, he edited a large-format volume ''Science Fiction Art'' (1975), with selections of artwork from the magazines and pulps.In response to the results from the planetary probes of the 1960s and 1970s, which showed that Venus was completely unlike the hot, tropical jungle usually depicted in science fiction, Aldiss and Harrison edited an anthology ''Farewell, Fantastic Venus!", "'', reprinting stories based on the pre-probe ideas of Venus.", "He also edited, with Harrison, a series of anthologies ''The Year's Best Science Fiction'' (Nos.", "1–9, 1968–1976).Aldiss invented a form of extremely short story called the ''mini-saga''.", "''The Daily Telegraph'' hosted a competition for the best mini-saga for several years, and Aldiss was the judge.", "He edited several anthologies of the best mini-sagas.", "'Metropolis' limited edition print by Brian AldissAldiss travelled to Yugoslavia, where he met fans in Ljubljana, Slovenia and published a travel book about Yugoslavia entitled ''Cities and Stones'' (1966), his only work in the genre.", "He published an alternative-history fantasy story, \"The Day of the Doomed King\" (1968), about Serbian kings in the Middle Ages, and wrote a novel called ''The Malacia Tapestry'', about an alternative Dalmatia.===Art===In addition to a highly successful career as a writer, Aldiss was an accomplished artist.", "His first solo exhibition, ''The Other Hemisphere'', was held in Oxford, August–September 2010, and the exhibition's centrepiece ''Metropolis'' (see figure) has since been released as a limited edition fine art print.", "(The exhibition title denotes the writer/artist's notion, \"words streaming from one side of his brain inspiring images in what he calls 'the other hemisphere'\".", ")===Personal life===In 1948, Aldiss married Olive Fortescue, secretary to the owner of Sanders' bookseller's in Oxford, where he had worked since 1947.He had two children from his first marriage: Clive in 1955 and Caroline Wendy in 1959, but the marriage \"finally collapsed\" in 1959 and dissolved in 1965.In 1965, he married his second wife, Margaret Christie Manson (daughter of John Alexander Christie Manson, an aeronautical engineer), a Scot and secretary to the editor of the ''Oxford Mail''; Aldiss was 40, and she 31.They lived in Oxford and had two children together, Tim and Charlotte.", "She died in 1997.===Death===Aldiss died on 19 August 2017, the day after his 92nd birthday." ], [ "Awards and honours", "In 2010He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1990.Aldiss was the \"Permanent Special Guest\" at the annual International Conference on the Fantastic in the Arts (ICFA) from 1989 through 2008.He was also the Guest of Honor at the conventions in 1986 and 1999.The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its 18th SFWA Grand Master in 1999 and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2004.He was awarded the title of Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to literature in the 2005 Birthday Honours list.In January 2007 he appeared on ''Desert Island Discs''.", "His choice of record to 'save' was \"Old Rivers\" sung by Walter Brennan, his choice of book was John Heilpern's biography of John Osborne, and his luxury a banjo.", "The full selection of eight favourite records is on the BBC website.On 1 July 2008 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Liverpool in recognition of his contribution to literature.", "The Brian W Aldiss Archive at the university holds manuscripts from the period 1943–1995.In 2013, Aldiss was recipient of the World Fantasy Convention Award at the World Fantasy Convention in Brighton, England.Aldiss sat on the Council of the Society of Authors.He won two Hugo awards: in 1962 for the ''Hothouse'' series; and in 1987 for ''Trillion Year Spree''.", "Aldiss also won a Nebula award in 1965 for \"The Saliva Tree\"." ], [ "Works", "Aldiss was the author of over 80 books and 300 short stories, as well as several volumes of poetry.===Novels===* ''The Brightfount Diaries'' (1955, Faber)* ''Non-Stop'' (1958, Faber), (1959, Digit), (1976, Pan), (2000, Millennium), US title ''Starship'' (1960, Signet S1779), (1969, Avon V2321)*: On a massive generation ship whose inhabitants have descended into primitivism over 23 generations, a member of a culturally primordial tribe investigates the dark, jungle-filled corridors of the ship and slowly uncovers the true nature of the universe he inhabits.", "* ''The Interpreter'' (1960, Digit R506), (1967, Four Square 1970), US title ''Bow Down to Nul'' Ace D-443*: A short novel about the huge, old galactic empire of Nuls, a giant, three-limbed, civilised alien race.", "Earth is just a lesser-than-third-class colony ruled by a Nul tyrant whose deceiving devices together with good willing but ineffective attempts of a Nul Signatory (roughly equivalent to Prime Minister) to clarify the abuses and with the disorganised earthling resistance reflect the complex relationship existing between imperialists and subject races which Aldiss himself had the chance of seeing at first hand when serving in India and Indonesia in the forties.", "* ''The Male Response'' (1959, Beacon 45), (1961, Four Square 1623)* ''The Primal Urge'' (1961, Ballantine F555), (1967, Sphere), (1976, Panther).", "A satire on sexual reserve, it explores the effects on society of a forehead-mounted \"Emotion Register\" that glows when the wearer experiences sexual attraction.", "The book was banned in Ireland.", "* ''Hothouse'' (1962, Faber), (1965, Four Square 1147), (1979, Panther), published in abridged form in the American market as ''The Long Afternoon of Earth'' (1962, Signet D2018).", "A fix-up novel based on short stories \"Hothouse\", \"Nomansland\", \"Undergrowth\", \"Timberline\" and \"Evergreen\".", "This assemblage of stories won the Hugo Award for short fiction in 1962.", "*: Set in a far future Earth, where the earth has stopped rotating, the Sun has increased output, and plants are engaged in a constant frenzy of growth and decay, like a tropical forest enhanced a thousandfold; a few small groups of elvish humans still live on the edge of extinction, beneath the giant banyan tree that covers the day side of the earth.", "* ''Greybeard'' (1964, Harcourt, Brace & World), (1964, Faber), (1965, Signet P2689), (1968, Panther)*: Set decades after the Earth's population has been sterilised as a result of nuclear bomb tests conducted in Earth's orbit, the book shows an emptying world, occupied by an aging, childless population.", "* ''The Dark Light Years'' (1964, Signet D2497), (1964, Faber), (1966, Four Square 1437), (1979, Panther)*: The encounter of humans with the utods, gentle aliens whose physical and mental health requires wallowing in mud and filth, and who – though they achieved interstellar space flight – are not even recognised as intelligent by the humans.", "The critic Fredric Jameson described ''The Dark Light Years'' as, along with Ursula K. Le Guin's ''The Word for World Is Forest'', \"one of the major SF denunciations of the American genocide in Vietnam.", "\"* ''Earthworks'' (1965, Faber), (1966, Doubleday), (1967, Four Square), (1967, Signet P3116), (1979, Panther), (1980, Avon)* ''An Age'' (1967, Faber), (1969, Sphere), (1979, Panther), US title ''Cryptozoic!''", "(1969, Avon), (1978, Panther), a dystopic time-travel novel* ''Report on Probability A'' (serialized 1967), (1968, Faber), (1969, Sphere).", "(1969, Doubleday), (1970, Lancer), (1980, Avon)* ''Barefoot in the Head'' (1969, Faber), (1970, Doubleday), (1972, Ace), (1974, Corgi), (1981, AVON), (1990, Gollancz VGSF Classics), a fix-up novel based on short stories: \"Just Passing Through\", \"Multi-Value Motorway\", \"Still Trajectories\", \"The Serpent of Kundalini\", \"Drake-Man Route\", and novelettes: \"Auto-Ancestral Fracture\", \"Ouspenski's Astrabahn\"*: Perhaps Aldiss's most experimental work, this first appeared in several parts as the ''Acid Head War'' series in ''New Worlds''.", "Set in a Europe some years after a flare-up in the Middle East led to Europe being attacked with bombs releasing huge quantities of long-lived hallucinogenic drugs.", "Into an England with a population barely maintaining a grip on reality comes a young Serb, who himself starts coming under the influence of the ambient aerosols, and finds himself leading a messianic crusade.", "The narration and dialogue reflects the shattering of language under the influence of the drugs, in mutating phrases and puns and allusions, in a deliberate echo of ''Finnegans Wake''.", "* ''Horatio Stubbs'' series:*# ''The Hand-Reared Boy'' (1970, Weidenfeld & Nicolson), (1971, Signet T4575), (1971, Corgi)*# ''A Soldier Erect'' (1971, Weidenfeld & Nicolson), (1972, Corgi)*# ''A Rude Awakening'' (1978, Weidenfeld & Nicolson), (1979, Corgi)*: Omnibus edition, ''The Horatio Stubbs Saga'' (1985, Panther)* ''Frankenstein Unbound'' (1973, Jonathan Cape), (1974, Random House), (1975, Fawcett Crest), (1975, Pan)*: A 21st century politician is transported to 19th century Switzerland where he encounters Victor Frankenstein, the Frankenstein Monster and Mary Shelley.", "* ''The Eighty Minute Hour'', or ''The 80 minute Hour'' (1974, Jonathan Cape), (1974, Doubleday), (1975, Leisure), (1975, Pan)*: A weird and ambitious \"space opera\" whose characters actually sing.", "The world is in chaos after nuclear war causes time slips and even those that believe they rule the world have trouble knowing where and when they are.", "* ''The Malacia Tapestry'' (1976, Jonathan Cape), (1977, Harper & Row), (1978, Panther), (1978, Ace), (1985, Berkley)*: A picaresque novel with fantasy elements, set in a city not unlike Venice.", "However, it is a Venice without Christianity or monotheism, existing within an alternate version of Renaissance or Early Baroque Italy.", "* ''Brothers of the Head'' (1977, Pierrot), (1979, Panther)*: A large-format book, illustrated by Ian Pollock, tells the strange story of the rock stars Tom and Barry Howe, Siamese twins with a third, dormant head that eventually starts to awaken.", "* ''Enemies of the System'' (1978, Jonathan Cape), (1978, Harper & Row), (1980, Panther), (1981, Avon)* ''Moreau's Other Island'' (1980, Jonathan Cape), (1982, Panther), or ''An Island Called Moreau'' (1981, Simon & Schuster), (1981, Timescape)* ''Squire Quartet'' series:*# '' Life in the West'' (1980, Weidenfeld & Nicolson), (1982, Corgi)*# '' Forgotten Life'' (1988, Gollancz), (1989, Atheneum / Macmillan), (1989, Mandarin)*# '' Remembrance Day'' (1993, HarperCollins UK), (1993, St. Martin's Press), (1994, Flamingo)*# '' Somewhere East of Life'' (1994, Carroll & Graf), (1994, Flamingo)* ''Helliconia'' Trilogy*# ''Helliconia Spring'' (1982, Atheneum), (1982, Jonathan Cape), (1983, Berkley), (1983, Granada)*#: BSFA Award; Campbell Memorial Award; Nebula Award finalist*# ''Helliconia Summer'' (1983, Atheneum), (1983, Jonathan Cape), (1984, Berkley), (1985, Granada)*#: BSFA finalist; Locus Award, fourth place*# ''Helliconia Winter'' (1985, Atheneum), (1985, Jonathan Cape), (1986, Berkley), (1986, Granada)*#: BSFA; Nebula finalist; Locus, fifth place*: Omnibus edition, ''Helliconia'' (2010, Gollancz SF Masterworks)* ''Ruins'' (1987), novella* ''The Year Before Yesterday'', or ''Cracken at Critical'' (1987, Franklin Watts), (1987, Kerosina), (1988, St. Martin's), (1989, New English Library), a fix-up novel based on novelette \"Equator\" and novella \"The Impossible Smile\"* ''Dracula Unbound'' (1990, HarperCollins), (1991, Graftton)* ''White Mars or, the Mind Set Free'' (1999, Little, Brown UK), (2000, St. Martin's), with Roger Penrose * ''Super-State'' (2002, Orbit)* ''The Cretan Teat'' (2002)* ''Affairs at Hampden Ferrers'' (2004)* ''Sanity and the Lady'' (2005, PS Publishing)* ''Jocasta'' (2006, Rose Press)*: A re-telling of Sophocles's Theban tragedies concerning Oedipus and Antigone.", "In Aldiss's novel, myth and magic are vibrantly real, experienced through an evolving human consciousness.", "Amidst various competing interpretations of reality, including the appearance of a time-travelling Sophocles, Aldiss provides an alternative explanation of the Sphinx's riddle.", "* ''HARM'' (2007, del Rey), (2007, Duckworth)*: Campbell Award nominee* ''Walcot'' (2010, Goldmark)*: Family saga spanning the 20th century* ''Finches of Mars'' (2012)* ''Comfort Zone'' (2013)===Short stories===Collections:* ''Space, Time and Nathaniel'' (1957, Faber), (1966, Four Square 1496), (1979, Panther), collection of 14 short stories:*: \"T\", \"Our Kind of Knowledge\", \"Psyclops\", \"Conviction\", \"Not for an Age\", \"The Shubshub Race\", \"Criminal Record\", \"The Failed Men\", \"Supercity\", \"There Is a Tide\", \"Pogsmith\", \"Outside\", \"Panel Game\", \"Dumb Show\"* ''The Canopy of Time'' (1959, Faber), (1963, Four Square 821), collection of 10 short stories and 1 novelette:*: \"Three's a Cloud\", \"All the World's Tears\", \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"Blighted Profile\", \"Judas Danced\", \"O, Ishrail!", "\", \"Incentive\", \"Gene-Hive\", \"Secret of a Mighty City\", \"They Shall Inherit\", \"Visiting Amoeba\" (novelette)*: The US title ''Galaxies Like Grains of Sand'' (1960, Signet S1815), (1979 Panther), was a different version, which Aldiss preferred.", "* ''No Time Like Tomorrow'' (1959, Signet S1683), collection of 11 short stories and 1 novelette:*: \"T\", \"Not for an Age\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"The Failed Men\", \"Carrion Country\", \"Judas Danced\", \"Psyclops\", \"Outside\", \"Gesture of Farewell\" (novelette), \"The New Father Christmas\", \"Blighted Profile\", \"Our Kind of Knowledge\"* ''Equator'', or ''Equator and Segregation'' (1963), collection of 2 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Equator\" (novella), \"Segregation, AKA The Game of God\" (novelette)* ''The Airs of Earth'' (1963, Faber), (1965, Four Square 1325), collection of 4 short stories and 4 novelettes:*: \"A Kind of Artistry\" (novelette), \"How to Be a Soldier\", \"Basis for Negotiation\" (novelette), \"Shards\", \"O Moon of My Delight!\"", "(novelette), \"The International Smile\", \"The Game of God\" (novelette), \"Old Hundredth\"* ''Starswarm'' (1963, Signet D2411), collection of 4 short stories and 4 novelettes:*: \"Sector Vermilion: A Kind of Artistry\" (novelette), \"Sector Gray: Hearts and Engines\", \"Sector Violet: The Underprivileged\", \"Sector Diamond: The Game of God\" (novelette), \"Sector Green: Shards\", \"Sector Yellow: Legends of Smith's Burst\" (novelette), \"Sector Azure: O Moon of My Delight!\"", "(novelette), \"The Rift: Old Hundredth\"* ''Best SF stories of Brian Aldiss'' (1965, Faber); US title ''Who Can Replace a Man?''", "(1965, Harcourt, Brace & World), (1967, Signet P3311), collection of 11 short stories and 3 novelettes:*: \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"Not for an Age\", \"Psyclops\", \"Outside\", \"Dumb Show\", \"The New Father Christmas\", \"Ahead\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"Man on Bridge\", \"The Impossible Star\" (novelette), \"Basis for Negotiation\" (novelette), \"Old Hundredth\", \"A Kind of Artistry\" (novelette), \"Man in His Time\"* ''The Saliva Tree and Other Strange Growths'' (1966, Faber), (1968, Sphere), collection of 7 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:*: \"The Saliva Tree\" (novella), \"Danger: Religion!\"", "(novella), \"The Source\", \"The Lonely Habit\", \"A Pleasure Shared\", \"One Role with Relish\", \"Legends of Smith's Burst\" (novelette), \"The Day of the Doomed King\", \"Paternal Care\", \"Girl and Robot with Flowers\"*: Title story \"The Saliva Tree\" was written to mark the centenary of H. G. Wells's birth, and shared the Nebula Award for the best novella of 1964.While set in a Wellsian milieu, it contains two plot elements also found in the stories of H. P. Lovecraft: an object from space which causes crops and livestock to grow prolifically, but be unpalatable (''The Colour out of Space''); and a monster which is visible only when sprayed with an opaque powder (''The Dunwich Horror'').", "* ''Intangibles Inc. and Other Stories'' (1969, Faber), (1971, Corgi), collection of 5 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Neanderthal Planet\" (novelette), \"Randy's Syndrome\" (novelette), \"Send Her Victorious or the War Against the Victorians, 2000 A.D.\" (novelette), \"Intangibles, Inc.\" (novelette), \"Since the Assassination\" (novella)* ''The Moment of Eclipse'' (1970, Faber), (1972, Doubleday), (1973, Panther), collection of 12 short stories and 2 novelettes:*: \"The Moment of Eclipse\", \"The Day We Embarked for Cythera...\", \"Orgy of the Living and the Dying\" (novelette), Super-Toys Last All Summer Long\", \"The Village Swindler\", \"Down the Up Escalation\", \"That Uncomfortable Pause Between Life and Art\", \"Confluence\", \"Heresies of the Huge God\", ''Clement Yale'' series (#1 \"The Circulation of the Blood\" (novelette), #2 \"...And the Stagnation of the Heart\"), \"The Worm That Flies\", \"Working in the Spaceship Yards\", \"Swastika!", "\"*: British Science Fiction Association (BSFA) Award* ''Neanderthal Planet'' (1970, Avon), collection of 4 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Neanderthal Planet\" (novelette), \"Danger: Religion!\"", "(novella), \"Intangibles, Inc.\" (novelette), \"Since the Assassination\" (novelette)* ''Best Science Fiction Stories of Brian W. Aldiss'' (1971), collection of 14 short stories and 2 novelettes:*: \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"Not for an Age\", \"Outside\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"Man on Bridge\", \"The Impossible Star\" (novelette), \"Old Hundredth\", \"Man in His Time\", \"Shards\", \"Girl and Robot with Flowers\", \"The Moment of Eclipse\", \"Swastika!", "\", \"Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land\" (novelette), \"Judas Danced\", \"Still Trajectories\", \"Another Little Boy\"* ''The Book of Brian Aldiss'' (1972, DAW 29), UK title ''The Comic Inferno'' (1973, New English Library), collection of 5 short stories and 4 novelettes:*: \"Comic Inferno\" (novelette), \"The Underprivileged\", \"Cardiac Arrest\" (novelette), \"In the Arena\", \"All the World's Tears\", \"Amen and Out\", \"The Soft Predicament\" (novelette), \"As for Our Fatal Continuity...\", \"Send Her Victorious\" (novelette)* ''Last Orders and Other Stories'' (1977, Jonathan Cape), (1979, Panther), collection of 23 short stories and 1 novelette:*: \"Last Orders\", \"Creatures of Apogee\", ''Enigma'' series, ''Three Deadly Enigmas: V: Year by Year the Evil Gains'' (#1 \"Within the Black Circle\", #2 \"Killing Off the Big Animals\", #3 \"What Are You Doing?", "Why Are You Doing It?", "\"), ''Enigma'' series, ''Diagrams For Three (Enigmatic) Stories'' (#1 \"The Girl in the Tau-Dream\", #2 \"The Immobility Crew\", #3 \"A Cultural Side-Effect\"), \"Live?", "Our Computers Will Do That for Us\", \"The Monsters of Ingratitude IV\", ''Enigma'' series, ''The Aperture Moment'' (#1 \"Waiting for the Universe to Begin\", #2 \"But Without Orifices\", #3 \"Aimez-Vous Holman Hunt?", "\"), \"Backwater\", ''Enigma'' series, ''Three Enigmas II: The Eternal Theme Of Exile'' (#1 \"The Eternal Theme of Exile\", #2 \"All Those Enduring Old Charms\", #3 \"Nobody Spoke Or Waved Goodbye\"), \"The Expensive Delicate Ship\", ''Enigma'' series, ''Three Enigmas IV: Three Coins in Clockwork Fountain'' (#1 \"Carefully Observed Women\", #2 \"The Daffodil Returns the Smile\", #3 \"The Year of the Quiet Computer\"), \"Appearance of Life\", \"Wired for Sound\", \"Journey to the Heartland\" (novelette)* ''Galaxies Like Grains of Sand'' (1979, Panther), collection of 9 short stories:*: \"The War Millennia\", \"The Sterile Millennia\", \"The Robot Millennia\", \"The Mingled Millennia\", \"The Dark Millennia\", \"The Star Millennia\", \"The Mutant Millennia\", \"The Megalopolis Millennia\", \"The Ultimate Millennia\"* ''Brothers of the Head and Where the Lines Converge'' (1979), collection of 1 novel, 1 novelette and 6 poems:*: ''Brothers of the Head'' (novel), \"Big Lover\" (poem), \"Love Is a Forest\" (poem), \"Bacterial Action\" (poem), \"Star-Time\" (poem), \"Just for a Moment\" (poem), \"I Was Never Deaf or Blind to Her Music\" (poem), \"Where The Lines Converge\" (novelette)* ''New Arrivals, Old Encounters'' (1979, Jonathan Cape), (1980, Harper & Row), (1981, Avon), collection of 9 short stories and 3 novelettes:*: \"New Arrivals, Old Encounters\", \"The Small Stones of Tu Fu\", \"Three Ways\" (novelette), \"Amen and Out\", \"A Spot of Konfrontation\", \"The Soft Predicament\" (novelette), \"Non-Isotropic\", \"One Blink of the Moon\", \"Space for Reflection\", \"Song of the Silencer\", \"Indifference\" (novelette), \"The Impossible Puppet Show\"* ''Foreign Bodies'' (1981), collection of 5 short stories and 1 novelette:*: \"A Romance of the Equator\", \"Boat Animals\", \"Foreign Bodies\", \"Frontiers\", \"The Skeleton\", \"Just Back From Java\" (novelette)* ''Bestsellers Vol.", "3 No.", "9: Best of Aldiss'' (1983), collection of 10 short stories and 2 novelettes:*: \"Oh, For a Closer Brush with God\", \"Appearance of Life\", \"The Small Stones of Tu Fu\", \"The Game with the Big Heavy Ball\", \"A Romance of the Equator\", ''Enigma'' series, ''Three Revolutionary Enigmas'' (#1 \"The Fall of Species B\", #2 \"In the Halls of the Hereafter\", #3 \"The Ancestral Home of Thought\"), \"The Blue Background\", \"A Private Whale\" (novelette), \"Consolations of Age\", \"The Girl Who Sang\" (novelette)* ''Seasons in Flight'' (1984, Jonathan Cape), (1986, Atheneum), (1986, Grafton), (1988, Ace), collection of 8 short stories (10 in 1986) and 1 novelette:*: \"The Gods in Flight\", \"A Romance of the Equator\", \"The Blue Background\", \"The Girl Who Sang\" (novelette), \"Igur and the Mountain\", \"The O in José\", \"The Other Side of the Lake\", \"The Plain, the Endless Plain\", \"Incident in a Far Country\"*: Added in 1986: \"Consolations of Age\", \"Juniper\"* ''Science Fiction Blues Programme Book'' (1987), collection of 3 short stories and 2 poems:*: \"Traveller, Traveller, Seek Your Wife in the Forests of This Life\", \"The Ascent of Humbelstein\", \"At the Caligula Hotel\" (poem), \"Rhine Locks are Closed in Battle Against Poison\" (poem), \"Those Shouting Nights\"* ''The Magic of the Past'' (1987), collection of 2 short stories:*: \"North Scarning\", \"The Magic of the Past\"* ''Best SF Stories of Brian W. Aldiss'' (1988), collection of 18 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Outside\", \"All the World's Tears\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"Man on Bridge\", \"The Girl and the Robot with Flowers\", \"The Saliva Tree\" (novella), \"Man in His Time\", \"Heresies of the Huge God\", \"Confluence\", \"Working in the Spaceship Yards\", The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 \"Super-Toys Last All Summer Long\"), \"Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land\" (novelette), \"The Dark Soul of the Night\", \"Appearance of Life\", \"Last Orders\", \"Door Slams in Fourth World\", \"The Gods in Flight\", \"My Country 'Tis Not Only of Thee\" (novelette), \"Infestation\", \"The Difficulties Involved in Photographing Nix Olympica\"* ''Best SF Stories'' (1988), collection of 18 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Outside\", \"The Failed Men\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"Man on Bridge\", \"Girl and Robot with Flowers\", \"The Saliva Tree\" (novella), \"Man in His Time\", \"Heresies of the Huge God\", \"Confluence\", \"Working in the Spaceship Yards\", The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 \"Super-Toys Last All Summer Long\"), \"Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land\" (novelette), \"The Dark Soul of the Night\", \"Appearance of Life\", \"Last Orders\", \"Door Slams in Fourth World\", \"The Gods in Flight\", \"My Country 'Tis Not Only of Thee\" (novelette), \"Infestation\", \"The Difficulties Involved in Photographing Nix Olympica\"* ''Man in His Time: The Best Science Fiction Stories of Brian W. Aldiss'' (1988, Atheneum) , (1990, Collier), collection of 19 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Outside\", \"The Failed Men\", \"All the World's Tears\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"Man on Bridge\", \"The Girl and the Robot with Flowers\", \"The Saliva Tree\" (novella), \"Man in His Time\", \"Heresies of the Huge God\", \"Confluence\", \"Working in the Spaceship Yards\", The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 \"Super-Toys Last All Summer Long\"), \"Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land\" (novelette), \"The Dark Soul of the Night\", \"Appearance of Life\", \"Last Orders\", \"Door Slams in Fourth World\", \"The Gods in Flight\", \"My Country 'Tis Not Only of Thee\" (novelette), \"Infestation\", \"The Difficulties Involved in Photographing Nix Olympica\"* ''Science Fiction Blues'' (1988), collection of 3 short stories, 15 poems and 11 plays:*: \"Science Fiction Blues (play)\" (play), \"Super-Toys Last All Summer Long (play)\" (play), \"The Death of Art?", "(play)\" (play), \"The Expensive Delicate Ship (play)\" (play), \"Don't Go To Jupiter\" (poem), \"Star-Time\" (poem), \"The Cat Improvement Company\" (poem), \"Progression of the Species\" (poem), \"Juniper (play)\" (play), \"Conversation on Progress (play)\" (play), \"Drinks with the Spider King (play)\" (play), \"Three Serials (play)\" (play), \"Last Orders (play)\" (play), \"Bill Carter Takes Over (play)\" (play), \"Talking Heads (play)\" (play), \"Traveller, Traveller, Seek Your Wife in the Forests of This Life\", \"The Ascent of Humbelstein\", \"Those Shouting Nights\", \"The Lying Truth\" (poem), \"Destruction of the Fifth Planet\" (poem), \"The Expanding Universe\" (poem), \"Bacterial Action\" (poem), \"To a Triceratops Skull in the British Museum\" (poem), \"Femalien\" (poem), \"Space Burial\" (poem), \"Taking Leave of a Northern Institution\" (poem), \"Thomas Hardy Considers the Newly-Published Special Theory of Relativity\" (poem), \"Parting Late in Life\" (poem), \"Happiness and Suffering\" (poem)* ''A romance of the Equator.", "Best Fantasy Stories'' (1989, Gollancz), (1990, Atheneum / Macmillan) , collection of 22 short stories and 4 novelettes:*: \"Old Hundredth\", \"Day of the Doomed King\", \"The Source\", \"The Village Swindler\", \"The Worm That Flies\", \"The Moment of Eclips\", \"So Far from Prague\", \"The Day We Embarked for Cythera\", \"Castle Scene with Penitents\", \"The Game with the Big Heavy Ball\", \"Creatures of Apogee\", \"The Small Stones of Tu Fu\", \"Just Back From Java\" (novelette), \"A Romance of the Equator\", \"Journey to the Goat Star\" (novelette), \"The Girl Who Sang\" (novelette), \"Consolations of Age\", \"The Blue Background\", \"The Plain, the Endless Plain\", \"You Never Asked My Name\", \"Lies!\"", "(novelette), \"North Scarning\", \"The Big Question\", \"The Ascent of Humbelstein\", \"How an Inner Door Opened to My Heart\", \"Bill Carter Takes Over\"* ''Bodily Functions'' (1991), collection of 2 short stories, 2 novelettes, 2 poems and 1 essay:*: \"To Sam\" (poem), \"Three Degrees Over\" (novelette), \"A Tupolev Too Far\" (novelette), \"Going for a Pee\", \"Better Morphosis\", \"Letter on the subject of Bowel Movement\" (essay), \"Envoi\" (poem)* ''A Tupolev Too Far and Other Stories'' (1993, HarperCollins UK), (1994, St. Martin's), collection of 6 short stories, 5 novelettes and 2 poems:*: \"Short Stories\" (poem), \"A Tupolev Too Far\" (novelette), \"Ratbird\", \"FOAM\" (novelette), \"Summertime Was Nearly Over\", \"Better Morphosis\", \"Three Degrees Over\" (novelette), \"A Life of Matter and Death\" (novelette), \"A Day in the Life of a Galactic Empire\", \"Confluence\", \"Confluence Revisited\", \"North of the Abyss\" (novelette), \"Alphabet of Ameliorating Hope\" (poem)* ''The Secret of This Book'' (1995, HarperCollins UK), US title ''Common Clay: 20-Odd Stories'' (1996, St. Martin's), collection of 20 short stories and 3 novelettes:*: \"Common Clay\", \"The Mistakes, Miseries and Misfortunes of Mankind\", \"How the Gates Opened and Closed\", \"Headless\", \"Travelling Towards Humbris\", \"If Hamlet's Uncle Had Been a Nicer Guy\", \"Else the Isle with Calibans\", \"A Swedish Birthday Present\", ''Enigma'' series, ''Three Moon Enigmas'' (#1 \"His Seventieth Heaven\", #2 \"Rose in the Evening\", #3 \"On the Inland Sea\"), \"A Dream of Antigone\", \"The God Who Slept With Women\" (novelette), \"Evans in His Moment of Glory\", \"Horse Meat\" (novelette), \"An Unwritten Love Note\", \"Making My Father Read Revered Writings\", \"Sitting With Sick Wasps\", \"Becoming the Full Butterfly\" (novelette), \"Traveller, Traveller, Seek Your Wife in the Forests of This Life\", ''Enigma'' series, ''Her Toes Were Beautiful on the Mountains'' (#1 \"Another Way Than Death\", #2 \"That Particular Green of Obsequies\"), ''Enigma'' series, ''Three Revolutionary Enigmas'' (#3 \"The Ancestral Home of Thought\")* ''Supertoys Last All Summer Long and Other Stories of Future Time'' (2001, Orbit), (2001, St. Martin's), collection of 18 short stories and 1 novelette:*: The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 \"Supertoys Last All Summer Long\", #2 \"Supertoys When Winter Comes\", #3 \"Supertoys in Other Seasons\"), \"Apogee Again\", \"III\", \"The Old Mythyology\", \"Headless\", \"Beef\", \"Nothing in Life Is Ever Enough\", \"A Matter of Mathematics\", \"The Pause Button\", \"Three Types of Solitude\", \"Steppenpferd\", \"Cognitive Ability and the Light Bulb\", \"Dark Society\", \"Galaxy Zee\", \"Marvells of Utopia\", \"Becoming the Full Butterfly\" (novelette), \"A Whiter Mars: A Socratic Dialogue of Times to Come\"* ''Cultural Breaks'' (2005, Tachyon Publications), collection of 9 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Tarzan of the Alps\", \"Tralee of Man Young\", \"The Eye Opener\", \"Aboard the Beatitude\" (novelette), \"The Man and a Man with His Mule\", \"Dusk Flight\", \"Commander Calex Killed, Fire and Fury at the Edge of World, Scones Perfect\", \"The Hibernators\", \"The National Heritage\", \"How the Gates Opened and Closed\", \"Total Environment\" (novelette), \"A Chinese Perspective\" (novella)* ''A Prehistory of Mind'' (2008, Mayapple Press), collection of*: 55 poems in three sections:*:* Far Away: \"The Deceptive Truth\", \"Flight 063\", \"Breugel's Hunters in the Snow\", \"Tien Shan\", \"The Kremlin, Moscow, ca.", "1950\", \"Of All the Places\", \"The Moment\", \"Winter\", \"Journeying\", \"Rapide des morts\", \"The Cynar, Istanbul\", \"Exmoor in September\", \"On Passing a Roadside Auction of Featherbeds\", \"April in East Coker\", \"Gaughin's Tahiti\", \"Monemvasia\"*:* Affection: \"The Heavy Cup\", \"Spinal Metaphors\", \"Comfort Me, Sweetheart\", \"Get Out of My Life\", \"Being a Little Well\", \"This Brown Leaf\", \"Leaving Our Common Bed\", \"Rest Your Weary Head Upon Your Pillow\", \"The Empty Boxes\", \"Greed\", \"The First of March 1998\", \"Margaret's Questions\", \"Song: In Bed She Like a Lily Lay\", \"Jocasta\", \"Lu Tai\", \"Rondeau After Leigh Hunt\", \"A Piece of Cleopatra\", \"Aral Seasons\", \"At the Caligula Hotel\"*:* Observation: \"The Prehistory of the Mind\", \"Volcano\", \"Perspectives\", \"The Cat Improvement Company\", \"Winter Bites Deep\", \"The Bonfire of Time\", \"Iceberg Music\", \"The Bellowings\", \"Jackie\", \"The Bare Facts\", \"Nocturne\", \"An Interval\", \"Fairy Tales\", \"The Foot Speaks\", \"The Women\", \"Bosom Friends\", \"Colour Contrasts\", \"Uzbecks in London\", \"Antigone's Song\", \"A. E. van Vogt\"*: 1 short story: \"Mortistan\"* ''The Invention of Happiness'' (2013), collection of 33 short stories:*: \"The Invention of Happiness\", \"Beyond Plato's Cave\", \"Old Mother\", \"Belief\", \"After the Party\", \"Our Moment of Appearance\", \"The Bone Show\", \"The Great Plains\", \"What Befell the Tadpole\", \"The Sand Castle\", \"The Village of Stillthorpe\", \"Peace and War\", \"The Vintage Cottage\", \"Moderns on Ancient Ancestors\", \"The Hungers of an Old Language\", \"How High is a Cathedral?", "\", \"A Middle Class Dinner\", \"Flying Singapore Airlines\", \"The Apology\", \"Camões\", \"The Question of Atmosphere\", \"Illusions of Reality\", \"Lady with Apple Trees\", \"Flying and Bombing\", \"Molly Smiles Forever\", \"Days Gone By\", \"The Last of the Hound-Folk\", \"Munch\", \"The Music of Sound\", \"The Silent Cosmos\", \"Writings on the Rock\", \"The Light Really\", \"The Mistake They Made\"* The Brian Aldiss Collection:*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1950s'' (2013), collection of 57 short stories and 8 novellas/novelettes:*#: \"A Book in Time\", \"Criminal Record\", \"Breathing Space\", \"The Great Time Hiccup\", \"Not for an Age\", \"Our Kind of Knowledge\", \"Outside\", \"Panel Game\", \"Pogsmith\", \"Conviction\", \"Dumb Show\", \"The Failed Men\", \"Non-Stop\" (novelette), \"Psyclops\", \"T\", \"There Is a Tide\", \"Tradesman's Exit\", \"With Esmond in Mind\", \"The Flowers of the Forest\", \"Gesture of Farewell\" (novelette), \"The Ice Mass Cometh\", \"Let's Be Frank\", \"No Gimmick\", \"The War Millennia\", \"Out of Reach\", \"The Sterile Millennia\", \"All the World's Tears\", \"The Dark Millennia\", \"O Ishrail!", "\", \"The Ultimate Millennia\", \"Visiting Amoeba\" (novelette), \"The Shubshub Race\", \"Supercity\", \"Judas Danced\", \"Ten-Storey Jigsaw\", \" The Pit My Parish\" (novelette), \"Blighted Profile\", \"Who Can Replace a Man?", "\", \"The Carp That Once ...\", \"Carrion Country\", \"Equator\" (novella), \"Fourth Factor\" (novelette), \"The Megalopolis Millennia\", \"Secret of a Mighty City\", \"The Star Millennia\", \"Incentive\", \"The Mutant Millennia\", \"Gene-Hive\", \"The New Father Christmas\", \"Ninian's Experiences\", \"Poor Little Warrior!", "\", \"Sector Diamond\", \"Sight of a Silhouette\", \"They Shall Inherit\", \"Are You an Android?", "\", \"The Arm\", \"The Bomb-Proof Bomb\", \"Fortune's Fool\", \"Intangibles, Inc.\" (novelette), \"Sector Yellow\", \"The Lieutenant\", \"The Other One\" (novelette), \"Safety Valve\", \"The Towers of San Ampa\", \"Three's a Cloud\"*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 1)'' (2015), collection of 11 short stories and 6 novellas/novelettes:*#: \"Faceless Card\", \"Neanderthal Planet\" (novelette), \"Old Hundredth\", \"Original Sinner\", \"Sector Grey\", \"Stage-Struck!", "\", \"Under an English Heaven\", \"Hen's Eyes\", \"Sector Azure\" (novelette), \"A Pleasure Shared\", \"Basis for Negotiation\" (novelette), \"Conversation Piece\", \"Danger: Religion!\"", "(novella), \"The Green Leaves of Space\", \"Sector Green\", \"Sector Vermilion\" (novelette), \"Tyrants' Territory\" (novelette)*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 2)'' (2015), collection of 10 short stories and 6 novellas/novelettes:*#: \"Comic Inferno\" (novelette), \"The Impossible Star\" (novelette), \"In the Arena\", \"The International Smile\", \"Sector Violet\", \"Skeleton Crew\" (novella), \"The Thing Under the Glacier\", \"Counter-Feat\", \"Jungle Substitute\" (novelette), \"Lazarus\", \"Man on Bridge\", \"Never Let Go of My Hand!", "\", \"No Moon To-night!\"", "(novelette), \"One-Way Strait\", \"Pink Plastic Gods\", \"Unauthorised Persons\" (novelette)*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 3)'' (2015), collection of 18 short stories, 3 novellas/novelettes and 1 essay:*#: \"The Day of the Doomed King\", \"The Girl and the Robot with Flowers\", \"How are they All on Deneb IV?\"", "(essay), \"The Impossible Smile\" (novelette), \"Man in His Time\", \"Old Time's Sake\", \"The Saliva Tree\" (novella), \"Scarfe's World\", \"The Small Betraying Detail\", \"The Source\", \"Amen and Out\", \"Another Little Boy\", \"Burning Question\", ''Clement Yale'' series (#1 \"The Circulation of the Blood\" (novelette)), \"The Eyes of the Blind King\", \"Heresies of the Huge God\", \"Lambeth Blossom\", \"The Lonely Habit\", \"The O in José\", \"One Role with Relish\", \"Paternal Care\", \"The Plot Sickens\"*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 4)'' (2015), collection of 28 short stories, 7 novellas/novelettes and 1 essay:*#: \"A Difficult Age\", \"A Taste for Dostoevsky\", \"Auto-Ancestral Fracture\" (novelette), \"Confluence\", \"The Dead Immortal\", \"Down the Up Escalation\", \"Full Sun\", \"Just Passing Through\", \"Multi-Value Motorway\", \"The Night That All Time Broke Out\", \"Randy's Syndrome\" (novelette), \"Still Trajectories\", \"Two Modern Myths: Reflection on Mars and Ultimate Construction\", \"Wonder Weapon\", ''Clement Yale'' series (#2 \"...And the Stagnation of the Heart\"), \"Drake-Man Route\", \"Dreamer, Schemer\", \"Dream of Distance\" (essay), \"Send Her Victorious\" (novelette), \"The Serpent of Kundalini\", \"The Tell-Tale Heart-Machine\", \"Total Environment\" (novelette), \"The Village Swindler\", \"When I Was Very Jung\", \"The Worm That Flies\", ''Jerry Cornelius'' series (\"The Firmament Theorem\"), \"Greeks Bringing Knee-High Gifts\", \"The Humming Heads\", \"The Moment of Eclipse\", \"Ouspenski's Astrabahn\" (novelette), \"Since the Assassination\" (novella), \"So Far from Prague\", \"The Soft Predicament\" (novelette), The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 \"Supertoys Last All Summer Long\"), \"That Uncomfortable Pause Between Life and Art\", \"Working in the Spaceship Yards\"*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1970s (Part 1)'' (2016)*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1970s (Part 2)'' (2016)*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1980s (Part 1)'' (2016)*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1980s (Part 2)'' (2016)*# ''The Complete Short Stories: The 1990s'' (2016)Uncollected short stories:* \"Index to Life\" (1954)* \"Ultimate Construction\" (1967), as C. C. Shackleton* \"The Hunter at His Ease\" (1970)* \"The Secret of Holman Hunt and the Crude Death Rate\" (1970)* \"The Weather on Demansky Island\" (1970)* \"The Day Equality Broke Out\" (1971)* \"Manuscript Found in a Police State\" (1972)* \"The Ergot Show\" (1972)* \"Strange in a Familiar Way\" (1973)* \"The Planet at the Bottom of the Garden\" (1973)* \"Serpent Burning on an Altar\" (1973)* \"The Young Soldier's Horoscope\" (1973)* \"Woman in Sunlight with Mandolin\" (1973)* ''Enigma'' series:** ''Three Enigmas I'':**# \"The Enigma of Her Voyage\" (1973)**# \"I Ching, Who You?\"", "(1973)**# \"The Great Chain of Being What?\"", "(1973)** ''Three Enigmas II: The Eternal Theme Of Exile'':**# \"The Eternal Theme of Exile\" (1973)**# \"All Those Enduring Old Charms\" (1973)**# \"Nobody Spoke Or Waved Goodbye\" (1973)** ''Three Enigmas III: All in God's Mind'':**# \"The Unbearableness of Other Lives\" (1974)**# \"The Old Fleeing and Fleeting Images\" (1974)**# \"Looking on the Sunny Side of an Eclipse\" (1974)** ''Diagrams For Three (Enigmatic) Stories'':**# \"The Girl in the Tau-Dream\" (1974)**# \"The Immobility Crew\" (1974)**# \"A Cultural Side-Effect\" (1974)** ''Three Songs for Enigmatic Lovers'':**# \"A One-Man Expedition Through Life\" (1974)**# \"The Taste of Shrapnel\" (1974)**# \"40 Million Miles from the Nearest Blonde\" (1974)** ''Three Enigmas IV: Three Coins in Clockwork Fountain'':**# \"Carefully Observed Women\" (1975)**# \"The Daffodil Returns the Smile\" (1975)**# \"The Year of the Quiet Computer\" (1975)** ''Three Deadly Enigmas: V: Year by Year the Evil Gains'':**# \"Within the Black Circle\" (1975)**# \"Killing Off the Big Animals\" (1975)**# \"What Are You Doing?", "Why Are You Doing It?\"", "(1975)** ''The Aperture Moment'':**# \"Waiting for the Universe to Begin\" (1975)**# \"But Without Orifices\" (1975)**# \"Aimez-Vous Holman Hunt?\"", "(1975)** ''Three Revolutionary Enigmas'':**# \"The Fall of Species B\" (1980)**# \"In the Halls of the Hereafter\" (1980)**# \"The Ancestral Home of Thought\" (1980)** ''Her Toes Were Beautiful on the Mountains'':**# \"Another Way Than Death\" (1992)**# \"That Particular Green of Obsequies\" (1992)** ''Three Moon Enigmas'':**# \"His Seventieth Heaven\" (1995)**# \"Rose in the Evening\" (1995)**# \"On the Inland Sea\" (1995)* \"I dreamed I was Jung last night\" (1974)* \"Melancholia has a Plastic Core\" (1974)* \"Always Somebody There\" (1975)* \"Excommunication\" (1975)* \"How Did the Dinosaurs Do It?\"", "(1976)* \"In the Mist of Life\" (1977)* \"The Bang-Bang\" (1977), novelette* \"My Lady of the Psychiatric Sorrows\" (1977)* \"Yin, Yang and Jung: Three Galactic Enigmas\" (1978)* \"Modernisation\" (1980)* \"End Game\" (1981)* \"Call Yourself a Christian\" (1982)* \"How the Boy Icarus Grew Up and, After a Legendary Disaster, Learnt New Things About Himself and the External World, Until He Was Able to Comprehend the Magic That Had Been His in His Earliest Years /or/ Second Flight\" (1982)* \"Parasites of Passion\" (1982)* \"The Captain's Analysis\" (1982)* \"An Admirer of Einstein\" (1983)* \"The Immortal Storm Strikes Again\" (1983)* \"Another Story on the Theme of the Last Man on Earth\" (1985)* \"Domestic Catastrophe\" (1985)* \"Operation Other Cheek\" (1985)* \"Possessed by Love\" (1985)* \"Silence After the Silence\" (1985)* \"The Greatest Saga of All Time\" (1985), as C. C. Shackleton* \"The Monster of Loch Awe\" (1985)* \"The Fatal Break\" (1987)* \"The Hero\" (1987)* \"The Merdeka Hotel\" (1987)* \"The Price of Cabbages\" (1987)* \"Thursday\" (1987)* \"Tourney\" (1987)* \"Conversation on Progress\" (1988)* \"Hess\" (1988)* \"Sex and the Black Machine\" (1988)* \"Wordsworth Halucinates\" (1988)* \"The Day the Earth Caught Fire\" (1989)* \"Adventures in the Fur Trade\" (1990)* \"People—Alone—Injury—Artwork\" (1991)* \"Kindred Blood in Kensington Gore\" (1992)* \"Softly – As in an Evening Sunrise\" (1992)* \"English Garden\" (1993)* \"Friendship Bridge\" (1993), novelette* \"The Servant Problem\" (1994)* \"The Monster of Everyday Life\" (1994)* \"The Madonna of Futurity\" (1994), novella* \"Into the Tunnel!\"", "(1995)* \"Compulsory Holidays For All\" (1995)* \"The Law Against Trivia\" (1996)* \"The Enigma of the Three Moons\" (1997)* \"Death, Shit, Love, Transfiguration\" (1997)* \"An Apollo Asteroid\" (1999)* \"The Rain Will Stop\" (2000, The Pretentious Press), written in 1942* \"A Single-Minded Artist\" (2001)* \"Happiness in Reverse\" (2001)* \"Talking Cubes\" (2001)* ''Supertoys'' series:** \"Supertoys: Play Can Be So Deadly\" (2001)** \"Supertoys: What Fun to Be Reborn\" (2001)* \"A New (governmental) Father Christmas\", or \"A New (governmental) Father Christmas: A Moral Tale for All in Headington\" (2002)* \"Near Earth Object\" (2002)* \"Ten Billion of Them\" (2005)* \"Pipeline\" (2005), novelette* \"Building Sixteen\" (2006)* \"Tiger in the Night\" (2006)* \"Safe!\"", "(2006)* \"Life, Learning, Leipzig and a Librarian\" (2007)* \"Four Ladies of the Apocalypse\" (2007)* \"Peculiar Bone, Unimaginable Key\" (2008)* \"Fandom at the Palace\" (2008)* \"The First-Born\" (2010)* \"Hapless Humanity\" (2010)* ''Doctor Who'' series:** \"Umwelts for Hire\" (2010), ''Doctor Who Brilliant Book 2011'' (2010, BBC Books, )* \"Benkoelen\" (2011)* \"Less Than Kin, More Than Kind\" (2011)* \"The Mighty Mi Tok of Beijing\" (2013)* \"Abundances Above\" (2016)===Poems===Collections:* ''Farewell to a Child'' (1982), collection of 10 poems:*: \"Found\", \"Lost\", \"The Commitment\", \"When We Were Four\", \"With Vacant Possession\", \"The Child Departs: a dialogue\", \"The Eternal Child\", \"The Frozen Boy\", \"The Haunting\", \"The Malediction\"* ''Home Life With Cats'' (1992), collection of 34 poems:*: \"Out of the Night\", \"The Cats' Heaven\", \"Kittens (Two)\", \"Slaves\", \"Where Have You Been?", "\", \"Yum-Yum\", \"Heatwave\", \"Cats' Nerves\", \"Foxie\", \"Jackson\", \"Town-Life\", \"Nickie\", \"The Two-Kitten Problem\", \"Macramé's Lament\", \"Travelling Cats\", \"The Cat Improvement Company\", \"On a Favourite Goldfish Drowned in a Bowl of Cats\", \"Portrait of a Cat with Lady\", \"An Evening at Home\", \"Tatty's Tie-Shop\", \"Snacks\", \"Who Owns the House?", "\", \"A Riddle\", \"How I Swam Out to Sea with My Cat\", \"A Lion for Tea\", \"The Cat in the Cathedral\", \"The Poor Man's Cat\", \"Mutual Regard\", \"First Birthday\", \"Rules\", \"Relating to the Pet\", \"The Cat Speaks\", \"Michael, the Cycling Cat\", \"The Lost Grave\"* ''At the Caligula Hotel and Other Poems'' (1995), collection of 74 poems, grouped in four sections:*: I.", "Imagery?", ": \"At the Caligula Hotel\", Chinese Exercises (\"Lu Tai\", \"Nocturne\", \"Interval\", \"Indecision\", \"Journeying\", \"Poems from a Later Dynasty III: Who Hears My Voice?", "\"), \"Exit Aquascutum\", \"While Feeding Parrots\", \"Winter Bites Deep\", \"Breughel's Hunters in the Snow\", \"Anau: The Well\", \"The Cynar, Istanbul\", \"Dawn in Kuala Lumpur\", \"Gauguin's Tahiti\"*: II.", "Everyday?", ": \"No, I was Never Deaf or Blind to Her Music\", \"Toledo: Three Ladies\", \"Government\", \"Moonglow: for Margaret\", \"Alfie Cogitates on Life\", \"Memories of Palic\", \"Boars Hill: the Sycamores and the Oaks\", \"All Things Transfigure\", \"Trapped in the Present\", \"The Path\", \"Suburban Sunday\", \"Nature Notes: Early September\", \"Willow Cottage\", \"Cold Snap\", \"Stoney Ground\", \"The Triumph of the Superficial\", \"The Twentieth Camp\", \"Good Fortune\", \"Communication\", \"A Summery Meditation on Money\", \"A Moment of Suspense\", \"Fragment of a Longer Poem\"*: III.", "Literary?", ": \"Short Stories\", \"What Did the Policeman Say?", "\", \"Hamlet Folk\", \"The Poor\", \"On Reading Poetry in Berkhamsted\", \"Poem Inspired by Scott Meredith\", Two Painters (\"I: Francis Bacon\", \"II: Fernand Khnopff\"), \"Light of Ancient Days\", \"Mary Shelley, 1916\", \"Victor Frankenstein on the Mer de Glace\", \"The Shelleys – To a Lady who spoke of their 'Mystery\", \"The Created One Speaks\", \"Mary in Italy\", \"Looking It Up\", \"Rice Pudding\", \"Writer's Life\"*: IV.", "Scientific?", ": \"Greenhouse Sex\", \"Lunar Anatomy\", \"Monemvasia\", \"Found\", \"Destruction of the Fifth Planet\", \"Femalien\", \"Thomas Hardy Considers the Newly-Published Special Theory of Relativity\", \"Rhine Locks are Closed in Battle Against Poison\", \"The Cat Improvement Company\", \"The Expanding Universe\", \"To a Triceratops Skull in the British Museum\", \"The Light\", \"Flight 063\", Precarious Passions (\"I: A Brain Pursues its Vanished Dream\", \"II: A Woman Marries the Southern Ocean\", \"III: Ascension Island Courts a Whale\", \"IV: A Refrigerator Proposes to a Musk Ox\", \"V: A Book Falls in Love with its Reader\", \"VI: A Lamp Standard Courts the Stars\"), \"Alphabet of Ameliorating Hope\"* ''Songs from the Steppes of Central Asia: The Collected Poems of Makhtumkuli: Eighteenth Century Poet-Hero of Turkmenistan'' (1995)* ''A Plutonian Monologue on His Wife's Death'' (2000, The Frogmore Papers), collection of 7 poems* ''At a Bigger House'' (2002), collection of 48 poems:*: \"Hazards of the Trail\", \"Perspectives\", \"Presentiments of Dawn\", \"Now Showing: 'Killing Father\", \"The World of Lost Content\", \"Flight 063\", \"Railway Engine Pulling Slowly\", \"The Deceptive Truth\", \"Colour Contrasts\", \"Fairy Tales\", \"The Women\", \"They Who Waited\", \"The Bonfire of Time\", \"The Foot Speaks\", \"The Ghost Koi\", \"Rapide des Morts\", \"The Teeth of Time\", \"Elizabeth Jennings (Died October 2001)\", \"War and Peace': A Song for Mathilde Mauguiere\", \"Her Beautiful Thing\", \"The Hunters in the Snow\", \"Aral Seasons\", \"Uzbecks in London\", \"Poem from Life in the West\", \"Many Mansions\", \"The Horse Unburied\", \"The Red Pavilion\", \"Blythborough Church, A Hardyesque Dialogue\", \"Insomnia\", \"Awake at Three A.M.\", \"The Start of Something\", \"Retrospection: At the Temple of Aphaia, on the Island of Aegina, Greece\", \"Hors d'Oeuvres for my Lady\", \"The Barney\", \"Dawn in KL\", \"A Funeral Service: Kingsley Amis, 31st October 1995\", \"On Passing a Roadside Auction of Featherbeds, Lake District, 1845\", \"City Scene\", \"The Prehistory of the Mind\", \"April in East Coker\", \"Seeking Love\", \"The New Wing\", \"Xenophilia\", \"Name-Dripping\", \"Dora/Dinah\", \"Volcano\", \"Monemvasia\", \"The Moment\"* ''The Dark Sun Rises'' (2002), collection of 50 poems:*: \"The Dark Sun Rises\", \"Venice and Istanbul\", \"Perspectives\", \"Monemvasia\", \"The Deceptive Truth\", \"The Moment\", \"On Passing a Roadside Auction of Featherbeds, Lake District, 1845\", \"Retrospection: At the Temple of Aphaia, on the Island of Aegina, Greece\", \"Rapide des Morts\", \"Flight 063\", \"Aral Seasons\", \"Uzbecks in London\", \"Poem from Life in the West\", \"Insomnia\", \"Meum Tuumque\", \"Partings from Oedipus on Mars\", \"The Barney\", \"Blythborough Church, A Hardyesque Dialogue\", \"Not Speaking of You\", \"The Silent Love\", \"War and Peace': A Song for Mathilde Mauguiere\", \"Her Beautiful Thing\", \"Rondeau after Leigh Hunt\", \"Jocasta\", \"Jane Eyre at Elsinore\", \"The Carnivores\", \"The Garden at Number Thirty-Nine\", \"The Horse Unburied\", \"The Garden\", \"In the RA Friends' Room June '95\", \"They Who Waited\", \"Colour Contrasts\", \"The Red Pavilion\", \"The Women\", \"Hazards of the Trail\", \"Many Mansions\", \"The Start of Something\", \"The Prehistory of the Mind\", \"The World of Lost Content\", \"Volcano\", \"Dendrochronology\", \"The Foot Speaks\", \"Fairy Tales\", \"Now Showing: 'Killing Father\", \"A Piece of Cleopatra\", \"Cliché Love\", \"Eatin' Regular Again': A Pop Song\", \"The Cat Improvement Company\", \"At the Caligula Hotel\", \"untitled (re: myth of Santa Claus)\"* ''Mortal Morning'' (2011)Uncollected poems:* \"There Are No More Good Stories About Mars Because We Need No More Good Stories About Mars\" (1963)* \"Bridging Hours in Wesciv\" (1969)* \"Drama on the River Cherwell\" (1974)* \"Epitaph for a Writer\" (1974)* \"In Another Town: Bologna\" (1974)* \"Innovation in the Arts\" (1974)* \"Mon Frère\" (1974)* \"Taking Leave of a Cold Country\" (1974)* \"The Lady Literary Agent\" (1974)* \"Verse in a Country Garden\" (1974)* \"Summer: 1773\" (1976)* \"Pile: Petals from St. Klaed's Computer\" (1979)* \"Sleep\" (1983)* \"Tra La\" (1994)=== Plays ===* ''Patagonia's Delicious Filling Station: Three One-act Plays'' (1975), collection* ''Enigma'' series:** ''The Bones of Bertrand Russell: A Tryptich of Absurd Enigmatic Plays'':**# \"Futurity Takes a Hand\" (1976)**# \"Through a Galaxy Backwards\" (1976)**# \"Where Walls Are Hung with Multi-Media Portraits\" (1976)* ''Distant Encounters'' (1978)===Not categorised fiction===* ''Courageous New Planet'' (c. 1984)===Non-fiction===;Autobiographies:* ''... And the Lurid Glare of the Comet'' (1986), articles and autobiography* ''Bury My Heart at W.H.", "Smith's: A Writing Life'' (1990)* ''The Twinkling of an Eye, or My Life as an Englishman'' (1998)* ''When the Feast is Finished'' (1999), with Margaret Aldiss* ''An Exile on Planet Earth: Articles and Reflections'' (2012), articles and autobiography;Science fiction:* ''The Shape of Further Things'', or ''The Shape of Further Things: Speculation on Change'' (1970)* ''Billion Year Spree'' series:*# ''Billion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction'' (1973)*#: BSFA special award*# ''Trillion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction'' (1986), with David Wingrove, a revised and expanded version of ''Billion Year Spree''*#: Winner of the 1987 Hugo Award for Best Non-Fiction Book.", "At the awards ceremony, Aldiss began his acceptance speech by holding the Hugo aloft and proclaiming, to general approbation, \"It's been a long time since you've given me one of these, you bastards!", "\"* ''SF Horizons'' (1975), with Harry Harrison* ''Science Fiction as Science Fiction'' (1978)* ''Science Fiction Quiz'' (1983)* ''The Pale Shadow of Science'', or ''Pale Shadow of Science'' (1985), collected essays* ''The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy'' (1995);Others:* ''Cities and Stones: A Traveller's Yugoslavia'' (1966)* ''Item Eighty-Three: Brian W. Aldiss – A Bibliography 1954–1972'' (1972), with Margaret Aldiss, a bibliography of Aldiss's published works, this book being number 83* ''Science Fiction Art'' (1975)* ''This World and Nearer Ones: Essays Exploring the Familiar'' (1979)* ''Art After Apogee'' (2000), with Rosemary Phipps, essays* ''Researches and Churches in Serbia'' (2002), collection of 9 articles=== Anthologies edited ===* ''Penguin Science Fiction'' series:*# ''Penguin Science Fiction'' (1961)*# ''More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1963)*# ''Yet More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1964)*: Omnibus edition, ''The Penguin Science Fiction Omnibus'' (1973)* ''Best Fantasy Stories'' (1962)* ''Introducing SF'' (1964)* ''Nebula Award Stories Two'' (1967), with Harry Harrison* ''Farewell, Fantastic Venus'' (1968)* ''The Year's Best Science Fiction'' series, with Harry Harrison:*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "1'' (1968)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "2'', or ''Best SF: 1968'' (1969)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "3'', or ''Best SF: 1969'' (1970)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "4'' (1971)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "5'' (1972)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "6'', or ''Best SF: 1972'' (1973)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "7'', or ''Best SF: 1973'' (1974)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "8'' (1976)*# ''The Year's Best Science Fiction No.", "9'', or ''The Year's Best SF 9'' (1976)* ''Space Opera'' (1974)* ''Space Odysseys'' (1975)* ''Hell's Cartographers: Some Personal Histories of Science Fiction Writers'' (1975), with Harry Harrison, a collection of short autobiographical pieces by a number of science fiction writers, including Aldiss.", "The title is a reference to Kingsley Amis's survey of science fiction, ''New Maps of Hell''.", "* ''Decade'' series, with Harry Harrison:*# ''Decade: the 1940s'' (1975)*# ''Decade: the 1950s'' (1976)*# ''Decade: the 1960s'' (1979)* ''Evil Earths'' (1976)* ''Galactic Empires'' series:*# ''Galactic Empires.", "Volume One'' (1976)*# ''Galactic Empires.", "Volume Two'' (1976)* ''Perilous Planets'' (1978)* ''Mini Sagas: From The Daily Telegraph Competition'' series:** ''Mini Sagas: From The Daily Telegraph Competition'' (1998) ** ''Mini Sagas: From The Daily Telegraph Competition 2001'' (2001) * ''A Science Fiction Omnibus'' (2007) * ''The Folio Science Fiction Anthology'' (2016)" ], [ "Adaptations", "* ''Frankenstein Unbound'' (1990), film directed by Roger Corman, based on novel ''Frankenstein Unbound''* ''A.I.", "Artificial Intelligence'' (2001), film directed by Steven Spielberg, based on short story \"Supertoys Last All Summer Long\"* ''Brothers of the Head'' (2005), film directed by Keith Fulton and Louis Pepe, based on novel ''Brothers of the Head''" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Brian Aldiss at British Council: Literature* * * * Obituary in ''The Independent'' by Marcus Williamson* ''Guardian'' newspaper profile* Brian Aldiss's online fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online* \"Supertoys Last All Summer Long\" story by Brian Aldiss (January 1997)* Brian Aldiss Collection at the University of South Florida* Brian Aldiss Papers at the Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas* Works of Brian W. Aldiss at La Tercera Fundación * Works of Brian W. Aldiss at FantLab ru" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Jutland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Jutland''' (, the Battle of the Skagerrak) was a naval battle fought between Britain's Royal Navy Grand Fleet, under Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, and the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet, under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer, during the First World War.", "The battle unfolded in extensive manoeuvring and three main engagements (the battlecruiser action, the fleet action, and the night action), from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmark's Jutland Peninsula.", "It was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships of the war.", "Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904 and the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, during the Russo-Japanese War.", "Jutland was the last major battle in history fought primarily by battleships.Germany's High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the British Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet.", "This formed part of a larger strategy to break the British blockade of Germany and to allow German naval vessels access to the Atlantic.", "Meanwhile, Great Britain's Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and her shipping lanes.The Germans planned to use Vice-Admiral Franz Hipper's fast scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons into the path of the main German fleet.", "They stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships.", "However, the British learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was likely, so on 30 May, Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty, passing over the locations of the German submarine picket lines while they were unprepared.", "The German plan had been delayed, causing further problems for their submarines, which had reached the limit of their endurance at sea.On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hipper's battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected.", "In a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet.", "By the time Beatty sighted the larger force and turned back towards the British main fleet, he had lost two battlecruisers from a force of six battlecruisers and four powerful battleships—though he had sped ahead of his battleships of 5th Battle Squadron earlier in the day, effectively losing them as an integral component for much of this opening action against the five ships commanded by Hipper.", "Beatty's withdrawal at the sight of the High Seas Fleet, which the British had not known were in the open sea, would reverse the course of the battle by drawing the German fleet in pursuit towards the British Grand Fleet.", "Between 18:30, when the sun was lowering on the western horizon, back-lighting the German forces, and nightfall at about 20:30, the two fleets—totalling 250 ships between them—directly engaged twice.Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with a total of 9,823 casualties.", "After sunset, and throughout the night, Jellicoe manoeuvred to cut the Germans off from their base, hoping to continue the battle the next morning, but under the cover of darkness Scheer broke through the British light forces forming the rearguard of the Grand Fleet and returned to port.Both sides claimed victory.", "The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet.", "The British press criticised the Grand Fleet's failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheer's plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed.", "The British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal.", "The Germans' \"fleet in being\" continued to pose a threat, requiring the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but the battle reinforced the German policy of avoiding all fleet-to-fleet contact.", "At the end of 1916, after further unsuccessful attempts to reduce the Royal Navy's numerical advantage, the German Navy accepted that its surface ships had been successfully contained, subsequently turning its efforts and resources to unrestricted submarine warfare and the destruction of Allied and neutral shipping, which—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—by April 1917 triggered the United States of America's declaration of war on Germany.Subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals' performance in the battle.", "Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day." ], [ "Background and planning", "===German planning===With 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navy's 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash.", "The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy.", "They would stage raids into the North Sea and bombard the English coast, with the aim of luring out small British squadrons and pickets, which could then be destroyed by superior forces or submarines.In January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill.", "He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had been used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British, and ought to take the war to them.", "According to Scheer, the German naval strategy should be:Reinhard Scheer, German fleet commanderOn 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German Imperial Admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarines on merchant shipping.", "This followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks.", "Germany agreed that future attacks would only take place in accord with internationally agreed prize rules, which required an attacker to give a warning and allow the crews of vessels time to escape, and not to attack neutral vessels at all.", "Scheer believed that it would not be possible to continue attacks on these terms, which took away the advantage of secret approach by submarines and left them vulnerable to even relatively small guns on the target ships.", "Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels.It was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations.", "If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, good prospects were thought to exist of at least partially redressing the balance of forces between the fleets.", "\"After the British sortied in response to the raiding attack force\", the Royal Navy's centuries-old instincts for aggressive action could be exploited to draw its weakened units towards the main German fleet under Scheer.", "The hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it.====Submarine deployments====A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, and then stage some action that would draw out the British ships to the waiting submarines.", "The battlecruiser had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid-May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916.At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the third battleship squadron, so the operation was put back to 23 May.", "Ten submarines—, , , , , , , , , and —were given orders first to patrol in the central North Sea between 17 and 22 May, and then to take up waiting positions.", "''U-43'' and ''U-44'' were stationed in the Pentland Firth, which the Grand Fleet was likely to cross when leaving Scapa Flow, while the remainder proceeded to the Firth of Forth, awaiting battlecruisers departing Rosyth.", "Each boat had an allocated area, within which it could move around as necessary to avoid detection, but was instructed to keep within it.", "During the initial North Sea patrol the boats were instructed to sail only north–south so that any enemy who chanced to encounter one would believe it was departing or returning from operations on the west coast (which required them to pass around the north of Britain).", "Once at their final positions, the boats were under strict orders to avoid premature detection that might give away the operation.", "It was arranged that a coded signal would be transmitted to alert the submarines exactly when the operation commenced: \"Take into account the enemy's forces may be putting to sea\".Additionally, ''UB-27'' was sent out on 20 May with instructions to work its way into the Firth of Forth past May Island.", "''U-46'' was ordered to patrol the coast of Sunderland, which had been chosen for the diversionary attack, but because of engine problems it was unable to leave port and ''U-47'' was diverted to this task.", "On 13 May, ''U-72'' was sent to lay mines in the Firth of Forth; on the 23rd, ''U-74'' departed to lay mines in the Moray Firth; and on the 24th, ''U-75'' was dispatched similarly west of the Orkney Islands.", "''UB-21'' and ''UB-22'' were sent to patrol the Humber, where (incorrect) reports had suggested the presence of British warships.", "''U-22'', ''U-46'' and ''U-67'' were positioned north of Terschelling to protect against intervention by British light forces stationed at Harwich.On 22 May 1916, it was discovered that ''Seydlitz'' was still not watertight after repairs and would not now be ready until the 29th.", "The ambush submarines were now on station and experiencing difficulties of their own: visibility near the coast was frequently poor due to fog, and sea conditions were either so calm the slightest ripple, as from the periscope, could give away their position, or so rough as to make it very hard to keep the vessel at a steady depth.", "The British had become aware of unusual submarine activity, and had begun counter-patrols that forced the submarines out of position.", "''UB-27'' passed Bell Rock on the night of 23 May on its way into the Firth of Forth as planned, but was halted by engine trouble.", "After repairs it continued to approach, following behind merchant vessels, and reached Largo Bay on 25 May.", "There the boat became entangled in nets that fouled one of the propellers, forcing it to abandon the operation and return home.", "''U-74'' was detected by four armed trawlers on 27 May and sunk south-east of Peterhead.", "''U-75'' laid its mines off the Orkney Islands, which, although they played no part in the battle, were responsible later for sinking the cruiser carrying Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War on 5 June, killing him and all but 12 of the crew.", "''U-72'' was forced to abandon its mission without laying any mines when an oil leak meant it was leaving a visible surface trail astern.====Zeppelins====The throat of the Skagerrak, the strategic gateway to the Baltic and North Atlantic, waters off Jutland, Norway and SwedenThe Germans maintained a fleet of Zeppelins that they used for aerial reconnaissance and occasional bombing raids.", "The planned raid on Sunderland intended to use Zeppelins to watch out for the British fleet approaching from the north, which might otherwise surprise the raiders.By 28 May, strong north-easterly winds meant that it would not be possible to send out the Zeppelins, so the raid again had to be postponed.", "The submarines could only stay on station until 1 June before their supplies would be exhausted and they had to return, so a decision had to be made quickly about the raid.It was decided to use an alternative plan, abandoning the attack on Sunderland but instead sending a patrol of battlecruisers to the Skagerrak, where it was likely they would encounter merchant ships carrying British cargo and British cruiser patrols.", "It was felt this could be done without air support, because the action would now be much closer to Germany, relying instead on cruiser and torpedo boat patrols for reconnaissance.Orders for the alternative plan were issued on 28 May, although it was still hoped that last-minute improvements in the weather would allow the original plan to go ahead.", "The German fleet assembled in the Jade River and at Wilhelmshaven and was instructed to raise steam and be ready for action from midnight on 28 May.By 14:00 on 30 May, the wind was still too strong and the final decision was made to use the alternative plan.", "The coded signal \"31 May G.G.2490\" was transmitted to the ships of the fleet to inform them the Skagerrak attack would start on 31 May.", "The pre-arranged signal to the waiting submarines was transmitted throughout the day from the E-Dienst radio station at Bruges, and the U-boat tender ''Arcona'' anchored at Emden.", "Only two of the waiting submarines, ''U-66'' and ''U-32'', received the order.===British response===Unfortunately for the German plan, the British had obtained a copy of the main German codebook from the light cruiser , which had been boarded by the Russian Navy after the ship ran aground in Russian territorial waters in 1914.German naval radio communications could therefore often be quickly deciphered, and the British Admiralty usually knew about German activities.The British Admiralty's Room 40 maintained direction finding and interception of German naval signals.", "It had intercepted and decrypted a German signal on 28 May that provided \"ample evidence that the German fleet was stirring in the North Sea\".", "Further signals were intercepted, and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely.", "At 11:00 on 30 May, Jellicoe was warned that the German fleet seemed prepared to sail the following morning.", "By 17:00, the Admiralty had intercepted the signal from Scheer, \"31 May G.G.2490\", making it clear something significant was imminent.Not knowing the Germans' objective, Jellicoe and his staff decided to position the fleet to head off any attempt by the Germans to enter the North Atlantic or the Baltic through the Skagerrak, by taking up a position off Norway where they could potentially cut off any German raid into the shipping lanes of the Atlantic or prevent the Germans from heading into the Baltic.", "A position further west was unnecessary, as that area of the North Sea could be patrolled by air using aircraft.John Jellicoe, British fleet commanderConsequently, Admiral Jellicoe led the sixteen dreadnought battleships of the 1st and 4th Battle Squadrons of the Grand Fleet and three battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron eastwards out of Scapa Flow at 22:30 on 30 May.", "He was to meet the 2nd Battle Squadron of eight dreadnought battleships commanded by Vice-Admiral Martyn Jerram coming from Cromarty.", "Beatty's force of six ships of the 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons plus the 5th Battle Squadron of four fast battleships left the Firth of Forth at around the same time; Jellicoe intended to rendezvous with him west of the mouth of the Skagerrak off the coast of Jutland and wait for the Germans to appear or for their intentions to become clear.", "The planned position would give him the widest range of responses to likely German moves.", "Hipper's raiding force did not leave the Outer Jade Roads until 01:00 on 31 May, heading west of Heligoland Island following a cleared channel through the minefields, heading north at .", "The main German fleet of sixteen dreadnought battleships of 1st and 3rd Battle Squadrons left the Jade at 02:30, being joined off Heligoland at 04:00 by the six pre-dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron coming from the Elbe River." ], [ "Naval tactics in 1916", "The principle of concentration of force was fundamental to the fleet tactics of this time.", "As outlined by Captain Reginald Hall in 1914, tactical doctrine called for a fleet approaching battle to be in a compact formation of parallel columns, allowing relatively easy manoeuvring, and giving shortened sight lines within the formation, which simplified the passing of the signals necessary for command and control.A fleet formed in several short columns could change its heading faster than one formed in a single long column.", "Since most command signals were made with flags or signal lamps between ships, the flagship was usually placed at the head of the centre column so that its signals might be more easily seen by the many ships of the formation.", "Wireless telegraphy was in use, though security (radio direction finding), encryption, and the limitation of the radio sets made their extensive use more problematic.", "Command and control of such huge fleets remained difficult.Thus, it might take a very long time for a signal from the flagship to be relayed to the entire formation.", "It was usually necessary for a signal to be confirmed by each ship before it could be relayed to other ships, and an order for a fleet movement would have to be received and acknowledged by every ship before it could be executed.", "In a large single-column formation, a signal could take 10 minutes or more to be passed from one end of the line to the other, whereas in a formation of parallel columns, visibility across the diagonals was often better (and always shorter) than in a single long column, and the diagonals gave signal \"redundancy\", increasing the probability that a message would be quickly seen and correctly interpreted.However, before battle was joined the heavy units of the fleet would, if possible, deploy into a single column.", "To form the battle line in the correct orientation relative to the enemy, the commanding admiral had to know the enemy fleet's distance, bearing, heading, and speed.", "It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting primarily of battlecruisers and cruisers, to find the enemy and report this information in sufficient time, and, if possible, to deny the enemy's scouting forces the opportunity of obtaining the equivalent information.Ideally, the battle line would cross the intended path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of guns could be brought to bear, while the enemy could fire only with the forward guns of the leading ships, a manoeuvre known as \"crossing the T\".", "Admiral Tōgō, commander of the Japanese battleship fleet, had achieved this against Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky's Russian battleships in 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima, with devastating results.", "Jellicoe achieved this twice in one hour against the High Seas Fleet at Jutland, but on both occasions, Scheer managed to turn away and disengage, thereby avoiding a decisive action.", "===Ship design===Within the existing technological limits, a trade-off had to be made between the weight and size of guns, the weight of armour protecting the ship, and the maximum speed.", "Battleships sacrificed speed for armour and heavy naval guns ( or larger).", "British battlecruisers sacrificed weight of armour for greater speed, while their German counterparts were armed with lighter guns and heavier armour.", "These weight savings allowed them to escape danger or catch other ships.", "Generally, the larger guns mounted on British ships allowed an engagement at greater range.", "In theory, a lightly armoured ship could stay out of range of a slower opponent while still scoring hits.", "The fast pace of development in the pre-war years meant that every few years, a new generation of ships rendered its predecessors obsolete.", "Thus, fairly young ships could still be obsolete compared with the newest ships, and fare badly in an engagement against them.Admiral John Fisher, responsible for reconstruction of the British fleet in the pre-war period, favoured large guns, oil fuel, and speed.", "Admiral Tirpitz, responsible for the German fleet, favoured ship survivability and chose to sacrifice some gun size for improved armour.", "The German battlecruiser had belt armour equivalent in thickness—though not as comprehensive—to the British battleship , significantly better than on the British battlecruisers such as ''Tiger''.", "German ships had better internal subdivision and had fewer doors and other weak points in their bulkheads, but with the disadvantage that space for crew was greatly reduced.", "As they were designed only for sorties in the North Sea they did not need to be as habitable as the British vessels and their crews could live in barracks ashore when in harbour." ], [ "Order of battle", "BritishGermanDreadnoughtbattleships2816Pre-dreadnoughts06Battlecruisers95Armoured cruisers80Light cruisers2611Destroyers7961Seaplane carrier10Warships of the period were armed with guns firing projectiles of varying weights, bearing high explosive warheads.", "The sum total of weight of all the projectiles fired by all the ship's broadside guns is referred to as \"weight of broadside\".", "At Jutland, the total of the British ships' weight of broadside was , while the German fleet's total was .", "This does not take into consideration the ability of some ships and their crews to fire more or less rapidly than others, which would increase or decrease amount of fire that one combatant was able to bring to bear on their opponent for any length of time.Jellicoe's Grand Fleet was split into two sections.", "The dreadnought Battle Fleet, with which he sailed, formed the main force and was composed of 24 battleships and three battlecruisers.", "The battleships were formed into three squadrons of eight ships, further subdivided into divisions of four, each led by a flag officer.", "Accompanying them were eight armoured cruisers (classified by the Royal Navy since 1913 as \"cruisers\"), eight light cruisers, four scout cruisers, 51 destroyers, and one destroyer-minelayer.David Beatty, commander of the British battlecruiser fleetThe Grand Fleet sailed without three of its battleships: in refit at Invergordon, dry-docked at Rosyth and in refit at Devonport.", "The brand new was left behind; with only three weeks in service, her untrained crew was judged unready for battle.", "had been sunk by a German mine on 27 October 1914.British reconnaissance was provided by the Battlecruiser Fleet under David Beatty: six battlecruisers, four fast s, 14 light cruisers and 27 destroyers.", "Air scouting was provided by the attachment of the seaplane tender , one of the first aircraft carriers in history to participate in a naval engagement.The German High Seas Fleet under Scheer was also split into a main force and a separate reconnaissance force.", "Scheer's main battle fleet was composed of 16 battleships and six pre-dreadnought battleships arranged in an identical manner to the British.", "With them were six light cruisers and 31 torpedo-boats, (the latter being roughly equivalent to a British destroyer).", "The only German battleship missing was .Franz Hipper, commander of the German battlecruiser squadronThe German scouting force, commanded by Franz Hipper, consisted of five battlecruisers, five light cruisers and 30 torpedo-boats.", "The Germans had no equivalent to ''Engadine'' and no heavier-than-air aircraft to operate with the fleet but had the Imperial German Naval Airship Service's force of rigid airships available to patrol the North Sea.All of the battleships and battlecruisers on both sides carried torpedoes of various sizes, as did the lighter craft.", "The British battleships carried three or four underwater torpedo tubes.", "The battlecruisers carried from two to five.", "All were either 18-inch or 21-inch diameter.", "The German battleships carried five or six underwater torpedo tubes in three sizes from 18 to 21 inch and the battlecruisers carried four or five tubes.The German battle fleet was hampered by the slow speed and relatively poor armament of the six pre-dreadnoughts of II Squadron, which limited maximum fleet speed to , compared to maximum British fleet speed of .", "On the British side, the eight armoured cruisers were deficient in both speed and armour protection.", "Both of these obsolete squadrons were notably vulnerable to attacks by more modern enemy ships." ], [ "Battlecruiser action", "The route of the British battlecruiser fleet took it through the patrol sector allocated to ''U-32''.", "After receiving the order to commence the operation, the U-boat moved to a position east of the Isle of May at dawn on 31 May.", "At 03:40, it sighted the cruisers and leaving the Forth at .", "It launched one torpedo at the leading cruiser at a range of , but its periscope jammed 'up', giving away the position of the submarine as it manoeuvred to fire a second.", "The lead cruiser turned away to dodge the torpedo, while the second turned towards the submarine, attempting to ram.", "''U-32'' crash dived, and on raising its periscope at 04:10 saw two battlecruisers (the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron) heading south-east.", "They were too far away to attack, but ''Kapitänleutnant'' von Spiegel reported the sighting of two battleships and two cruisers to Germany.", "''U-66'' was also supposed to be patrolling off the Firth of Forth but had been forced north to a position off Peterhead by patrolling British vessels.", "This now brought it into contact with the 2nd Battle Squadron, coming from the Moray Firth.", "At 05:00, it had to crash dive when the cruiser appeared from the mist heading toward it.", "It was followed by another cruiser, , and eight battleships.", "''U-66'' got within of the battleships preparing to fire, but was forced to dive by an approaching destroyer and missed the opportunity.", "At 06:35, it reported eight battleships and cruisers heading north.The courses reported by both submarines were incorrect, because they reflected one leg of a zigzag being used by British ships to avoid submarines.", "Taken with a wireless intercept of more ships leaving Scapa Flow earlier in the night, they created the impression in the German High Command that the British fleet, whatever it was doing, was split into separate sections moving apart, which was precisely as the Germans wished to meet it.Jellicoe's ships proceeded to their rendezvous undamaged and undiscovered.", "However, he was now misled by an Admiralty intelligence report advising that the German main battle fleet was still in port.", "The Director of Operations Division, Rear Admiral Thomas Jackson, had asked the intelligence division, Room 40, for the current location of German call sign DK, used by Admiral Scheer.", "They had replied that it was currently transmitting from Wilhelmshaven.", "It was known to the intelligence staff that Scheer deliberately used a different call sign when at sea, but no one asked for this information or explained the reason behind the query—to locate the German fleet.The German battlecruisers cleared the minefields surrounding the Amrum swept channel by 09:00.They then proceeded north-west, passing west of the Horn's Reef lightship heading for the Little Fisher Bank at the mouth of the Skagerrak.", "The High Seas Fleet followed some behind.", "The battlecruisers were in line ahead, with the four cruisers of the II scouting group plus supporting torpedo boats ranged in an arc ahead and to either side.", "The IX torpedo boat flotilla formed close support immediately surrounding the battlecruisers.", "The High Seas Fleet similarly adopted a line-ahead formation, with close screening by torpedo boats to either side and a further screen of five cruisers surrounding the column away.", "The wind had finally moderated so that Zeppelins could be used, and by 11:30 five had been sent out: ''L14'' to the Skagerrak, ''L23'' east of Noss Head in the Pentland Firth, ''L21'' off Peterhead, ''L9'' off Sunderland, and ''L16'' east of Flamborough Head.", "Visibility, however, was still bad, with clouds down to .===Contact===HMS ''Warspite'' and ''Malaya'', seen from HMS ''Valiant'' at around 14:00 hrsBy around 14:00, Beatty's ships were proceeding eastward at roughly the same latitude as Hipper's squadron, which was heading north.", "Had the courses remained unchanged, Beatty would have passed between the two German fleets, south of the battlecruisers and north of the High Seas Fleet at around 16:30, possibly trapping his ships just as the German plan envisioned.", "His orders were to stop his scouting patrol when he reached a point east of Britain and then turn north to meet Jellicoe, which he did at this time.", "Beatty's ships were divided into three columns, with the two battlecruiser squadrons leading in parallel lines apart.", "The 5th Battle Squadron was stationed to the north-west, on the side furthest away from any expected enemy contact, while a screen of cruisers and destroyers was spread south-east of the battlecruisers.", "After the turn, the 5th Battle Squadron was now leading the British ships in the westernmost column, and Beatty's squadron was centre and rearmost, with the 2nd BCS to the west.", "(1) 15:22 hrs, Hipper sights Beatty.", "(2) 15:48 hrs, First shots fired by Hipper's squadron.", "(3) 16:00 hrs-16:05 hrs, ''Indefatigable'' explodes, leaving two survivors.", "(4) 16:25 hrs, ''Queen Mary'' explodes, nine survive.", "(5) 16:45 hrs, Beatty's battlecruisers move out of range of Hipper.", "(6) 16:54 hrs, Evan-Thomas's battleships turn north behind Beatty.At 14:20 on 31 May, despite heavy haze and scuds of fog giving poor visibility, scouts from Beatty's force reported enemy ships to the south-east; the British light units, investigating a neutral Danish steamer (''N J Fjord''), which was stopped between the two fleets, had found two German destroyers engaged on the same mission ( and ).", "The first shots of the battle were fired at 14:28 when ''Galatea'' and ''Phaeton'' of the British 1st Light Cruiser Squadron opened on the German torpedo boats, which withdrew toward their approaching light cruisers.", "At 14:36, the Germans scored the first hit of the battle when , of Rear-Admiral Friedrich Boedicker's Scouting Group II, hit her British counterpart ''Galatea'' at extreme range.Beatty began to move his battlecruisers and supporting forces south-eastwards and then east to cut the German ships off from their base and ordered ''Engadine'' to launch a seaplane to try to get more information about the size and location of the German forces.", "This was the first time in history that a carrier-based aeroplane was used for reconnaissance in naval combat.", "''Engadine''s aircraft did locate and report some German light cruisers just before 15:30 and came under anti-aircraft gunfire but attempts to relay reports from the aeroplane failed.Unfortunately for Beatty, his initial course changes at 14:32 were not received by Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas's 5th Battle Squadron (the distance being too great to read his flags), because the battlecruiser —the last ship in his column—was no longer in a position where she could relay signals by searchlight to Evan-Thomas, as she had previously been ordered to do.", "Whereas before the north turn, ''Tiger'' had been the closest ship to Evan-Thomas, she was now further away than Beatty in ''Lion''.", "Matters were aggravated because Evan-Thomas had not been briefed regarding standing orders within Beatty's squadron, as his squadron normally operated with the Grand Fleet.", "Fleet ships were expected to obey movement orders precisely and not deviate from them.", "Beatty's standing instructions expected his officers to use their initiative and keep station with the flagship.", "As a result, the four ''Queen Elizabeth''-class battleships—which were the fastest and most heavily armed in the world at that time—remained on the previous course for several minutes, ending up behind rather than five.", "Beatty also had the opportunity during the previous hours to concentrate his forces, and no reason not to do so, whereas he steamed ahead at full speed, faster than the battleships could manage.", "Dividing the force had serious consequences for the British, costing them what would have been an overwhelming advantage in ships and firepower during the first half-hour of the coming battle.With visibility favouring the Germans, Hipper's battlecruisers at 15:22, steaming approximately north-west, sighted Beatty's squadron at a range of about , while Beatty's forces did not identify Hipper's battlecruisers until 15:30.", "(position 1 on map).", "At 15:45, Hipper turned south-east to lead Beatty toward Scheer, who was south-east with the main force of the High Seas Fleet.===Run to the south===Beatty's conduct during the next 15 minutes has received a great deal of criticism, as his ships out-ranged and outnumbered the German squadron, yet he held his fire for over 10 minutes with the German ships in range.", "He also failed to use the time available to rearrange his battlecruisers into a fighting formation, with the result that they were still manoeuvring when the battle started.At 15:48, with the opposing forces roughly parallel at , with the British to the south-west of the Germans (i.e., on the right side), Hipper opened fire, followed by the British ships as their guns came to bear upon targets (position 2).", "Thus began the opening phase of the battlecruiser action, known as the ''Run to the South'', in which the British chased the Germans, and Hipper intentionally led Beatty toward Scheer.", "During the first minutes of the ensuing battle, all the British ships except ''Princess Royal'' fired far over their German opponents, due to adverse visibility conditions, before finally getting the range.", "Only ''Lion'' and ''Princess Royal'' had settled into formation, so the other four ships were hampered in aiming by their own turning.", "Beatty was to windward of Hipper, and therefore funnel and gun smoke from his own ships tended to obscure his targets, while Hipper's smoke blew clear.", "Also, the eastern sky was overcast and the grey German ships were indistinct and difficult to range.Beatty's flagship HMS ''Lion'' burning after being hit by a salvo from SMS ''Lützow''HMS ''Indefatigable'' sinking after being struck by shells from SMS ''Von der Tann''Beatty had ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his flagship doubling on the German flagship .", "However, due to another mistake with signalling by flag, and possibly because ''Queen Mary'' and ''Tiger'' were unable to see the German lead ship because of smoke, the second German ship, ''Derfflinger'', was left un-engaged and free to fire without disruption.", "drew fire from two of Beatty's battlecruisers, but still fired with great accuracy during this time, hitting ''Tiger'' 9 times in the first 12 minutes.", "The Germans drew first blood.", "Aided by superior visibility, Hipper's five battlecruisers quickly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers.", "Seven minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit.The first near-kill of the Run to the South occurred at 16:00, when a shell from ''Lützow'' wrecked the \"Q\" turret amidships on Beatty's flagship ''Lion''.", "Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but far larger destruction was averted when the mortally wounded turret commander—Major Francis Harvey of the Royal Marines—promptly ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded.", "This prevented a magazine explosion at 16:28, when a flash fire ignited ready cordite charges beneath the turret and killed everyone in the chambers outside \"Q\" magazine.", "''Lion'' was saved.", "was not so lucky; at 16:02, just 14 minutes into the gunnery exchange, she was hit aft by three shells from , causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line and detonating \"X\" magazine aft.", "Soon after, despite the near-maximum range, ''Von der Tann'' put another shell on ''Indefatigable''s \"A\" turret forward.", "The plunging shells probably pierced the thin upper armour, and seconds later ''Indefatigable'' was ripped apart by another magazine explosion, sinking immediately and leaving only two survivors from her crew of 1,019 officers and men.", "(position 3).Hipper's position deteriorated somewhat by 16:15 as the 5th Battle Squadron finally came into range, so that he had to contend with gunfire from the four battleships astern as well as Beatty's five remaining battlecruisers to starboard.", "But he knew his baiting mission was close to completion, as his force was rapidly closing with Scheer's main body.", "At 16:08, the lead battleship of the 5th Battle Squadron, , caught up with Hipper and opened fire at extreme range, scoring a hit on ''Von der Tann'' within 60 seconds.", "Still, it was 16:15 before all the battleships of the 5th were able to fully engage at long range.At 16:25, the battlecruiser action intensified again when was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from ''Derfflinger'' and ''Seydlitz''; she disintegrated when both forward magazines exploded, sinking with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost.", "(position 4).", "Commander von Hase, the first gunnery officer aboard ''Derfflinger'', noted:HMS ''Queen Mary'' blowing upDuring the Run to the South, from 15:48 to 16:54, the German battlecruisers made an estimated total of forty-two hits on the British battlecruisers (nine on ''Lion'', six on ''Princess Royal'', seven on ''Queen Mary'', 14 on ''Tiger'', one on ''New Zealand'', five on ''Indefatigable''), and two more on the battleship ''Barham'', compared with only eleven hits by the British battlecruisers (four on ''Lützow'', four on ''Seydlitz'', two on ''Moltke'', one on ''von der Tann''), and six hits by the battleships (one on ''Seydlitz'', four on ''Moltke'', one on ''von der Tann'').Shortly after 16:26, a salvo struck on or around , which was obscured by spray and smoke from shell bursts.", "A signalman promptly leapt on to the bridge of ''Lion'' and announced \"''Princess Royal''s blown up, Sir.\"", "Beatty famously turned to his flag captain, saying \"Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today.\"", "(In popular legend, Beatty also immediately ordered his ships to \"turn two points to port\", i.e., two points nearer the enemy, but there is no official record of any such command or course change.)", "''Princess Royal'', as it turned out, was still afloat after the spray cleared.At 16:30, Scheer's leading battleships sighted the distant battlecruiser action; soon after, of Beatty's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron led by Commodore William Goodenough sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-calibre salvos to report in detail the German strength: 16 dreadnoughts with six older battleships.", "This was the first news that Beatty and Jellicoe had that Scheer and his battle fleet were even at sea.", "Simultaneously, an all-out destroyer action raged in the space between the opposing battlecruiser forces, as British and German destroyers fought with each other and attempted to torpedo the larger enemy ships.", "Each side fired many torpedoes, but both battlecruiser forces turned away from the attacks and all escaped harm except ''Seydlitz'', which was hit forward at 16:57 by a torpedo fired by the British destroyer .", "Though taking on water, ''Seydlitz'' maintained speed.", "The destroyer , under the command of Captain Barry Bingham, led the British attacks.", "The British disabled the German torpedo boat , which the Germans soon abandoned and sank, and ''Petard'' then torpedoed and sank , her second score of the day.", "and rescued the crews of their sunken sister ships.", "But ''Nestor'' and another British destroyer——were immobilised by shell hits, and were later sunk by Scheer's passing dreadnoughts.", "Bingham was rescued, and awarded the Victoria Cross for his leadership in the destroyer action.===Run to the north===As soon as he himself sighted the vanguard of Scheer's distant battleship line away, at 16:40, Beatty turned his battlecruiser force 180°, heading north to draw the Germans toward Jellicoe.", "(position 5).", "Beatty's withdrawal toward Jellicoe is called the \"Run to the North\", in which the tables turned and the Germans chased the British.", "Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron—which were too far behind to read his flags—found themselves passing the battlecruisers on an opposing course and heading directly toward the approaching main body of the High Seas Fleet.", "At 16:48, at extreme range, Scheer's leading battleships opened fire.Meanwhile, at 16:47, having received Goodenough's signal and knowing that Beatty was now leading the German battle fleet north to him, Jellicoe signalled to his own forces that the fleet action they had waited so long for was finally imminent; at 16:51, by radio, he informed the Admiralty so in London.The difficulties of the 5th Battle Squadron were compounded when Beatty gave the order to Evan-Thomas to \"turn in succession\" (rather than \"turn together\") at 16:48 as the battleships passed him.", "Evan-Thomas acknowledged the signal, but Lieutenant-Commander Ralph Seymour, Beatty's flag lieutenant, aggravated the situation when he did not haul down the flags (to execute the signal) for some minutes.", "At 16:55, when the 5BS had moved within range of the enemy battleships, Evan-Thomas issued his own flag command warning his squadron to expect sudden manoeuvres and to follow his lead, before starting to turn on his own initiative.", "The order to turn in succession would have resulted in all four ships turning in the same patch of sea as they reached it one by one, giving the High Seas Fleet repeated opportunity with ample time to find the proper range.", "However, the captain of the trailing ship () turned early, mitigating the adverse results.For the next hour, the 5th Battle Squadron acted as Beatty's rearguard, drawing fire from all the German ships within range, while by 17:10 Beatty had deliberately eased his own squadron out of range of Hipper's now-superior battlecruiser force.", "Since visibility and firepower now favoured the Germans, there was no incentive for Beatty to risk further battlecruiser losses when his own gunnery could not be effective.", "Illustrating the imbalance, Beatty's battlecruisers did not score any hits on the Germans in this phase until 17:45, but they had rapidly received five more before he opened the range (four on ''Lion'', of which three were by ''Lützow'', and one on ''Tiger'' by ''Seydlitz'').", "Now the only targets the Germans could reach, the ships of the 5th Battle Squadron, received simultaneous fire from Hipper's battlecruisers to the east (which HMS ''Barham'' and engaged) and Scheer's leading battleships to the south-east (which and ''Malaya'' engaged).", "Three took hits: ''Barham'' (four by ''Derfflinger''), ''Warspite'' (two by ''Seydlitz''), and ''Malaya'' (seven by the German battleships).", "Only ''Valiant'' was unscathed.The four battleships were far better suited to take this sort of pounding than the battlecruisers, and none were lost, though ''Malaya'' suffered heavy damage, an ammunition fire, and heavy crew casualties.", "At the same time, the fire of the four British ships was accurate and effective.", "As the two British squadrons headed north at top speed, eagerly chased by the entire German fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron scored 13 hits on the enemy battlecruisers (four on ''Lützow'', three on ''Derfflinger'', six on ''Seydlitz'') and five on battleships (although only one, on , did any serious damage).", "(position 6).===The fleets converge===Jellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans.", "To assist Beatty, early in the battle at about 16:05, Jellicoe had ordered Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron to speed ahead to find and support Beatty's force, and Hood was now racing SSE well in advance of Jellicoe's northern force.", "Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st Cruiser Squadron patrolled the van of Jellicoe's main battleship force as it advanced steadily to the south-east.At 17:33, the armoured cruiser of Arbuthnot's squadron, on the far southwest flank of Jellicoe's force, came within view of , which was about ahead of Beatty with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet.", "At 17:38, the scout cruiser , screening Hood's oncoming battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Boedicker.Heavily outnumbered by Boedicker's four light cruisers, ''Chester'' was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units, which swung westward for that purpose.", "Hood's flagship disabled the light cruiser shortly after 17:56.", "''Wiesbaden'' became a sitting target for most of the British fleet during the next hour, but remained afloat and fired some torpedoes at the passing enemy battleships from long range.", "Meanwhile, Boedicker's other ships turned toward Hipper and Scheer in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east.", "A chaotic destroyer action in mist and smoke ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation, but Hood's battlecruisers dodged all the torpedoes fired at them.", "In this action, after leading a torpedo counter-attack, the British destroyer was disabled, but continued to return fire at numerous passing enemy ships for the next hour." ], [ "Fleet action", "===Deployment===(1) 18:00 Scouting forces rejoin their respective fleets.", "(2) 18:15 British fleet deploys into battle line (3) 18:30 German fleet under fire turns away(4) 19:00 German fleet turns back(5) 19:15 German fleet turns away for second time (6) 20:00(7) 21:00 Nightfall: Jellicoe assumes night cruising formationIn the meantime, Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement with Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage.", "With several of his ships damaged, Hipper turned back toward Scheer at around 18:00, just as Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' was finally sighted from Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke''.", "Jellicoe twice demanded the latest position of the German battlefleet from Beatty, who could not see the German battleships and failed to respond to the question until 18:14.Meanwhile, Jellicoe received confused sighting reports of varying accuracy and limited usefulness from light cruisers and battleships on the starboard (southern) flank of his force.Jellicoe was in a worrying position.", "He needed to know the location of the German fleet to judge when and how to deploy his battleships from their cruising formation (six columns of four ships each) into a single battle line.", "The deployment could be on either the westernmost or the easternmost column, and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter.", "Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the manoeuvre was complete.", "Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the \"T\", and visibility would strongly favour British gunnery—Scheer's forces would be silhouetted against the setting sun to the west, while the Grand Fleet would be indistinct against the dark skies to the north and east, and would be hidden by reflection of the low sunlight off intervening haze and smoke.", "Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were closing at full speed.", "In one of the most critical and difficult tactical command decisions of the entire war, Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:15.===Windy Corner===Meanwhile, Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe.", "Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was at sea, let alone that he was bearing down from the north-west, and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east.", "Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; at this time, Arbuthnot's flagship, the armoured cruiser , and her squadron-mate both charged across Beatty's bows, and ''Lion'' narrowly avoided a collision with ''Warrior''.", "Nearby, numerous British light cruisers and destroyers on the south-western flank of the deploying battleships were also crossing each other's courses in attempts to reach their proper stations, often barely escaping collisions, and under fire from some of the approaching German ships.", "This period of peril and heavy traffic attending the merger and deployment of the British forces later became known as \"Windy Corner\".Arbuthnot was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled ''Wiesbaden''.", "With ''Warrior'', ''Defence'' closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gun sights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships.", "''Defence'' was deluged by heavy-calibre gunfire from many German battleships, which detonated her magazines in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet.", "She sank with all hands (903 officers and men).", "''Warrior'' was also hit badly, but was spared destruction by a mishap to the nearby battleship ''Warspite''.", "''Warspite'' had her steering gear overheat and jam under heavy load at high speed as the 5th Battle Squadron made a turn to the north at 18:19.Steaming at top speed in wide circles, ''Warspite'' attracted the attention of German dreadnoughts and took 13 hits, inadvertently drawing fire away from the hapless ''Warrior''.", "''Warspite'' was brought back under control and survived the onslaught, but was badly damaged, had to reduce speed, and withdrew northward; later (at 21:07), she was ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas.", "''Warspite'' went on to a long and illustrious career, serving also in World War II.", "''Warrior'', on the other hand, was abandoned and sank the next day after her crew was taken off at 08:25 on 1 June by ''Engadine'', which towed the sinking armoured cruiser during the night.", "''Invincible'' blowing up after being struck by shells from ''Lützow'' and ''Derfflinger''As ''Defence'' sank and ''Warspite'' circled, at about 18:19, Hipper moved within range of Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron, but was still also within range of Beatty's ships.", "At first, visibility favoured the British: hit ''Derfflinger'' three times and ''Seydlitz'' once, while ''Lützow'' quickly took 10 hits from ''Lion'', and ''Invincible'', including two below-waterline hits forward by ''Invincible'' that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship.", "But at 18:30, ''Invincible'' abruptly appeared as a clear target before ''Lützow'' and ''Derfflinger''.", "The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at ''Invincible'', and sank her in 90 seconds.", "A shell from the third salvo struck ''Invincible''s Q-turret amidships, detonating the magazines below and causing her to blow up and sink.", "All but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear-Admiral Hood, were killed.", "Of the remaining British battlecruisers, only ''Princess Royal'' received heavy-calibre hits at this time (two by the battleship ''Markgraf'').", "''Lützow'', flooding forward and unable to communicate by radio, was now out of action and began to attempt to withdraw; therefore Hipper left his flagship and transferred to the torpedo boat , hoping to board one of the other battlecruisers later.===Crossing the T===By 18:30, the main battle fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively \"crossing Scheer's T\".", "The officers on the lead German battleships, and Scheer himself, were taken completely by surprise when they emerged from drifting clouds of smoky mist to suddenly find themselves facing the massed firepower of the entire Grand Fleet main battle line, which they did not know was even at sea.", "Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke'' quickly scored seven hits on the lead German dreadnought, , but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as 10 of the Grand Fleet's 24 dreadnoughts actually opened fire.", "The Germans were hampered by poor visibility, in addition to being in an unfavourable tactical position, just as Jellicoe had intended.", "Realising he was heading into a death trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and disengage at 18:33.Under a pall of smoke and mist, Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging by an expertly executed 180° turn in unison (\"battle about turn to starboard\", German ''Gefechtskehrtwendung nach Steuerbord''), which was a well-practised emergency manoeuvre of the High Seas Fleet.", "Scheer declared:Conscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not chase directly but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him.", "Starting at 18:40, battleships at the rear of Jellicoe's line were in fact sighting and avoiding torpedoes, and at 18:54 was hit by a torpedo (probably from the disabled ''Wiesbaden''), which reduced her speed to .", "Meanwhile, Scheer, knowing that it was not yet dark enough to escape and that his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, doubled back to the east at 18:55.In his memoirs he wrote, \"the manoeuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night.\"", "But the turn to the east took his ships, again, directly towards Jellicoe's fully deployed battle line.Simultaneously, the disabled British destroyer HMS ''Shark'' fought desperately against a group of four German torpedo boats and disabled with gunfire, but was eventually torpedoed and sunk at 19:02 by the German destroyer .", "''Shark''s Captain Loftus Jones was awarded the Victoria Cross for his heroism in continuing to fight against all odds.===''Turn Of The Battle''=== under fireCommodore Goodenough's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time to re-establish contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00.By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed Scheer's \"T\" again.", "This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the German battleships, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Squadron (SMS ''König'', , ''Markgraf'', and all being hit, along with of the 1st Squadron), while on the British side, only the battleship was hit (twice, by ''Seydlitz'' but with little damage done).At 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned his outnumbered and out-gunned fleet to the west using the \"battle about turn\" (German: ''Gefechtskehrtwendung''), but this time it was executed only with difficulty, as the High Seas Fleet's lead squadrons began to lose formation under concentrated gunfire.", "To deter a British chase, Scheer ordered a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a potentially sacrificial charge by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers.", "Hipper was still aboard the torpedo boat ''G39'' and was unable to command his squadron for this attack.", "Therefore, ''Derfflinger'', under Captain Hartog, led the already badly damaged German battlecruisers directly into \"the greatest concentration of naval gunfire any fleet commander had ever faced\", at ranges down to .In what became known as the \"death ride\", all the battlecruisers except ''Moltke'' were hit and further damaged, as 18 of the British battleships fired at them simultaneously.", "''Derfflinger'' had two main gun turrets destroyed.", "The crews of Scouting Group I suffered heavy casualties, but survived the pounding and veered away with the other battlecruisers once Scheer was out of trouble and the German destroyers were moving in to attack.", "In this brief but intense portion of the engagement, from about 19:05 to about 19:30, the Germans sustained a total of 37 heavy hits while inflicting only two; ''Derfflinger'' alone received 14.While his battlecruisers drew the fire of the British fleet, Scheer slipped away, laying smoke screens.", "Meanwhile, from about 19:16 to about 19:40, the British battleships were also engaging Scheer's torpedo boats, which executed several waves of torpedo attacks to cover his withdrawal.", "Jellicoe's ships turned away from the attacks and successfully evaded all 31 of the torpedoes launched at them—though, in several cases, only barely—and sank the German destroyer ''S35'', attributed to a salvo from ''Iron Duke''.", "British light forces also sank ''V48'', which had previously been disabled by HMS ''Shark''.", "This action, and the turn away, cost the British critical time and range in the last hour of daylight—as Scheer intended, allowing him to get his heavy ships out of immediate danger.The last major exchanges between capital ships in this battle—and in the war—took place just after sunset, from about 20:19 to about 20:35, as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts (the German 2nd Squadron).", "The British received one heavy hit on ''Princess Royal'' but scored five more on ''Seydlitz'' and three on other German ships.", "As twilight faded to night, exchanged a few final shots with ." ], [ "Night action and German withdrawal", "At 21:00, Jellicoe, conscious of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night fighting, decided to try to avoid a major engagement until early dawn.", "He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard Scheer's expected escape route.", "In reality, Scheer opted to cross Jellicoe's wake and escape via Horns Reef.", "Luckily for Scheer, most of the light forces in Jellicoe's rearguard failed to report the seven separate encounters with the German fleet during the night; the very few radio reports that were sent to the British flagship were never received, possibly because the Germans were jamming British frequencies.", "Many of the destroyers failed to make the most of their opportunities to attack discovered ships, despite Jellicoe's expectations that the destroyer forces would, if necessary, be able to block the path of the German fleet.Jellicoe and his commanders did not understand that the furious gunfire and explosions to the north (seen and heard for hours by all the British battleships) indicated that the German heavy ships were breaking through the screen astern of the British fleet.", "Instead, it was believed that the fighting was the result of night attacks by German destroyers.", "The most powerful British ships of all (the 15-inch-guns of the 5th Battle Squadron) directly observed German battleships crossing astern of them in action with British light forces, at ranges of or less, and gunners on HMS ''Malaya'' made ready to fire, but her captain declined, deferring to the authority of Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas—and neither commander reported the sightings to Jellicoe, assuming that he could see for himself and that revealing the fleet's position by radio signals or gunfire was unwise.While the nature of Scheer's escape, and Jellicoe's inaction, indicate the overall German superiority in night fighting, the results of the night action were no more clear-cut than were those of the battle as a whole.", "In the first of many surprise encounters by darkened ships at point-blank range, ''Southampton'', Commodore Goodenough's flagship, which had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged in action with a German Scouting Group composed of light cruisers, but managed to torpedo , which went down at 22:23 with all but 9 hands (320 officers and men).Damage to after being rammed by .From 23:20 to approximately 02:15, several British destroyer flotillas launched torpedo attacks on the German battle fleet in a series of violent and chaotic engagements at extremely short range (often under ).", "At the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to torpedo the light cruiser , which sank several hours later, and the pre-dreadnought , which blew up and sank with all hands (839 officers and men) at 03:10 during the last wave of attacks before dawn.", "Three of the British destroyers collided in the chaos, and the German battleship rammed the British destroyer , blowing away most of the British ship's superstructure merely with the muzzle blast of its big guns, which could not be aimed low enough to hit the ship.", "''Nassau'' was left with an hole in her side, reducing her maximum speed to , while the removed plating was left lying on ''Spitfire''s deck.", "''Spitfire'' survived and made it back to port.", "Another German cruiser, ''Elbing'', was accidentally rammed by the dreadnought and abandoned, sinking early the next day.", "Of the British destroyers, , , , and were lost during the night fighting.Just after midnight on 1 June, and other German battleships sank ''Black Prince'' of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron, which had blundered into the German battle line.", "Deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet, ''Black Prince'' had lost contact in the darkness and took a position near what she thought was the British line.", "The Germans soon identified the new addition to their line and opened fire.", "Overwhelmed by point-blank gunfire, ''Black Prince'' blew up (all 857 officers and men were lost), as her squadron leader ''Defence'' had done hours earlier.", "Lost in the darkness, the battlecruisers ''Moltke'' and ''Seydlitz'' had similar point-blank encounters with the British battle line and were recognised, but were spared the fate of ''Black Prince'' when the captains of the British ships, again, declined to open fire, reluctant to reveal their fleet's position.At 01:45, the sinking battlecruiser ''Lützow'' – fatally damaged by ''Invincible'' during the main action – was torpedoed by the destroyer on orders of ''Lützow''s Captain Viktor von Harder after the surviving crew of 1,150 transferred to destroyers that came alongside.", "At 02:15, the German torpedo boat suddenly had its bow blown off; ''V2'' and ''V6'' came alongside and took off the remaining crew, and the ''V2'' then sank the hulk.", "Since there was no enemy nearby, it was assumed that she had hit a mine or had been torpedoed by a submarine.At 02:15, five British ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla under Captain James Uchtred Farie regrouped and headed south.", "At 02:25, they sighted the rear of the German line.", "inquired of the leader as to whether he thought they were British or German ships.", "Answering that he thought they were German, Farie then veered off to the east and away from the German line.", "All but ''Moresby'' in the rear followed, as through the gloom she sighted what she thought were four pre-dreadnought battleships away.", "She hoisted a flag signal indicating that the enemy was to the west and then closed to firing range, letting off a torpedo set for high running at 02:37, then veering off to rejoin her flotilla.", "The four pre-dreadnought battleships were in fact two pre-dreadnoughts, ''Schleswig-Holstein'' and , and the battlecruisers ''Von der Tann'' and ''Derfflinger''.", "''Von der Tann'' sighted the torpedo and was forced to steer sharply to starboard to avoid it as it passed close to her bows.", "''Moresby'' rejoined ''Champion'' convinced she had scored a hit.Finally, at 05:20, as Scheer's fleet was safely on its way home, the battleship struck a British mine on her starboard side, killing one man and wounding ten, but was able to make port.", "''Seydlitz'', critically damaged and very nearly sinking, barely survived the return voyage: after grounding and taking on even more water on the evening of 1 June, she had to be assisted stern first into port, where she dropped anchor at 07:30 on the morning of 2 June.The Germans were helped in their escape by the failure of the British Admiralty in London to pass on seven critical radio intercepts obtained by naval intelligence indicating the true position, course and intentions of the High Seas Fleet during the night.", "One message was transmitted to Jellicoe at 23:15 that accurately reported the German fleet's course and speed as of 21:14.However, the erroneous signal from earlier in the day that reported the German fleet still in port, and an intelligence signal received at 22:45 giving another unlikely position for the German fleet, had reduced his confidence in intelligence reports.", "Had the other messages been forwarded, which confirmed the information received at 23:15, or had British ships reported accurately sightings and engagements with German destroyers, cruisers and battleships, then Jellicoe could have altered course to intercept Scheer at the Horns Reef.", "The unsent intercepted messages had been duly filed by the junior officer left on duty that night, who failed to appreciate their significance.", "By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15, the German fleet was too far away to catch and it was clear that the battle could no longer be resumed." ], [ "Outcome", "As both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet could claim to have at least partially satisfied their objectives, both Britain and Germany have at various points claimed victory in the Battle of Jutland.", "There is no consensus over which nation was victorious, or if there was a victor at all.===Reporting===At midday on 2 June, German authorities released a press statement claiming a victory, including the destruction of a battleship, two battlecruisers, two armoured cruisers, a light cruiser, a submarine and several destroyers, for the loss of ''Pommern'' and ''Wiesbaden''.", "News that ''Lützow'', ''Elbing'' and ''Rostock'' had been scuttled was withheld, on the grounds this information would not be known to the enemy.", "The victory of the Skagerrak was celebrated in the press, children were given a holiday and the nation celebrated.", "The Kaiser announced a new chapter in world history.", "Post-war, the official German history hailed the battle as a victory and it continued to be celebrated until after World War II.In Britain, the first official news came from German wireless broadcasts.", "Ships began to arrive in port, their crews sending messages to friends and relatives both of their survival and the loss of some 6,000 others.", "The authorities considered suppressing the news, but it had already spread widely.", "Some crews coming ashore found rumours had already reported them dead to relatives, while others were jeered for the defeat they had suffered.", "At 19:00 on 2 June, the Admiralty released a statement based on information from Jellicoe containing the bare news of losses on each side.", "The following day British newspapers reported a German victory.", "The ''Daily Mirror'' described the German Director of the Naval Department telling the ''Reichstag'': \"The result of the fighting is a significant success for our forces against a much stronger adversary\".", "The British population was shocked that the long anticipated battle had been a victory for Germany.", "On 3 June, the Admiralty issued a further statement expanding on German losses, and another the following day with exaggerated claims.", "However, on 7 June the German admission of the losses of ''Lützow'' and ''Rostock'' started to redress the sense of the battle as a loss.", "International perception of the battle began to change towards a qualified British victory, the German attempt to change the balance of power in the North Sea having been repulsed.", "In July, bad news from the Somme campaign swept concern over Jutland from the British consciousness.===Assessments===SMS ''Seydlitz'' was heavily damaged in the battle, hit by twenty-one main calibre shells, several secondary calibre and one torpedo.", "98 men were killed and 55 injured.At Jutland, the Germans, with a 99-strong fleet, sank of British ships, while a 151-strong British fleet sank of German ships.", "The British lost 6,094 seamen; the Germans 2,551.Several other ships were badly damaged, such as ''Lion'' and ''Seydlitz''.As of the summer of 1916, the High Seas Fleet's strategy was to whittle away the numerical advantage of the Royal Navy by bringing its full strength to bear against isolated squadrons of enemy capital ships whilst declining to be drawn into a general fleet battle until it had achieved something resembling parity in heavy ships.", "In tactical terms, the High Seas Fleet had clearly inflicted significantly greater losses on the Grand Fleet than it had suffered itself at Jutland, and the Germans never had any intention of attempting to hold the site of the battle, so some historians support the German claim of victory at Jutland.", "The Germans declared a great victory immediately afterwards, while the British by contrast had only reported short and simple results.", "In response to public outrage, the First Lord of the Admiralty Arthur Balfour asked Winston Churchill to write a second report that was more positive and detailed.However, Scheer seems to have quickly realised that further battles with a similar rate of attrition would exhaust the High Seas Fleet long before they reduced the Grand Fleet.", "Further, after the 19 August advance was nearly intercepted by the Grand Fleet, he no longer believed that it would be possible to trap a single squadron of Royal Navy warships without having the Grand Fleet intervene before he could return to port.", "Therefore, the High Seas Fleet abandoned its forays into the North Sea and turned its attention to the Baltic for most of 1917 whilst Scheer switched tactics against Britain to unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic.At a strategic level, the outcome has been the subject of a huge amount of literature with no clear consensus.", "The battle was widely viewed as indecisive in the immediate aftermath, and this view remains influential.Despite numerical superiority, the British had been disappointed in their hopes for a decisive battle comparable to Trafalgar and the objective of the influential strategic doctrines of Alfred Mahan.", "The High Seas Fleet survived as a fleet in being.", "Most of its losses were made good within a month—even ''Seydlitz'', the most badly damaged ship to survive the battle, was repaired by October and officially back in service by November.", "However, the Germans had failed in their objective of destroying a substantial portion of the British Fleet, and no progress had been made towards the goal of allowing the High Seas Fleet to operate in the Atlantic Ocean.Subsequently, there has been considerable support for the view of Jutland as a strategic victory for the British.", "While the British had not destroyed the German fleet and had lost more ships and lives than their enemy, the Germans had retreated to harbour; at the end of the battle, the British were in command of the area.", "Britain enforced the blockade, reducing Germany's vital imports to 55%, affecting the ability of Germany to fight the war.The German fleet would only sortie into the North Sea thrice more, with a raid on 19 August, one in October 1916, and another in April 1918.All three were unopposed by capital ships and quickly aborted as neither side was prepared to take the risks of mines and submarines.Apart from these three abortive operations the High Seas Fleet—unwilling to risk another encounter with the British fleet—confined its activities to the Baltic Sea for the remainder of the war.", "Jellicoe issued an order prohibiting the Grand Fleet from steaming south of the line of Horns Reef owing to the threat of mines and U-boats.", "A German naval expert, writing publicly about Jutland in November 1918, commented, \"Our Fleet losses were severe.", "On 1 June 1916, it was clear to every thinking person that this battle must, and would be, the last one\".A crew member of SMS ''Westfalen''At the end of the battle, the British had maintained their numerical superiority and had 23 dreadnoughts ready and four battlecruisers still able to fight, while the Germans had only 10 dreadnoughts.", "One month after the battle, the Grand Fleet was stronger than it had been before sailing to Jutland.", "''Warspite'' was dry-docked at Rosyth, returning to the fleet on 22 July, while ''Malaya'' was repaired in the floating dock at Invergordon, returning to duty on 11 July.", "''Barham'' was docked for a month at Devonport before undergoing speed trials and returning to Scapa Flow on 8 July.", "''Princess Royal'' stayed initially at Rosyth but transferred to dry dock at Portsmouth before returning to duty at Rosyth 21 July.", "''Tiger'' was dry-docked at Rosyth and ready for service 2 July.", "''Queen Elizabeth'', ''Emperor of India'' and , which had been undergoing maintenance at the time of the battle, returned to the fleet immediately, followed shortly after by ''Resolution'' and ''Ramillies''.", "''Lion'' initially remained ready for sea duty despite the damaged turret, then underwent a month's repairs in July when Q turret was removed temporarily and replaced in September.A third view, presented in a number of recent evaluations, is that Jutland, the last major fleet action between battleships, illustrated the irrelevance of battleship fleets following the development of the submarine, mine and torpedo.", "In this view, the most important consequence of Jutland was the decision of the Germans to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare.", "Although large numbers of battleships were constructed in the decades between the wars, it has been argued that this outcome reflected the social dominance among naval decision-makers of battleship advocates who constrained technological choices to fit traditional paradigms of fleet action.", "Battleships played a relatively minor role in World War II, in which the submarine and aircraft carrier emerged as the dominant offensive weapons of naval warfare.===British self-critique===The official British Admiralty examination of the Grand Fleet's performance recognised two main problems:* British armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within.", "As a result, some German ships with only -thick armour survived hits from projectiles.", "Had these shells penetrated the armour and then exploded, German losses would probably have been far greater.", "* Communication between ships and the British commander-in-chief was comparatively poor.", "For most of the battle, Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact.", "They failed to report enemy positions, contrary to the Grand Fleet's Battle Plan.", "Some of the most important signalling was carried out solely by flag instead of wireless or using redundant methods to ensure communications—a questionable procedure, given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield, and a foreshadowing of similar failures by habit-bound and conservatively minded professional officers of rank to take advantage of new technology in World War II.", "====Shell performance====German armour-piercing shells were far more effective than the British ones, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour.", "The issue particularly concerned shells striking at oblique angles, which became increasingly the case at long range.", "Germany had adopted trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the explosive filler for artillery shells in 1902, while the United Kingdom was still using a picric acid mixture (Lyddite).", "The shock of impact of a shell against armour often prematurely detonated Lyddite in advance of fuze function while TNT detonation could be delayed until after the shell had penetrated and the fuze had functioned in the vulnerable area behind the armour plate.", "Some 17 British shells hit the side armour of the German dreadnoughts or battlecruisers.", "Of these, four would not have penetrated under any circumstances.", "Of the remaining 13, one penetrated the armour and exploded inside.", "This showed a 7.5% chance of proper shell function on the British side, a result of overly brittle shells and Lyddite exploding too soon.The issue of poorly performing shells had been known to Jellicoe, who as Third Sea Lord from 1908 to 1910 had ordered new shells to be designed.", "However, the matter had not been followed through after his posting to sea and new shells had never been thoroughly tested.", "Beatty discovered the problem at a party aboard ''Lion'' a short time after the battle, when a Swedish Naval officer was present.", "He had recently visited Berlin, where the German navy had scoffed at how British shells had broken up on their ships' armour.", "The question of shell effectiveness had also been raised after the Battle of Dogger Bank, but no action had been taken.", "Hipper later commented, \"It was nothing but the poor quality of their bursting charges which saved us from disaster.", "\"Admiral Dreyer, writing later about the battle, during which he had been captain of the British flagship ''Iron Duke'', estimated that effective shells as later introduced would have led to the sinking of six more German capital ships, based upon the actual number of hits achieved in the battle.", "The system of testing shells, which remained in use up to 1944, meant that, statistically, a batch of shells of which 70% were faulty stood an even chance of being accepted.", "Indeed, even shells that failed this relatively mild test had still been issued to ships.", "Analysis of the test results afterwards by the Ordnance Board suggested the likelihood that 30–70% of shells would not have passed the standard penetration test specified by the Admiralty.Efforts to replace the shells were initially resisted by the Admiralty, and action was not taken until Jellicoe became First Sea Lord in December 1916.As an initial response, the worst of the existing shells were withdrawn from ships in early 1917 and replaced from reserve supplies.", "New shells were designed, but did not arrive until April 1918, and were never used in action.====Battlecruiser losses====British battlecruisers were designed to chase and destroy enemy cruisers from out of the range of those ships.", "They were not designed to be ships of the line and exchange broadsides with the enemy.", "One German and three British battlecruisers were sunk—but none were destroyed by enemy shells penetrating the belt armour and detonating the magazines.", "Each of the British battlecruisers was penetrated through a turret roof and their magazines ignited by flash fires passing through the turret and shell-handling rooms.", "''Lützow'' sustained 24 hits and her flooding could not be contained.", "She was eventually sunk by her escorts' torpedoes after most of her crew had been safely removed (though six trapped stokers died when the ship was scuttled).", "''Derfflinger'' and ''Seydlitz'' sustained 22 hits each but reached port (although in ''Seydlitz'''s case only just).Jellicoe and Beatty, as well as other senior officers, gave an impression that the loss of the battlecruisers was caused by weak armour, despite reports by two committees and earlier statements by Jellicoe and other senior officers that Cordite and its management were to blame.", "This led to calls for armour to be increased, and an additional was placed over the relatively thin decks above magazines.", "To compensate for the increase in weight, ships had to carry correspondingly less fuel, water and other supplies.", "Whether or not thin deck armour was a potential weakness of British ships, the battle provided no evidence that it was the case.", "At least amongst the surviving ships, no enemy shell was found to have penetrated deck armour anywhere.", "The design of the new battlecruiser (which was being built at the time of the battle) was altered to give her of additional armour.====Ammunition handling====British and German propellant charges differed in packaging, handling, and chemistry.", "The British propellant was of two types, MK1 and MD.", "The Mark 1 cordite had a formula of 37% nitrocellulose, 58% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly.", "It was a good propellant but burned hot and caused an erosion problem in gun barrels.", "The petroleum jelly served as both a lubricant and a stabiliser.", "Cordite MD was developed to reduce barrel wear, its formula being 65% nitrocellulose, 30% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly.", "While cordite MD solved the gun-barrel erosion issue, it did nothing to improve its storage properties, which were poor.", "Cordite was very sensitive to variations of temperature, and acid propagation/cordite deterioration would take place at a very rapid rate.", "Cordite MD also shed micro-dust particles of nitrocellulose and iron pyrite.", "While cordite propellant was manageable, it required a vigilant gunnery officer, strict cordite lot control, and frequent testing of the cordite lots in the ships' magazines.British cordite propellant (when uncased and exposed in the silk bag) tended to burn violently, causing uncontrollable \"flash fires\" when ignited by nearby shell hits.", "In 1945, a test was conducted by the U.S.N.", "Bureau of Ordnance (Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.", "245, pp.", "54–60) testing the sensitivity of cordite to then-current U.S.", "Naval propellant powders against a measurable and repeatable flash source.", "It found that cordite would ignite at from the flash, the current U.S. powder at , and the U.S. flashless powder at .This meant that about 75 times the propellant would immediately ignite when exposed to flash, as compared to the U.S. powder.", "British ships had inadequate protection against these flash fires.", "German propellant (''RP C/12'', handled in brass cartridge cases and used in German artillery because their sliding wedge breeches were hard to obturate with smokeless powder, ) was less vulnerable and less volatile in composition.", "German propellants were not that different in composition from cordite—with one major exception: centralite.", "This was symmetrical diethyl diphenyl urea, which served as a stabiliser that was superior to the petroleum jelly used in British practice.", "It stored better and burned but did not explode.", "Stored and used in brass cases, it proved much less sensitive to flash.", "RP C/12 was composed of 64.13% nitrocellulose, 29.77% nitroglycerine, 5.75% centralite, 0.25% magnesium oxide and 0.10% graphite.The Royal Navy Battle Cruiser Fleet had also emphasised speed in ammunition handling over established safety protocol.", "In practice drills, cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches.", "To bring up the propellant in good time to load for the next broadside, many safety doors were kept open that should have been shut to safeguard against flash fires.", "Bags of cordite were also stocked and kept locally, creating a total breakdown of safety design features.", "By staging charges in the chambers between the gun turret and magazine, the Royal Navy enhanced their rate of fire but left their ships vulnerable to chain reaction ammunition fires and magazine explosions.", "This 'bad safety habit' carried over into real battle practices.", "Furthermore, the doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50%, for fear of running out of ammunition.", "When this exceeded the capacity of the ships' magazines, cordite was stored in insecure places.The British cordite charges were stored two silk bags to a metal cylindrical container, with a 16-oz gunpowder igniter charge, which was covered with a thick paper wad, four charges being used on each projectile.", "The gun crews were removing the charges from their containers and removing the paper covering over the gunpowder igniter charges.", "The effect of having eight loads at the ready was to have of exposed explosive, with each charge leaking small amounts of gunpowder from the igniter bags.", "In effect, the gun crews had laid an explosive train from the turret to the magazines, and one shell hit to a battlecruiser turret was enough to end a ship.A diving expedition during the summer of 2003 provided corroboration of this practice.", "It examined the wrecks of ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', ''Defence'', and ''Lützow'' to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions.", "From this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the cordite propellant for the shells of the main guns.", "The wreck of the ''Queen Mary'' revealed cordite containers stacked in the working chamber of the X turret instead of the magazine.There was a further difference in the propellant itself.", "While the German ''RP C/12'' burned when exposed to fire, it did not explode, as opposed to cordite.", "''RP C/12'' was extensively studied by the British and, after World War I, would form the basis of the later Cordite SC.The memoirs of Alexander Grant, Gunner on ''Lion'', suggest that some British officers were aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:Grant had already introduced measures onboard ''Lion'' to limit the number of cartridges kept outside the magazine and to ensure doors were kept closed, probably contributing to her survival.On 5 June 1916, the First Lord of the Admiralty advised Cabinet Members that the three battlecruisers had been lost due to unsafe cordite management.After the battle, the B.C.F.", "Gunnery Committee issued a report (at the command of Admiral David Beatty) advocating immediate changes in flash protection and charge handling.", "It reported, among other things, that:* Some vent plates in magazines allowed flash into the magazines and should be retro-fitted to a new standard.", "* Bulkheads in HMS ''Lion''s magazine showed buckling from fire under pressure (overpressure)—despite being flooded and therefore supported by water pressure—and must be made stronger.", "* Doors opening inward to magazines were an extreme danger.", "* Current designs of turrets could not eliminate flash from shell bursts in the turret from reaching the handling rooms.", "* Ignition pads must not be attached to charges but instead be placed just before ramming.", "* Better methods must be found for safe storage of ready charges than the current method.", "* Some method for rapidly drowning charges already in the handling path must be devised.", "* Handling scuttles (special flash-proof fittings for moving propellant charges through ship's bulkheads), designed to handle overpressure, must be fitted.====Gunnery====British gunnery control systems, based on Dreyer tables, were well in advance of the German ones, as demonstrated by the proportion of main calibre hits made on the German fleet.", "Because of its demonstrated advantages, it was installed on ships progressively as the war went on, had been fitted to a majority of British capital ships by May 1916, and had been installed on the main guns of all but two of the Grand Fleet's capital ships.", "The Royal Navy used centralised fire-control systems on their capital ships, directed from a point high up on the ship where the fall of shells could best be seen, utilising a director sight for both training and elevating the guns.", "In contrast, the German battlecruisers controlled the fire of turrets using a training-only director, which also did not fire the guns at once.", "The rest of the German capital ships were without even this innovation.", "German range-finding equipment was generally superior to the British FT24, as its operators were trained to a higher standard due to the complexity of the Zeiss range finders.", "Their stereoscopic design meant that in certain conditions they could range on a target enshrouded by smoke.", "The German equipment was not superior in range to the British Barr & Stroud rangefinder found in the newest British capital ships, and, unlike the British range finders, the German range takers had to be replaced as often as every thirty minutes, as their eyesight became impaired, affecting the ranges provided to their gunnery equipment.The results of the battle confirmed the value of firing guns by centralised director.", "The battle prompted the Royal Navy to install director firing systems in cruisers and destroyers, where it had not thus far been used, and for secondary armament on battleships.German ships were considered to have been quicker in determining the correct range to targets, thus obtaining an early advantage.", "The British used a 'bracket system', whereby a salvo was fired at the best-guess range and, depending where it landed, the range was progressively corrected up or down until successive shots were landing in front of and behind the enemy.", "The Germans used a 'ladder system', whereby an initial volley of three shots at different ranges was used, with the centre shot at the best-guess range.", "The ladder system allowed the gunners to get ranging information from the three shots more quickly than the bracket system, which required waiting between shots to see how the last had landed.", "British ships adopted the German system.It was determined that range finders of the sort issued to most British ships were not adequate at long range and did not perform as well as the range finders on some of the most modern ships.", "In 1917, range finders of base lengths of were introduced on the battleships to improve accuracy.====Signalling====Throughout the battle, British ships experienced difficulties with communications, whereas the Germans did not suffer such problems.", "The British preferred signalling using ship-to-ship flag and lamp signals, avoiding wireless, whereas the Germans used wireless successfully.", "One conclusion drawn was that flag signals were not a satisfactory way to control the fleet.", "Experience using lamps, particularly at night when issuing challenges to other ships, demonstrated this was an excellent way to advertise your precise location to an enemy, inviting a reply by gunfire.", "Recognition signals by lamp, once seen, could also easily be copied in future engagements.British ships both failed to report engagements with the enemy but also, in the case of cruisers and destroyers, failed to actively seek out the enemy.", "A culture had arisen within the fleet of not acting without orders, which could prove fatal when any circumstances prevented orders being sent or received.", "Commanders failed to engage the enemy because they believed other, more senior officers must also be aware of the enemy nearby, and would have given orders to act if this was expected.", "Wireless, the most direct way to pass messages across the fleet (although it was being jammed by German ships), was avoided either for perceived reasons of not giving away the presence of ships or for fear of cluttering up the airwaves with unnecessary reports.====Fleet Standing Orders====Naval operations were governed by standing orders issued to all the ships.", "These attempted to set out what ships should do in all circumstances, particularly in situations where ships would have to react without referring to higher authority, or when communications failed.", "A number of changes were introduced as a result of experience gained in the battle.A new signal was introduced instructing squadron commanders to act independently as they thought best while still supporting the main fleet, particularly for use when circumstances would make it difficult to send detailed orders.", "The description stressed that this was not intended to be the only time commanders might take independent action, but was intended to make plain times when they definitely should.", "Similarly, instructions on what to do if the fleet was instructed to take evasive action against torpedoes were amended.", "Commanders were given discretion that if their part of the fleet was not under immediate attack, they should continue engaging the enemy rather than turning away with the rest of the fleet.", "In this battle, when the fleet turned away from Scheer's destroyer attack covering his retreat, not all the British ships had been affected, and could have continued to engage the enemy.A number of opportunities to attack enemy ships by torpedo had presented themselves but had been missed.", "All ships, not just the destroyers armed principally with torpedoes but also battleships, were reminded that they carried torpedoes intended to be used whenever an opportunity arose.", "Destroyers were instructed to close the enemy fleet to fire torpedoes as soon as engagements between the main ships on either side would keep enemy guns busy directed at larger targets.", "Destroyers should also be ready to immediately engage enemy destroyers if they should launch an attack, endeavouring to disrupt their chances of launching torpedoes and keep them away from the main fleet.To add some flexibility when deploying for attack, a new signal was provided for deploying the fleet to the centre, rather than as previously only either to left or right of the standard closed-up formation for travelling.", "The fast and powerful 5th Battle Squadron was moved to the front of the cruising formation so it would have the option of deploying left or right depending upon the enemy position.", "In the event of engagements at night, although the fleet still preferred to avoid night fighting, a destroyer and cruiser squadron would be specifically detailed to seek out the enemy and launch destroyer attacks.The German propaganda poster proudly boasts of German achievements in the Battle of Jutland" ], [ "Controversy", "At the time, Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape.", "Beatty, in particular, was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to annihilate the High Seas Fleet and win what would amount to another Trafalgar.", "Jellicoe was promoted away from active command to become First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy, while Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet.The controversy raged within the navy and in public for about a decade after the war.", "Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15.Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships.", "Jellicoe chose to turn to the south-east, and so keep out of range of the torpedoes.", "Supporters of Jellicoe, including the historian Cyril Falls, pointed to the folly of risking defeat in battle when one already has command of the sea.", "Jellicoe himself, in a letter to the Admiralty seventeen months before the battle, said that he intended to turn his fleet away from any mass torpedo attack (that being the universally accepted proper tactical response to such attacks, practised by all the major navies of the world).", "He said that, in the event of a fleet engagement in which the enemy turned away, he would assume they intended to draw him over mines or submarines, and he would decline to be so drawn.", "The Admiralty approved this plan and expressed full confidence in Jellicoe at the time (October 1914).The stakes were high, the pressure on Jellicoe immense, and his caution certainly understandable.", "His judgement might have been that even 90% odds in favour were not good enough to bet the British Empire.", "Churchill said of the battle that Jellicoe \"was the only man on either side who could have lost the war in an afternoon.", "\"The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to sufficiently credit Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding the full British battle line, and who showed great skill in effecting his escape.===Beatty's actions===On the other hand, some of Jellicoe's supporters condemned the actions of Beatty for the British failure to achieve a complete victory.", "Although Beatty was undeniably brave, his mismanagement of the initial encounter with Hipper's squadron and the High Seas Fleet cost him a considerable advantage in the first hours of the battle.", "His most glaring failure was in not providing Jellicoe with periodic information on the position, course, and speed of the High Seas Fleet.", "Beatty, aboard the battlecruiser ''Lion'', left behind the four fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron—the most powerful warships in the world at the time—engaging with six ships when better control would have given him 10 against Hipper's five.", "Though Beatty's larger guns out-ranged Hipper's guns by thousands of yards, Beatty held his fire for 10 minutes and closed the German squadron until within range of the Germans' superior gunnery, under lighting conditions that favoured the Germans.", "Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's force." ], [ "Death toll", "The total loss of life on both sides was 9,823 personnel: the British losses numbered 6,784 and the German 3,039.Counted among the British losses were two members of the Royal Australian Navy and one member of the Royal Canadian Navy.", "Six Australian nationals serving in the Royal Navy were also killed.===British===113,300 tons sunk:* Battlecruisers , , * Armoured cruisers , , * Flotilla leader * Destroyers , , , , , , ===German===62,300 tons sunk:* Battlecruiser * Pre-dreadnought * Light cruisers , , , * Destroyers (Heavy torpedo-boats) , , , ," ], [ "Selected honours", "The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour \"in the face of the enemy\" to members of the British Empire armed forces.", "The Ordre pour le Mérite was the Kingdom of Prussia and consequently the German Empire's highest military order until the end of the First World War.===Pour le Mérite===* Franz Hipper ()* Reinhard Scheer ()===Victoria Cross===* The Hon.", "Edward Barry Stewart Bingham ()* John Travers Cornwell ()* Francis John William Harvey ()* Loftus William Jones ()" ], [ "Status of the survivors and wrecks", ", the last surviving warship that saw action at Jutland, is preserved in Belfast, Northern IrelandIn the years following the battle the wrecks were slowly discovered.", "''Invincible'' was found by the Royal Navy minesweeper in 1919.After the Second World War some of the wrecks seem to have been commercially salvaged.", "For instance, the Hydrographic Office record for SMS ''Lützow'' (No.", "32344) shows that salvage operations were taking place on the wreck in 1960.During 2000–2016 a series of diving and marine survey expeditions involving veteran shipwreck historian and archaeologist Innes McCartney located all of the wrecks sunk in the battle.", "It was discovered that over 60 per cent of them had suffered from metal theft.", "In 2003 McCartney led a detailed survey of the wrecks for the Channel 4 documentary \"Clash of the Dreadnoughts\".", "The film examined the last minutes of the lost ships and revealed for the first time how both 'P' and 'Q' turrets of ''Invincible'' had been blasted out of the ship and tossed into the sea before she broke in half.", "This was followed by the Channel 4 documentary \"Jutland: WWI's Greatest Sea Battle\", broadcast in May 2016, which showed how several of the major losses at Jutland had actually occurred and just how accurate the \"Harper Record\" actually was.On the 90th anniversary of the battle, in 2006, the UK Ministry of Defence belatedly announced that the 14 British vessels lost in the battle were being designated as ''protected places'' under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986.This legislation only affects British ships and citizens and in practical terms offers no real protection from non-British salvors of the wreck sites.", "In May 2016 a number of British newspapers named the Dutch salvage company \"Friendship Offshore\" as one of the main salvors of the Jutland wrecks in recent years and depicted leaked photographs revealing the extent of their activities on the wreck of ''Queen Mary''.The last surviving veteran of the battle, Henry Allingham, a British RAF (originally RNAS) airman, died on 18 July 2009, aged 113, by which time he was the oldest documented man in the world and one of the last surviving veterans of the whole war.", "Also among the combatants was the then 20-year-old Prince Albert, serving as a junior officer aboard .", "He was second in the line to the throne, but would become king as George VI following his brother Edward's abdication in 1936.One ship from the battle survives and is still (in 2024) afloat: the light cruiser .", "Decommissioned in 2011, she is docked at the Alexandra Graving Dock in Belfast, Northern Ireland and is a museum ship." ], [ "Remembrance", "The Battle of Jutland was annually celebrated as a great victory by the right wing in Weimar Germany.", "This victory was used to repress the memory of the German navy's initiation of the German Revolution of 1918–1919, as well as the memory of the defeat in World War I in general.", "(The celebrations of the Battle of Tannenberg played a similar role.)", "This is especially true for the city of Wilhelmshaven, where wreath-laying ceremonies and torch-lit parades were performed until the end of the 1960s.In 1916 Contreadmiral Friedrich von Kühlwetter (1865–1931) wrote a detailed analysis of the battle and published it in a book under the title ''Skagerrak'' (first anonymously published), which was reprinted in large numbers until after WWII and had a huge influence in keeping the battle in public memory amongst Germans as it was not tainted by the ideology of the Third Reich.", "Kühlwetter built the School for Naval Officers at Mürwik near Flensburg, where he is still remembered.In May 2016, the 100th-anniversary commemoration of the Battle of Jutland was held.", "On 29 May, a commemorative service was held at St Mary's Church, Wimbledon, where the ensign from HMS ''Inflexible'' is on permanent display.", "On 31 May, the main service was held at St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney, attended by the British prime minister, David Cameron, and the German president, Joachim Gauck, along with Princess Anne and Vice Admiral Sir Tim Laurence.", "A centennial exposition was held at the Deutsches Marinemuseum in Wilhemshaven from 29 May 2016 to 28 February 2017." ], [ "Film", "* ''Wrath of the Seas'' (''Die versunkene Flotte''), 1926, director Manfred Noa" ], [ "See also", "* List of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions* Sea War Museum Jutland* Naval warfare of World War I" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Black, Jeremy.", "\"Jutland's Place in History,\" ''Naval History'' (June 2016) 30#3, pp.", "16–21.", "* * * * Corbett, Sir Julian.", "(2015) ''Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.''", "Vol.", "1, originally published Jan 1914.Naval Institute Press; * Corbett, Sir Julian.", "(2015) ''Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.''", "Vol.", "2, originally published Oct 1915.Naval Institute Press; * Costello, John (1976) ''Jutland 1916'' with Terry Hughes* * * Friedman, Norman.", "(2013) ''Naval Firepower, Battleship Guns And Gunnery In The Dreadnaught Era.''", "Seaforth Publishing; * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * H.W.", "Fawcett & G.W.W.", "Hooper, RN (editors), The fighting at Jutland (abridged edition); the personal experiences of forty-five officers and men of the British Fleet London: MacMillan & Co, 1921* * * * * * Lambert, Andrew.", "\"Writing Writing the Battle: Jutland in Sir Julian Corbett's Naval Operations,\" ''Mariner's Mirror'' 103#2 (2017) 175–95, Historiography..* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* WW1 Centenary News – Battle of Jutland* Jutland Centenary Initiative* Jutland Commemoration Exhibition* Beatty's official report* Jellicoe's official despatch* Jellicoe, extract from ''The Grand Fleet'', published 1919* World War I Naval Combat – Despatches* Scheer, ''Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War'' , published 1920* Henry Allingham Last known survivor of the Battle of Jutland* Table of Jutland Casualties Listed by Ship* germannavalwarfare.info Some Original Documents from the British Admiralty, Room 40, regarding the Battle of Jutland: Photocopies from The National Archives, Kew, Richmond, UK.", "* Sailors, with biographies, plotted on the Jutland Interactive Map of the NMRN * Battle of Jutland Crew Lists Project* Battle of Jutland Crew Lists Project Wiki* Memorial park for the Battle of Jutland* Battle-of-Jutland.com The website owner has a package of original documents* Transcript of post-battle correspondence between the Grand Fleet and the Admiralty concerning the loss of the battlecruisers.===Notable accounts===* by Rudyard Kipling Retrieved 2009-10-31.", "* by Alexander Grant, a gunner aboard HMS ''Lion''* A North Sea diary, 1914–1918, by Stephen King-Hall, a junior officer on the light cruiser * by Paul Berryman, a junior officer on * by Moritz von Egidy, captain of SMS ''Seydlitz''* by Richard Foerster, gunnery officer on ''Seydlitz''* by Georg von Hase, gunnery officer on ''Derfflinger'':('''Note:''' Due to the time difference, entries in some of the German accounts are one hour ahead of the times in this article.)" ] ]

[ [ "Bambara language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bambara''', also known as '''Bamana''' (N'Ko script: ) or '''Bamanankan''' (N'Ko script: ; Arabic script: ), is a lingua franca and national language of Mali spoken by perhaps 14 million people, natively by 4.1 million Bambara people and about 10 million second-language users.", "It is estimated that about 80 percent of the population of Mali speak Bambara as a first or second language.", "It has a subject–object–verb clause structure and two lexical tones." ], [ "Classification", "Bambara is a variety of a group of closely related languages called Manding, whose native speakers trace their cultural history to the medieval Mali Empire.", "Varieties of Manding are generally considered (among native speakers) to be mutually intelligible – dependent on exposure or familiarity with dialects between speakers – and spoken by 30 to 40 million people in the countries Burkina Faso, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast and the Gambia.", "Manding is part of the larger Mandé family of languages." ], [ "Geographical distribution", "Bambara is spoken throughout Mali as a lingua franca.", "The language is most widely spoken in the areas east, south, and north of Bamako, where native speakers and/or those that identify as members of the Bambara ethnic group are most densely populated.", "These regions are also usually considered to be the historical geographical origin of Bambara people, particularly Ségou, after diverging from other Manding groups." ], [ "Dialects", "The main dialect is Standard Bamara, which has significant influence from Maninkakan.", "Bambara has many local dialects: Kaarta, Tambacounda (west); Beledugu, Bananba, Mesekele (north); Jitumu, Jamaladugu, Segu (center); Cakadugu, Keleyadugu, Jalakadougu, Kurulamini, Banimɔncɛ, Cɛmala, Cɛndugu, Baninkɔ, Shɛndugu, Ganadugu (south); Kala, Kuruma, Saro, dialects to the northeast of Mopti (especially Bɔrɛ); Zegedugu, Bɛndugu, Bakɔkan, Jɔnka (southeast).," ], [ "Writing", "Page from Francis Delaforge's ''Grammaire et méthode Bambara'' (1949)Since 1967, Bambara has mostly been written in the Latin script, using some additional phonetic characters.", "The vowels are ''a, e, ɛ'' (formerly ''è''), ''i, o, ɔ'' (formerly ''ò''), ''u''; accents can be used to indicate tonality.", "The former digraph ''ny'' is now written ''ɲ'' when it designates a palatal nasal glide; the ''ny'' spelling is kept for the combination of a nasal vowel with a subsequent oral palatal glide.", "Following the 1966 Bamako spelling conventions, a nasal velar glide \"ŋ\" is written as \"ŋ\", although in early publications it was often transcribed as ''ng'' or ''nk''.The N'Ko () alphabet is a script devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for the Manding languages of West Africa; N’Ko means 'I say' in all Manding languages.", "Kante created N’Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a \"cultureless people\" since prior to this time there had been no indigenous African writing system for his language.", "N'ko first gained a strong user base around the Maninka-speaking area of Kante's hometown of Kankan, Guinea and disseminated from there into other Manding-speaking parts of West Africa.", "N'ko and the Arabic script are still in use for Bambara, although only the Latin-based orthography is officially recognized in Mali.Additionally, a script known as Masaba or Ma-sa-ba was developed for the language beginning in 1930 by Woyo Couloubayi (-1982) of Assatiémala.", "Named for the first characters in Couloubayi's preferred collation order, Masaba is a syllabary which uses diacritics to indicate vowel qualities such as tone, length, and nasalization.", "Though not conclusively related to other writing systems, Masaba appears to draw on traditional Bambara iconography and shares some similarities with the Vai syllabary of Liberia and with Arabic-derived secret alphabets used in Hodh (now Hodh El Gharbi and Hodh Ech Chargui Regions of Mauritania).", "As of 1978, Masaba was in limited use in several communities in Nioro Cercle for accounting, personal correspondence, and the recording of Muslim prayers; the script's current status and prevalence is unknown.===Latin orthography===It uses seven vowels a, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ and u, each of which can be nasalized, pharyngealized and murmured, giving a total number of 21 vowels (the letters approximate their IPA equivalents).", "Writing with the Latin alphabet began during the French colonization, and the first orthography was introduced in 1967.Literacy is limited, especially in rural areas.", "Although written literature is only slowly evolving (due to the predominance of French as the \"language of the educated\"), there exists a wealth of oral literature, which is often tales of kings and heroes.", "This oral literature is mainly passed on by the griots (''Jeliw'' in Bambara) who are a mixture of storytellers, praise singers, and human history books who have studied the trade of singing and reciting for many years.", "Many of their songs are very old and are said to date back to the old empire of Mali.===Alphabet===* A – a – a* B – be – b* C – ce – t͡ʃ* D – de – d* E – e – e* Ɛ – ɛ – ɛ* F – ef – f* G – ge – g* H – ha – h* I – i – i* J – je – d͡ʒ* K – ka – k* L – ɛl – l* M – ɛm – m* N – ɛn – n* Ɲ – ɲe – ɲ* Ŋ – ɛŋ – ŋ* O – o – o* Ɔ – ɔ – ɔ* P – pe – p* R – ɛr – r* S – ɛs – s* T – te – t* U – u – u* W – wa – w* Y – ye – j* Z – ze – z===Other letters===* kh – ɣ (used for loanwords from other African languages)* -n – nasalises vowel* sh – she – ʃ (regional variant of s)===N'ko orthography=======Vowels====* ߊ – a – a* ߋ – e – e* ߌ – i – i* ߍ – ɛ – ɛ* ߎ – u – u* ߏ – o – o* ߐ – ɔ – ɔ====Consonants====* ߓ – ba – b* ߔ – pa – p* ߕ – ta – t* ߖ – ja – d͡ʒ* ߗ – ca – t͡ʃ* ߘ – da – d* ߚ/ߙ – ra – r* ߛ – sa – s* ߜ?", "– ga – g/ʀ/ɣ* ߜ – gba – ɡ͡b* ߝ – fa – f* ߞ – ka – k* ߟ – la – l* ߡ – ma – m* ߢ – nya or ɲa – ɲ* ߒ – nga or ŋa – ŋ* ߣ – na – n* ߥ – wa – w* ߦ – ya – j* ߤ – ha – h* ߲ – nasal vowel – -̃====Tones====* ߫ – short high* ߬ – short low* ߯ – long high* ߰ – long low" ], [ "Phonology", "=== Consonants ===LabialAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalNasalPlosive Fricative()() Approximant TrillEach consonant represents a single sound with some exceptions:* \"W\" is pronounced as in English (e.g.", "wait) except at the end of a word, when it is the plural mark and is pronounced as u.", "* \"S\" is pronounced most often as in the English word \"see\" but is sometimes pronounced as \"sh\" ʃ as in the word \"shoe\" or as z.", "* \"G\" is pronounced most often as in the English word \"go\" but in the middle of a word, it can be pronounced as in the Spanish word \"abogado\" (ɣ) and sometimes at the beginning of a word as gw.=== Vowels ===FrontCentralBackClose Close-mid Open-mid Open" ], [ "Grammar", "The basic sentence structure is subject-object-verb (SOV).", "Take the phrase, ''n t'a lon'' (I don't know it).", "''n'' is the subject (I), ''a'' is the object (it), and ''ta lon'' is the verb (to know).", "The ''t' '' is from the negative present tense marker ''té'', ''bé'' being the affirmative present tense marker (''n b'a don'' would mean \"I know it\").", "Like many SOV languages, Bambara uses postpositions rather than prepositions - their role being similar to English prepositions but placed after the noun.The language has two (mid/standard and high) tones; e.g.", "''sa'' 'die' vs. ''sá'' 'snake.'", "The typical argument structure of the language consists of a subject, followed by an aspectival auxiliary, followed by the direct object, and finally a transitive verb.", "Bambara does not inflect for gender.", "Gender for a noun can be specified by adding an adjective, ''-cɛ'' or ''-kɛ'' for male and ''-muso'' for female.", "The plural is formed by attaching a vocalic suffix ''-u'', most often with a low tone (in the orthography, ''-w'') to nouns or adjectives.===Loan words===In urban areas, many Bamanankan conjunctions have been replaced in everyday use by French borrowings that often mark code-switches.", "The Bamako dialect makes use of sentences like: ''N taara Kita mais il n'y avait personne là-bas.''", ": ''I went to Kita Bamanankan but there was no one there French.''", "The sentence in Bamanankan alone would be ''Ń taara Kita nka mɔkɔ si tun tɛ yen.''", "The French proposition \"est-ce que\" is also used in Bamanankan ; however, it is pronounced more slowly and as three syllables, .Bamanankan uses many French loan words.", "For example, some people might say: ''I ka kurusi ye nere ye'': \"Your skirt is yellow\" (using a derivation of ''jaune'', the French word for yellow, they often use ''joni''.", ")However, one could also say: ''I ka kulosi ye nɛrɛmukuman ye'', also meaning \"your skirt is yellow.\"", "The original Bamanankan word for yellow comes from \"''nɛrɛmuku'',\" being flour (''muku'') made from néré (locust bean), a seed from a long seed pod.", "Nɛrɛmuku is often used in sauces in Southern Mali.Most French loan words are suffixed with the sound 'i'; this is particularly common when using French words which have a meaning not traditionally found in Mali.", "For example, the Bamanankan word for snow is ''niegei'', based on the French word for snow ''neige''.", "As there has never been snow in Mali, there was no unique word in Bamanankan to describe it.===Examples===" ], [ "Music", "Malian artists such as Oumou Sangaré, Sidiki Diabaté, Fatoumata Diawara, Rokia Traoré, Ali Farka Touré, Habib Koité and the married duo Amadou & Mariam often sing in Bambara.", "Lyrics in Bambara occur on ''Stevie Wonder's Journey Through \"The Secret Life of Plants\"''.Additionally, in 2010, Spanish rock group Dover released its 7th studio album I Ka Kené with the majority of lyrics in the language.", "American rapper Nas also released a track titled \"Sabali\" in 2010, which featured Damian Marley.", "''Sabali'' is a Bambara word that means patience." ], [ "Legal status", "Bambara was until 2023 one of several languages designated by Mali as a national language.In 2023, after a new constitution was approved by the majority of the voters, Bambara became co-official together with 12 other languages spoken in the country.", "French was dropped from official language and was kept only as working language." ], [ "References", "===Citation======Sources===* Bailleul Ch.", "''Dictionnaire Bambara-Français.''", "3e édition corrigée.", "Bamako : Donniya, 2007, 476 p.* Bird, Charles, Hutchison, John & Kanté, Mamadou (1976) ''An Ka Bamanankan Kalan: Beginning Bambara''.", "Bloomington: Indiana Univ.", "Linguistics Club.", "* Bird, Charles & Kanté, Mamadou (1977) ''Bambara-English, English-Bambara student lexicon''.", "Bloomington: Indiana Univ.", "Linguistics Club.", "* Dumestre Gérard.", "''Grammaire fondamentale du bambara.''", "Paris : Karthala, 2003.", "* Dumestre, Gérard.", "''Dictionnaire bambara-français suivi d’un index abrégé français-bambara.''", "Paris : Karthala, 2011.p.", "1189* Eidelberg, Joseph \" Bambara (A PROTO-HEBREW LANGUAGE?", ")\"* Kastenholz, Raimund (1998) ''Grundkurs Bambara (Manding) mit Texten'' (second revised edition) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol.", "1).", "Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.", "* Konaré, Demba (1998) ''Je parle bien bamanan''.", "Bamako: Jamana.", "* Morales, José (2010) ''J'apprends le bambara.", "61 conversations'', (book + CD-ROM).", "Paris: Editions Karthala.", "* Touré, Mohamed & Leucht, Melanie (1996) ''Bambara Lesebuch: Originaltexte mit deutscher und französischer Übersetzung = Chrestomathie Bambara: textes originaux Bambara avec traductions allemandes et françaises'' (with illustrations by Melanie Leucht) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol.", "11) .", "Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.", "*" ], [ "External links", "===Descriptions===* Mali – History – Language===Dictionaries===* Maliyiri.com is a website which provides English-Bambara-French translations and is a community-based project where users can add new words, comments, provide feedback and follow one another.", "* Corpus Bambara de Référence - Etiquetage online and downloadable Bambara-French Dictionary (about 11,500 entries by the end of 2014), with a French-Bambara index, linked with the Corpus Bambara de Référence* An ka taa's Mobile-friendly Bambara-English dictionary that includes French and Jula.", "* Bambara entries (>2300) in the French Wiktionary* Bambara-French-English dictionary online and downloadable lexicons for language learners* Bambara tree names (scientific name -> common name)===Learning materials===* Online Bambara Course from the Indiana University*   on peacecorps.gov===Other===* Corpus Bambara de Référence Corpus Bambara de Référence, an electronic corpus of Bambara texts (about 2,000,000 words end 2014)* Maliyiri.com's Android application, with thousands of daily users, provides English-Bambara-French translations and users can choose to get daily/weekly word notifications for continuous learning.", "* Bambara Electronic Library, AMALAN – LLACAN* An ka taa: a website with a dictionary, resources and media for learning Bambara and Manding more generally.", "* Bambara at French Wikibooks contains more material* Mandenkan Journal* PanAfriL10n page on Manding (includes information on Bambara)* Maneno in Bambara (a blogging platform with a full Bambara interface)" ] ]

[ [ "Baku" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Baku''' (, ; ) is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus region.", "Baku is below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world below sea level.", "Baku lies on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, on the Bay of Baku.", "Baku's urban population was estimated at two million people as of 2009.Baku is the primate city of Azerbaijan—it is the sole metropolis in the country, and about 25% of all inhabitants of the country live in Baku's metropolitan area.Baku is divided into twelve administrative raions and 48 townships.", "Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, as well as the industrial settlement of Neft Daşları built on oil rigs away from Baku city in the Caspian Sea.", "The Old City, containing the Palace of the Shirvanshahs and the Maiden Tower, was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000.The city is the scientific, cultural, and industrial centre of Azerbaijan.", "Many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there.", "In the 2010s, Baku became a venue for major international events.", "It hosted the 57th Eurovision Song Contest in 2012, the 2015 European Games, 4th Islamic Solidarity Games, the European Grand Prix in 2016, the Azerbaijan Grand Prix since 2017, the final of the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, and was one of the host cities for UEFA Euro 2020.The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tonnes of general and dry bulk cargoes per year.", "Baku is renowned for its harsh winds, reflected in its nickname, the \"City of Winds\"." ], [ "Etymology", "Baku is long attested under the Perso-Arabic name باکو (''Bākū'').", "Early Arabic sources also refer to the city as '''Bākuh''' and '''Bākuya''', all of which seem to come from a Persian name.", "The further etymology is unclear.A popular etymology in the 19th century considered it to be derived from Persian بادکوبه ('''Bâd-kube''', meaning \"wind-pounded city\", a compound of ''bād'', \"wind\", and ''kube'', which is rooted in the verb کوبیدن ''kubidan'', \"to pound\", thus referring to a place where wind would be strong and pounding, as is the case of Baku, which is known to experience fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds).", "This popular name (''Badkubə'' in modern Azerbaijani script) gained currency as a nickname for the city by the 19th century (e.g., it is used in ''Akinchi'', volume 1, issue 1, p. 1), and is also reflected in the city's modern nickname as the \"City of Winds\" ().", "Another and even less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from '''Baghkuy''', meaning \"God's town\".", "''Baga'' (now ''بغ'' ''bagh'') and ''kuy'' are the Old Persian words for \"god\" and \"town\" respectively; the name ''Baghkuy'' may be compared with ''Baghdād'' (\"God-given\") in which ''dād'' is the Old Persian word for \"give\".During Soviet rule, the city was spelled in Cyrillic as \"Бакы\" in Azerbaijani (while the Russian spelling was and still is \"Баку\", '''''').", "The modern Azerbaijani spelling, which has been using the Latin alphabet since 1991, is ; the shift from the Perso-Arabic letter و (''ū'') to Cyrillic \"ы\" and, later, Latin \"ı\" may be compared to that in other Azerbaijani words (e.g.", "compare ''qāpū'' in old Perso-Arabic spelling with modern Azerbaijani , \"door\") or in suffixes, as و was often used to transcribe the vowel harmony in Azerbaijani (which was also the practice in Ottoman Turkish).", "(See also Azerbaijani alphabet.)" ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===Gobustan dating back to AD 84–96Traces of human settlement in the region of present-day Baku date back to the Stone Age.", "Bronze-Age rock carvings have been discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish in the territory of the Old City.", "These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze-Age settlement within the city's territory.", "Near Nardaran, a place called Umid Gaya features a prehistoric observatory, where images of the sun and of various constellations are carved into rock together with a primitive astronomic table.", "Further archeological excavations have revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it.In the 1st century AD, the Romans organised two Caucasian campaigns and reached what is today Baku.", "Near the city, in what is today Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from AD 84 to 96 survive – some of the earliest written evidences for a city there.===Rise of the Shirvanshahs and the Safavid era===miniature painting marking the downfall of the Shirvanshahs at the hands of the SafavidsBaku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs during the 8th century AD.", "The city frequently came under assault from the Khazars and (starting from the 10th century) from the Rus'.", "Shirvanshah Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled a Rus' assault in 1170.After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhi, the capital of Shirvan, Shirvanshah's court moved to Baku in 1191.Relics from the sunken Sabayil Castle The Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of present-day Azerbaijan.", "Between the 12th and 14th centuries, massive fortifications were built in Baku and the surrounding towns.", "The Maiden Tower, the Ramana Tower, the Nardaran Fortress, the Shagan Castle, the Mardakan Castle, the Round Castle and also the famous Sabayil Castle on the island of the Bay of Baku date from this period.", "The city walls of Baku were also rebuilt and strengthened.By the early 16th century Baku's wealth and strategic position attracted the attention of its larger neighbours; in the previous two centuries, it was under the rule of the Iran-centred Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu.", "The fall of the Ak Koyunlu brought the city immediately into the sphere of the newly formed Iranian Safavid dynasty, led by king (''shah'') Ismail I ().", "Ismail I laid siege to Baku in 1501 and captured it; he allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power, under Safavid suzerainty.", "His successor, king Tahmasp I (), completely removed the Shirvanshahs from power and made Baku a part of the Shirvan province.", "Baku remained as an integral part of his empire and of successive Iranian dynasties for the next centuries, until ceded to the Russian Empire through the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan.", "The House of Shirvan, which had ruled Baku since the 9th century, was extinguished in the course of Safavid rule.At this time the city was enclosed within lines of strong walls, which were washed by the sea on one side and protected by a wide trench on land.", "The Ottomans briefly gained control over Baku as a result of the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578–1590; by 1607, it came under Iranian control again.", "In 1604 Shah Abbas I () destroyed Baku fortress.Atashgah is a temple built by Indian traders before 1745, west of the Caspian Sea.", "The inscription invokes Lord Shiva in Sanskrit at the Atashgah.Baku had a reputation as a focal point for traders from all across the world during the Early modern period; commerce was active and the area prospered.", "Notably, traders from the Indian subcontinent established themselves in the region.", "These Indian traders built the Ateshgah of Baku during 17th–18th centuries; the temple was used as a Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian place of worship.=== Downfall of the Safavids and the Khanate of Baku ===The Safavids temporarily lost power in Iran in 1722; Emperor Peter the Great of Russia took advantage of the situation and invaded.", "As a result of the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, the Safavids were forced to cede Baku to Russia.", "By 1730 the situation had deteriorated for the Russians; the successes of Nader Shah () led them to sign the Treaty of Ganja near Ganja on 10 March 1735, ceding the city and all other conquered territories in the Caucasus back to Iran.The eruption of instability following Nader Shah's death in 1747 gave rise to the various Caucasian khanates.", "The semi-autonomous Persian-ruled Baku Khanate (1747–1806) was one of these.", "Initially ruled by Mirza Muhammed Khan (), it soon became a dependency of the much stronger Quba Khanate.", "During this time, the population of Baku remained small (approximately 5,000), and the economy suffered as a result of constant warfare.=== Russo-Persian Wars and Iran's forced cession ===Painting of Baku's shoreline in 1861 by Alexey BogolyubovFrom the late 18th century, Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geopolitical stance towards its two neighbours and rivals to the south, namely Iran and the Ottoman Empire.", "In the spring of 1796, by Catherine II's order, General Valerian Zubov's troops started a large campaign against Qajar Persia.", "Zubov had sent 13,000 men to capture Baku, and it was overrun subsequently without any resistance.", "On 13 June 1796, a Russian flotilla entered Baku Bay, and a garrison of Russian troops was stationed inside the city.", "Later, however, Emperor Paul I of Russia ordered the cessation of the campaign and the withdrawal of Russian forces following the death of his predecessor, Catherine the Great.", "In March 1797 the tsarist troops left Baku and the city became part of Qajar Iran again.In 1813, following the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813, Qajar Iran had to sign the Treaty of Gulistan with Russia this provided for the cession of Baku and of most of Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus to Russia.", "During the next and final bout of hostilities between the two, the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, the Iranians briefly recaptured Baku.", "However, the militarily superior Russians ended this war with a victory as well, and the resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) made Baku's inclusion in the Russian Empire definite.", "When Baku was occupied by the Russian troops during the war of 1804–13, nearly the entire population of some 8,000 people was ethnic Tat.", "Baku within Russia was the administrative center of the Baku Uyezd, Baku Governorate, and the Baku Gradonachalstvo.=== Discovery of oil ===Oil workers digging an oil well by hand at Bibi-HeybatThe Russians built the first oil-distilling factory in Balaxani in 1837.The first person to drill oil in Baku was an ethnic Armenian Ivan Mirzoev, who is also known as a 'founding father of Baku's oil industry.'", "Digging for oil began in the 1840s, with the first oil well drilled in the Bibi-Heybat suburb of Baku in 1846.It was mechanically drilled, though a number of hand-dug wells pre-dated it.", "Large-scale oil exploration started in 1872 when Russian imperial authorities auctioned parcels of oil-rich land around Baku to private investors.", "The pioneer of oil extracting from the bottom of the sea was the Polish geologist Witold Zglenicki.", "Soon after, investors appeared in Baku, including the Nobel Brothers in 1873 and the Rothschilds in 1882.An industrial area of oil refineries, better known as Black Town (), developed near Baku by the early 1880s.Professor A. V. Williams Jackson of Columbia University wrote in his work ''From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam'' (1911):By the beginning of the 20th century, half of the oil sold in international markets was extracted in Baku.", "The oil boom contributed to the massive growth of Baku.", "Between 1856 and 1910 Baku's population grew at a faster rate than that of London, Paris or New York.Unrest at the time of the 1905 Revolution resulted in massacres among the population and the destruction of many oil facilities.=== World War I === Soldiers and officers of the army of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic shortly after the Battle of Baku Neftchiler Avenue in Baku, In 1917, after the October Revolution and amidst the turmoil of World War I and the Russian Revolution, Baku came under the control of the Baku Commune, led by the veteran Bolshevik Stepan Shahumyan.", "Seeking to capitalize on the existing ethnic conflicts, by spring 1918, Bolsheviks inspired and condoned civil war in and around Baku.", "During the famous March Days of 1918, Bolsheviks and Dashnaks, seeking to establish control over Baku streets, faced armed Azerbaijani groups.", "The Azerbaijanis suffered defeat from the united forces of the Baku Soviet and were massacred by Dashnak teams in what was called the March Days.", "An estimated 3,000–12,000 Azerbaijanis were killed in their own capital.", "After the massacre, on 28 May 1918, the Azerbaijani faction of the Transcaucasian Sejm proclaimed the independence of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) in Ganja, thereby founding the first Muslim-majority democratic and secular republic.", "The newly independent Azerbaijani republic, being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, asked the Ottoman Empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries.", "Shortly after, Azerbaijani forces, with support of the Ottoman Army of Islam led by Nuru Pasha, started their advance on Baku, eventually capturing the city from the loose coalition of Bolsheviks, SRs, Dashnaks, Mensheviks and British forces under the command of General Lionel Dunsterville on 15 September 1918.After the Battle of Baku of August–September 1918, the Azerbaijani irregular troops, with the tacit support of the Turkish command, conducted four days of pillaging and killing 10,000–30,000 Armenians of Baku.", "This pogrom became known as the \"September Days\".", "Shortly after this, Baku was proclaimed the new capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.The Ottoman Empire, recognising defeat in World War I by October 1918, signed the Armistice of Mudros with the British (30 October 1918); this meant the evacuation of Turkish forces from Baku.", "Headed by General William Thomson, some 5,000 British troops, including parts of the former Dunsterforce, arrived in Baku on 17 November.", "Thomson declared himself military governor of Baku and implemented martial law in the city until \"the civil power would be strong enough to release the forces from the responsibility to maintain the public order\".", "British forces left before the end of 1919.=== Soviet period ===The independence of the Azerbaijani republic was a significant but short-lived chapter in Baku's history.", "On 28 April 1920, the 11th Red Army invaded Baku and reinstalled the Bolsheviks, making Baku the capital of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic.The city underwent many major changes.", "As a result, Baku played a great role in many branches of Soviet life.", "Baku was the major oil city of the Soviet Union.", "From about 1921 the city was headed by the Baku City Executive Committee, commonly known in Russian as ''Bakgorispolkom''.", "Together with Baku Party Committee (known as the ''Baksovet''), it developed the economic significance of the Caspian metropolis.", "From 1922 to 1930 Baku became the venue for one of the major trade fairs of the Soviet Union, serving as a commercial bridgehead to Iran and the Middle East.=== World War II ===The major powers continued to note Baku's growing importance as a major energy hub.", "During World War II (1939–1945) and particularly during the 1942 Nazi German invasion of the southwestern Soviet Union, Baku became of vital strategic importance to the Axis powers.", "In fact, capturing the oil fields of Baku was a primary goal of the Wehrmacht's Operation Edelweiss, carried out between May and November 1942.However, the German Army reached only a point some northwest of Baku in November 1942, falling far short of the city's capture before being driven back during the Soviet Operation Little Saturn in mid-December 1942.=== Fall of the Soviet Union and later ===After the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Baku embarked on a process of restructuring on a scale unseen in its history.", "Thousands of buildings from the Soviet period were demolished to make way for a green belt on its shores; parks and gardens were built on the land reclaimed by filling up the beaches of the Baku Bay.", "Improvements were made in general cleaning, maintenance, and garbage collection to bring these services up to Western European standards.", "The city is growing dynamically and developing at full speed on an east–west axis along the shores of the Caspian Sea.", "Sustainability has become a key factor in future urban development." ], [ "Geography", "Absheron Peninsula satellite image, Landsat 5, 6 September 2010Baku is situated on the western coast of Caspian Sea.", "In the vicinity of the city there are a number of mud volcanoes (Keyraki, Bogkh-bogkha, Lokbatan and others) and salt lakes (Boyukshor, Khodasan and so on).=== Climate ===Baku has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: ''BSk'') with hot and humid summers, cool and occasionally wet winters, and strong winds all year long.", "However, unlike many other cities with such climate features, Baku does not see extremely hot summers and substantial sunshine hours.", "This is largely because of its northerly latitude and the fact that it is located on a peninsula on the shore of the Caspian Sea.Baku, and the Absheron Peninsula on which it is situated, is the most arid part of Azerbaijan (precipitation here is around or less than a year).", "This is largely due to the rain shadow effect from the Caucasian Mountains, with corresponding latitudes on the Black Sea on average receiving or more.", "The majority of the light annual precipitation occurs in seasons other than summer, but none of these seasons is particularly wet.During Soviet times, Baku, with its long hours of sunshine and dry healthy climate, was a vacation destination where citizens could enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the Caspian Sea.", "The city's past as a Soviet industrial centre left it one of the most polluted cities in the world, .At the same time Baku is noted as a very windy city throughout the year, hence the city's nickname the \"City of Winds\", and gale-force winds, the cold northern wind ''khazri'' and the warm southern wind ''gilavar'' are typical here in all seasons.", "Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds.The speed of the ''khazri'' sometimes reaches 144 km/h (89 mph), which can cause damage to crops, trees and roof tiles.The daily mean temperature in July and August averages , and there is very little rainfall during that season.", "During summer the ''khazri'' sweeps through, bringing desired coolness.", "Winter is cool and occasionally wet, with the daily mean temperature in January and February averaging .", "During winter the ''khazri'' sweeps through, driven by polar air masses; temperatures on the coast frequently drop below freezing and make it feel bitterly cold.", "Winter snow storms are occasional; snow usually melts within a few days after each snowfall." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Baku is divided into 12 ''rayonlar (sub-rayons)'' (administrative districts) and 5 settlements of city type.", "* Binagadi (Binəqədi) raion* Garadagh (Qaradağ) raion* Khatai (Xətai) raion* Khazar (Xəzər) raion* Narimanov (Nərimanov) raion* Nasimi (Nəsimi) raion* Nizami raion* Pirallahi (Pirallahı) raion* Sabail (Səbail) raion* Sabunchu (Sabunçu) raion* Surakhani (Suraxanı) raion* Yasamal raion" ], [ "Demographics", "Until 1988, Baku had very large Russian, Armenian, and Jewish populations which contributed to cultural diversity and added in various ways (music, literature, architecture and progressive outlook) to Baku's history.", "With the onset of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and the pogrom against Armenians starting in January 1990, the city's large Armenian population was expelled.Under Communism, the Soviets took over the majority of Jewish property in Baku and Kuba.", "After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev returned several synagogues and a Jewish college, nationalised by the Soviets, to the Jewish community; he encouraged the restoration of these buildings.", "Seven of the original 11 synagogues, including the Gilah synagogue, built in 1896, and the large Kruei Synagogue, were renovated.", "Year Tatars Russians Armenians Jews Others TOTALNumber%Number%Number%Number%Number%18515,000+67.34055.57,431188637,53043.321,39024.724,49028.33910.52,8103.286,611189740,34136.037,39933.419,09917.13,3693.011,69610.5111,904190344,25728.459,95538.526,15116.828,51318.3155,876191345,96221.476,28835.541,68019.49,6904.541,05219.1214,672191669,36626.479,70230.462,35723.86,4122.444,58517.0262,422 Year Turks Russians Armenians Jews Others TOTALNumber%Number%Number%Number%Number%191767,19028.277,12332.452,18421.912,4275.229,24412.3238,168 1926118,73726.2167,37336.976,65616.919,5894.370,97815.7453,333 Year Azerbaijanis Russians Armenians Jews Others TOTALNumber%Number%Number%Number%Number%1939215,48227.4343,06443.6118,65015.131,0503.979,37710.1787,6231959211,37232.9223,24234.7137,11121.324,0573.756,7258.7652,5071970586,05246.3351,09027.7207,46416.429,7162.388,1936.91,262,5151979530,55652.4229,87322.7167,22616.522,9162.362,8656.21,013,436'''January 1990: Baku pogrom.", "Massacre and expulsion of Armenian population'''19991,574,25288.0119,3716.73780.025,1640.389,6895.01,788,85420091,848,10790.3108,5255.31040.016,0560.683,0234.12,045,815=== Ethnic groups ===The Armenian Saint Gregory the Illuminator's Church, BakuToday, the vast majority of Baku's population is made up of ethnic Azerbaijanis, and the rest are Talysh, Russians, Lezgi and others.", "The intensive growth of the population started in the middle of the 19th century when Baku was a small town with a population of about 7,000 people.", "The population increased again from about 13,000 in the 1860s to 112,000 in 1897 and 215,000 in 1913, making Baku the largest city in the Caucasus region.Baku has been a cosmopolitan city at certain times during its history, meaning ethnic Azerbaijanis did not constitute the majority of population.", "It was only in the 1970s that ethnic Azerbaijanis achieved demographic dominance in Baku.", "In 2003 Baku additionally had 153,400 internally displaced persons and 93,400 refugees.=== Religion ===The 13th-century Bibi-Heybat Mosque.", "The mosque was built over the tomb of a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.The religion with the largest community of followers is Islam.", "The majority of the Muslims are Shia Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second highest Shia population percentage in the world after Iran.", "The city's notable mosques include Juma Mosque, Bibi-Heybat Mosque, Muhammad Mosque and Taza Pir Mosque.There are some other faiths practised among the different ethnic groups within the country.", "By article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom.", "Religious minorities include Russian Orthodox Christians, Catholic Levantines, Georgian Orthodox Christians, Albanian-Udi Apostolic Christians, Lutherans, Ashkenazi Jews, and Sufi Muslims.", "Baku is the seat of the Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of Azerbaijan.Zoroastrianism, although extinct in the city as well as in the rest of the country by the present time, had a long history in Azerbaijan and the Zoroastrian New Year (Nowruz) continues to be the main holiday in the city as well as in the rest of Azerbaijan." ], [ "Economy", "Baku's largest industry is petroleum, and its petroleum exports make it a large contributor to Azerbaijan's balance of payments.", "The existence of petroleum has been known since the 8th century.", "In the 10th century, the Arabian traveler, Marudee, reported that both white and black oil were being extracted naturally from Baku.", "By the 15th century, oil for lamps was obtained from hand-dug surface wells.Commercial exploitation began in 1872, and by the beginning of the 20th century the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world.", "Towards the end of the 20th century, much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore.", "By the end of the 19th century skilled workers and specialists flocked to Baku.", "By 1900 the city had more than 3,000 oil wells, of which 2,000 were producing oil at industrial levels.", "Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before World War II.", "The World War II Battle of Stalingrad was fought to determine who would have control of Baku oil fields.", "Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply.The oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium led by BP), development of the Shah Deniz gas field, the expansion of the Sangachal Terminal and the construction of the BTC Pipeline.The Baku Stock Exchange is Azerbaijan's largest stock exchange, and largest in the Caucasian region by market capitalization.", "A relatively large number of transnational companies are headquartered in Baku.", "One of the more prominent institutions headquartered in Baku is the International Bank of Azerbaijan, which employs over 1,000 people.", "International banks with branches in Baku include HSBC, Société Générale and Credit Suisse.=== Tourism and shopping ===Baku is one of the most important tourist destinations in the Caucasus, with hotels in the city earning 7 million euros in 2009.Many sizable world hotel chains have a presence in the city.", "Baku has many popular tourist and entertainment spots, such as the downtown Fountains Square, the One and Thousand Nights Beach, Shikhov Beach and Oil Rocks.", "Baku's vicinities feature Yanar Dag, an ever-blazing spot of natural gas.", "On 2 September 2010 with the inauguration of National Flag Square, Baku set the world record for tallest flagpole; on 24 May 2011, the city of Dushanbe in Tajikistan set a new record with a -higher flagpole.", "A few years later, the Flag Pole was dismantled and the National Flag Square was closed off with fences.Baku has several shopping malls; the most famous city centre malls are Port Baku, Park Bulvar, Ganjlik Mall, Metro Park, 28 MALL, Aygun city and AF MALL.", "The retail areas contain shops from chain stores up to high-end boutiques.The city is listed 48th in the 2011 list of the most expensive cities in the world conducted by the Mercer Human Resource Consulting.", "Its Nizami Street and also the Neftchilar Avenue are among the most expensive streets in the world." ], [ "Culture", "In 2007 the Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre, designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Zaha Hadid, was opened.", "Baku also has many museums such as Baku Museum of Modern Art and Azerbaijan State Museum of History, most notably featuring historical artifacts and art.", "Many of the city's cultural sites were celebrated in 2009 when Baku was designated an Islamic Culture Capital.", "Baku was chosen to host the Eurovision Dance Contest 2010.It has also become the first city hosting the first European Games in 2015.Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center=== Theatres ===Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theater* Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre* Azerbaijan State Academic Drama Theatre* Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre named after Samad Vurgun* Baku Puppet Theatre (formally Azerbaijan State Puppet Theatre named after Abdulla Shaig)* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Musical Comedy* Baku State Circus* \"Oda\" Theatre* Baku Marionette Theatre* Baku Municipal Theatre* Azerbaijan State Pantomime Theatre* Mugham Azerbaijan National Music Theatre* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Song named after Rashid Behbudov* \"UNS\" Theatre* \"Yugh\" TheatreAmong Baku's cultural venues are Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall, Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre.", "The main movie theatre is Azerbaijan Cinema.", "Festivals include Baku International Film Festival, Baku International Jazz Festival, Novruz Festival, ''Gül Bayramı'' (Flower Festival) and the National Theater Festival.", "International and local exhibitions are presented at the Baku Expo Centre., the city along with Ganja and Lankaran participates in Earth Hour movement.===Museums===File:National Museum of History of Azerbaijan 10.JPG|National Museum of HistoryFile:Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, Baku, 2015.jpg|Nizami Museum of LiteratureFile:National Art Museum of Azerbaijan (de Burs House) edited.jpg|National Art MuseumFile:Villa Petrolea front.jpg|Villa PetroleaFile:Baku Museum of Modern Art entrance.jpg|Baku Museum of Modern Art* The Museum Centre* Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography* Azerbaijan State Carpet Museum* Azerbaijan Museum of Geology===Libraries===* National Library of Azerbaijan* ANAS Central Library of Science* Presidential Library (former Library of the Armenian Philanthropic Society)=== Architecture ===Maiden Tower in Old Baku, a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century, recognised as the symbol of the city.Multani Caravanserai, BakuBaku has wildly varying architecture, ranging from the Old City core to modern buildings and the spacious layout of Baku port.", "Many of the city's landmarks were built during the early 20th century, when architectural elements of the European styles were combined in eclectic style.", "Baku has an original and unique appearance, earning it a reputation as the 'Paris of the East'.", "Baku joined UNESCO's Network of Creative Cities as a Design City on 31 October 2019 on the occasion of World Cities' Day.==== Hamams ====There are a number of ancient hamams in Baku dating back to the 12th, 14th and 18th centuries.", "Hamams play a very important role in the architectural appearance of Baku.===== Teze Bey Hamam =====Teze Bey is the most popular hamam (traditional bath) in Baku.", "It was built in 1886 in the centre of Baku and in 2003 it was fully restored and modernised.", "Along with its modern amenities, Teze Bey features a swimming pool and architectural details inspired by Oriental, Russian and Finnish baths.===== Gum Hamam =====Gum Hamam was discovered during archaeological excavations underneath the sand; hence the name: Gum hamam (sand bath).", "It was built sometime during the 12th–14th centuries.===== Bairamali hamam =====In ancient times Bairamali Hamam was called \"Bey Hamam\".", "The original structure was built sometime during the 12th–14th centuries and was reconstructed in 1881.===== Agha Mikayil Hamam =====Agha Mikayil Hamam was constructed in the 18th century by Haji Agha Mikayil on Kichik Gala Street in the Old City (Icherisheher).", "It is still operating in its ancient setting.", "The Hamam is open to women on Mondays and Fridays and to men on the other days of the week.==== Modern architecture ====Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the early 2000s.", "With economic development, old buildings such as Atlant House were razed to make way for new ones.", "Buildings with all-glass shells have appeared around the city, the most prominent examples being the International Mugham Center, Azerbaijan Tower, Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre, Flame Towers, Baku Crystal Hall, Baku White City, SOCAR Tower and DENIZ Mall.", "These projects also caught the attention of international media as notable programmes such as Discovery Channel's Extreme Engineering did pieces focusing in on changes to the city.The Old City of Baku, also known as the Walled City of Baku, refers to the ancient Baku settlement.", "Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in 1806, survived.", "This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings: the cobbled streets past the Palace of the Shirvanshahs, two caravansaries, the baths and the Juma Mosque (which used to house the Azerbaijan National Carpet and Arts Museum but is now a mosque again).", "The old town core also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them as such.In 2003, UNESCO placed the Inner City on the List of World Heritage in Danger, citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as \"dubious\" restoration efforts.", "In 2009 the Inner City was removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger.=== Visual arts ===The three main institutions for exhibiting modern and contemporary art in Baku are:* Baku Museum of Modern Art* Heydar Aliyev Centre* Yarat Contemporary Art Space ()=== Music and media ===Baku Crystal Hall during the Eurovision Song Contest 2012The music scene in Baku can be traced back to ancient times and villages of Baku, generally revered as the fountainhead of meykhana and mugham in the Azerbaijan.In recent years, the success of Azerbaijani performers such as AySel, Farid Mammadov, Sabina Babayeva, Safura and Elnur Hüseynov in the Eurovision Song Contest has boosted the profile of Baku's music scene, prompting international attention.", "Following the victory of Azerbaijan's representative Eldar & Nigar at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011, Baku hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2012.2005 was a landmark in the development of Azerbaijani jazz in the city.", "It has been home to legendary jazz musicians like Vagif Mustafazadeh, Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, Rafig Babayev and Rain Sultanov.", "Among Baku's prominent annual fairs and festivals is Baku International Jazz Festival, which features some of the world's most identifiable jazz names.Baku also has a thriving International Centre of Mugham, which is located in Baku Boulevard, Gulustan Palace and Buta Palace, one of the principal performing arts centres and music venues in the city.The majority of Azerbaijan's media companies (including television, newspaper and radio, such as, Azad Azerbaijan TV, Ictimai TV, Lider TV and Region TV) are headquartered in Baku.", "The films ''The World Is Not Enough'' and ''The Diamond Arm'', among others, are set in the city, while ''Amphibian Man'' includes several scenes filmed in Old City.The city's radio stations include: ''Ictimai Radio'', ''Radio Antenn'', ''Burc FM'', ''Avto FM'', ''ASAN Radio'' and ''Lider FM Jazz''Some of Baku's newspapers include the daily ''Azadliq'', ''Zaman'' (The Time), ''Bakinskiy Rabochiy'' (Baku Worker), ''Echo'' and the English-language ''Baku Today''.Baku is also featured in the video game ''Battlefield 4''.=== Nightlife ===Many clubs that are open until dawn can be found throughout the city.", "Clubs with an eastern flavour provide special treats from the cuisine of Azerbaijan along with local music.", "Western-style clubs target younger, more energetic crowds.", "Most of the public houses and bars are located near Fountains Square and are usually open until the early hours of the morning.Baku is home to restaurants catering to every cuisine and occasion.", "Restaurants range from luxurious and expensive to ordinary and affordable.=== Parks and gardens ===Baku has large sections of greenery either preserved by the National Government or designated as green zones.", "The city, however, continues to lack a green belt development as economic activity pours into the capital, resulting in massive housing projects along the suburbs.Baku Boulevard is a pedestrian promenade that runs parallel to Baku's seafront.", "The boulevard contains an amusement park, yacht club, musical fountain, statues and monuments.", "The park is popular with dog-walkers and joggers and is convenient for tourists.", "It is adjacent to the newly built International Centre of Mugham and the musical fountain.Other parks and gardens include Heydar Aliyev Park, Samad Vurgun Park, Narimanov Park, Alley of Honor and the Fountains Square.", "The Martyrs' Lane, formerly the Kirov Park, is dedicated to the memory of those who died during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and also to the 137 people killed on Black January." ], [ "Sports", "2018 Azerbaijan Grand PrixChelsea playing against Arsenal at Baku Olympic Stadium during the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final Baku hosts a Formula One race on the Baku City Circuit.", "The first was the 2016 European Grand Prix, with the track going around the old city.", "The track measures 6.003 km (3.735 mi), and it has been on the Formula One calendar since its 2016 debut.The city also hosted three group games and one quarter-final of the UEFA Euro 2020 European Football Championship.Since 2002, Baku has hosted 36 major sporting events and selected to host the 2015 European Games.", "Baku is also to host the fourth edition of the Islamic Solidarity Games in 2017.Baku is also one of world's leading chess centres, having produced famous grandmasters like Teimour Radjabov, Vugar Gashimov, Garry Kasparov, Shahriyar Mammadyarov and Rauf Mammadov, as well as the arbiter Faik Hasanov.", "The city also annually hosts the international tournaments such as Baku Chess Grand Prix, President's Cup, Baku Open and bidding to host 42nd Chess Olympiad in 2014.First class sporting facilities were built for the indoor games, including the Palace of Hand Games and Heydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex.", "It hosted many sporting events, including FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships in 2007 and 2009, 2005 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships, 2007 FILA Wrestling World Championships and 2010 European Wrestling Championships, 2011 World Amateur Boxing Championships, 2009 Women's Challenge Cup and European Taekwondo Championships in 2007.Since 2011 the city annually hosts WTA tennis event called Baku Cup.The Synergy Baku Cycling Project participates in the Tour d'Azerbaïdjan a 2.2 multi-stage bicycle race on the UCI Europe Tour.Baku made a bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Olympics, but failed to become a Candidate City both times.The largest sports hub in the city is Baku Olympic Stadium with 69,870 seating capacity whose construction was completed in 2015.UEFA Europa League Final 2019 was played at the Olympic Stadium in Baku on 29 May 2019 between English sides Chelsea and Arsenal.", "The city's main football clubs is Neftçi Baku of who first has nine Premier League titles making Neftchi the most successful Azerbaijani football club.", "Baku also has several football clubs in the premier and regional leagues, including AZAL and Ravan in Premier League.", "The city's second largest stadium, Tofiq Bahramov Stadium hosts a number of domestic and international competitions and was the main sports centre of the city for a long period until the construction of Baku Olympic Stadium.In the Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League, Baku is represented by Rabita Baku, Azerrail Baku, Lokomotiv Baku and Azeryol Baku." ], [ "Transport", "Baku black cab, introduced in 2011Baku MetroThroughout history the transport system of Baku used the now-defunct horsecars, trams and narrow gauge railways.", ", 1,000 black cabs are ordered by Baku Taxi Company, and as part of a programme originally announced by the Transport Ministry of Azerbaijan, there is a plan to introduce London cabs into Baku.", "The move was part of £16 million agreement between Manganese Bronze subsidiary LTI Limited and Baku Taxi Company.Local rail transport includes the Baku Funicular and the Baku Metro, a rapid-transit system notable for its art, murals, mosaics and ornate chandeliers.", "Baku Metro was opened in November 1967 and includes 3 lines and 25 stations at present; 170 million people used Baku Metro over the past five years.", "In 2008, the Chief of Baku Metro, Taghi Ahmadov, announced plans to construct 41 new stations over the next 17 years.", "These will serve the new bus complex as well as the international airport.", "In 2019, the Baku suburban railway opened.BakuCard is a single Smart Card for payment on all types of city transport.", "The intercity buses and metro use this type of card-based fare-payment system.Baku Railway Station is the terminus for national and international rail links to the city.", "The Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which directly connects Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan, began to be constructed in 2007 and opened in 2017.The completed branch will connect Baku with Tbilisi in Georgia, and from there trains will continue to Akhalkalaki, and Kars in Turkey.Baku FunicularSea transport is vital for Baku, as the city is practically surrounded by the Caspian Sea to the east.", "Shipping services operate regularly from Baku across the Caspian Sea to Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk) in Turkmenistan and to Bandar Anzali and Bandar Nowshar in Iran.", "The commuter ferries, along with the high-speed catamaran ''Seabus'' (''Deniz Avtobusu''), also form the main connection between the city and the Absheron peninsula.Baku Port was founded in 1902 and claims to be the largest Caspian Sea port.", "It has six facilities: the main cargo terminal, the container terminal, the ferry terminal, the oil terminal, the passenger terminal and the port fleet terminal.", "The port's throughput capacity reaches 15 million tonnes of liquid bulk and up to 10 million tons of dry cargoes.", "In 2010, the Baku International Sea Trade Port began to be reconstructed.", "The construction was planned to take place in three stages and to be completed by 2016.The estimated costs were US$400 million.", "From April to November Baku Port is accessible to ships loading cargoes for direct voyages from Western European and Mediterranean ports.", "The State Road M-1 and the European route E60 are the two main motorway connections between Europe and Azerbaijan.", "The motorway network around Baku is well developed and is constantly being extended.The Heydar Aliyev International Airport is the only commercial airport serving Baku.", "The new Baku Cargo Terminal was officially opened in March 2005.It was constructed to be a major cargo hub in the CIS countries and is actually now one of the biggest and most technically advanced in the region.", "There are also several smaller military airbases near Baku, such as Baku Kala Air Base, intended for private aircraft, helicopters and charters." ], [ "Education", "Baku State University, the first established university in Azerbaijan was opened in 1919 by the government of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.", "In the early years of the Soviet era, Baku already had Azerbaijan State Oil Academy, Azerbaijan Medical University and Azerbaijan State Economic University.", "In the post-WWII period, a few more universities were established such as Azerbaijan Technical University, Azerbaijan University of Languages and the Azerbaijan Architecture and Construction University.", "After 1991 when Azerbaijan gained independence from the Soviet Union, the fall of communism led to the development of a number of private institutions, including Qafqaz University and Khazar University which are considered the most prestigious academic institutions.", "Apart from the private universities, the government established the Academy of Public Administration, the Azerbaijan Diplomatic Academy and various military academies.", "The largest universities according to the student population are Baku State University and Azerbaijan State Economic University.", "In addition, there are the Baku Music Academy and the Azerbaijan National Conservatoire in Baku established in the early 1920s.", "Publicly run kindergartens and elementary schools (years 1 through 11) are operated by local wards or municipal offices.The Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, the main state research organisation in Azerbaijan is locating in Baku as well.", "Moreover, Baku has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic documents from the Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Soviet periods, as well as from other civilisations of the past.", "The most important libraries in terms of historic document collections include the Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, the National Library of Azerbaijan, the Mirza Alakbar Central Library, the Samad Vurgun Library and Baku Presidential Library.=== Secondary schools ===* Elite Gymnasium" ], [ "Health care", "According to the Ministry of Healthcare, healthcare facilities in Baku are \"highly developed compared with the regions and doctors are waiting to work there.", "The regions, meanwhile, lack both doctors and clinics providing specialized medical treatment.\"", "Resulting in citizens travelling for many hours to Baku to receive adequate medical treatment." ], [ "Notable residents", "File:Zadeh, L.A. 2005.jpg|Lotfi A. Zadeh, artificial intelligence researcher, founder of fuzzy mathematics, fuzzy set theory, and fuzzy logicFile:Landau.jpg|Physicist Lev Landau, Baku State University student, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962File:Stamps of Azerbaijan, 2007-813.jpg|Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders of the Soviet space programFile:Kasparov-34.jpg|Garry Kasparov, chess grandmaster, former World Chess ChampionFile:Mushfig.JPG|Mikayil Mushfig, Bakuvian poet and victim of the Stalinist purgesFile:Tofiq Bahramov.jpg|Tofiq Bahramov, a Soviet footballer and football referee from AzerbaijanFile:Вагит Алекперов.jpg|Vagit Alekperov, President of the leading Russian oil company LUKOILFile:Muslim Magomaev.jpg|Muslim Magomayev, one of the most famous singers of the USSRFile:RIAN archive 438589 Mstislav Rostropovich.jpg|Mstislav Rostropovich, Grammy Award–winning cellistFile:Gusman Yliy.jpg|Yuli Gusman, film director and actor, founder and CEO of the Nika AwardFile:Natalla Arsieńnieva1927.jpg|Natallia Arsiennieva, Belarusian playwright, poet and translatorFile:Владимир Меньшов 2018 (cropped) (cropped).jpg|Vladimir Menshov, Soviet and Russian actor and film directorFile:Ələkbər Məmmədov.jpg|Alakbar Mammadov, Soviet footballer, four-time champion player in the Soviet Top LeagueFile:Matvej Skobelev.jpg|Matvey Skobelev, Russian revolutionary and politicianFile:Salatyn and Son.JPG|Salatyn Asgarova, Azerbaijani journalist, National Hero of Azerbaijan" ], [ "International relations", "=== Twin towns and sister cities ===Baku is twinned with:in chronological orderCountryCityState / Province / Region / GovernorateDateSenegal Dakar''Dakar Region''1967Italy Naples''Campania''1972Iraq Basra''Basra Governorate''1972Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo''Sarajevo Canton''1975United States Christiansted''Virgin Islands''1976United States Houston''Texas''1976France Bordeaux''Aquitaine''1979Iran Tabriz''East Azerbaijan Province''1980Turkey İzmir''İzmir Province''1985Vietnam Vũng Tàu''Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province''1985Russia Moscow''Moscow City''Russia Saint Petersburg''Saint Petersburg City''United States Honolulu County''Hawaii''1998Turkey Sivas''Sivas Province''2000Brazil Rio de Janeiro''State of Rio de Janeiro''2013Ukraine Kyiv''Kyiv City''Israel Haifa''Haifa District''South Africa Johannesburg''Johannesburg City''South Africa Pretoria''Pretoria City''Turkey Ankara''Ankara City''Saudi Arabia Jeddah''Jeddah City''=== Partner cities ===* Mainz, Germany* Paris, France * Vienna, Austria* Tbilisi, Georgia * Astana, Kazakhstan * Minsk, Belarus * Moscow, Russia* Volgograd, Russia* Kizlyar, Russia* Tashkent, Uzbekistan* Chengdu, China" ], [ "See also", "* Baku Gradonachalstvo* 1920 Baku Congress* Alexander III visit to Baku* Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan* List of cities in Azerbaijan* Mingachevir* Nakhchivan* Sumgait" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Baku's profile at the Organization of World Heritage Cities website* UNESCO World Heritage Site listing Walled City of Baku*" ] ]

[ [ "Balalaika" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''balalaika''' (, ) is a Russian stringed musical instrument with a characteristic triangular wooden, hollow body, fretted neck and three strings.", "Two strings are usually tuned to the same note and the third string is a perfect fourth higher.", "The higher-pitched balalaikas are used to play melodies and chords.", "The instrument generally has a short sustain, necessitating rapid strumming or plucking when it is used to play melodies.", "Balalaikas are often used for Russian folk music and dancing.The balalaika ''family of instruments'' includes instruments of various sizes, from the highest-pitched to the lowest: the piccolo balalaika, prima balalaika, secunda balalaika, alto balalaika, bass balalaika, and contrabass balalaika.", "There are balalaika orchestras which consist solely of different balalaikas; these ensembles typically play Classical music that has been arranged for balalaikas.", "The prima balalaika is the most common; the piccolo is rare.", "There have also been ''descant'' and ''tenor'' balalaikas, but these are considered obsolete.", "All have three-sided bodies; spruce, evergreen, or fir tops; and backs made of three to nine wooden sections (usually maple).The prima, secunda, and alto balalaikas are played either with the fingers or a plectrum (pick), depending on the music being played, and the bass and contrabass (equipped with extension legs that rest on the floor) are played with leather plectra.", "The rare piccolo instrument is usually played with a pick." ], [ "Etymology", "The earliest mention of the term ''balalaika'' dates back to a 1688 Russian document.", "Another appearance of the word is registered in a document from the Verkhotursky district of Russia, dated October 1700.It is also mentioned in a document dated 1714 and signed by Peter the Great regarding the wedding celebrations of N.M. Zotov in Saint Petersburg.", "In the Ukrainian language the word was first documented in the 18th century as \"balabaika\"; this form is also present in South Russian dialects and the Belarusian language, as well as in Siberian Russia.", "It made its way into literature and first appeared in \"Elysei\", a 1771 poem by V. Maykov.", "\"Balalaika\" also appears in Nikolai Gogol's ''Dead Souls'', written between 1837 and 1842." ], [ "Types", "Secunda sizeContrabass sizeThe most common solo instrument is the prima, which is tuned E4–E4–A4 (thus the two lower strings are tuned to the same pitch).", "Sometimes the balalaika is tuned \"guitar style\" by folk musicians to G3–B3–D4 (mimicking the three highest strings of the Russian guitar), whereby it is easier to play for Russian guitar players, although classically trained balalaika purists avoid this tuning.", "It can also be tuned to E4–A4–D5, like its cousin, the domra, to make it easier for those trained on the domra to play the instrument, and still have a balalaika sound.", "The folk (pre-Andreev) tunings D4–F4–A4 and C4–E4–G4 were very popular, as this makes it easier to play certain riffs.Balalaikas have been made in the following sizes:: Name Length Common tuning descant E5 E5 A5 piccolo B4 E5 A5 prima E4 E4 A4 secunda A3 A3 D4 alto E3 E3 A3 tenor A2 A2 D3 bass E2 A2 D3 contrabass E1 A1 D2Factory-made six-string prima balalaikas with three sets of double courses are also common.", "These have three double courses similar to the stringing of the mandolin and often use a \"guitar\" tuning.Four-string alto balalaikas are also encountered and are used in the orchestra of the Piatnistky Folk Choir.The piccolo, prima, and secunda balalaikas were originally strung with gut with the thinnest melody string made of stainless steel.", "Today, nylon strings are commonly used in place of gut.Amateur and/or souvenir-style prima balalaikas usually have a total of 16 frets, while in professional orchestra-like ones that number raises to 24.=== Technique ===An important part of balalaika technique is the use of the left thumb to fret notes on the lower string, particularly on the prima, where it is used to form chords.", "Traditionally, the side of the index finger of the right hand is used to sound notes on the prima, while a plectrum is used on the larger sizes.Because of the large size of the contrabass's strings, it is not uncommon to see players using a plectrum made from a leather shoe or boot heel.", "Bass and contrabass balalaikas rest on the ground, on a wooden or metal pin that is drilled into one of its corners." ], [ "History", "Balalaika postal stampsIt is possible that the emergence and evolution of the balalaika was a product of interaction with Asian-Oriental cultures.", "In addition to European culture, early Russian states, also called Rus' or Rusi, were also influenced by Oriental-Asian cultures.", "Some theories say that the instrument is descended from the domra, an instrument from the East Slavs.", "In the Caucasus, similar instruments such as the Mongolian topshur, used in Kalmykia, and the Panduri used in Georgia are played.", "It is also similar to the Kazakh dombra, which has two strings.", "Variants of the dombra played by the Bashkirs often have 3 strings and may represent an instrument related to both the dombra and the balalaika.", "=== The pre-Andreyev period ===Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings.", "Similarly, frets on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern saz, which allows for the playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music).The first known document mentioning the instrument dates back to 1688.A guard's logbook from the Moscow Kremlin records that two commoners were stopped from playing the Balalaika whilst drunk.", "Further documents from 1700 and 1714 also mention the instrument.", "In the early 18th century the term appeared in Ukrainian documents, where it sounded like \"Balabaika\".", "Balalaika appeared in \"Elysei\", a 1771 poem by V. Maikov.", "In the 19th century, the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck that was substantially shorter than that of its Asian counterparts.", "It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the ''skomorokhs'', sort of free-lance musical jesters whose tunes ridiculed the Tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Russian society in general.Balalaika model of 1980 made for the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow=== The Andreyev period ===In the 1880s, Vasily Vasilievich Andreyev, who was then a professional violinist in the music salons of St Petersburg, developed what became the standardized balalaika, with the assistance of violin maker V. Ivanov.", "The instrument began to be used in his concert performances.", "A few years later, St. Petersburg craftsman Paserbsky further refined the instruments by adding a fully chromatic set of frets and also a number of balalaikas in orchestral sizes with the tunings now found in modern instruments.", "One of the reasons why the instruments were not standardised, was because people in the outlying areas built their own instruments because there was so little communication for them.", "There were no roads and weather conditions were generally bad.", "Andreyev patented the design and arranged numerous traditional Russian folk melodies for the orchestra.", "He also composed a body of concert pieces for the instrument." ], [ "Balalaika orchestra", "Souvenir styleThe end result of Andreyev's labours was the establishment of an orchestral folk tradition in Tsarist Russia, which later grew into a movement within the Soviet Union.", "The balalaika orchestra in its full form consists of balalaikas, domras, gusli, bayan, Vladimir Shepherd's Horns, garmoshkas and several types of percussion instruments.With the establishment of the Soviet system and the entrenchment of a proletarian cultural direction, the culture of the working classes (which included that of village labourers) was actively supported by the Soviet establishment.", "The concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the Soviet government as something distinctively proletarian (that is, from the working classes) and was also deemed progressive.", "Significant amounts of energy and time were devoted to support and foster the formal study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra emerged.", "Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside the Soviet Union.", "The movement was so powerful that even the renowned Red Army Choir, which initially used a normal symphonic orchestra, changed its instrumentation, replacing violins, violas, and violoncellos with orchestral balalaikas and domras.Painting from Nikolai Petrovich Petrov in 1861.The scene portrays the old Russian tradition of the bride-show while a balalaika is played." ], [ "Solo instrument", "Often musicians perform solo on the balalaika.", "In particular, Alexey Arkhipovsky is well known for his solo performances.", "In particular, he was invited to play at the opening ceremony of the second semi final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow because the organizers wanted to give a \"more Russian appearance\" to the contest." ], [ "Notable players", "See Category: Russian balalaika players (English Wikipedia) and a larger one in Russian*Vasily Andreyev*Alexey Arkhipovsky*Elina Karokhina*" ], [ "In popular culture", "1911 advertisement for the Imperial Russian Balalaika Orchestra and Victor RecordsThrough the 20th century, interest in Russian folk instruments grew outside of Russia, likely as a result of western tours by Andreyev and other balalaika virtuosi early in the century.", "Significant balalaika associations are found in Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, New York, Atlanta and Seattle.", "* Ian Anderson plays balalaika on two songs from the 1969 Jethro Tull album ''Stand Up'': \"Jeffrey Goes to Leicester Square\" and \"Fat Man\".", "* Wes Anderson's 2014 film ''The Grand Budapest Hotel'' (winner of the 87th Academy Award for Best Original Score) employs many balalaikas in both Alexandre Desplat's original score and several sound-track recordings by the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra.", "* Oleg Bernov of the Russian-American rock band the Red Elvises played a red electrified contrabass balalaika during the band's North American tours.", "Dejah Sandoval currently tours with the Red Elvises and plays the bass balalaika.", "* Kate Bush featured the balalaika (played by her brother Paddy Bush) in two of her Top-40 singles, \"Babooshka\" and \"Running Up That Hill\".", "* Katzenjammer, the Norwegian all-girl pop band, uses two contrabass balalaikas, both of which have cat faces painted on the front.", "They are named Børge and Akerø.", "* David Lean's 1965 film ''Doctor Zhivago'' features balalaika prominently in the score and the plot.", "* VulgarGrad, an Australian band fronted by actor Jacek Koman, plays songs of the Russian criminal underground, and uses a contrabass balalaika.", "*RebbeSoul plays the balalaika on numerous songs on the RebbeSoul albums ''Fringe Of Blue'', ''RebbeSoul-O'', ''Change The World With A Sound'', and ''From Another World''.", "He also plays the balalaika on the Common Tongue album ''Step Into My Word'' and on the Shlomit & RebbeSoul album ''The Seal Of Solomon''.", "*The instrument is featured in the episode \"The Secret War\" of the 2019 Netflix series ''Love, Death & Robots''.", "*The instrument is used alongside a piano and a bayan (a type of Russian accordion) in the piece \"A Journey\" from the soundtrack of the 2013 Japanese animated film ''The Wind Rises''.", "*Selo i Ludy, a Ukrainian folk band, utilises the balalaika.", "*The instrument makes a brief appearance in Charlie Chaplin's 1931 film ''City Lights.", "''*The Beatles' song \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" includes the lyric \"let me hear your balalaikas ringing out\".", "*\"Wind of Change\" by Scorpions includes the lyric \"let your balalaika sing what my guitar wants to say \".", "*The balalaika is played in \"Boris the Blade Theme\" from the 2000 comedy crime film ''Snatch'' directed by Guy Ritchie.", "*It is featured in the soundtrack of Furious (2017 film)" ], [ "See also", "* Domra* Gibson Flying V* Timeline of Russian innovation" ], [ "References", "* Блок В.", "'''Оркестр русских народных инструментов'''.", "Москва, 1986.", "* Имханицкий М.", "'''В.", "В. Андреев – Материалы и документы'''.", "Москва, 1986.", "* Имханицкий М.", "'''У истоков русской народной оркестровой культуры'''.", "Москва, 1987.", "* Имханицкий М.", "'''История исполнительства на русских народных инструментах'''.", "Москва, 2002.", "* Пересада А.", "'''Балалайка'''.", "Москва, 1990.", "* Попонов В.", "'''Оркестр хора имени Пятницкого'''.", "Москва, 1979.", "* Попонов В.", "'''Русская народная инструментальная музыка'''.", "Москва, 1984.", "* Вертков К.", "'''Русские народные музыкальные инструменты'''.", "Музыка, Ленинград, 1975." ], [ "External links", "* Balalaika Part Names And Setup – Balalaika Lesson 1 on ibalalaika.com* (en) \"Balalaika\"—article by Dmitry Belinskiy from the newspaper ''Krymskaya Pravda''.", "Balalaika music, video* Russian site about balalaika.", "History of balalaika, by Georgy Nefyodov* Chord reference for Prima-Balalaika* (rus) balalaika.org.ru: music sheets, video, forum, etc.", "* * (de) russische-balalaika.de – informative Website* An example of a reconstructed pre-Andreyev balalaika with two strings on YouTube* An example of a Bessarabian tune on balalaika, Dieter and Ally Hauptmann on YouTube.", "* The magic of Alexey Arkhipovsky.", "''Sharmanka'' (\"Hurdy-gurdy\").", "YouTube." ] ]

[ [ "Bank of China Tower (Hong Kong)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bank of China Tower''' ('''BOC Tower''') is a skyscraper located in Central, Hong Kong.", "Located at 1 Garden Road on Hong Kong Island, the tower houses the headquarters of the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited.", "One of the most recognisable landmarks in Hong Kong, the building is notable for its distinct shape and design, consisting of triangular frameworks covered by glass curtain walls.The building was designed by Chinese-American architect I. M. Pei and L. C. Pei of I. M. Pei and Partners.", "At a height of , reaching high including a spire, the building is the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.", "It was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1990 to 1992, and it was the first supertall skyscraper outside the United States, the first to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark.", "It was surpassed by Central Plaza on the same island in 1992.Construction began on 18 April 1985 on the former site of Murray House, and was completed five years later in 1990.Sporting a steel-column design, the building is accessible from the MTR's Central station.", "The building lies between Cotton Tree Drive and Garden Road." ], [ "History", "===Site===The site on which the building is constructed was formerly the location of Murray House.", "After its brick-by-brick relocation to Stanley, the site was sold by the Government for \"only HK$1 billion\" in August 1982 amidst growing concern over the future of Hong Kong in the run-up to the transfer of sovereignty.The building was initially built by the Hong Kong Branch of the Bank of China; its Garden Road entrance continues to display the name \"Bank of China\", rather than BOCHK.", "The top four and the bottom 19 stories are used by the Bank, while the other floors are leased out.", "Ownership has since been transferred to BOCHK, although the Bank of China has leased back several floors for use by its own operations in Hong Kong.===Favouritism controversy===The Government had apparently given preferential treatment to Chinese companies, and was again criticised for the apparent preferential treatment to the BOCHK.The price paid was half the amount of the 6,250 m2 Admiralty II plot, for which the MTR Corporation paid HK$1.82 billion in cash.", "The BOC would make initial payment of $60 million, with the rest payable over 13 years at 6% interest.", "The announcement of the sale was also poorly handled, and a dive in business confidence ensued.", "The Hang Seng Index fell 80 points, and the HK$ lost 1.5% of its value the next day.=== Construction ===The Bank of China Building under construction in 1988The tower was built by Japanese contractor Kumagai Gumi.", "Superstructure work began in May 1986.The tower is a steel-frame structure.The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 interrupted publicity surrounding the building's design and construction.", "A press conference scheduled for 24 May 1989, two weeks before the incident, was intended to show off the building's \"designer socialist furnishings\", but was called off as the student demonstrations in Beijing escalated.", "The public relations firm that organised the conference explained to the ''South China Morning Post'' that \"under the circumstances, it has been decided to stop any publicity to do with the Bank of China.", "\"Once developed, gross floor area was expected to be 100,000 m2.The original project was intended for completion on the auspicious date of 8 August 1988.However, owing to project delays, groundbreaking took place in March 1985, almost two years late.", "It was topped out in 1989, and occupied on 15 June 1990." ], [ "Architecture", "Massing model showing the shape of the Bank of China Tower.", "The labels correspond to the number of 'X' shapes on each outward facing side.Designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect I. M. Pei, the building is high with two masts reaching high.", "The 72-storey building is located near Central MTR station.", "This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1990 to 1992, the first building outside the United States to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark, and the first composite space frame high-rise building.", "That also means it was the tallest outside the United States from its completion year, 1990.It is now the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.A small observation deck on the 43rd floor of the building was once open to the public, but is now closed.The whole structure is supported by the four steel columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks transferring the weight of the structure onto these four columns.", "It is covered with glass curtain walls.", "Structural engineer Leslie E. Robertson, best known for his work on the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, provided the structural engineering design, while Jaros, Baum & Bolles was the mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineer.While its distinctive look makes it one of Hong Kong's most identifiable landmarks today, it was the source of some controversy at one time, as the bank is the only major building in Hong Kong to have bypassed the convention of consulting with feng shui masters on matters of design prior to construction.The building has been criticised by some practitioners of feng shui for its sharp edges and its negative symbolism by the numerous 'X' shapes in its original design, though Pei modified the design to some degree before construction following this feedback.", "The building's profile from some angles resembles that of a meat cleaver and it is sometimes referred to as a \"vertical knife\".", "This earned it the nickname () in Cantonese, literally meaning 'one knife'." ], [ "Transport", "The Bank of China Tower can be accessed by the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) by walking through Chater Garden from Central station Exit J2." ], [ "In popular culture", "* In the 1988 film ''Police Story 2'', the building was shown during its construction* In the 2012 film ''Battleship'', the building is torn in half by a crashing alien spaceship and its spire falls into the streets of Hong Kong, killing many people.", "* In ''Star Trek: Voyager'', the building is used as the exterior of Starfleet Communications Research Center.", "* The building is seen on the attraction It's a Small World at Hong Kong Disneyland.", "* The building was featured in the film ''Transformers: Age of Extinction'', where Bumblebee and Dinobot Strafe makes their final stand against the Decepticon drone Stinger.", "* The building appears in ''Cardcaptor Sakura: The Movie'' for several scenes.", "* The building was featured in the city-building games ''SimCity 3000'' and ''SimCity 4'' as a placeable landmark.", "* The building was featured in the 2017 mobile game ''Theotown'' as a vanilla landmark.", "* The building (renamed to Mortensen Electric) appears in the 2012 action-adventure video game ''Sleeping Dogs'' in the Central District.", "* In the 2021 movie ''Godzilla vs. Kong'', the building is featured prominently throughout the battle between Godzilla and Kong in Hong Kong.", "Despite being in close proximity to the battle, the tower is not destroyed and is still standing at the end of the battle." ], [ "See also", "* Bank of China Building, the old headquarters of the Bank of China* List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong* List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong* List of tallest freestanding structures" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* About BOC Tower on Bank of China (Hong Kong) website* Great Buildings Online site on BOC Tower* Buildable paper model of the tower* Elevator Layout* Branch Details for Hong Kong Bank of China Tower" ] ]

[ [ "Blind Lemon Jefferson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lemon Henry''' \"'''Blind Lemon'''\" '''Jefferson''' (September 24, 1893 – December 19, 1929) was an American blues and gospel singer-songwriter and musician.", "He was one of the most popular blues singers of the 1920s and has been called the \"Father of the Texas Blues\".", "''''''Due mainly to his high-pitched voice and the originality of his guitar playing, Jefferson's performances were distinctive.", "His recordings sold well, but he was not a strong influence on younger blues singers of his generation, who could not imitate him as easily as they could other commercially successful artists.", "Later blues and rock and roll musicians, however, did attempt to imitate both his songs and his musical style." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Jefferson was born blind, near Coutchman, Texas.", "He was the youngest of seven (or possibly eight) children born to Alex and Clarissa Jefferson, who were African-American sharecroppers.", "Disputes regarding the date of his birth derive from contradictory census records and draft registration records.", "By 1900, the family was farming southeast of Streetman, Texas.", "Jefferson's birth date was recorded as September 1893 in the 1900 census.", "The 1910 census, taken in May, before his birthday, confirms his year of birth as 1893 and indicated that the family was farming northwest of Wortham, near his birthplace.In his 1917 draft registration, Jefferson gave his birthday as October 26, 1894, stating that he lived in Dallas, Texas, and had been blind since birth.", "In the 1920 census, he is recorded as having returned to Freestone County and was living with his half-brother, Kit Banks, on a farm between Wortham and Streetman.Jefferson began playing the guitar in his early teens and soon after he began performing at picnics and parties.", "He became a street musician, playing in East Texas towns in front of barbershops and on street corners.", "According to his cousin Alec Jefferson, quoted in the notes for ''Blind Lemon Jefferson, Classic Sides'':In the early 1910s, Jefferson began traveling frequently to Dallas, where he met and played with the blues musician Lead Belly.", "Jefferson was one of the earliest and most prominent figures in the blues movement developing in the Deep Ellum section of Dallas.", "It is probable that he moved to Deep Ellum on a more permanent basis by 1917, where he met Aaron Thibeaux Walker, also known as T-Bone Walker.", "Jefferson taught Walker the basics of playing blues guitar in exchange for Walker's occasional services as a guide.", "By the early 1920s, Jefferson was earning enough money for his musical performances to support a wife and, possibly, a child.", "However, firm evidence of his marriage and children has not been found.===Beginning of recording career===Prior to Jefferson, few artists had recorded solo voice and blues guitar, the first of which were the vocalist Sara Martin and the guitarist Sylvester Weaver, who recorded \"Longing for Daddy Blues\", probably on October 24, 1923.The first self-accompanied solo performer of a self-composed blues song was Lee Morse, whose \"Mail Man Blues\" was recorded on October 7, 1924.Jefferson's music is uninhibited and represented the classic sounds of everyday life, from a honky-tonk to a country picnic, to street corner blues, to work in the burgeoning oil fields (a reflection of his interest in mechanical objects and processes).Jefferson did what few had ever done before him – he became a successful solo guitarist and male vocalist in the commercial recording world.", "Unlike many artists who were \"discovered\" and recorded in their normal venues, Jefferson was taken to Chicago in December 1925 or January 1926 to record his first tracks.", "Uncharacteristically, his first two recordings from this session were gospel songs (\"I Want to Be Like Jesus in My Heart\" and \"All I Want Is That Pure Religion\"), released under the name '''Deacon L. J. Bates'''.", "A second recording session was held in March 1926.His first releases under his own name, \"Booster Blues\" and \"Dry Southern Blues\", were hits.", "Their popularity led to the release of the other two songs from that session, \"Got the Blues\" and \"Long Lonesome Blues\", which became a runaway success, with sales in six figures.", "He recorded about 100 tracks between 1926 and 1929; 43 records were issued, all but one for Paramount Records.", "Paramount's studio techniques and quality were poor, and the recordings were released with poor sound quality.", "In May 1926, Paramount re-recorded Jefferson performing his hits \"Got the Blues\" and \"Long Lonesome Blues\" in the superior facilities at Marsh Laboratories, and subsequent releases used those versions.", "Both versions appear on compilation albums.===Success with Paramount Records===Label of one of Jefferson's Paramount records, 1926Largely because of the popularity of artists such as Jefferson and his contemporaries Blind Blake and Ma Rainey, Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s.", "Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (this information has been disputed); he was given a Ford car \"worth over $700\" by Mayo Williams, Paramount's connection with the black community.", "This was a common compensation for recording rights in that market.", "Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of placing his music in a single regional category.Jefferson's \"old-fashioned\" sound and confident musicianship made it easy to market him.", "His skillful guitar playing and impressive vocal range opened the door for a new generation of male solo blues performers, such as Furry Lewis, Charlie Patton, and Barbecue Bob.", "He stuck to no musical conventions, varying his riffs and rhythm and singing complex and expressive lyrics in a manner exceptional at the time for a \"simple country blues singer.\"", "According to the North Carolina musician Walter Davis, Jefferson played on the streets in Johnson City, Tennessee, during the early 1920s, at which time Davis and the entertainer Clarence Greene learned the art of blues guitar.Jefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1500).", "In 1927, when Williams moved to Okeh Records, he took Jefferson with him, and Okeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's \"Matchbox Blues\", backed with \"Black Snake Moan\".", "It was his only Okeh recording, probably because of contractual obligations with Paramount.", "Jefferson's two songs released on Okeh have considerably better sound quality than his Paramount records at the time.", "When he returned to Paramount a few months later, \"Matchbox Blues\" had already become such a hit that Paramount re-recorded and released two new versions, with the producer Arthur Laibly.", "In 1927, Jefferson recorded another of his classic songs, the haunting \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" (again using the pseudonym Deacon L. J. Bates), and two other uncharacteristically spiritual songs, \"He Arose from the Dead\" and \"Where Shall I Be\".", "\"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" was so successful that it was re-recorded and re-released in 1928.===Death and grave===Jefferson died in Chicago at 10:00 a.m. on December 19, 1929, of what his death certificate said was \"probably acute myocarditis\".", "For many years, rumors circulated that a jealous lover had poisoned his coffee, but a more likely explanation is that he died of a heart attack after becoming disoriented during a snowstorm.", "Some have said that he died of a heart attack after being attacked by a dog in the middle of the night.", "In his 1983 book ''Tolbert's Texas'', Frank X. Tolbert claims that he was killed while being robbed of a large royalty payment by a guide escorting him to Chicago Union Station to catch a train home to Texas.", "Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by the pianist William Ezell.Jefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (later Wortham Black Cemetery) in Wortham, Freestone County, Texas.", "His grave was unmarked until 1967, when a Texas historical marker was erected in the general area of his plot; however, the precise location of the grave is still unknown.", "By 1996, the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, and a new granite headstone was erected in 1997.The inscription reads: \"Lord, it's one kind favor I'll ask of you, see that my grave is kept clean.\"", "In 2007, the cemetery's name was changed to Blind Lemon Memorial Cemetery, and his gravesite is kept clean by a cemetery committee in Wortham.", "As of 2022, the entire cemetery was in an excellent state of maintenance." ], [ "Discography and awards", "Jefferson had an intricate and fast style of guitar playing and a particularly high-pitched voice.", "He was a founder of the Texas blues sound and an important influence on other blues singers and guitarists, including Lead Belly and Lightnin' Hopkins.He was the author of many songs covered by later musicians, including the classic \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\".", "Another of his songs, \"Matchbox Blues\", was recorded more than 30 years later by the Beatles, in a rockabilly version credited to Carl Perkins, who did not credit Jefferson on his 1955 recording.", "Fellow blues artist B.B.", "King credited Jefferson as one of his biggest musical influences, next to Lonnie Johnson, Louis Jordan and T-Bone Walker.The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected Jefferson's 1927 recording of \"Matchbox Blues\" as one of the 500 songs that shaped rock and roll.", "Jefferson was among the inaugural class of blues musicians inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980." ], [ "Cover versions", "*Canned Heat, \"One Kind Favor,\" on \"Living the Blues\", released in 1968, (credited: \"Arr.", "& Adpt.", "by L.T.Tatman III\")*Bukka White, \"Jack o' Diamonds\", on ''1963 Isn't 1962'', released in the 1990s*Bob Dylan, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Bob Dylan''*Grateful Dead, \"One Kind Favor\" (a version of \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\"), on ''Birth of the Dead''*Merl Saunders, Jerry Garcia, John Kahn, Bil Vitt, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''Keystone Encores Volume I''*John Hammond, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''John Hammond Live''*B.B.", "King, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''One Kind Favor''*Peter, Paul & Mary, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''In Concert''*Kelly Joe Phelps, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Roll Away the Stone''*The Dream Syndicate, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Ghost Stories''*Counting Crows, \"Mean Jumper Blues\".", "Counting Crows lead singer Adam Duritz accidentally claimed credit for \"Mean Jumper Blues\" in the liner notes of the deluxe edition reissue of the album ''August and Everything After''.", "The cover was featured as part of a selection of early demo tracks.", "Immediately after the error was brought to his attention, Duritz apologized in his personal blog.", "*Laibach, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''SPECTRE''*Pat Donohue, \"One Kind Favor\", live on Garrison Keillor's radio program ''A Prairie Home Companion'' and later released on the CD ''Radio Blues''*Corey Harris, \"Jack o' Diamonds\", on ''Fish Ain't Bitin''', released in 1997*Diamanda Galás, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''The Singer''*Phish, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", live at Madison Square Garden, New York, August 4, 2017*Scott H. Biram, \"Jack of Diamonds\" on ''Nothin' But Blood'' released in 2014* Steve Suffet, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" on ''Now the Wheel Has Turned'', released in 2005" ], [ "In popular culture", "* In 2009, the Grammy-nominated R&B act Yarbrough and Peoples were featured in the off-Broadway play ''Blind Lemon Blues''.", "* A tribute song, \"My Buddy Blind Papa Lemon\", was recorded for Paramount Records in 1932 by King Solomon Hill.", "The record was long considered lost, but a copy was located by John Tefteller in 2002.", "* Geoff Muldaur refers to Jefferson in the song \"Got to Find Blind Lemon\" on the album ''The Secret Handshake''.", "* Art Evans portrayed Jefferson in the 1976 film ''Leadbelly'', directed by Gordon Parks.", "* Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds recorded the song \"Blind Lemon Jefferson\" on the album ''The Firstborn Is Dead''.", "* The 2010 video game ''Fallout: New Vegas'', in one of its downloadable add-ons ''Old World Blues'', features an AI jukebox named Blind Diode Jefferson.", "The AI claims to have been a blues musician before his music hard drives were stripped from him.", "The voicing of the AI can be characterized as a Southern drawl in homage to Jefferson.", "* In the 2003 movie ''Masked and Anonymous'', Bobby Cupid (Luke Wilson) gives his friend Jack Fate (Bob Dylan) Jefferson's guitar, which he claims was used in recording \"Matchbox Blues\".", "* Cheech & Chong parodied Jefferson as \"Blind Melon Chitlin'\" on their self-titled 1971 album ''Cheech and Chong'', on their 1985 album ''Get Out of My Room'', and in a stage routine that can be seen in their 1983 film ''Still Smokin'''.", "* Chet Atkins called Jefferson \"one of my first finger-picking influences\" in the song \"Nine Pound Hammer\", on the album ''The Atkins–Travis Traveling Show''.", "* A practical joke played on ''Down Beat'' magazine editor Gene Lees in the late 1950s took on a life of its own and became a long-running hoax when one of his correspondents included a reference to the blues legend \"Blind Orange Adams\" in an article published in the magazine, an obvious parody of Jefferson's name.", "References to the nonexistent Adams appeared in subsequent articles in ''Down Beat'' over the next few years.", "* The American dramatic film ''Black Snake Moan'' was named after one of his only songs recorded for Okeh Records.", "* Arthur \"Big Boy\" Crudup took the title of his classic song \"That's All Right,\" which launched the career of Elvis Presley, from a lyric in Jefferson's \"Black Snake Moan\".", "* According to some sources, the \"Jefferson\" in the name of the rock group Jefferson Airplane references Blind Lemon Jefferson: founding member and blues guitarist Jorma Kaukonen was nicknamed \"Blind Lemon Jefferson Airplane\" by a friend, and suggested the last part as the name of the band.", "However, other sources give other origins for the name, involving Blind Lemon Jefferson either more indirectly or not at all.", "*In June 2021, Jefferson's \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" plays in the Season 6 finale of ''Fear the Walking Dead'' while survivalist character Victor Strand discovers an apartment of artwork and historical artifacts as he awaits his fate." ], [ "See also", "*List of nicknames of blues musicians" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Govenar, Alan; Brakefield, Jay F. (1998).", "''Deep Ellum and Central Track: Where the Black and White Worlds of Dallas Converged.''", "Denton: University of North Texas Press.", "." ], [ "Further reading", "* Evans, David (2000).", "\"Musical Innovation in the Blues of Blind Lemon Jefferson\".", "''Black Music Research Journal''.", "Vol.", "20, no.", "1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000).", "pp. 83–116.", "* Monge, Luigi (2000).", "\"The Language of Blind Lemon Jefferson: The Covert Theme of Blindness\".", "''Black Music Research Journal''.", "Vol.", "20, no.", "1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000).", "pp. 35–81.", "* Monge, Luigi; Evans, David (2003).", "\"New Songs of Blind Lemon Jefferson\".", "''Journal of Texas Music History''.", "Vol.", "3, no.", "2 (Fall 2003).", "* Pisigin, Valeriy (2013).", "The Coming of the Blues (Пришествие блюза).", "Vol.", "4.Country Blues.", "Blind Lemon Jefferson.", "— M.: 2013.— C.320..* Swinton, Paul.", "(1997) A Twist of Lemon.", "''Blues & Rhythm'', Issue No.", "121, August 1997.", "* Uzzel, Robert L. (2002).", "''Blind Lemon Jefferson: His Life, His Death, and His Legacy''.", "Austin, Texas: Eakin Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Blues Foundation Hall of Fame induction*** Illustrated Blind Lemon Jefferson discography* The lyrics of his songs*" ] ]

[ [ "Baku (mythology)" ], [ "Introduction", "A ''baku'', as illustrated by Hokusai.", "are Japanese supernatural beings that are said to devour nightmares.", "They originate from the chinese Mo.", "According to legend, they were created by the spare pieces that were left over when the gods finished creating all other animals.", "They have a long history in Japanese folklore and art, and more recently have appeared in manga and anime.The Japanese term ''baku'' has two current meanings, referring to both the traditional dream-devouring creature and to the Malayan tapir.", "In recent years, there have been changes in how the ''baku'' is depicted." ], [ "History and description", "The traditional Japanese nightmare-devouring ''baku'' originates in Chinese folklore from the ''mo'' 貘 (giant panda) and was familiar in Japan as early as the Muromachi period (14th–15th century).", "Hori Tadao has described the dream-eating abilities attributed to the traditional ''baku'' and relates them to other preventatives against nightmare such as amulets.", "Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database, citing a 1957 paper, and Mizuki also describe the dream-devouring capacities of the traditional ''baku''.Before its adaptation to the Japanese dream-caretaker myth creature, an early 17th-century Japanese manuscript, the ''Sankai Ibutsu'' (), describes the ''baku'' as a shy, Chinese mythical chimera with the trunk and tusks of an elephant, the ears of a rhinoceros, the tail of a cow, the body of a bear and the paws of a tiger, which protected against pestilence and evil, although eating nightmares was not included among its abilities.", "However, in a 1791 Japanese wood-block illustration, a specifically dream-destroying ''baku'' is depicted with an elephant’s head, tusks, and trunk, with horns and tiger’s claws.", "The elephant’s head, trunk, and tusks are characteristic of ''baku'' portrayed in classical era (pre-Meiji) Japanese wood-block prints (see illustration) and in shrine, temple, and netsuke carvings.Writing in the Meiji period, Lafcadio Hearn (1902) described a ''baku'' with very similar attributes that was also able to devour nightmares.Legend has it that a person who wakes up from a bad dream can call out to ''baku''.", "A child having a nightmare in Japan will wake up and repeat three times, \"Baku-san, come eat my dream.\"", "Legends say that the ''baku'' will come into the child's room and devour the bad dream, allowing the child to go back to sleep peacefully.", "However, calling to the ''baku'' must be done sparingly, because if he remains hungry after eating one's nightmare, he may also devour their hopes and desires as well, leaving them to live an empty life.", "The ''baku'' can also be summoned for protection from bad dreams prior to falling asleep at night.", "In the 1910s, it was common for Japanese children to keep a ''baku'' talisman at their bedside." ], [ "Gallery", "KonnoHachiman-Sculpture-1.jpg|''Baku'' sculpture at the Konnoh Hachimangu Shrine, Shibuya, Tokyo, JapanKonnoHachiman-Sculpture-3.jpg|''Baku and Lion'' sculpture at the Konnoh Hachimangu Shrine, Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan" ], [ "See also", "* Dreamcatcher" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database.", "International Research Center for Japanese Studies.", "Retrieved on 2007-05-12.", "(Summary of excerpt from ''Warui Yume o Mita Toki'' (, When You've Had a Bad Dream?)", "by Keidō Matsushita, published in volume 5 of the journal ''Shōnai Minzoku'' (, Shōnai Folk Customs) on June 15, 1957)." ], [ "External links", "* Baku – The Dream Eater at hyakumonogatari.com (English).", "* Netsuke: masterpieces from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains many representations of Baku" ] ]

[ [ "Blackbeard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Teach''' (alternatively spelled '''Edward Thatch''', – 22 November 1718), better known as '''Blackbeard,''' was an English pirate who operated around the West Indies and the eastern coast of Britain's North American colonies.", "Little is known about his early life, but he may have been a sailor on privateer ships during Queen Anne's War before he settled on the Bahamian island of New Providence, a base for Captain Benjamin Hornigold, whose crew Teach joined around 1716.Hornigold placed him in command of a sloop that he had captured, and the two engaged in numerous acts of piracy.", "Their numbers were boosted by the addition to their fleet of two more ships, one of which was commanded by Stede Bonnet, but Hornigold retired from piracy toward the end of 1717, taking two vessels with him.Teach captured a French slave ship known as , renamed her ''Queen Anne's Revenge,'' equipped her with 40 guns, and crewed her with over 300 men.", "He became a renowned pirate.", "His nickname derived from his thick black beard and fearsome appearance.", "He was reported to have tied lit fuses (slow matches) under his hat to frighten his enemies.", "He formed an alliance of pirates and blockaded the port of Charles Town, South Carolina, ransoming the port's inhabitants.", "He then ran ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' aground on a sandbar near Beaufort, North Carolina.", "He parted company with Stede Bonnet and settled in Bath, North Carolina, also known as Bath Town, where he accepted a royal pardon.", "However, he was soon back at sea, where he attracted the attention of Alexander Spotswood, the governor of Virginia.", "Spotswood arranged for a party of soldiers and sailors to capture him.", "On 22 November 1718, following a ferocious battle, Teach and several of his crew were killed by a small force of sailors led by Lieutenant Robert Maynard.Teach was a shrewd and calculating leader who spurned the use of violence, relying instead on his fearsome image to elicit the response that he desired from those whom he robbed.", "He was romanticized after his death and became the inspiration for an archetypal pirate in works of fiction across many genres." ], [ "Early life", "Little is known about Blackbeard's early life.", "It is commonly believed that at the time of his death he was between 35 and 40 years old and thus born in about 1680.In contemporary records his name is most often given as Blackbeard, Edward Thatch or Edward Teach.", "The latter is most often used.", "Several spellings of his surname exist: Thatch, Thach, Thache, Thack, Tack, Thatche, and Theach.", "One source claims that his surname was Drummond, but the lack of any supporting documentation makes this unlikely.", "Pirates habitually used fictitious surnames while engaged in piracy so as not to tarnish the family name, which makes it unlikely that Teach's real name will ever be known.The 17th-century rise of Britain's American colonies and the rapid 18th-century expansion of the Atlantic slave trade had made Bristol an important international sea port, and Teach was most likely raised in what was then the second-largest city in England.", "He could almost certainly read and write.", "He communicated with merchants and when killed had in his possession a letter addressed to him by the Chief Justice and Secretary of the Province of Carolina, Tobias Knight.", "Author Robert Lee speculated that Teach may therefore have been born into a respectable, wealthy family.", "He may have arrived in the Caribbean in the last years of the 17th century, on a merchant vessel (possibly a slave ship).", "The 18th-century author Charles Johnson claimed that Teach was for some time a sailor operating from Jamaica on privateer ships during the War of the Spanish Succession, and that \"he had often distinguished himself for his uncommon boldness and personal courage.\"", "It is unknown at what point during the war Teach joined the fighting, as with the record of most of his life before he became a pirate." ], [ "Life as a pirate", "===New Providence===Edward Teach (Black Beard), ''Walking the plank'', from the \"Pirates of the Spanish\" series (N19), cigarette card by Allen & GinterWith its history of colonialism, trade and piracy, the West Indies was the setting for many 17th- and 18th-century maritime incidents.", "The privateer-turned-pirate Henry Jennings and his followers decided, early in the 18th century, to use the uninhabited island of New Providence as a base for their operations since it was within easy reach of the Florida Strait and its busy shipping lanes, which were filled with European vessels crossing the Atlantic.", "New Providence's harbour could easily accommodate hundreds of ships but was too shallow for the Royal Navy's larger vessels.", "The author George Woodbury described New Providence as \"no city of homes.", "It was a place of temporary sojourn and refreshment for a literally floating population,\" continuing, \"The only permanent residents were the piratical camp followers, the traders, and the hangers-on.", "All others were transient.\"", "In New Providence, pirates found a welcome respite from the law.Teach was one of those who came to enjoy the island's benefits.", "Probably shortly after the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, he moved there from Jamaica, and, along with most privateers once involved in the war, became involved in piracy.", "Possibly about 1716, he joined the crew of Captain Benjamin Hornigold, a renowned pirate who operated from New Providence's safe waters.", "In 1716, Hornigold placed Teach in charge of a sloop he had taken as a prize.", "In early 1717, Hornigold and Teach, each captaining a sloop, set out for the mainland.", "They captured a boat carrying 120 barrels of flour out of Havana, and shortly thereafter took 100 barrels of wine from a sloop out of Bermuda.", "A few days later they stopped a vessel sailing from Madeira to Charles Town, South Carolina.", "Teach and his quartermaster, William Howard, may at this time have struggled to control their crews.", "By then they had probably developed a taste for Madeira wine, and on 29 September near Cape Charles all they took from the ''Betty'' of Virginia was her cargo of Madeira, before they scuttled her with the remaining cargo.It was during this cruise with Hornigold that the earliest known report of Teach was made, in which he is recorded as a pirate in his own right, in command of a large crew.", "In a report made by a Captain Mathew Munthe on an anti-piracy patrol for North Carolina, \"Thatch\" was described as operating \"a sloop 6 and about 70 men.\"", "In September, Teach and Hornigold encountered Stede Bonnet, a landowner and military officer from a wealthy family who had turned to piracy earlier that year.", "Bonnet's crew of about 70 were reportedly dissatisfied with his command, so with Bonnet's permission, Teach took control of his ship, ''Revenge.''", "The pirates' flotilla now consisted of three ships: Teach on ''Revenge,'' Teach's old sloop, and Hornigold's ''Ranger.''", "By October, another vessel had been captured and added to the small fleet.", "The sloops ''Robert'' of Philadelphia and ''Good Intent'' of Dublin were stopped on 22 October 1717 and their cargo holds emptied.As a former British privateer, Hornigold attacked only his old enemies, but for his crew, the sight of British vessels filled with valuable cargo passing by unharmed became too much, and at some point toward the end of 1717 he was demoted.", "Whether Teach had any involvement in this decision is unknown, but Hornigold quickly retired from piracy.", "He took ''Ranger'' and one of the sloops, leaving Teach with ''Revenge'' and the remaining sloop.", "The two never met again and, as did many other occupants of New Providence, Hornigold accepted the King's pardon.===Blackbeard===On 28 November 1717 Teach's two ships attacked a French merchant vessel off the coast of Saint Vincent.", "They each fired a broadside across its bulwarks, killing several of its crew, and forcing its captain to surrender.", "The ship was , a large French Guineaman registered in Saint-Malo and carrying a cargo of slaves.", "This ship had originally been the English merchantman ''Concord'', captured in 1711 by a French squadron, and then changed hands several times by 1717.Teach and his crews sailed the vessel south along Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to Bequia, where they disembarked her crew and cargo, and converted the ship for their own use.", "The crew of were given the smaller of Teach's two sloops, which they renamed (\"Bad Meeting\"), and sailed for Martinique.", "Teach may have recruited some of their slaves, but the remainder were left on the island and were later recaptured by the returning crew of .Teach immediately renamed as ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' and equipped her with 40 guns.", "By this time Teach had placed his lieutenant Richards in command of Bonnet's ''Revenge''.", "In late November, near Saint Vincent, he attacked the ''Great Allen''.", "After a lengthy engagement, he forced the large and well-armed merchant ship to surrender.", "He ordered her to move closer to the shore, disembarked her crew and emptied her cargo holds, and then burned and sank the vessel.", "The incident was chronicled in the ''Boston News-Letter'', which called Teach the commander of a \"French ship of 32 Guns, a Briganteen of 10 guns and a Sloop of 12 guns.\"", "It is not known when or where Teach collected the ten-gun briganteen, but by that time he may have been in command of at least 150 men split among three vessels.On 5 December 1717 Teach stopped the merchant sloop ''Margaret'' off the coast of Crab Island, near Anguilla.", "Her captain, Henry Bostock, and crew, remained Teach's prisoners for about eight hours, and were forced to watch as their sloop was ransacked.", "Bostock, who had been held aboard ''Queen Anne's Revenge'', was returned unharmed to ''Margaret'' and was allowed to leave with his crew.", "He returned to his base of operations on Saint Christopher Island and reported the matter to Governor Walter Hamilton, who requested that he sign an affidavit about the encounter.", "Bostock's deposition details Teach's command of two vessels: a sloop and a large French guineaman, Dutch-built, with 36 cannons and a crew of 300 men.", "The captain believed that the larger ship carried valuable gold dust, silver plate, and \"a very fine cup\" supposedly taken from the commander of ''Great Allen''.", "Teach's crew had apparently informed Bostock that they had destroyed several other vessels, and that they intended to sail to Hispaniola and lie in wait for an expected Spanish armada, supposedly laden with money to pay the garrisons.", "Bostock also claimed that Teach had questioned him about the movements of local ships, but also that he had seemed unsurprised when Bostock told him of an expected royal pardon from London for all pirates.Bostock's deposition describes Teach as a \"tall spare man with a very black beard which he wore very long\".", "It is the first recorded account of Teach's appearance and is the source of his nickname Blackbeard.", "Later descriptions mention that his thick black beard was braided into pigtails, sometimes tied in with small coloured ribbons.", "Johnson (1724) described him as \"such a figure that imagination cannot form an idea of a fury from hell to look more frightful.\"", "Whether Johnson's description was entirely truthful or embellished is unclear, but it seems likely that Teach understood the value of appearances; better to strike fear into the heart of one's enemies than rely on bluster alone.", "Teach was tall, with broad shoulders.", "He wore knee-length boots and dark clothing, topped with a wide hat and sometimes a long coat of brightly coloured silk or velvet.", "Johnson also described Teach in times of battle as wearing \"a sling over his shoulders, with three brace of pistols, hanging in holsters like bandoliers; and stuck lighted slow matches under his hat\", the latter apparently to emphasise the fearsome appearance he wished to present to his enemies.", "Despite his ferocious reputation, there are no verified accounts of his ever having murdered or harmed those he held captive.", "Teach may have used other aliases; on 30 November, the ''Monserrat Merchant'' encountered two ships and a sloop, commanded by a Captain Kentish and Captain Edwards (the latter a known alias of Stede Bonnet).===Enlargement of Teach's fleet===Teach's movements between late 1717 and early 1718 are not known.", "He and Bonnet were probably responsible for an attack off Sint Eustatius in December 1717.Henry Bostock claimed to have heard the pirates say they would head toward the Spanish-controlled Samaná Bay in Hispaniola, but a cursory search revealed no pirate activity.", "Captain Hume of reported on 6 February that a \"Pyrate Ship of 36 Guns and 250 men, and a Sloop of 10 Guns and 100 men were Said to be Cruizing amongst the Leeward Islands\".", "Hume reinforced his crew with soldiers armed with muskets, and joined up with to track the two ships, to no avail, though they discovered that the two ships had sunk a French vessel off St Christopher Island, and reported also that they had last been seen \"gone down the North side of Hispaniola\".", "Although no confirmation exists that these two ships were controlled by Teach and Bonnet, author Angus Konstam believes it very likely they were.In March 1718, while taking on water at Turneffe Island east of Belize, both ships spotted the Jamaican logwood-cutting sloop ''Adventure'' making for the harbour.", "She was stopped and her captain, Harriot, invited to join the pirates.", "Harriot and his crew accepted the invitation, and Teach sent over a crew to sail ''Adventure'' making Israel Hands the captain.", "They sailed for the Bay of Honduras, where they added another ship and four sloops to their flotilla.", "On 9 April Teach's enlarged fleet of ships looted and burnt ''Protestant Caesar''.", "His fleet then sailed to Grand Cayman where they captured a \"small turtler\".", "Teach probably sailed toward Havana, where he may have captured a small Spanish vessel that had left the Cuban port.", "They then sailed to the wrecks of the 1715 Spanish fleet, off the eastern coast of Florida.", "There Teach disembarked the crew of the captured Spanish sloop, before proceeding north to the port of Charles Town, South Carolina, attacking three vessels along the way.===Blockade of Charles Town===By May 1718, Teach had awarded himself the rank of Commodore and was at the height of his power.", "Late that month his flotilla blockaded the port of Charles Town in the Province of South Carolina.", "All vessels entering or leaving the port were stopped, and as the town had no guard ship, its pilot boat was the first to be captured.", "Over the next five or six days about nine vessels were stopped and ransacked as they attempted to sail past Charles Town Bar, where Teach's fleet was anchored.", "One such ship, headed for London with a group of prominent Charles Town citizens which included Samuel Wragg (a member of the Council of the Province of Carolina), was the ''Crowley''.", "Her passengers were questioned about the vessels still in port and then locked below decks for about half a day.", "Teach informed the prisoners that his fleet required medical supplies from the colonial government of South Carolina, and that if none were forthcoming, all prisoners would be executed, their heads sent to the Governor and all captured ships burnt.Wragg agreed to Teach's demands, and a Mr. Marks and two pirates were given two days to collect the drugs.", "Teach moved his fleet, and the captured ships, to within about five or six leagues from land.", "Three days later a messenger, sent by Marks, returned to the fleet; Marks's boat had capsized and delayed their arrival in Charles Town.", "Teach granted a reprieve of two days, but still the party did not return.", "He then called a meeting of his fellow sailors and moved eight ships into the harbour, causing panic within the town.", "When Marks finally returned to the fleet, he explained what had happened.", "On his arrival he had presented the pirates' demands to the Governor and the drugs had been quickly gathered, but the two pirates sent to escort him had proved difficult to find; they had been busy drinking with friends and were finally discovered, drunk.Teach kept to his side of the bargain and released the captured ships and his prisoners—albeit relieved of their valuables, including the fine clothing some had worn.===Beaufort Inlet===Whilst at Charles Town, Teach learned that Woodes Rogers had left England with several men-of-war, with orders to purge the West Indies of pirates.", "Teach's flotilla sailed northward along the Atlantic coast and into Topsail Inlet (commonly known as Beaufort Inlet), off the coast of North Carolina.", "There they intended to careen their ships to scrape their hulls, but on 10 June 1718 the ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' ran aground on a sandbar, cracking her main-mast and severely damaging many of her timbers.", "Teach ordered several sloops to throw ropes across the flagship in an attempt to free her.", "A sloop commanded by Israel Hands of ''Adventure'' also ran aground, and both vessels appeared to be damaged beyond repair, leaving only ''Revenge'' and the captured Spanish sloop.===Pardon===Teach had at some stage learnt of the offer of a royal pardon and probably confided in Bonnet his willingness to accept it.", "The pardon was open to all pirates who surrendered on or before 5 September 1718, but contained a caveat stipulating that immunity was offered only against crimes committed before 5 January.", "Although in theory this left Bonnet and Teach at risk of being hanged for their actions at Charles Town Bar, most authorities could waive such conditions.", "Teach thought that Governor Charles Eden was a man he could trust, but to make sure, he waited to see what would happen to another captain.", "Bonnet left immediately on a small sailing boat for Bath Town, where he surrendered to Governor Eden, and received his pardon.", "He then travelled back to Beaufort Inlet to collect the ''Revenge'' and the remainder of his crew, intending to sail to Saint Thomas Island to receive a commission.", "Unfortunately for him, Teach had stripped the vessel of its valuables and provisions, and had marooned its crew; Bonnet set out for revenge, but was unable to find him.", "He and his crew returned to piracy and were captured on 27 September 1718 at the mouth of the Cape Fear River.", "All but four were tried and hanged in Charles Town.The author Robert Lee surmised that Teach and Hands intentionally ran the ships aground to reduce the fleet's crew complement, increasing their share of the spoils.", "During the trial of Bonnet's crew, ''Revenge''s boatswain Ignatius Pell testified that \"the ship was run ashore and lost, which Thatch Teach caused to be done.\"", "Lee considers it plausible that Teach let Bonnet in on his plan to accept a pardon from Governor Eden.", "He suggested that Bonnet do the same, and as war between the Quadruple Alliance of 1718 and Spain was threatening, to consider taking a privateer's commission from England.", "Lee suggests that Teach also offered Bonnet the return of his ship ''Revenge''.", "Konstam (2007) proposes a similar idea, explaining that Teach began to see ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' as something of a liability; while a pirate fleet was anchored, news of this was sent to neighbouring towns and colonies, and any vessels nearby would delay sailing.", "It was prudent therefore for Teach not to linger for too long, although wrecking the ship was an extreme measure.A map of the area around Ocracoke Inlet, 1775Before sailing northward on his remaining sloop to Ocracoke Inlet, Teach marooned about 25 men on a small sandy island about 5 km from the mainland.", "He may have done this to stifle any protest they made, if they guessed their captain's plans.", "Bonnet rescued them two days later.", "Teach continued on to Bath, where in June 1718—only days after Bonnet had departed with his pardon—he and his much-reduced crew received their pardon from Governor Eden.He settled in Bath, on the eastern side of Bath Creek at Plum Point, near Eden's home.", "During July and August he travelled between his base in the town and his sloop off Ocracoke.", "Johnson's account states that he married the daughter of a local plantation owner, although there is no supporting evidence for this.", "Eden gave Teach permission to sail to St Thomas to seek a commission as a privateer (a useful way of removing bored and troublesome pirates from the small settlement), and Teach was given official title to his remaining sloop, which he renamed ''Adventure''.", "By the end of August he had returned to piracy, and in the same month the governor of Pennsylvania issued a warrant for his arrest, but by then Teach was probably operating in Delaware Bay, some distance away.", "He took two French ships leaving the Caribbean, moved one crew across to the other, and sailed the remaining ship back to Ocracoke.", "In September he told Eden that he had found the French ship at sea, deserted.", "A Vice Admiralty Court was quickly convened, presided over by Tobias Knight and the Collector of Customs.", "The ship was judged as a derelict found at sea, and of its cargo twenty hogsheads of sugar were awarded to Knight and sixty to Eden; Teach and his crew were given what remained in the vessel's hold.Ocracoke Inlet was Teach's favourite anchorage.", "It was a perfect vantage point from which to view ships travelling between the various settlements of northeast Carolina, and it was from there that Teach first spotted the approaching ship of Charles Vane, another English pirate.", "Several months earlier Vane had rejected the pardon brought by Woodes Rogers and escaped the men-of-war the English captain brought with him to Nassau.", "He had also been pursued by Teach's old commander, Benjamin Hornigold, who was by then a pirate hunter.", "Teach and Vane spent several nights on the southern tip of Ocracoke Island, accompanied by such notorious figures as Israel Hands, Robert Deal and Calico Jack.===Alexander Spotswood===As it spread throughout the neighbouring colonies, the news of Teach and Vane's impromptu party worried the governor of Pennsylvania enough to send out two sloops to capture the pirates.", "They were unsuccessful, but Governor of Virginia Alexander Spotswood was also concerned that the supposedly retired freebooter and his crew were living in nearby North Carolina.", "Some of Teach's former crew had already moved into several Virginian seaport towns, prompting Spotswood to issue a proclamation on 10 July, requiring all former pirates to make themselves known to the authorities, to give up their arms and to not travel in groups larger than three.", "As head of a Crown colony, Spotswood viewed the proprietary colony of North Carolina with contempt; he had little faith in the ability of the Carolinians to control the pirates, who he suspected would be back to their old ways, disrupting Virginian commerce, as soon as their money ran out.A contemporary model of ''Queen Anne's Revenge'', displayed in the North Carolina Museum of History.Spotswood learned that William Howard, the former quartermaster of ''Queen Anne's Revenge'', was in the area, and believing that he might know of Teach's whereabouts had him and his two slaves arrested.", "Spotswood had no legal authority to have pirates tried, and as a result, Howard's attorney, John Holloway, brought charges against Captain Brand of , where Howard was imprisoned.", "He also sued on Howard's behalf for damages of £500, claiming wrongful arrest.Spotswood's council claimed that under a statute of William III the governor was entitled to try pirates without a jury in times of crisis and that Teach's presence was a crisis.", "The charges against Howard referred to several acts of piracy supposedly committed after the pardon's cut-off date, in \"a sloop belonging to ye subjects of the King of Spain\", but ignored the fact that they took place outside Spotswood's jurisdiction and in a vessel then legally owned.", "Another charge cited two attacks, one of which was the capture of a slave ship off Charles Town Bar, from which one of Howard's slaves was presumed to have come.", "Howard was sent to await trial before a Court of Vice-Admiralty, on the charge of piracy, but Brand and his colleague, Captain Gordon (of ) refused to serve with Holloway present.", "Incensed, Holloway had no option but to stand down, and was replaced by the Attorney General of Virginia, John Clayton, whom Spotswood described as \"an honester man than Holloway\".", "Howard was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged, but was saved by a commission from London, which directed Spotswood to pardon all acts of piracy committed by surrendering pirates before 18 August 1718.Spotswood had obtained from Howard valuable information on Teach's whereabouts, and he planned to send his forces across the border into North Carolina to capture him.", "He gained the support of two men keen to discredit North Carolina's governor—Edward Moseley and Colonel Maurice Moore.", "He also wrote to the Lords of Trade, suggesting that the Crown might benefit financially from Teach's capture.", "Spotswood personally financed the operation, possibly believing that Teach had fabulous treasures hidden away.", "He ordered Captains Gordon and Brand of HMS ''Pearl'' and HMS ''Lyme'' to travel overland to Bath.", "Lieutenant Robert Maynard of HMS ''Pearl'' was given command of two commandeered sloops, to approach the town from the sea.", "An extra incentive for Teach's capture was the offer of a reward from the Assembly of Virginia, over and above any that might be received from the Crown.Maynard took command of the two armed sloops on 17 November.", "He was given 57 men—33 from HMS ''Pearl'' and 24 from HMS ''Lyme''.", "Maynard and the detachment from HMS ''Pearl'' took the larger of the two vessels and named her ''Jane''; the rest took ''Ranger'', commanded by one of Maynard's officers, a Mister Hyde.", "Some from the two ships' civilian crews remained aboard.", "They sailed from Kecoughtan, along the James River, on 17 November.", "The two sloops moved slowly, giving Brand's force time to reach Bath.", "Brand set out for North Carolina six days later, arriving within three miles of Bath on 23 November.", "Included in Brand's force were several North Carolinians, including Colonel Moore and Captain Jeremiah Vail, sent to counter any local objection to the presence of foreign soldiers.", "Moore went into the town to see if Teach was there, reporting back that he was not, but that he was expected at \"every minute.\"", "Brand then went to Governor Eden's home and informed him of his purpose.", "The next day, Brand sent two canoes down Pamlico River to Ocracoke Inlet, to see if Teach could be seen.", "They returned two days later and reported on what eventually transpired.===Last battle===Maynard found the pirates anchored on the inner side of Ocracoke Island, on the evening of 21 November.", "He had ascertained their position from ships he had stopped along his journey, but being unfamiliar with the local channels and shoals he decided to wait until the following morning to make his attack.", "He stopped all traffic from entering the inlet—preventing any warning of his presence—and posted a lookout on both sloops to ensure that Teach could not escape to sea.", "On the other side of the island, Teach was busy entertaining guests and had not set a lookout.", "With Israel Hands ashore in Bath with about 24 of ''Adventure''s sailors, he also had a much-reduced crew.", "Johnson (1724) reported Teach had \"no more than twenty-five men on board\" and that he \"gave out to all the vessels that he spoke with that he had forty\".", "\"Thirteen white and six Negroes\", was the number later reported by Brand to the Admiralty.At daybreak, preceded by a small boat taking soundings, Maynard's two sloops entered the channel.", "The small craft was quickly spotted by ''Adventure'' and fired at as soon as it was within range of her guns.", "While the boat made a quick retreat to the ''Jane'', Teach cut the ''Adventure''s anchor cable.", "His crew hoisted the sails and the ''Adventure'' manoeuvred to point her starboard guns toward Maynard's sloops, which were slowly closing the gap.", "Hyde moved ''Ranger'' to the port side of ''Jane'' and the Union flag was unfurled on each ship.", "''Adventure'' then turned toward the beach of Ocracoke Island, heading for a narrow channel.", "What happened next is uncertain.", "Johnson claimed that there was an exchange of small arms fire following which ''Adventure'' ran aground on a sandbar, and Maynard anchored and then lightened his ship to pass over the obstacle.", "Another version claimed that ''Jane'' and ''Ranger'' ran aground, although Maynard made no mention of this in his log.The ''Adventure'' eventually turned her guns on the two ships and fired.", "The broadside was devastating; in an instant, Maynard had lost as much as a third of his forces.", "About 20 on ''Jane'' were either wounded or killed and 9 on ''Ranger''.", "Hyde was dead and his second and third officers either dead or seriously injured.", "His sloop was so badly damaged that it played no further role in the attack.", "Contemporary accounts of what happened next are confused, but small-arms fire from ''Jane'' may have cut ''Adventure''s jib sheet, causing her to lose control and run onto the sandbar.", "In the aftermath of Teach's overwhelming attack, ''Jane'' and ''Ranger'' may also have been grounded; the battle would have become a race to see who could float their ship first.", "''Capture of the Pirate, Blackbeard, 1718'', Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, painted in 1920Maynard had kept many of his men below deck, and in anticipation of being boarded told them to prepare for close fighting.", "Teach watched as the gap between the vessels closed, and ordered his men to be ready.", "The two vessels contacted one another as the ''Adventure''s grappling hooks hit their target and several grenades, made from powder and shot-filled bottles and ignited by fuses, broke across the sloop's deck.", "As the smoke cleared, Teach led his men aboard, buoyant at the sight of Maynard's apparently empty ship, his men firing at the small group of men with Maynard at the stern.The rest of Maynard's men then burst from the hold, shouting and firing.", "The plan to surprise Teach and his crew worked; the pirates were apparently taken aback at the assault.", "Teach rallied his men and the two groups fought across the deck, which was already slick with blood from those killed or injured by Teach's broadside.", "Maynard and Teach fired their flintlocks at each other.", "Maynard managed to hit Teach, while Teach missed.", "Both then threw their flintlocks away and drew their cutlasses.", "Teach broke Maynard's cutlass at the hilt.", "Against superior training and a slight advantage in numbers, the pirates were pushed back toward the bow, allowing the ''Jane''s crew to surround Maynard and Teach, who was by then completely isolated.", "Teach pressed onward and was about to deliver a killing blow, but was slashed across the neck by one of Maynard's men.", "This redirected Teach's cutlass to strike Maynard's knuckles instead of killing him.", "Badly wounded, Teach was then attacked and killed by several more of Maynard's crew.", "The remaining pirates quickly surrendered.", "Those left on the ''Adventure'' were captured by the ''Ranger''s crew, including one who planned to set fire to the powder room and blow up the ship.", "Varying accounts exist of the battle's list of casualties; Maynard reported that 8 of his men and 12 pirates were killed.", "Brand reported that 10 pirates and 11 of Maynard's men were killed.", "Spotswood claimed ten pirates and ten of the King's men dead.Edward Teach's severed head hangs from Maynard's bowsprit, as pictured in Charles Elles's ''The Pirates Own Book'' (1837)Maynard later examined Teach's body, noting that it had been shot five times and cut about twenty.", "He also found several items of correspondence, including a letter from Tobias Knight.", "Teach's corpse was thrown into the inlet and his head was suspended from the bowsprit of Maynard's sloop so that the reward could be collected.", "On their return to Virginia, Teach's head was placed on a pole at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay as a warning to other pirates and a greeting to other ships, and it stood there for several years." ], [ "Legacy", "Lieutenant Maynard remained at Ocracoke for several more days, making repairs and burying the dead.", "Teach's loot—sugar, cocoa, indigo and cotton—found \"in pirate sloops and ashore in a tent where the sloops lay\", was sold at auction along with sugar and cotton found in Tobias Knight's barn, for £2,238.Governor Spotswood used a portion of this to pay for the entire operation.", "The prize money for capturing Teach was to have been about £400 (£ in ), but it was split between the crews of HMS ''Lyme'' and HMS ''Pearl''.", "As Captain Brand and his troops had not been the ones fighting for their lives, Maynard thought this extremely unfair.", "He lost much of any support he might have had though when it was discovered that he and his crew had helped themselves to about £90 of Teach's booty.", "The two companies did not receive their prize money for another four years, and despite his bravery Maynard was not promoted, and faded into obscurity.The remainder of Teach's crew and former associates were found by Brand, in Bath, and were transported to Williamsburg, Virginia, where they were jailed on charges of piracy.", "Several were black, prompting Spotswood to ask his council what could be done about \"the Circumstances of these Negroes to exempt them from undergoing the same Tryal as other pirates.\"", "Regardless, the men were tried with their comrades in Williamsburg's Capitol building, under admiralty law, on 12 March 1719.No records of the day's proceedings remain, but 14 of the 16 accused were found guilty.", "Of the remaining two, one proved that he had partaken of the fight out of necessity, having been on Teach's ship only as a guest at a drinking party the night before, and not as a pirate.", "The other, Israel Hands, was not present at the fight.", "He claimed that during a drinking session Teach had shot him in the knee, and that he was still covered by the royal pardon.", "The remaining pirates were hanged, then left to rot in gibbets along Williamsburg's Capitol Landing Road (known for some time after as \"Gallows Road\").Governor Eden was certainly embarrassed by Spotswood's invasion of North Carolina, and Spotswood disavowed himself of any part of the seizure.", "He defended his actions, writing to Lord Carteret, a shareholder of the Province of Carolina, that he might benefit from the sale of the seized property and reminding the Earl of the number of Virginians who had died to protect his interests.", "He argued for the secrecy of the operation by suggesting that Eden \"could contribute nothing to the Success of the Design\", and told Eden that his authority to capture the pirates came from the king.", "Eden was heavily criticised for his involvement with Teach and was accused of being his accomplice.", "By criticising Eden, Spotswood intended to bolster the legitimacy of his invasion.", "Lee (1974) concludes that although Spotswood may have thought that the ends justified the means, he had no legal authority to invade North Carolina, to capture the pirates and to seize and auction their goods.", "Eden doubtless shared the same view.", "As Spotswood had also accused Tobias Knight of being in league with Teach, on 4 April 1719, Eden had Knight brought in for questioning.", "Israel Hands had, weeks earlier, testified that Knight had been on board the ''Adventure'' in August 1718, shortly after Teach had brought a French ship to North Carolina as a prize.", "Four pirates had testified that with Teach they had visited Knight's home to give him presents.", "This testimony and the letter found on Teach's body by Maynard appeared compelling, but Knight conducted his defence with competence.", "Despite being very sick and close to death, he questioned the reliability of Spotswood's witnesses.", "He claimed that Israel Hands had talked under duress, and that under North Carolinian law the other witness, an African, was unable to testify.", "The sugar, he argued, was stored at his house legally, and Teach had visited him only on business, in his official capacity.", "The board found Knight innocent of all charges.", "He died later that year.Eden was annoyed that the accusations against Knight arose during a trial in which he played no part.", "The goods which Brand seized were officially North Carolinian property and Eden considered him a thief.", "The argument raged back and forth between the colonies until Eden's death on 17 March 1722.His will named one of Spotswood's opponents, John Holloway, a beneficiary.", "In the same year, Spotswood, who for years had fought his enemies in the House of Burgesses and the Council, was replaced by Hugh Drysdale, once Robert Walpole was convinced to act." ], [ "Modern view", "Official views on pirates were sometimes quite different from those held by contemporary authors, who often described their subjects as despicable rogues of the sea.", "Privateers who became pirates were generally considered by the English government to be reserve naval forces, and were sometimes given active encouragement; as far back as 1581 Francis Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth, when he returned to England from a round-the-world expedition with plunder worth an estimated £1,500,000.Royal pardons were regularly issued, usually when England was on the verge of war, and the public's opinion of pirates was often favourable, some considering them akin to patrons.", "Economist Peter Leeson believes that pirates were generally shrewd businessmen, far removed from the modern, romanticised view of them as barbarians.", "After Woodes Rogers' 1718 landing at New Providence and his ending of the pirate republic, piracy in the West Indies fell into terminal decline.", "With no easily accessible outlet to fence their stolen goods, pirates were reduced to a subsistence livelihood, and following almost a century of naval warfare between the British, French and Spanish—during which sailors could find easy employment—lone privateers found themselves outnumbered by the powerful ships employed by the British Empire to defend its merchant fleets.", "The popularity of the slave trade helped bring to an end the frontier condition of the West Indies, and in these circumstances, piracy was no longer able to flourish as it once did.Since the end of the Golden Age of Piracy, Teach and his exploits have become the stuff of lore, inspiring books, films and even amusement park rides.", "Much of what is known about him can be sourced to Charles Johnson's ''A General Historie of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates'', published in Britain in 1724.A recognised authority on the pirates of his time, Johnson's descriptions of such figures as Anne Bonny and Mary Read were for years required reading for those interested in the subject.", "Readers were titillated by his stories and a second edition was quickly published, though author Angus Konstam suspects that Johnson's entry on Blackbeard was \"coloured a little to make a more sensational story.\"", "''A General Historie'', though, is generally considered to be a reliable source.", "Johnson may have been an assumed alias.", "As Johnson's accounts have been corroborated in personal and official dispatches, Lee (1974) considers that whoever he was, he had some access to official correspondence.", "Konstam speculates further, suggesting that Johnson may have been the English playwright Charles Johnson, the British publisher Charles Rivington, or the writer Daniel Defoe.", "In his 1951 work ''The Great Days of Piracy'', author George Woodbury wrote that Johnson is \"obviously a pseudonym\", continuing \"one cannot help suspecting that he may have been a pirate himself.", "\"flag which is commonly attributed to Blackbeard (pictured), depicting a horned skeleton spearing a heart, while toasting the devil, was probably never actually used by him.", "Despite his infamy, Teach was not the most successful of pirates.", "Henry Every retired a rich man, and Bartholomew Roberts took an estimated five times the amount Teach stole.", "Treasure hunters have long busied themselves searching for any trace of his rumoured hoard of gold and silver, but nothing found in the numerous sites explored along the east coast of the US has ever been connected to him.", "Some tales suggest that pirates often killed a prisoner on the spot where they buried their loot, and Teach is no exception in these stories, but that no finds have come to light is not exceptional; buried pirate treasure is often considered a modern myth for which almost no supporting evidence exists.", "The available records include nothing to suggest that the burial of treasure was a common practice, except in the imaginations of the writers of fictional accounts such as ''Treasure Island''.", "Such hoards would necessitate a wealthy owner, and their supposed existence ignores the command structure of a pirate vessel, in which the crew served for a share of the profit.", "The only pirate ever known to bury treasure was William Kidd; the only treasure so far recovered from Teach's exploits is that taken from the wreckage of what is presumed to be the ''Queen Anne's Revenge'', which was found in 1996.As of 2009 more than 250,000 artefacts had been recovered.", "A selection is on public display at the North Carolina Maritime Museum.Various superstitious tales exist of Teach's ghost.", "Unexplained lights at sea are often referred to as \"Teach's light\", and some recitals claim that the notorious pirate now roams the afterlife searching for his head, for fear that his friends, and the Devil, will not recognise him.", "A North Carolinian tale holds that Teach's skull was used as the basis for a silver drinking chalice; a local judge even claimed to have drunk from it one night in the 1930s.The name of Blackbeard has been attached to many local attractions, such as Charleston's Blackbeard's Cove.", "His name and persona have also featured heavily in literature.", "He is the main subject of Matilda Douglas's fictional 1835 work ''Blackbeard: A page from the colonial history of Philadelphia''.Film renditions of his life include ''Blackbeard the Pirate'' (1952) starring West Country native Robert Newton whose exaggerated West Country accent is credited with popularising the stereotypical \"pirate voice\", ''Blackbeard's Ghost'' (1968), ''Blackbeard: Terror at Sea'' (2005) and the 2006 Hallmark Channel miniseries ''Blackbeard''.", "Parallels have also been drawn between Johnson's Blackbeard and the character of Captain Jack Sparrow in the 2003 adventure film ''Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl''.", "Blackbeard is also portrayed as a central character in three TV series: by John Malkovich in ''Crossbones'' (2014), by Ray Stevenson in seasons three and four of ''Black Sails'' (2016–2017), and by Taika Waititi in ''Our Flag Means Death'' (2022).In 2013 and 2015, the state government of North Carolina uploaded Nautilus Productions videos of the wreck of the ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' to its website without permission.", "As a result, Nautilus Productions, the company documenting the recovery since 1998, filed suit in federal court over copyright violations and the passage of \"Blackbeard's Law\" by the North Carolina General Assembly.", "Before posting the videos the General Assembly passed \"Blackbeard's Law\", N.C. Gen Stat §121-25(b), which stated, \"All photographs, video recordings, or other documentary materials of a derelict vessel or shipwreck or its contents, relics, artifacts, or historic materials in the custody of any agency of North Carolina government or its subdivisions shall be a public record pursuant to Chapter 132 of the General Statutes.\"", "On 5 November 2019, the U.S. Supreme Court heard oral arguments in ''Allen v. Cooper''.", "The Supreme Court subsequently ruled in the state's favor, and struck down the Copyright Remedy Clarification Act, which Congress passed in 1989 to attempt to curb such infringements of copyright by states.As a result of the ruling Nautilus filed a motion for reconsideration in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina.", "On August 18, 2021 Judge Terrence Boyle granted the motion for reconsideration which North Carolina promptly appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.", "The 4th Circuit denied the state's motion on October 14, 2022.Nautilus then filed their second amended complaint on February 8, 2023 alleging 5th and 14th Amendment violations of Nautilus' constitutional rights, additional copyright violations, and claiming that North Carolina's \"Blackbeard's Law\" represents a Bill of Attainder.", "Eight years after the passage of Blackbeard's Law, on June 30, 2023, North Carolina Gov.", "Roy Cooper signed a bill repealing the law." ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* * * * ** 2006 edition ()* ** 1974 edition ()* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* N.C Supreme Court revives lawsuit over Blackbeard’s ship and lost Spanish treasure ship, ''Fayetteville Observer''* BBC Video about the potential discovery of Teach's ship* Images of artefacts recovered from the shipwreck thought to be the ''Queen Anne's Revenge''* Out to Sea ''Elite Magazine''* Blackbeard's Ship Confirmed off North Carolina ''National Geographic'' News* Blackbeard's Shipwreck ''National Geographic''* Blackbeard's Lost Ship Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead* Blackbeard: American Patriot?", "Military.com" ] ]

[ [ "Bugzilla" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bugzilla''' is a web-based general-purpose bug tracking system and testing tool originally developed and used by the Mozilla project, and licensed under the Mozilla Public License.Released as open-source software by Netscape Communications in 1998, it has been adopted by a variety of organizations for use as a bug tracking system for both free and open-source software and proprietary projects and products.", "Bugzilla is used, among others, by the Mozilla Foundation, WebKit, Linux kernel, FreeBSD, KDE, Apache, Eclipse and LibreOffice.", "Red Hat uses it, but is gradually migrating its product to use Jira.", "It is also self-hosting." ], [ "History", "Bugzilla was originally devised by Terry Weissman in 1998 for the nascent Mozilla.org project, as an open source application to replace the in-house system then in use at Netscape Communications for tracking defects in the Netscape Communicator suite.", "Bugzilla was originally written in Tcl, but Weissman decided to port it to Perl before its release as part of Netscape's early open-source code drops, in the hope that more people would be able to contribute to it, given that Perl seemed to be a more popular language at the time.Bugzilla 2.0 was the result of that port to Perl, and the first version was released to the public via anonymous CVS.", "In April 2000, Weissman handed over control of the Bugzilla project to Tara Hernandez.", "Under her leadership, some of the regular contributors were coerced into taking more responsibility, and Bugzilla development became more community-driven.", "In July 2001, facing distraction from her other responsibilities in Netscape, Hernandez handed control to Dave Miller, who was still in charge .Bugzilla 3.0 was released on May 10, 2007 and brought a refreshed UI, an XML-RPC interface, custom fields and resolutions, mod_perl support, shared saved searches, and improved UTF-8 support, along with other changes.Bugzilla 4.0 was released on February 15, 2011 and Bugzilla 5.0 was released in July 2015.=== Timeline ===Bugzilla's release timeline:Define $now = 22/02/2021Define $width = 556Define $warning = 436 # 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5.0 filled bar # ################################################## bar:5.0 width:35 from:07/07/2015 till:$now color:col5.0 mark:(line,col5.0) ################################################## # 5.0 line & text for first version every year # ################################################## bar:5.0 mark:(line,col2.0-l1) align:center fontsize:S at: 07/07/2015 text:\"5.0\" shift:(0,-15) at: 16/05/2016 text:\"5.0.3\" at: 16/02/2018 text:\"5.0.4\" at: 30/01/2019 text:\"5.0.5\" ################################################## # 5.0 line for all other versions # ################################################## bar:5.0 mark:(line,col2.0-l2) at: 10/09/2015 # 5.0.1 at: 22/12/2015 # 5.0.2 at: 09/02/2019 # 5.0.6TextData = fontsize:S textcolor:lighttext pos:($warning, 80) text:Updated on $now." ], [ "Requirements", "Bugzilla's system requirements include:* A compatible database management system* A suitable release of Perl 5* An assortment of Perl modules* A compatible web server* A suitable mail transfer agent, or any SMTP serverCurrently supported database systems are MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, and SQLite.", "Bugzilla is usually installed on Linux using the Apache HTTP Server, but any web server that supports CGI such as Lighttpd, Hiawatha, Cherokee can be used.", "Bugzilla's installation process is command line driven and runs through a series of stages where system requirements and software capabilities are checked." ], [ "Design", "The life cycle of a Bugzilla bugWhile the potential exists in the code to turn Bugzilla into a technical support ticket system, task management tool, or project management tool, Bugzilla's developers have chosen to focus on the task of designing a system to track software defects." ], [ "Zarro Boogs", "Bugzilla returns the string \"zarro boogs found\" instead of \"0 bugs found\" when a search for bugs returns no results.", "\"Zarro Boogs\" is intended as a 'buggy' statement itself (a misspelling of \"zero bugs\") and is thus a meta-statement about the nature of software debugging, implying that even when no bugs have been identified, some may exist.The following comment is provided in the Bugzilla source code to developers who may be confused by this behaviour::'''''Zarro Boogs Found''''':This is just a goofy way of saying that there were no bugs found matching your query.", "When asked to explain this message, Terry Weissman (an early Bugzilla developer) had the following to say::I've been asked to explain this ... way back when, when Netscape released version 4.0 of its browser, we had a release party.", "Naturally, there had been a big push to try and fix every known bug before the release.", "Naturally, that hadn't actually happened.", "(This is not unique to Netscape or to 4.0; the same thing has happened with every software project I've ever seen.)", "Anyway, at the release party, T-shirts were handed out that said something like \"Netscape 4.0: Zarro Boogs\".", "Just like the software, the T-shirt had no known bugs.", "Uh-huh.", "So, when you query for a list of bugs, and it gets no results, you can think of this as a friendly reminder.", "Of *course* there are bugs matching your query, they just aren't in the bugsystem yet...:— Terry Weissman:''From The Bugzilla Guide – 2.16.10 Release: Glossary''" ], [ "WONTFIX", "WONTFIX is used as a label on issues in Bugzilla and other systems.", "It indicates that a verified issue will not be addressed for one of several possible reasons including fixing would be too expensive, complicated or risky." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of issue-tracking systems* List of computing mascots* :Category:Computing mascots" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bangor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bangor''' or '''City of Bangor''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===Australia===* Bangor, New South Wales* Bangor, Tasmania===Canada===* Bangor, Nova Scotia* Bangor, Saskatchewan* Bangor, Prince Edward Island===United Kingdom=======Northern Ireland====* Bangor, County Down**Bangor railway station (Northern Ireland)** Bangor (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency), Bangor's former constituency in the Parliament of Northern Ireland** Bangor (Parliament of Ireland constituency), Bangor's former constituency in the Parliament of Ireland** Bangor (civil parish)====Wales====* Bangor, Gwynedd** Bangor railway station (Wales)* Bangor-on-Dee ( or ), Wrexham* Bangor Teifi, Ceredigion* Capel Bangor, Ceredigion===United States===* Bangor, Alabama* Bangor, California* Bangor, Iowa* Bangor, Maine** Bangor Air National Guard Base** Bangor International Airport* Bangor, Michigan** Bangor (Amtrak station)* Bangor Township, Van Buren County, Michigan* Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan* Bangor, New York* Bangor, Pennsylvania* Bangor Base, Washington* Bangor, Wisconsin, a village* Bangor (town), Wisconsin* Bangor Township (disambiguation)===Elsewhere===* Bangor Erris, County Mayo, Ireland* Bangor, Morbihan, Britanny, France" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "* ''Bangor Daily News'', Bangor, Maine, US* Bangor FM, County Down" ], [ "Sports", "* Bangor City F.C., a football club in Bangor, Gwynedd* Bangor 1876 F.C., a football club in Bangor, Gwynedd* Bangor F.C., a football club in Bangor, County Down* Bangor RFC, rugby union team of Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales" ], [ "Transportation", "* Bangor and Aroostook Railroad, Maine, US*Bangor International Airport, Maine, US*Bangor railway station (Northern Ireland)*Bangor railway station (Wales)*Bangor station (Michigan), US* , a Great Lakes shipwreck* City of Bangor, a US airline with the ICAO code XBG; see Airline codes-C" ], [ "Other uses", "* Bangor Cathedral, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales* Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales* Bishop of Bangor, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales" ], [ "See also", "* Bagnor, a hamlet in England* Banger (disambiguation)* Bangor City Council, Gwynedd, Wales* Bangor City Forest, Maine, US* Bangor Mall, Maine, US* Bangor Mountain, Gwynedd, Wales* ''The Bangor Aye'', an independent online news service for Gwynedd, Wales* The Beatles in Bangor, the 1967 attendance by the band The Beatles at a transcendental meditation seminar in Bangor, Wales* *" ] ]

[ [ "Ballad" ], [ "Introduction", "Maria Wiik, ''Ballad'' (1898)A '''ballad''' is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music.", "Ballads derive from the medieval French ''chanson balladée'' or ''ballade'', which were originally \"dance songs\".", "Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of Britain and Ireland from the Late Middle Ages until the 19th century.", "They were widely used across Europe, and later in Australia, North Africa, North America and South America.", "While ballads have no prescribed structure and may vary in their number of lines and stanzas, many ballads employ quatrains with ABCB or ABAB rhyme schemes, the key being a rhymed second and fourth line.", "Contrary to a popular conception, it is rare if not unheard-of for a ballad to contain exactly 13 lines.", "Additionally, couplets rarely appear in ballads.Many ballads were written and sold as single-sheet broadsides.", "The form was often used by poets and composers from the 18th century onwards to produce lyrical ballads.", "In the later 19th century, the term took on the meaning of a slow form of popular love song and is often used for any love song, particularly the sentimental ballad of pop or rock music, although the term is also associated with the concept of a stylized storytelling song or poem, particularly when used as a title for other media such as a film." ], [ "Origins", "A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music.", "Ballads derive from the medieval French ''chanson balladée'' or ''ballade'', which were originally \"dancing songs\" (L: ''ballare'', to dance), yet becoming \"stylized forms of solo song\" before being adopted in England.", "As a narrative song, their theme and function may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of storytelling that can be seen in poems such as ''Beowulf''.", "Musically they were influenced by the Minnelieder of the Minnesang tradition.", "The earliest example of a recognizable ballad in form in England is \"Judas\" in a 13th-century manuscript." ], [ "Ballad form", "A sixteenth-century printed ballad, the A Gest of Robyn HodeBallads were originally written to accompany dances, and so were composed in couplets with refrains in alternate lines.", "These refrains would have been sung by the dancers in time with the dance.", "Most northern and west European ballads are written in ballad stanzas or quatrains (four-line stanzas) of alternating lines of iambic (an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable) tetrameter (eight syllables) and iambic trimeter (six syllables), known as ballad meter.", "Usually, only the second and fourth line of a quatrain are rhymed (in the scheme a, b, c, b), which has been taken to suggest that, originally, ballads consisted of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables.", "This can be seen in this stanza from \"Lord Thomas and Fair Annet\":The '''horse''' | fair '''Ann''' | et '''rode''' | up'''on''' |He '''amb''' | led '''like''' | the '''wind''' |,With '''sil''' | ver '''he''' | was '''shod''' | be'''fore''',With '''burn''' | ing '''gold''' | be'''hind''' |.There is considerable variation on this pattern in almost every respect, including length, number of lines and rhyming scheme, making the strict definition of a ballad extremely difficult.", "In southern and eastern Europe, and in countries that derive their tradition from them, ballad structure differs significantly, like Spanish ''romanceros'', which are octosyllabic and use consonance rather than rhyme.Ballads usually are heavily influenced by the regions in which they originate and use the common dialect of the people.", "Scotland's ballads in particular, both in theme and language, are strongly characterised by their distinctive tradition, even exhibiting some pre-Christian influences in the inclusion of supernatural elements such as travel to the Fairy Kingdom in the Scots ballad \"Tam Lin\".", "The ballads do not have any known author or correct version; instead, having been passed down mainly by oral tradition since the Middle Ages, there are many variations of each.", "The ballads remained an oral tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the 18th century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy (1729–1811) to publish volumes of popular ballads.In all traditions most ballads are narrative in nature, with a self-contained story, often concise, and rely on imagery, rather than description, which can be tragic, historical, romantic or comic.", "Themes concerning rural labourers and their sexuality are common, and there are many ballads based on the Robin Hood legend.", "Another common feature of ballads is repetition, sometimes of fourth lines in succeeding stanzas, as a refrain, sometimes of third and fourth lines of a stanza and sometimes of entire stanzas." ], [ "Composition", "Scholars of ballads have been divided into \"communalists\", such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) and the Brothers Grimm, who argue that ballads are originally communal compositions, and \"individualists\" such as Cecil Sharp, who assert that there was one single original author.", "Communalists tend to see more recent, particularly printed, broadside ballads of known authorship as a debased form of the genre, while individualists see variants as corruptions of an original text.", "More recently scholars have pointed to the interchange of oral and written forms of the ballad." ], [ "Transmission", "Walter Scott's ''Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border''The transmission of ballads comprises a key stage in their re-composition.", "In romantic terms this process is often dramatized as a narrative of degeneration away from the pure 'folk memory' or 'immemorial tradition'.", "In the introduction to ''Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border'' (1802) the romantic poet and historical novelist Walter Scott argued a need to 'remove obvious corruptions' in order to attempt to restore a supposed original.", "For Scott, the process of multiple recitations 'incurs the risk of impertinent interpolations from the conceit of one rehearser, unintelligible blunders from the stupidity of another, and omissions equally to be regretted, from the want of memory of a third.'", "Similarly, John Robert Moore noted 'a natural tendency to oblivescence'." ], [ "Classification", "European Ballads have been generally classified into three major groups: traditional, broadside and literary.", "In America a distinction is drawn between ballads that are versions of European, particularly British and Irish songs, and 'Native American ballads', developed without reference to earlier songs.", "A further development was the evolution of the blues ballad, which mixed the genre with Afro-American music.", "For the late 20th century the music publishing industry found a market for what are often termed sentimental ballads, and these are the origin of the modern use of the term 'ballad' to mean a slow love song.===Traditional ballads===Illustration by Arthur Rackham of the Scots ballad \"The Twa Corbies\"The traditional, classical or popular (meaning of the people) ballad has been seen as beginning with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe.", "From the end of the 15th century there are printed ballads that suggest a rich tradition of popular music.", "A reference in William Langland's ''Piers Plowman'' indicates that ballads about Robin Hood were being sung from at least the late 14th century and the oldest detailed material is Wynkyn de Worde's collection of Robin Hood ballads printed about 1495.Early collections of English ballads were made by Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) and in the Roxburghe Ballads collected by Robert Harley, (1661–1724), which paralleled the work in Scotland by Walter Scott and Robert Burns.", "Inspired by his reading as a teenager of ''Reliques of Ancient English Poetry'' by Thomas Percy, Scott began collecting ballads while he attended Edinburgh University in the 1790s.", "He published his research from 1802 to 1803 in a three-volume work, ''Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border''.", "Burns collaborated with James Johnson on the multi-volume ''Scots Musical Museum'', a miscellany of folk songs and poetry with original work by Burns.", "Around the same time, he worked with George Thompson on ''A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs for the Voice''.Both Northern English and Southern Scots shared in the identified tradition of Border ballads, particularly evinced by the cross-border narrative in versions of \"The Ballad of Chevy Chase\" sometimes associated with the Lancashire-born sixteenth-century minstrel Richard Sheale.Illustration by Arthur Rackham to ''Young Bekie.", "''It has been suggested that the increasing interest in traditional popular ballads during the eighteenth century was prompted by social issues such as the enclosure movement as many of the ballads deal with themes concerning rural laborers.", "James Davey has suggested that the common themes of sailing and naval battles may also have prompted the use (at least in England) of popular ballads as naval recruitment tools.Key work on the traditional ballad was undertaken in the late 19th century in Denmark by Svend Grundtvig and for England and Scotland by the Harvard professor Francis James Child.", "They attempted to record and classify all the known ballads and variants in their chosen regions.", "Since Child died before writing a commentary on his work it is uncertain exactly how and why he differentiated the 305 ballads printed that would be published as ''The English and Scottish Popular Ballads''.", "There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are the religious, supernatural, tragic, love ballads, historic, legendary and humorous.", "The traditional form and content of the ballad were modified to form the basis for twenty-three bawdy pornographic ballads that appeared in the underground Victorian magazine ''The Pearl'', which ran for eighteen issues between 1879 and 1880.Unlike the traditional ballad, these obscene ballads aggressively mocked sentimental nostalgia and local lore.===Broadsides===An 18th-century broadside ballad: ''The tragical ballad: or, the lady who fell in love with her serving-man''.Broadside ballads (also known as 'broadsheet', 'stall', 'vulgar' or 'come all ye' ballads) were a product of the development of cheap print in the 16th century.", "They were generally printed on one side of a medium to large sheet of poor quality paper.", "In the first half of the 17th century, they were printed in black-letter or gothic type and included multiple, eye-catching illustrations, a popular tune title, as well as an alluring poem.", "By the 18th century, they were printed in white letter or roman type and often without much decoration (as well as tune title).", "These later sheets could include many individual songs, which would be cut apart and sold individually as \"slip songs.\"", "Alternatively, they might be folded to make small cheap books or \"chapbooks\" which often drew on ballad stories.", "They were produced in huge numbers, with over 400,000 being sold in England annually by the 1660s.", "Tessa Watt estimates the number of copies sold may have been in the millions.", "Many were sold by travelling chapmen in city streets or at fairs.", "The subject matter varied from what has been defined as the traditional ballad, although many traditional ballads were printed as broadsides.", "Among the topics were love, marriage, religion, drinking-songs, legends, and early journalism, which included disasters, political events and signs, wonders and prodigies.===Literary ballads===Literary or lyrical ballads grew out of an increasing interest in the ballad form among social elites and intellectuals, particularly in the Romantic movement from the later 18th century.", "Respected literary figures Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland collected and wrote their own ballads.", "Similarly in England William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge produced a collection of ''Lyrical Ballads'' in 1798 that included Coleridge's ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner''.", "Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Keats were attracted to the simple and natural style of these folk ballads and tried to imitate it.", "At the same time in Germany Goethe cooperated with Schiller on a series of ballads, some of which were later set to music by Schubert.", "Later important examples of the poetic form included Rudyard Kipling's \"Barrack-Room Ballads\" (1892-6) and Oscar Wilde's ''The Ballad of Reading Gaol'' (1897)." ], [ "Ballad operas", "Painting based on ''The Beggar's Opera'', Act III Scene 2, William Hogarth, In the 18th century ballad operas developed as a form of English stage entertainment, partly in opposition to the Italian domination of the London operatic scene.", "It consisted of racy and often satirical spoken (English) dialogue, interspersed with songs that are deliberately kept very short to minimize disruptions to the flow of the story.", "Rather than the more aristocratic themes and music of the Italian opera, the ballad operas were set to the music of popular folk songs and dealt with lower-class characters.", "Subject matter involved the lower, often criminal, orders, and typically showed a suspension (or inversion) of the high moral values of the Italian opera of the period.The first, most important and successful was ''The Beggar's Opera'' of 1728, with a libretto by John Gay and music arranged by John Christopher Pepusch, both of whom probably influenced by Parisian vaudeville and the burlesques and musical plays of Thomas d'Urfey (1653–1723), a number of whose collected ballads they used in their work.", "Gay produced further works in this style, including a sequel under the title ''Polly''.", "Henry Fielding, Colley Cibber, Arne, Dibdin, Arnold, Shield, Jackson of Exeter, Hook and many others produced ballad operas that enjoyed great popularity.", "Ballad opera was attempted in America and Prussia.", "Later it moved into a more pastoral form, like Isaac Bickerstaffe's ''Love in a Village'' (1763) and Shield's ''Rosina'' (1781), using more original music that imitated, rather than reproduced, existing ballads.", "Although the form declined in popularity towards the end of the 18th century its influence can be seen in light operas like that of Gilbert and Sullivan's early works like ''The Sorcerer'' as well as in the modern musical.In the 20th century, one of the most influential plays, Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht's (1928) ''The Threepenny Opera'' was a reworking of ''The Beggar's Opera'', setting a similar story with the same characters, and containing much of the same satirical bite, but only using one tune from the original.", "The term ballad opera has also been used to describe musicals using folk music, such as ''The Martins and the Coys'' in 1944, and Peter Bellamy's ''The Transports'' in 1977.The satiric elements of ballad opera can be seen in some modern musicals such as ''Chicago'' and ''Cabaret''." ], [ "Beyond Europe", "===American ballads===John Henry outside the town of Talcott in Summers County, West VirginiaSome 300 ballads sung in North America have been identified as having origins in Scottish traditional or broadside ballads.", "Examples include 'The Streets of Laredo', which was found in Britain and Ireland as 'The Unfortunate Rake'; however, a further 400 have been identified as originating in America, including among the best known, 'The Ballad of Davy Crockett' and 'Jesse James'.", "They became an increasing area of interest for scholars in the 19th century and most were recorded or catalogued by George Malcolm Laws, although some have since been found to have British origins and additional songs have since been collected.", "They are usually considered closest in form to British broadside ballads and in terms of style are largely indistinguishable, however, they demonstrate a particular concern with occupations, journalistic style and often lack the ribaldry of British broadside ballads.===Blues ballads===The blues ballad has been seen as a fusion of Anglo-American and Afro-American styles of music from the 19th century.", "Blues ballads tend to deal with active protagonists, often anti-heroes, resisting adversity and authority, but frequently lacking a strong narrative and emphasising character instead.", "They were often accompanied by banjo and guitar which followed the blues musical format.", "The most famous blues ballads include those about John Henry and Casey Jones.===Bush ballads===Cover to Banjo Paterson's seminal 1905 collection of bush ballads, entitled ''The Old Bush Songs''The ballad was taken to Australia by early settlers from Britain and Ireland and gained particular foothold in the rural outback.", "The rhyming songs, poems and tales written in the form of ballads often relate to the itinerant and rebellious spirit of Australia in The Bush, and the authors and performers are often referred to as bush bards.", "The 19th century was the golden age of bush ballads.", "Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia.", "The songs tell personal stories of life in the wide open country of Australia.", "Typical subjects include mining, raising and droving cattle, sheep shearing, wanderings, war stories, the 1891 Australian shearers' strike, class conflicts between the landless working class and the squatters (landowners), and outlaws such as Ned Kelly, as well as love interests and more modern fare such as trucking.", "The most famous bush ballad is \"Waltzing Matilda\", which has been called \"the unofficial national anthem of Australia\"." ], [ "Sentimental ballads", "Sentimental ballads, sometimes called \"tear-jerkers\" or \"drawing-room ballads\" owing to their popularity with the middle classes, had their origins in the early \"Tin Pan Alley\" music industry of the later 19th century.", "They were generally sentimental, narrative, strophic songs published separately or as part of an opera (descendants perhaps of broadside ballads, but with printed music, and usually newly composed).", "Such songs include \"Little Rosewood Casket\" (1870), \"After the Ball\" (1892) and \"Danny Boy\".", "The association with sentimentality led to the term \"ballad\" being used for slow love songs from the 1950s onwards.", "Modern variations include \"jazz ballads\", \"pop ballads\", \"rock ballads\", \"R&B ballads\" and \"power ballads\"." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References and further reading", "* Dugaw, Dianne.", "''Deep Play: John Gay and the Invention of Modernity''.", "Newark, Del.", ": University of Delaware Press, 2001.Print.", "* * Randel, Don (1986).", "''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", ".", "* * Winton, Calhoun.", "''John Gay and the London Theatre''.", "Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993.Print.", "* * Marcello Sorce Keller, \"Sul castel di mirabel: Life of a Ballad in Oral Tradition and Choral Practice\", Ethnomusicology, XXX(1986), no.", "3, 449- 469." ], [ "External links", "* The British Literary Ballads Archive* The Bodleian Library Ballad Collection: view facsimiles of printed ballads* The English Broadside Ballad Archive: searchable database of ballad images, citations, and recordings* Welsh Ballads resource guide* The Traditional Ballad Index* Black-letter Broadside Ballads Of The years 1595-1639 From the Collection of Samuel Pepys* Smithsonian Global Sound: The Music of Poetry—audio samples of poems, hymns and songs in ballad meter.", "* The Oxford Book of Ballads, complete 1910 book by Arthur Quiller-Couch* English Broadside Ballad Archive—an archive of images and recordings of over 4,000 pre-1700 broadside ballads*" ] ]

[ [ "Blue Öyster Cult" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blue Öyster Cult''' ( ; sometimes abbreviated '''BÖC''' or '''BOC''') is an American rock band formed on Long Island in Stony Brook, New York, in 1967.The band has sold 25 million records worldwide, including 7 million in the United States.", "The band's fusion of hard rock with psychedelia, and penchant for occult, fantastical and tongue-in-cheek lyrics, had a major influence on heavy metal music.", "They developed a cult following and, while achieving mainstream hits like \"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\" (1976) and \"Burnin' for You\" (1981), their commercial success was limited.", "Both songs, and others such as \"Godzilla\" (1977), remain classic rock radio staples.", "The band were early adopters of the music video format, and their videos received heavy rotation on MTV in its early period.Blue Öyster Cult's longest-lasting and the most commercially successful lineup included Donald \"Buck Dharma\" Roeser (lead guitar, vocals), Eric Bloom (lead vocals, \"stun guitar\", keyboards, synthesizer), Allen Lanier (keyboards, rhythm guitar), Joe Bouchard (bass, vocals, keyboards), and Albert Bouchard (drums, percussion, vocals, miscellaneous instruments).", "The band's current lineup still includes Bloom and Roeser, in addition to Danny Miranda (bass, backing vocals), Richie Castellano (keyboards, rhythm guitar, backing vocals), and Jules Radino (drums, percussion).", "The duo of the band's manager Sandy Pearlman and rock critic Richard Meltzer, who also met at Stony Brook University, played a key role in writing many of the band’s lyrics." ], [ "History", "===Early years as Soft White Underbelly (1967–1971)===Blue Öyster Cult was formed in 1967 as Soft White Underbelly (a name the group would occasionally use in the 1970s and 1980s to play small club gigs around the United States and UK) in a communal house at Stony Brook University on Long Island when rock critic Sandy Pearlman overheard a jam session consisting of fellow Stony Brook classmate Donald Roeser and his friends.", "Pearlman offered to become the band's manager and creative partner, to which the band agreed.", "The band's original lineup consisted of guitarist Roeser, drummer Albert Bouchard, keyboardist Allen Lanier, singers Jeff Kagel (aka Krishna Das) and Les Braunstein and bassist Andrew Winters.In October 1967, the band made their debut performance as Steve Noonan's backing band at the Stony Brook University Gymnasium, a gig booked by Pearlman.", "The band's name came from Winston Churchill's description of Italy as \"the soft underbelly of the Axis.", "\"Pearlman was important to the band – he was able to get them gigs and recording contracts with Elektra and Columbia, and he provided them with his poetry for use as lyrics for many of their songs, including \"Astronomy.\"", "Writer Richard Meltzer, also a Stony Brook University student, provided the band with lyrics from their early days up through their most recent studio album.", "In 1968, the band moved in together at their first house in the Thomaston area of Great Neck, New York.", "The band recorded an album's worth of material for Elektra Records in 1968.Braunstein played his final show as Soft White Underbelly's lead singer in the spring of 1969.His departure led Elektra to shelve the album recorded with him on vocals.Eric Bloom was hired by the band as their acoustic engineer.", "He eventually replaced Braunstein as lead singer through a series unlikely coincidences, one being Lanier deciding to join Bloom on a drive to an upstate gig, where he spent the night with Bloom's old college bandmates and got to hear old tapes of Bloom's talent as lead vocalist.1) Being their amp salesperson at Sam Ash,2) Telling one person where he was staying in NYC and getting the soundboard job offer, and3) An upstate roadtrip which Lanier decided to join and got to hear Bloom's old band tapes as lead vocalist.", "Because of this, Bloom was offered the job of lead singer for Soft White Underbelly.However, a bad review of a 1969 Fillmore East show caused Pearlman to change the name of the band – first to Oaxaca, then to the Stalk-Forrest Group.", "Pearlman also gave stage names to each of the band members (Jesse Python for Eric Bloom, Andy Panda for Andy Winters, Prince Omega for Albert Bouchard, La Verne for Allen Lanier) but only Buck Dharma kept his.", "The band recorded yet another album's worth of material for Elektra, but only one single (\"What Is Quicksand?\"", "b/w \"Arthur Comics\") was released (and only in a promo edition of 300 copies) on Elektra Records (this album was eventually released, with additional outtakes, by Rhino Handmade Records as ''St.", "Cecilia: The Elektra Recordings'' in 2001).", "The album featured Bloom as their main lead singer, but Roeser also sang lead on a few songs, a pattern of sharing lead vocals that has continued throughout the band's career.", "With Bloom, Soft White Underbelly/Stalk-Forrest Group became one of Stony Brook University's \"house bands,\" popular on campus.After a few more temporary band names, including the Santos Sisters, the band settled on Blue Öyster Cult in 1971 (see below for its origin).New York City producer/composer and jingle writer David Lucas saw the band perform and took them into his Warehouse Recording Studio and produced four demos, with which Pearlman was able to get the renamed band another audition with Columbia Records.", "Clive Davis liked what he heard, and signed the band to the label.", "The first album was subsequently produced and recorded by Lucas on eight-track at Lucas' studio.", "Winters would leave the band and be replaced by Bouchard's brother, Joe Bouchard.===Black-and-white years (1971–1975)===''Billboard'' ad, 1974Their debut album ''Blue Öyster Cult'' was released in January 1972, with a black-and-white cover designed by artist Bill Gawlik.", "The album featured the songs \"Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll\", \"Stairway to the Stars\", and \"Then Came the Last Days of May\".", "By this time, the band's sound had become more oriented toward hard rock, but songs like \"She's As Beautiful As a Foot\" and \"Redeemed\" also showed a strong element of the band's psychedelic roots.", "Pearlman wanted the group to be the American answer to Black Sabbath.", "All of the band members except for Allen Lanier sang lead, a pattern that would continue on many subsequent albums, although lead singer Eric Bloom sang the majority of the songs.", "The album sold well, and Blue Öyster Cult toured with artists such as the Byrds, Mahavishnu Orchestra and Alice Cooper.", "As the band toured, its sound became heavier and more direct.Their next album ''Tyranny and Mutation'', released in 1973, was written while the band was on tour for their first LP.", "It contained songs such as \"The Red and the Black\" (an ode to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and a rewrite of \"I'm on the Lamb But I Ain't No Sheep\" from their debut album, and also a reference to the novel of the same name by Stendhal), \"Hot Rails to Hell\" and \"Baby Ice Dog\", the first of the band's many collaborations with Patti Smith.", "It featured a harder-rocking approach than before, although the band's songs were also growing more complex.", "The album outsold its predecessor, a trend that would continue with their next few albums.The band's third album, ''Secret Treaties'' (1974) received positive reviews, featuring songs such as \"Career of Evil\" (co-written by Patti Smith), \"Dominance and Submission\" and \"Astronomy\".", "As a result of constant touring, the band was now capable of headlining shows.", "The album continued their upward sales trend, and would eventually go gold.As the three albums during this formative period all had black-and-white covers, the period of their career has been dubbed the 'black and white years' by fans and critics.===Commercial success (1975–1981)===The band's first live album ''On Your Feet or on Your Knees'' (1975) achieved greater success and went gold.", "Its success gave the band more time to work on a follow-up.", "The band members were able to purchase home recording equipment to record demos for their next album.Their next studio album, ''Agents of Fortune'' (1976), was their first to go platinum and was again produced by David Lucas.", "It contained the hit single \"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\", which reached number 12 on the Billboard charts and has become a classic of the hard rock genre.", "Other major songs on the album were \"(This Ain't) The Summer of Love\", \"E.T.I.", "(Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence)\" and \"The Revenge of Vera Gemini\".", "Having recorded demos of the songs at home before recording the album, the band's songwriting process had become more individual, with none of the songs featuring the collaborative writing between the band members that had been common on their earlier albums.", "Although the album still featured their trademark hard rock with sinister lyrics, the songs had become more conventional in structure, and the production was more polished.", "For the first and only time, the album featured lead vocals from all five band members, with Allen Lanier singing lead on the song \"True Confessions.\"", "With Albert Bouchard singing lead on three songs and Joe Bouchard and Donald Roeser singing lead on one each, Eric Bloom ended up taking the lead on only four of the album's ten songs.For the tour, the band added lasers to their light show, for which they became known.", "They were among the first acts to use lasers in performance.Their next album, ''Spectres'' (1977), had the FM radio hit \"Godzilla,\" and would become one of the band's better-selling albums, with other well-known songs like \"I Love the Night\" and \"Goin' Through the Motions\".", "However, its sales were not as strong as those for the previous album, going gold but not platinum, becoming their first album to sell less than its predecessor.", "It featured even more polished production, and continued the trend of the lead vocals extensively shared between members, although Allen Lanier did not sing lead.", "As with the previous album, Eric Bloom sang lead on fewer than half the songs.The band then released another live album, ''Some Enchanted Evening'' (1978).", "Although it was intended as another double-live album in the vein of ''On Your Feet or on Your Knees'', Columbia insisted that it be edited down to single-album length.", "It was a resounding commercial success, becoming Blue Öyster Cult's most popular album and eventually selling over two million copies.", "It also revealed that while the band's studio work was becoming increasingly well-produced, they were still very much a hard rock band on stage.Donald \"Buck Dharma\" Roeser (bottom); Eric Bloom; Albert Bouchard; Allen Lanier; Joe BouchardIt was followed by the studio album ''Mirrors'' (1979).", "For ''Mirrors'', instead of working with previous producers Sandy Pearlman (who instead went on to manage Black Sabbath) and Murray Krugman, Blue Öyster Cult chose Tom Werman, who had worked with acts such as Cheap Trick and Ted Nugent.", "It featured the band's glossiest production to date.", "It also gave Roeser, the lead vocalist on the band's biggest hits, bigger prominence as a vocalist, singing lead on four of the nine songs.", "However, the resulting album sales were disappointing.Pearlman's association with Black Sabbath led to Sabbath's ''Heaven and Hell'' producer Martin Birch being hired for the next Blue Öyster Cult record.", "The album found the band returning to their hard rock roots, and although both of the Bouchard brothers and guitarist Roeser all got lead vocal turns, Bloom would sing the majority of the tracks.", "The result was positive, with ''Cultösaurus Erectus'' (1980) receiving good reviews.", "The album went to number 12 in the United Kingdom, but did not do as well in the United States.", "The song \"Black Blade\", which was written by Bloom with lyrics by science fiction and fantasy author Michael Moorcock, is a kind of retelling of Moorcock's epic Elric of Melniboné saga.", "The band also did a co-headlining tour with Black Sabbath in support of the album, calling the tour \"Black and Blue\".Birch produced the band's next album as well, ''Fire of Unknown Origin'' (1981), which peaked at number 24 on the ''Billboard'' 200, becoming the band's highest-charting album.", "The biggest hit on this album was the Top 40 hit \"Burnin' for You,\" a song Roeser had written with a Richard Meltzer lyric.", "He had intended to use it on his solo album, ''Flat Out'' (1982), but he was convinced to use it on the Blue Öyster Cult album instead.", "The revival of the band's heavier sound continued, albeit with fairly heavy use of synthesizers and some noticeable New Wave influence on a few tracks.", "It contained other fan favorites such as \"Joan Crawford\" (inspired by the book and film ''Mommie Dearest'') and \"Veteran of the Psychic Wars\", another song co-written by Moorcock.", "Several of the songs had been written for the animated film ''Heavy Metal'', but only \"Veteran of the Psychic Wars\" (which had not been written for ''Heavy Metal'') was actually used in the movie.", "The album marked a strong commercial resurgence for the band and achieved gold status, their first studio album since ''Spectres'' to do so.During the tour for ''Fire of Unknown Origin'', Albert Bouchard had a falling out with the others and left the band, and Rick Downey (formerly the band's lighting designer) replaced him on drums.", "This marked the end of the band's original and best-known lineup.===1980s: Declining popularity===After leaving the band, Albert Bouchard spent five years working on a solo album based on Sandy Pearlman's poem \"Imaginos\".", "Blue Öyster Cult also released a third live album ''Extraterrestrial Live''.The band then went to the studio for the next album, ''The Revölution by Night'' (1983), with Bruce Fairbairn as producer.", "After two albums of a return to a harder rocking sound, the band adopted a more radio-friendly, AOR-oriented sound with Fairbairn providing a 1980s-style production.", "This approach met with some success, especially on its highest-charting single, Roeser's \"Shooting Shark\", co-written by Patti Smith and featuring Randy Jackson on bass, which reached number 83 on the charts.", "Bloom's \"Take Me Away\" achieved some FM radio play.", "However, the album didn't match sales of its predecessor, failed to achieve gold status, and marked the beginning of the band's second commercial decline.", "After touring for ''Revölution'', Rick Downey left, leaving Blue Öyster Cult without a drummer.Blue Öyster Cult re-united with Albert Bouchard for a California tour in February 1985, infamously known as the 'Albert Returns' Tour.", "This arrangement was only temporary and caused more tensions between the band and Bouchard, since he had thought he would be staying on permanently, which was not the case.", "The band had intended to use him only as a fill-in until another drummer could come on board, which resulted in Bouchard's leaving after the tour.", "Allen Lanier also quit the band shortly thereafter, leaving them without a keyboardist and with only three remaining original members.", "This incarnation of the band would sometimes be referred to as '3ÖC' by fans, which is a pun on the number of original members left.Blue Öyster Cult hired drummer Jimmy Wilcox and keyboardist Tommy Zvoncheck to finish the album ''Club Ninja'', which was poorly received, with only \"Dancin' in the Ruins,\" one of several songs on the record written entirely by outside songwriters, enjoying minimal success on radio and MTV.", "The best-known original on the album is \"Perfect Water\" written by Dharma and Jim Carroll (noted author of ''The Basketball Diaries'').", "While the band members have generally been disparaging about the album in retrospect, Joe Bouchard has stated that \"Perfect Water\" is \"perfect genius\".The band toured in Germany, after which bassist Bouchard left, leaving only two members of the classic lineup: Eric Bloom and Donald Roeser.", "Some people referred to the band as \"Two Öyster Cult\" during this period.", "Jon Rogers was hired to replace Joe and this version of the band finished out the 1986 tour.", "After it wound up that year, the band took a temporary break from recording and touring.", "When Blue Öyster Cult received an offer to tour in Greece in the early summer of 1987, the band reformed.", "Wilcox quit while Zvoncheck was fired for making excessive financial demands.", "Allen Lanier then was offered to rejoin and agreed, so the new line-up now featured three founding members, along with Jon Rogers returning on bass and Ron Riddle as their newest drummer.Columbia Records was not interested in releasing the ''Imaginos'' project as an Albert Bouchard solo album so it was arranged for the record to be released in 1988 by Columbia as a Blue Öyster Cult album, with some new lead vocal overdubs from Bloom and Roeser and lead guitar overdubs from Roeser.", "These replaced most of Albert Bouchard's lead vocals, as well as many lead guitar parts that had been recorded by session musicians.", "Joe Bouchard and Allen Lanier had earlier contributed some minor keyboard and backing vocal parts to the album, allowing all five original members to be credited.", "The album didn't sell well (despite a positive review in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine) and although the then-current Blue Öyster Cult lineup (minus both Bouchard brothers) toured to promote ''Imaginos'', promotion by the label was virtually non-existent.", "When Columbia Records' parent company CBS Records was purchased by Sony and became Sony Music Entertainment, Blue Öyster Cult were dropped from the label.=== 1990s and early 2000s ===Blue Öyster Cult live in 2006The band spent the next 11 years touring without releasing an album of new material, although they did contribute two new songs to the ''Bad Channels'' movie soundtrack, released in 1992, and also released an album of re-recorded songs from the band's original lineup, called ''Cult Classic'', in 1994.During these years, while the three original members remained constant, there were several changes in the band's rhythm section.", "Ron Riddle quit in 1991 and was followed by a series of other drummers includingChuck Burgi (1991–1992, 1992–1995, 1996–1997), John Miceli (1992, 1995), John O'Reilly (1995–1996) and Bobby Rondinelli (1997–2004).", "As for the bass position, Rogers left in 1995, and was replaced by Danny Miranda.In the late 1990s, Blue Öyster Cult secured a recording contract with CMC Records (later purchased by Sanctuary Records), and continued to tour frequently.", "Two studio albums were released, ''Heaven Forbid'' (1998) and ''Curse of the Hidden Mirror'' (2001).", "Both albums featured songs co-written by cyberpunk/horror novelist John Shirley.", "The first mostly featured Miranda on bass and Burgi on drums, although a few tracks feature earlier bassist Jon Rogers and one track features Rondinelli on drums, who had joined the band near the end of the recording.", "''Curse of the Hidden Mirror'' features Miranda and Rondinelli as the rhythm section, and the pair contributed to the songwriting as well.", "Neither album sold well.Another live record and DVD ''A Long Day's Night'' followed in 2002, both drawn from one concert in Chicago.", "This album also featured the Bloom, Roeser, Lanier, Miranda, Rondinelli lineup.Although the band's lineup had remained stable from 1997 to 2004, they began to experience personnel changes again in 2004.Rondinelli left in 2004, and was replaced by Jules Radino.", "Miranda left during the same year to become the bassist for Queen + Paul Rodgers in place of the retired John Deacon.", "He was replaced by Richie Castellano, who would also take occasional turns as a lead vocalist onstage.In 2001, Sony/Columbia's reissue arm, Legacy Records issued expanded versions of the first four Blue Öyster Cult studio albums, including some previously unreleased demos and outtakes from album sessions, live recordings (from the ''Live 72'' EP), and post-''St.", "Cecilia'' tunes from the Stalk-Forrest Group era.=== Late 2000s and 2010s ===Blue Öyster Cult performing at the Sweden Rock Festival, 2008Allen Lanier retired from live performances in 2007 after not appearing with the band since late 2006.Castellano switched to rhythm guitar and keyboards (Castellano also filled in on lead guitar and vocals for an ailing Buck Dharma in two shows in 2005), and the position of bassist was taken up by Rudy Sarzo (previously a member of Quiet Riot, Whitesnake, Ozzy Osbourne and Dio), with the band employing Danny Miranda and Jon Rogers as guest bassists to fill in when Sarzo was unavailable.", "Sarzo then joined as an official member of the band, although Rogers continued to occasionally fill in when Sarzo was busy.In February 2007, the Sony Legacy remaster series continued, releasing expanded versions of studio album ''Spectres'' and live album ''Some Enchanted Evening''.In June 2012, the band announced that bassist Rudy Sarzo was leaving the band and was being replaced by former Utopia bassist Kasim Sulton.In August of the same year, it was announced that Sony Legacy would be releasing a 17-disc boxed set entitled ''The Complete Columbia Albums Collection'' on October 30, 2012.The set includes the first round of the remastered series plus the long-awaited remastered versions of ''On Your Feet or on Your Knees'', ''Mirrors'', ''Cultösaurus Erectus'', ''Fire Of Unknown Origin'', ''Extraterrestrial Live'', ''The Revölution by Night'', ''Club Ninja'' and ''Imaginos''.", "Also exclusive to this set are two discs of rare and unreleased B-sides, demos and radio broadcasts.Also in 2012, celebrating the 40th anniversary of Blue Öyster Cult, the then-current incarnation of the band reunited for the first time in 25 years with other original members Joe and Albert Bouchard and Allen Lanier as guests for a special event in New York.Founding keyboardist/guitarist Allen Lanier died of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on August 14, 2013.In 2016, Albert Bouchard played again as guest with the current line-up of the band, playing at shows in New York, Los Angeles, Dublin and London, where Blue Öyster Cult played the album ''Agents of Fortune'' in its entirety.", "The shows featured songs from ''Agents of Fortune'' that had either not been played live before (\"True Confessions\", \"The Revenge of Vera Gemini\", \"Sinful Love\", \"Tenderloin\", \"Debbie Denise\"), songs that had not been played since the album's debut tour (\"Morning Final\"), and songs that were no longer/never played frequently (\"This Ain't the Summer of Love\", \"Tattoo Vampire\"), as well as the fan favorite \"Five Guitars\", which had not been played since Albert initially left the band in 1981.Albert played in the following songs at the show: \"The Revenge of Vera Gemini\" (vocals, guitar), \"Sinful Love\" (vocals, guitar), \"Tattoo Vampire\" (guitar), \"Morning Final\" (guitar), \"Tenderloin\" (cymbals), \"Debbie Denise\" (vocals, acoustic guitar), \"Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll\" (vocals, drums), and \"Five Guitars\" (guitar).In a May 2017 appearance on Castellano's \"Band Geek\" podcast, Bloom confirmed that there were tentative plans to release a new album in 2018 and that the band was currently considering offers from multiple record labels.", "He also stated that former bassist Danny Miranda would be playing with the band for the remainder of the year due to Sulton's prior touring commitments with Todd Rundgren.", "During the same year, the band's official website started to list Miranda as an official member, stating that Miranda had \"returned to BÖC\" in early 2017.Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 2012Buck Dharma stated in February 2019 that the band would be recording a new album to be released by fall.", "On July 10, 2019, it was announced that the band had signed to Frontiers Music, and would in fact be releasing the new album in 2020.", "\"It's been a long time since BÖC's last studio album.", "Recording with Danny, Richie and Jules should be a great experience as we've been touring together for years, and Buck and I look forward to including them in the creative and recording process,\" said Bloom.", "\"The current band is GREAT and has never been recorded other than live, so we feel now's the time for new songs to be written and recorded.", "About half of the songs for the new record exist and the rest will be finished during the process,\" added Buck Dharma.", "In February 2020, Richie Castellano posted a short video to Facebook featuring himself and Eric Bloom, stating that the band were working on the new Blue Oyster Cult record remotely by using ConnectionOpen online audio collaboration tool.=== ''The Symbol Remains'' and ''Ghost Stories'' (2020–present) ===In August 2020, the band announced on their website that their fifteenth studio album ''The Symbol Remains'' would be released on October 9, 2020.The span of nineteen years between ''Curse of the Hidden Mirror'' and ''The Symbol Remains'' marks the longest gap between studio albums in Blue Öyster Cult's career.", "The album was released to a positive critical reception, with tracks such as \"Box In My Head\" and \"The Alchemist\" receiving high praise.In October 2022, during their European headlining tour, Blue Öyster Cult supported Deep Purple at five arena shows in the United Kingdom.On April 12, 2024, Blue Öyster Cult will release their sixteenth and final studio album ''Ghost Stories'', which will include both reimagined tracks and \"lost gems\" from between 1978 and 2016, as well as a studio version of their cover of MC5's \"Kick Out the Jams\"." ], [ "Musical style", "Blue Öyster Cult is usually described as a hard rock band, albeit one with their own tongue-in-cheek style.", "Their music has also been described as heavy metal, psychedelic rock, occult rock, biker boogie, acid rock, and progressive rock.", "They have also been recognized for helping pioneer genres such as stoner metal.", "The band has also experimented with additional genres on specific albums, such as on ''Mirrors''.They have acknowledged the influence of artists such as Alice Cooper, Grateful Dead, The Doors, Jefferson Airplane, MC5, The Blues Project, Jimi Hendrix, and Black Sabbath." ], [ "Lyrics", "The band have frequently collaborated with outside lyricists, although all of the original members wrote lyrics at some point, most notably Donald Roeser.", "The principal lyricists in the early days were manager Sandy Pearlman and fellow rock critic Richard Meltzer.", "Key members of the New York punk scene Patti Smith, Helen \"Wheels\" Robbins and Jim Carroll - all friends of the band - contributed from the mid-1970s.", "Later in the decade frontman Eric Bloom, a science fiction fan, recruited English author Michael Moorcock to write for the band, and later did the same with Eric Van Lustbader and John Shirley.In order to add to their mystique the band would often use out-of-context fragments of Pearlman's unpublished sci-fi poetry cycle ''The Soft Doctrines of Imaginos'' as lyrics, rendering their meaning obscure.", "Additionally, they kept a folder of Pearlman's and Meltzer's word associations to insert into their songs." ], [ "Band name and logo", "The hook-and-cross logoOne variant of the lead symbol in alchemy, also used to represent the planet Saturn in astrologyThe name \"Blue Öyster Cult\" also came from Pearlman's ''Imaginos'' cycle, explored most extensively on the 1988 album of the same name.", "Pearlman had also come up with the band's earlier name, \"Soft White Underbelly\", from a phrase used by Winston Churchill in describing Italy during World War II.", "In Pearlman's poetry, the \"Blue Oyster Cult\" is a group of aliens who had assembled secretly to guide Earth's history.", "\"Initially, the band was not happy with the name, but settled for it, and went to work preparing to record their first release...\"In a 1976 interview published in the U.K. music magazine ''ZigZag'', Pearlman claimed the origin of the band's name was as an anagram of \"Cully Stout Beer\".The addition of an umlaut was suggested by Allen Lanier, but Richard Meltzer claims to have suggested it just after Pearlman came up with the name, reportedly \"because of the Wagnerian aspect of Metal\".", "Other bands later copied the practice of using umlauts or diacritic marks in their own band names, such as Motörhead, Mötley Crüe, Queensrÿche and parodied by Spın̈al Tap.The hook-and-cross logo was designed by fellow Stony Brook student Bill Gawlik for his master's thesis in January 1972, and appears on all of the band's albums.", "In Greek mythology, \"... the hook-and-cross symbol is that of Kronos (Cronus), the king of the Titans and father of Zeus ... and is the alchemical symbol for lead (a heavy metal), one of the heaviest of metals.\"", "Sandy Pearlman considered this, along with the \"heavy\" distorted guitar sound of the band, meant that the description \"heavy metal\" would be apt for the band's sound.", "The hook-and-cross symbol also resembled the astrological symbol for Saturn, the Roman god of agriculture, and the sickle, which is associated with both Kronos (Cronus) and Saturn (both the planet and the Roman god).", "The logo's \"... metaphysical, alchemical and mythological connotations, combined with its similarity to some religious symbols gave it a flair of decadence and mystery ...\"The band was billed, for the only time, as \"''The'' Blue Öyster Cult\" on the cover and label of their second album, ''Tyranny and Mutation''." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "Blue Öyster Cult have been influential to the realm of hard rock and heavy metal, leading them to being referred to as \"the thinking man's heavy metal band\" due to their often cryptic lyrics, literate songwriting, and links to famous authors.", "They have influenced many acts including Iron Maiden, Metallica, Fates Warning, Iced Earth, Cirith Ungol, Alice in Chains, Twisted Sister, Ratt, Steel Panther, Green River (and later Mudhoney), Body Count, Possessed, Candlemass, Saint Vitus, Trouble, Opeth, White Zombie, Kvelertak, HIM, Turbonegro, Radio Birdman, The Cult, The Minutemen, Firehose, Hoodoo Gurus, Widespread Panic, Queens of the Stone Age, Umphrey's McGee, Stabbing Westward, Royal Trux, and Moe.The band's influence has extended beyond the musical sphere.", "The lyrics of \"Astronomy\" have been named by author Shawn St. Jean as inspirational to the later chapters of his fantasy novel ''Clotho's Loom'', wherein Sandy Pearlman's \"Four Winds Bar\" provides the setting for a portion of the action.", "Titles and lines from the band's songs provided structure and narrative for the third book in Robert Galbraith's (a pseudonym for J. K. Rowling), series of Cormoran Strike novels, ''Career of Evil''.Their hit single \"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\" was featured in the famous ''Saturday Night Live'' sketch \"More Cowbell\".", "The original recording was produced at The Record Plant in New York by David Lucas, who sang background vocals with Roeser, and introduced the now-famous cowbell part, which may have been played by himself, Albert Bouchard, or Eric Bloom.", "\"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\" was also used in writer/director John Carpenter's horror film classic, ''Halloween'' (1978), the opening sequence of the miniseries adaptation of ''The Stand'' (1994) by Stephen King, and covered by The Mutton Birds for Peter Jackson's horror-comedy film ''The Frighteners'' (1996).", "\"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\" was also used throughout the comedy film ''The Stoned Age'' (1994) and plays a role in its storyline.", "In the film ''Gone Girl'' (2014), the song plays on the radio during a car driving scene with actor Ben Affleck.", "The song was also used as the opening theme and main story element in the 1996 FMV computer game \"Ripper\", by Take Two Interactive, and was also featured in the 2006 game ''Prey'' and the 2021 game ''Returnal''.", "The lyrics for \"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\" are featured in the introduction of Stephen King's book ''The Stand''.", "The song was also used in Orange Is the New Black's season 2 finale.Adrian Borland's guitar style was influenced by listening to BOC records.", "https://www.toppermost.co.uk/adrian-borland/" ], [ "Members", "'''Current members'''* Buck Dharma – lead guitar, lead and backing vocals (1967–1986, 1987–present)* Eric Bloom – lead and backing vocals, \"stun guitar\", keyboards, synthesizers (1969–1986, 1987–present)* Danny Miranda – bass, backing vocals (1995–2004, 2017–present)* Richie Castellano – keyboards, rhythm guitar, additional lead guitar, backing and additional lead vocals (2007–present), bass (2004–2007)* Jules Radino – drums, percussion (2004–present)" ], [ "Discography", ";Studio albums* ''Blue Öyster Cult'' (1972)* ''Tyranny and Mutation'' (1973)* ''Secret Treaties'' (1974)* ''Agents of Fortune'' (1976)* ''Spectres'' (1977)* ''Mirrors'' (1979)* ''Cultösaurus Erectus'' (1980)* ''Fire of Unknown Origin'' (1981)* ''The Revölution by Night'' (1983)* ''Club Ninja'' (1985)* ''Imaginos'' (1988)* ''Heaven Forbid'' (1998)* ''Curse of the Hidden Mirror'' (2001)* ''The Symbol Remains'' (2020)* ''Ghost Stories'' (2024)" ], [ "Bibliography", "*''Blue Öyster Cult: Secrets Revealed!", "'', by Martin Popoff, Metal Blade Records, 207 pages (US, 2004)*''Blue Öyster Cult: La Carrière du Mal'', by Mathieu Bollon and Aurélien Lemant, Camion Blanc, 722 pages (France, 2013)*''Agents of Fortune: The Blue Öyster Cult Story'', by Martin Popoff, Wymer Publishing, 245 pages (UK, 2016)*''Blue Öyster Cult: Every Album, Every Song'', by Jacob Holm-Lupo, Sonicbond Publishing, 158 pages (UK, 2019)*''Flaming Telepaths: Imaginos Expanded and Specified'', by Martin Popoff, Power Chord Press, 200 pages (Canada, 2021)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Battery Park City" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Battery Park City''' is a mainly residential planned community and neighborhood on the west side of the southern tip of the island of Manhattan in New York City.", "It is bounded by the Hudson River on the west, the Hudson River shoreline on the north and south, and the West Side Highway on the east.", "The neighborhood is named for the Battery, formerly known as Battery Park, located directly to the south.More than one-third of the development is parkland.", "The land upon which it is built was created in the 1970s by land reclamation on the Hudson River using over of soil and rock excavated during the construction of the World Trade Center, the New York City Water Tunnel, and certain other construction projects, as well as from sand dredged from New York Harbor off Staten Island.", "The neighborhood includes Brookfield Place (formerly the World Financial Center), along with numerous buildings designed for housing, commercial, and retail.Battery Park City is part of Manhattan Community District 1.It is patrolled by the 1st Precinct of the New York City Police Department." ], [ "Geography", "Greenery at South CoveBattery Park City is bounded on the east by West Street, which separates the area from the Financial District of Lower Manhattan.", "To the west, north, and south, the area is surrounded by the Hudson River.The development consists of roughly five major sections.", "Traveling north to south, the first neighborhood has high-rise residential buildings, the Stuyvesant High School, a Regal Entertainment Group movie theater, and the Battery Park City branch of the New York Public Library.", "It is also the site of the 463-suite Conrad New York luxury hotel, which has a ballroom and a conference center.", "Other restaurants located in that hotel, as well as a DSW store and a New York Sports Club branch, were closed in 2009 after the takeover of the property by Goldman Sachs.", "Former undeveloped lots in the area have been developed into high-rise buildings; for example, Goldman Sachs built a new headquarters at 200 West Street.Nearby is Brookfield Place, a complex of several commercial buildings formerly known as the World Financial Center.Current residential neighborhoods of Battery Park City are divided into northern and southern sections, separated by Brookfield Place.", "The northern section consists entirely of large, 20–45-story buildings, all various shades of orange brick.", "The southern section, extending down from the Winter Garden, which is located in Brookfield Place, contains residential apartment buildings such as Gateway Plaza and the Rector Place apartment buildings.", "In this section lies the majority of Battery Park City's residential areas, in three sections: Gateway Plaza, a high-rise building complex; the \"Rector Place Residential Neighborhood\"; and the\" Battery Place Residential Neighborhood\".", "These subsections contain most of the area's residential buildings, along with park space, supermarkets, restaurants, and movie theaters.", "Construction of residential buildings began north of the World Financial Center in the late 1990s, and completion of the final lots took place in early 2011.Additionally, a park restoration was completed in 2013." ], [ "History", "=== Site and formation ===Construction in May 1973Throughout the 19th century and early-20th century, the area adjoining today's Battery Park City was known as Little Syria with Lebanese, Greeks, Armenians, and other ethnic groups.", "In 1929, the land was the proposed site of a $50 million (equivalent to $ million in ) residential development that would have served workers in the Wall Street area.", "The Battery Tower project was left unfinished after workers digging the foundation ran into forty feet of old bulkheads, sunken docks, and ships.", "Construction was halted and never restarted.By the late-1950s, the once-prosperous port area of downtown Manhattan was occupied by a number of dilapidated shipping piers, casualties of the rise of container shipping which drove sea traffic to Port Elizabeth, New Jersey.", "The initial proposal to reclaim this area through landfill was offered in the early-1960s by private firms and supported by the mayor, part of a long history of Lower Manhattan expansion.", "That plan became complicated when Governor Nelson Rockefeller announced his desire to redevelop a part of the area as a separate project.", "The various groups reached a compromise, and in 1966 the governor unveiled the proposal for what would become Battery Park City.", "The creation of architect Wallace K. Harrison, the proposal called for a 'comprehensive community' consisting of housing, social infrastructure and light industry.", "The landscaping of the park space and later the Winter Garden was designed by M. Paul Friedberg.In 1968, the New York State Legislature created the Battery Park City Authority (BPCA) to oversee development.", "Rockefeller named Charles J. Urstadt as the first chairman of the authority's board that year.", "He then served as the chief executive officer from 1973 to 1978.Urstadt later served as the authority's vice chair from 1996 to 2010.The New York State Urban Development Corporation and ten other public agencies were also involved in the development project.", "For the next several years, the BPCA made slow progress.", "In April 1969, it unveiled a master plan for the area, which was approved in October.", "In early-1972, the BPCA issued $200 million in bonds to fund construction efforts, with Harry B. Helmsley designated as the developer.", "That same year, the city approved plans to alter the number of apartments designated for lower, middle and upper income renters.", "Urstadt said the changes were needed to make the financing for the project viable.", "In addition to the change in the mix of units, the city approved adding nine acres, which extended the northern boundary from Reade Street to Duane Street.Landfill material from construction of the World Trade Center and other buildings in Lower Manhattan was used to add fill for the southern portion.", "Cellular cofferdams were constructed to retain the material.", "After removal of the piers, wooden piles and overburden of silt, the northern portion (north of, and including the marina) was filled with sand dredged from areas adjacent to Ambrose Channel in the Atlantic Ocean, as well as stone from the construction of Water Tunnel #3.By 1976, the landfill was completed.", "Seating stands for viewing the American Bicentennial \"Operation Sail\" flotilla parade were set up on the completed landfill in July 1976.Construction efforts ground to a halt in 1977, as a result of the city's fiscal crisis.", "That year, the presidential administration of Jimmy Carter approved mortgage insurance for 1,600 of the development's proposed units.", "In 1979, the title to the landfill was transferred from the city to the Battery Park City Authority, which financially restructured itself and created a new, more viable master plan, designed by Alex Cooper of Cooper, Robertson & Partners and Stanton Eckstut.", "By that time, only two of the proposed development's buildings had been built, and the $200 million bond issue was supposed to have been paid off the next year.The design of BPC to some degree reflects the values of vibrant city neighborhoods championed by Jane Jacobs.", "The Urban Land Institute (ULI) awarded the Battery Park City Master Plan its 2010 Heritage Award, for having \"facilitated the private development of of commercial space, of residential space, and nearly of open space in lower Manhattan, becoming a model for successful large-scale planning efforts and marking a positive shift away from the urban renewal mindset of the time.", "\"The esplanade=== Construction and early development ===During the late-1970s and early-1980s, the site hosted Creative Time's landmark Art on the Beach sculpture exhibitions.", "On September 23, 1979, the landfill was the site of an anti-nuclear rally attended by 200,000 people.Construction began on the first residential building in June 1980.In April 1981, the New York State Urban Development Corporation (now the Empire State Development Corporation) issued a request for proposal, ultimately selecting six real-estate companies to develop over 1,800 residential units.", "The same year, the World Financial Center started construction; Olympia and York of Toronto was named as the developer for the World Financial Center, who then hired Cesar Pelli as the lead architect.", "By 1985, construction was completed and the World Financial Center (later renamed Brookfield Place New York) saw its first tenants.", "The newly completed development was lauded by ''The New York Times'' as \"a triumph of urban design,\" with the World Financial Center being deemed \"a symbol of change.", "\"North Cove Yacht Harbor, next to the World Financial CenterDuring early construction, two acres of land in the southern section of the Battery Park landfill was used by artist Agnes Denes to plant wheat in an exhibition titled ''Wheatfield – A Confrontation''.", "The project was a visual contradiction: a golden field of wheat set among the steel skyscrapers of downtown Manhattan.", "It was created during a six-month period in the spring, summer, and fall of 1982 when Denes, with the support of the Public Art Fund, planted the field of wheat on rubble-strewn land near Wall Street and the World Trade Center site.", "Denes stated that her \"decision to plant a wheatfield in Manhattan, instead of designing just another public sculpture, grew out of a long-standing concern and need to call attention to our misplaced priorities and deteriorating human values.", "\"Throughout the 1980s, the BPCA oversaw a great deal of construction, including the entire Rector Place neighborhood and the river esplanade.", "It was during that period that Amanda Burden, later City Planning Department Director in the Bloomberg administration, worked on Battery Park City.", "During the 1980s, a total of 13 buildings were constructed.", "The Vietnam Veterans Plaza was established by Edward I. Koch in 1985.Constructed at a cost of $150 million (equivalent to $ million in ) and with a capacity for 2,700 students, Battery Park City became the new home of the Stuyvesant High School in 1992.During the 1990s, an additional six buildings were added to the neighborhood.", "By the turn of the 21st century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street.Initially, in the 1980s, 23 buildings were built in the area.", "By the 1990s, 9 more buildings were built, followed by the construction of 11 buildings in the 2000s and 3 buildings in the 2010s.", "The Battery Park City Authority, wishing to attract more middle-class residents, started providing subsidies in 1998 to households whose annual incomes were $108,000 or less.", "By the end of the decade, nearly the entire landfill had been developed.=== Early 21st century ===The September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 had a major impact on Battery Park City.", "The residents of Lower Manhattan and particularly of Battery Park City were displaced for an extended period of time.", "Parts of the community were an official crime scene and therefore residents were unable to return to live or even collect property.", "Many of the displaced residents were not allowed to return to the area for months and none were given government guidance of where to live temporarily on the already-crowded island of Manhattan.", "With most hotel rooms booked, residents, including young children and the elderly, were forced to fend for themselves.", "When they were finally allowed to return to Battery Park City, some found that their homes had been looted.Upon residents' return, the air in the area was still filled with toxic smoke from the World Trade Center fires that persisted until December 2001.More than half of the area's residents moved away permanently from the community after the adjacent World Trade Center towers collapsed and spread toxic dust, debris, and smoke.", "Gateway Plaza's 600 building, Hudson View East, and Parc Place (now Rector Square) were punctured by airplane parts.", "The Winter Garden and other portions of the World Financial Center were severely damaged.", "Environmental concerns regarding dust from the Trade Center are a continuing source of concern for many residents, scientists, and elected officials.", "Since the attacks, the damage has been repaired.", "Temporarily reduced rents and government subsidies helped restore residential occupancy in the years following the attacks.After September 11, 2001, residents of Battery Park City and Tribeca formed the TriBattery Pops Tom Goodkind Conductor in response to the events of the attacks.", "The \"Pops\" have been Grammy-nominated and are the first lower Manhattan all-volunteer community band in a century.Since then, real estate development in the area has continued robustly.", "Commercial development includes the 200 West Street, the Goldman Sachs global headquarters, which began construction in 2005 and opened for occupancy in October 2009.200 West Street received in 2010 gold-level certification under the United States Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program by incorporating various water and energy conservation features.", "As of 2018, there is no new construction planned." ], [ "{{anchor|Battery Park City Authority|Ownership|Maintenance}} Ownership and maintenance", "Battery Park City is owned and managed by the '''Hugh L. Carey Battery Park City Authority''' (BPCA), a Class A New York State public-benefit corporation created by New York State in 1968 to redevelop outmoded and deteriorated piers, a project that has involved reclaiming the land, replanning the area and facilitating new construction of a mixed commercial and residential community.", "It has operated under the authority of the Urban Development Corporation.", "Its mission is \"to plan, create, coordinate and sustain a balanced community of commercial, residential, retail, and park space within its designated 92-acre site on the lower west side of Manhattan\".", "The authority's board is composed of seven uncompensated members who are appointed by the governor and who serve six-year terms.", "B. J. Jones is the president and chief executive officer.", "The BPCA is invested with substantial powers: it can acquire, hold and dispose of real property, enter into lease agreements, borrow money and issue debt, and manage the project.", "Like other public benefit corporations, the BPCA is exempt from property taxes and has the ability to issue tax exempt bonds.", "In 2021, the BPCA has operating expenses of $69.1 million as well as an outstanding debt of $875.09 million, and it employed 200 people.Under the 1989 agreement between the BPCA and the City of New York, $600 million was transferred by the BPCA to the city.", "Charles J. Urstadt, the first chairman and CEO of the BPCA, noted in an August 19, 2007, op-ed piece in the ''New York Post'' that the aggregate figure of funds transferred to the City of New York is above $1.4 billion, with the BPCA continuing to contribute $200 million a year.", "The Independent Budget Office of the City of New York also recommended the city take over Battery Park City in a report published in February 2020.The report echoed Urstadt's proposal as a way to increase revenue to the city.", "An article published by ''The Broadsheet Daily'' described the complex shared ownership structure of Battery Park City between the city and state that was set up by Urstadt.Excess revenue from the area was to be contributed to other housing efforts, typically low-income projects in the Bronx and Harlem.", "Much of this funding has historically been diverted to general city expenses, under section 3.d of the 1989 agreement.", "However, in July 2006, Mayor Michael Bloomberg, Governor George Pataki, and Comptroller William C. Thompson Jr. announced the final approval for the New York City Housing Trust Fund derived from $130 million in Battery Park City revenues.", "The fund aimed to preserve or create 4,300 units of low- and moderate-income housing by 2009.It also provided seed financing for the New York Acquisition Fund, a $230 million initiative that aims to serve as a catalyst for the construction and preservation of more than 30,000 units of affordable housing citywide by 2016.The Acquisition Fund has since established itself as a model for similar funds in cities and states across the country.By 2018, thirty residential buildings had been built in Battery Park City and no new construction was planned.", "The Battery Park City Authority's main focus turned to maintenance of existing infrastructure, security and conservancy of the public spaces.", "The authority was creating over 1,000 free activities per year.Condo owners in Battery Park City pay higher monthly charges than owners of comparable apartments elsewhere in New York City because residents pay their building's common charges in addition to PILOT (payment in lieu of taxes).", "The PILOT payments replace real estate taxes and the land lease.", "As a result, residential units have higher monthly costs compared to other neighborhoods.", "The cumulative effect is lower property values for homeowners.Because none of the properties in Battery Park City own the land they are built on, many banks have refused to write loans when those ground leases are periodically up for renewal.", "This has been a regular source of anger and frustration for owners in Battery Park City who are looking to sell." ], [ "Demographics", "For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Battery Park City as part of a larger neighborhood tabulation area called Battery Park City-Lower Manhattan.", "Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Battery Park City-Lower Manhattan was 39,699, an increase of 19,611 (97.6%) from the 20,088 counted in 2000.Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .", "The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 65.4% (25,965) White, 3.2% (1,288) African American, 0.1% (35) Native American, 20.2% (8,016) Asian, 0.0% (17) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (153) from other races, and 3.0% (1,170) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.7% (3,055) of the population.The entirety of Community District 1, which comprises Battery Park City and other Lower Manhattan neighborhoods, had 63,383 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 85.8 years.", "This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods.", "Most inhabitants are young to middle-aged adults: half (50%) are between the ages of 25 and 44, while 14% are between 0 and 17, and 18% between 45 and 64.The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 11% and 7% respectively.As of 2017, the median household income in Community Districts 1 and 2 (including Greenwich Village and SoHo) was $144,878, though the median income in Battery Park City individually was $126,771.In 2018, an estimated 9% of Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City.", "One in twenty-five residents (4%) were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City.", "Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 38% in Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively.", "Based on this calculation, , Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan are considered high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying., about 10,000 people live in Battery Park City, most of whom are upper middle class and upper class (54.0% of households have incomes over $100,000).", "When fully built out, the neighborhood is projected to have 14,000 residents.===Census===Based on the 2020 census, the racial makeup of Northern Battery Park City (10282) was 66% White, 2% Black, 0% Native American, 16% Asian, 0% Islander, 0% from other races, and 5% from two or more races.", "Hispanic of Latino of any race were 11% of the population.", "The racial makeup of South Battery Park City (10280) was 69% White, 1% Black, 0% Native, 17% Asian, 0% Islander, 0% from other races, 3% from two or more races, and 11% Hispanic.As of 2020, the population of the area was 16,169." ], [ "Buildings", "=== Residential ===The first residential building in Battery Park City, Gateway Plaza, was completed in 1983., the population of the area was 13,386.Some of the more prominent residential buildings include:Southern part of Battery Park City; Millennium Point is shown.", "*'''Millennium Point''', a , 38-story skyscraper built from 1999 to 2001.It occupies the street addresses 25–39 Battery Place.", "However, due to the September 11 attacks which hit the nearby World Trade Center, opening of Millennium Point was delayed until January 2002.The building won the 2001 Silver Emporis Skyscraper Award.", "The tower section contains 113 luxury condominiums.", "The wider, lower 12 floors are occupied by a 5-star hotel, The Wagner at the Battery (formerly the Ritz-Carlton Battery Park).", "The hotel has 298 rooms, including 44 suites, with the largest suite spanning in area.", "The Skyscraper Museum occupies a small space on the first floor of the building.", "A restaurant is located on the 14th floor.", "*'''The Solaire''', the first green residential building in the United States, as well as the first residential high-rise building in New York City to be certified by the U.S. Green Building Council.", "It was designed by Pelli Clarke Pelli and completed in 2003.The Solaire is located at 20 River Terrace.", "The developer received funding from the State of New York, which was somewhat controversial as the developer was only required to agree to set aside 10% of the units as \"affordable housing\" or \"moderate income\", rather than the usual 80:20 agreement.", "When the building opened, rents ranged from roughly $2,500 to $9,001 depending on the size of the unit.", "The building has been rated LEED Platinum.", "The energy conserving building design is 35% more energy-efficient than code requires, resulting in a 67% lower electricity demand during peak hours, resulting in, among other benefits, lower electric bills for residents.", "Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight to electricity, supplemented by a computerized building management system and environmentally responsible operating and maintenance practices to further reduce the building's environmental impact.Other residential condominiums include:*Battery Pointe, 300 Rector Place*Cove Club, 2 South End Avenue*Hudson Tower, 350 Albany Street*Hudson View East, 250 South End Avenue*Hudson View West, 300 Albany Street*Liberty Court, 200 Rector Place*Liberty Green, 300 North End Avenue*Liberty House, 377 Rector Place*Liberty Luxe, 200 North End Avenue*Liberty Terrace, 380 Rector Place*Liberty View, 99 Battery Place*Millennium Tower Residences, 30 West Street*The Regatta, 21 South End Avenue*Ritz Carlton Residence, 10 West Street*Riverhouse, One Rockefeller Park*The Soundings, 280 Rector Place*The Visionaire, 70 Little West Street*1 Rector Park, 333 Rector PlaceOther residential apartments include:*212 Warren (formerly 22 River Terrace)*Gateway Plaza, 345-395 South End Avenue*The Hallmark, 455 North End Avenue*Rector Square, 225 Rector Place*River Watch, 70 Battery Place*The Solaire, 20 River Terrace*South Cove Plaza, 50 Battery Place*Tribeca Bridge Tower, 450 North End Avenue*Tribeca Green, 325 North End Avenue*Tribeca Park, 400 Chambers Street*Tribeca Pointe, River Terrace*The Verdesian, 211 North End Avenue=== Office ===Brookfield Place as seen in 2006, when it was the World Financial CenterBattery Park City, which is mainly residential, also has a few office buildings.", "The seven buildings including the Brookfield Place complex, as well as 200 West Street, are the neighborhood's only office buildings.==== Brookfield Place complex ====Located in the middle of Battery Park City and overlooking the Hudson River, Brookfield Place, designed by César Pelli and owned mostly by Toronto-based Brookfield Properties, has been home to offices of various major companies, including Merrill Lynch, RBC Capital Markets, Nomura Group, American Express and Brookfield Asset Management, among others.", "Brookfield Place also serves as the United States headquarters for Brookfield Properties, which has its headquarters located in 200 Vesey Street.", "Brookfield Place also has its own zip code, 10281.Brookfield Place's ground floor and portions of the second floor are occupied by a mall; its center point is a steel-and-glass atrium known as the Winter Garden.", "Outside of the Winter Garden lies a sizeable yacht harbor on the Hudson known as North Cove.The building's original developer was Olympia and York of Toronto, Ontario.", "It used to be named the World Financial Center, but in 2014, the complex was given its current name following the completion of extensive renovations.", "The World Financial Center complex was built by Olympia and York between 1982 and 1988; it was damaged in the September 11 attacks but later repaired.", "It has six constituent buildings – 200 Liberty Street, 225 Liberty Street, 200 Vesey Street, 250 Vesey Street, the Winter Garden Atrium, and One North End Avenue (a.k.a.", "the New York Mercantile Exchange building).==== 200 West Street ====200 West Street, from Murray Street, looking west200 West Street is the location of the global headquarters of Goldman Sachs, an investment banking firm.", "A , 44-story building located on the west side of West Street between Vesey and Murray Streets, it is north of Brookfield Place and the Conrad Hotels, across the street from the Verizon Building, and diagonally opposite the World Trade Center.", "It is distinctive for being the only office building in the northern section of Battery Park City.", "It started construction in 2005 and opened in 2009." ], [ "Police and crime", "Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan are patrolled by the 1st Precinct of the NYPD, located at 16 Ericsson Place.", "The 1st Precinct ranked 63rd safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010.Though the number of crimes is low compared to other NYPD precincts, the residential population is also much lower.", ", with a non-fatal assault rate of 24 per 100,000 people, Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole.", "The incarceration rate of 152 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.The 1st Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 86.3% between 1990 and 2018.The 1st precinct reported 2 murders, 15 rapes, 135 robberies, 121 felony assaults, 191 burglaries, 848 grand larcenies, and 68 grand larcenies auto in 2021." ], [ "Fire safety", "Battery Park City is served by the New York City Fire Department (FDNY)'s Engine Co. 10/Ladder Co. 10 fire station, located at 124 Liberty Street." ], [ "Health", ", preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan than in other places citywide.", "In Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, there were 77 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 2.2 teenage births per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide), though the teenage birth rate is based on a small sample size.", "Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan have a low population of residents who are uninsured.", "In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 4%, less than the citywide rate of 12%, though this was based on a small sample size.The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan is , more than the city average.", "Sixteen percent of Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan residents are smokers, which is more than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers.", "In Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, 4% of residents are obese, 3% are diabetic, and 15% have high blood pressure, the lowest rates in the city—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively.", "In addition, 5% of children are obese, the lowest rate in the city, compared to the citywide average of 20%.Ninety-six percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is more than the city's average of 87%.", "In 2018, 88% of residents described their health as \"good,\" \"very good,\" or \"excellent,\" more than the city's average of 78%.", "For every supermarket in Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, there are 6 bodegas.The nearest major hospital is NewYork-Presbyterian Lower Manhattan Hospital in the Civic Center area." ], [ "Post office and ZIP Codes", "Battery Park City is located within two ZIP Codes.", "The neighborhood north of Brookfield Place is covered by 10282, while much of the neighborhood south of Brookfield Place is covered by 10280.Brookfield Place is part of 10281, and the southernmost tip is part of 10004.The United States Postal Service does not operate any post offices in Battery Park City.", "The nearest post office is the Church Street Station at 90 Church Street in the Financial District." ], [ "Education", "Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city .", "The vast majority of residents age 25 and older (84%) have a college education or higher, while 4% have less than a high school education and 12% are high school graduates or have some college education.", "By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher.", "The percentage of Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period.Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City.", "In Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, 6% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%.", "Additionally, 96% of high school students in Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%.=== Schools ===Stuyvesant High School from North End AvenueThe New York City Department of Education operates the following public schools in Battery Park City:*P.S.", "89*I.S.", "289*P.S./I.S.", "276 Battery Park City School*Stuyvesant High School, which moved into a new waterfront building in Battery Park City in 1992*P.S.", "M094 *P226M=== Library ===Battery Park City has a New York Public Library branch at 175 North End Avenue, designed by 1100 Architect and completed in 2010.A , two-story library on the street level of a high-rise residential building, it utilizes several sustainable design features, earning it LEED Gold certification.The New York Public Library branchSustainability was a driving factor in the design of the library including use of an energy-efficient lighting system, maximization of natural lighting, and use of recycled materials.", "1100 Architect, in collaboration with Atelier Ten, an international team of environmental design consultants and building services engineers, designed the library's energy-efficient lighting system.", "The open plan layout and large use of glass allow for ample natural daylight year-round and low-energy LED light illuminates communal spaces.", "Recycled materials are incorporated into the design including carpet made from re-purposed truck tires, floors made from reclaimed window frame wood, and furniture made from FSC-certified plywood and recycled steel.", "Design features include a seemingly \"floating\" origami-style ceiling made up of triangular panels hung at varying angles and a padded reading nook fitted into the library's terrazzo-finished steel and concrete staircase.", "The interior uses an easy-to-navigate layout with its three distinct spatial areas of entry area, first floor space, and mezzanine visually unified through the ceiling.The building also won the ''Interior Design'', Best of Year Merit Award in 2011, followed by ''The National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association'', Port Morris Tile and Marble Corporation Craftsmanship Award in 2011 and the ''Contract'', Public Space Interiors Award in 2012." ], [ "Transportation", "Currently, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority provides bus service to the area.", ", the bus lines service parts of Battery Park City, with the nearby at Battery Park.", "Additionally, the Downtown Alliance provides a free bus service that runs along North End Avenue and South End Avenue, connecting the various residential complexes with subway stations on the other side of West Street.There is currently no New York City Subway access in Battery Park City proper; however, the West Street pedestrian bridges, as well as crosswalks across West Street, connect Battery Park City to subway stations and the PATH station in the nearby Financial District.", "The West Concourse, a tunnel from Brookfield Place passing under West Street, also provides access from Battery Park City to the World Trade Center PATH station, the WTC Cortlandt station, and the Fulton Street station (New York City Subway).The Battery Park City Ferry Terminal is at the foot of Vesey Street opposite the New York Mercantile Exchange and provides ferry transportation to various points in New Jersey via NY Waterway and Liberty Water Taxi routes.", "NYC Ferry's St. George route, to West Midtown Ferry Terminal and St. George Terminal, stops at Battery Park City Ferry Terminal.The West Thames Street Bridge, one of the West Street pedestrian bridges connecting Battery Park City to the Financial District, was completed in 2019, replacing the older Rector Street Bridge.", "On June 11, 2021, it was dedicated as the Robert F. Douglass Bridge.", "Its namesake, who died in 2016, was an early advocate for lower Manhattan as a senior advisor to Governor Nelson Rockefeller and later as a founding member and chairman of the Downtown Alliance and board member of the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation." ], [ "Parks and open spaces", "A field in Rockefeller State Park, with the buildings along River Terrace behind itAt the corner of Vesey Street and North End Avenue is the Irish Hunger MemorialThe Museum of Jewish Heritage from the Hudson RiverMore than one-third of the neighborhood is parkland.Some large open spaces and parks include:* Teardrop Park sits midblock, near the corner of Warren Street and River Terrace.", "Before construction, the site was empty and flat; part of the neighborhood's development plan, the park was designed in anticipation of four high residential towers on its west and east.", "Although a New York City public park, maintenance is overseen by the Battery Park City Parks Conservancy and the park was designed for the Battery Park City Authority.", "The park opened on September 30, 2004.There is also a southern extension to this park.", "* Washington Street Plaza, a pedestrian plaza on Washington Street between Carlisle and Albany Streets, opened on May 23, 2013.In addition, there are:*Community Ballfields, North End Avenue between Murray and Warren Streets*The Esplanade, along the Hudson River from Stuyvesant High School to Battery Park*Monsignor Kowsky Plaza, east of the Esplanade*Nelson A. Rockefeller State Park, north end of Battery Park City west of River Terrace*North Cove, on the river between Liberty Street and Vesey Street.", "*Oval Lawn, east of the Esplanade*Rector Park, South End Avenue at Rector Place*Robert F. Wagner, Jr. Park, north of Battery Park off Battery Place*South Cove, on the Esplanade, between First and Third Places*West Thames Park, West Street between Albany and West Thames Streets*World Financial Center Plaza, within Brookfield Place" ], [ "Museums and memorials", "* Irish Hunger Memorial, located on a site at Vesey Street and North End Avenue.", "It is dedicated to raising awareness of the Great Irish Famine.", "Construction began in March 2001, and the memorial was completed and dedicated on July 16, 2002.", "* Museum of Jewish Heritage, a memorial to those who were murdered in the Holocaust* Skyscraper Museum, an architecture museum in Millennium Point*Hurricane Maria Memorial honors the victims of Hurricane Maria, which struck Puerto Rico on September 20, 2017.", "*Mother Cabrini Memorial, dedicated on October 12, 2020, honors the patroness of immigrants.", "*9/11 Memorial at South Cove, created and dedicated on September 9, 2015.", "*NYC Police Memorial is located at Liberty Street and South End Avenue, and was dedicated on October 20, 1997." ], [ "Notable residents", "Notable residents include:*Tyra Banks (born 1973), TV personality*Leonardo DiCaprio, actor, resident of 1 Rockefeller Park*Sacha Baron Cohen, actor and comedian, former resident of 1 Rockefeller Park*Isla Fisher, actress, former resident of 1 Rockefeller Park*Dave Gahan, musician, resident of 1 Rockefeller Park*Kris Humphries, basketball player, resident of Liberty Luxe" ], [ "See also", "* Hudson River Park Trust* New York Convention Center Operating Corporation* Lower Manhattan Development Corporation* Municipal Assistance Corporation for the City of NY* Roosevelt Island Operating Corporation* United Nations Development Corporation" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* Gordon, David L.A. (1997) ''Battery Park City: Politics and Planning on the New York Waterfront'', Gordon and Breach Publishers*Urstadt, Charles J.; Gene Brown (2005). ''", "Battery Park City: The Early Years.''", "Bloomington." ], [ "External links", "* (Hugh L. Carey Battery Park City Authority)" ] ]

[ [ "Bacterial vaginosis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bacterial vaginosis''' ('''BV''') is an infection of the vagina caused by excessive growth of bacteria.", "Common symptoms include increased vaginal discharge that often smells like fish.", "The discharge is usually white or gray in color.", "Burning with urination may occur.", "Itching is uncommon.", "Occasionally, there may be no symptoms.", "Having BV approximately doubles the risk of infection by a number of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS.", "It also increases the risk of early delivery among pregnant women.BV is caused by an imbalance of the naturally occurring bacteria in the vagina.", "There is a change in the most common type of bacteria and a hundred to thousand fold increase in total numbers of bacteria present.", "Typically, bacteria other than ''Lactobacilli'' become more common.", "Risk factors include douching, new or multiple sex partners, antibiotics, and using an intrauterine device, among others.", "However, it is not considered a sexually transmitted infection and, unlike gonorrhoea and chlamydia, sexual partners are not treated.", "Diagnosis is suspected based on the symptoms, and may be verified by testing the vaginal discharge and finding a higher than normal vaginal pH, and large numbers of bacteria.", "BV is often confused with a vaginal yeast infection or infection with ''Trichomonas''.Usually treatment is with an antibiotic, such as clindamycin or metronidazole.", "These medications may also be used in the second or third trimesters of pregnancy.", "However, the condition often recurs following treatment.", "Probiotics may help prevent re-occurrence.", "It is unclear if the use of probiotics or antibiotics affects pregnancy outcomes.BV is the most common vaginal infection in women of reproductive age.", "The percentage of women affected at any given time varies between 5% and 70%.", "BV is most common in parts of Africa and least common in Asia and Europe.", "In the United States about 30% of women between the ages of 14 and 49 are affected.", "Rates vary considerably between ethnic groups within a country.", "While BV-like symptoms have been described for much of recorded history, the first clearly documented case occurred in 1894." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Although about 50% of women with BV are asymptomatic, common symptoms include increased vaginal discharge that usually smells like fish.", "The discharge is often white or gray in color.", "There may be burning with urination.", "Occasionally, there may be no symptoms.The discharge coats the walls of the vagina, and is usually without significant irritation, pain, or erythema (redness), although mild itching can sometimes occur.", "By contrast, the normal vaginal discharge will vary in consistency and amount throughout the menstrual cycle and is at its clearest at ovulation—about two weeks before the period starts.", "Some practitioners claim that BV can be asymptomatic in almost half of affected women, though others argue that this is often a misdiagnosis.===Complications===Although previously considered a mere nuisance infection, untreated bacterial vaginosis may cause increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, and pregnancy complications.It has been shown that HIV-infected women with bacterial vaginosis (BV) are more likely to transmit HIV to their sexual partners than those without BV.There is evidence of an association between BV and increased rates of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS.", "BV is associated with up to a six-fold increase in HIV shedding.", "BV is a risk factor for viral shedding and herpes simplex virus type 2 infection.", "BV may increase the risk of infection with or reactivation of human papillomavirus (HPV).In addition, bacterial vaginosis as either pre-existing, or acquired, may increase the risk of pregnancy complications, most notably premature birth or miscarriage.Pregnant women with BV have a higher risk of chorioamnionitis, miscarriage, preterm birth, premature rupture of membranes, and postpartum endometritis.", "Women with BV who are treated with in vitro fertilization have a lower implantation rate and higher rates of early pregnancy loss." ], [ "Causes", "Healthy vaginal microbiota consists of species that neither cause symptoms or infections, nor negatively affect pregnancy.", "It is dominated mainly by Lactobacillus species.", "BV is defined by the disequilibrium in the vaginal microbiota, with decline in the number of lactobacilli.", "While the infection involves a number of bacteria, it is believed that most infections start with ''Gardnerella vaginalis'' creating a biofilm, which allows other opportunistic bacteria, such as ''Prevotella'' and ''Bacteroides'', to thrive.One of the main risks for developing BV is douching, which alters the vaginal microbiota and predisposes women to developing BV.", "Douching is strongly discouraged by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and various medical authorities, for this and other reasons.BV is a risk factor for pelvic inflammatory disease, HIV, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), endometriosis, and reproductive and obstetric disorders or negative outcomes.", "Although BV can be associated with sexual activity, there is no clear evidence of sexual transmission.", "It is possible for sexually inactive persons to develop bacterial vaginosis.Also, subclinical iron deficiency may correlate with bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy.", "A longitudinal study published in February 2006, in the ''American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology'', showed a link between psychosocial stress and bacterial vaginosis persisted even when other risk factors were taken into account.", "Exposure to the spermicide nonoxynol-9 does not affect the risk of developing bacterial vaginosis." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Phase contrast microscopy of clue cells in a vaginal swabA pH indicator to detect vaginal alkalinization (here showing approximately pH 8), and a microscope slide to microscopically detect clue cellsGram stain of cells from the vagina (the same magnification) with normal bacterial flora (top) and the bacteria that cause vaginosis (bottom).To make a diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis, a swab from inside the vagina should be obtained.", "These swabs can be tested for:* Gram stain which shows the depletion of lactobacilli and overgrowth of ''Gardnerella vaginalis'' bacteria.", "Bacterial vaginosis is usually confirmed by a Gram stain of vaginal secretions.", "* A characteristic \"fishy\" odor on wet mount.", "This test, called the ''whiff test'', is performed by adding a small amount of potassium hydroxide to a microscope slide containing the vaginal discharge.", "A characteristic fishy odor is considered a positive whiff test and is suggestive of bacterial vaginosis.", "* Loss of acidity.", "To control bacterial growth, the vagina is normally slightly acidic with a pH of 3.8–4.2.A swab of the discharge is put onto litmus paper to check its acidity.", "A pH greater than 4.5 is considered alkaline and is suggestive of bacterial vaginosis.", "* The presence of ''clue cells'' on wet mount.", "Similar to the whiff test, the test for clue cells is performed by placing a drop of sodium chloride solution on a slide containing vaginal discharge.", "If present, clue cells can be visualized under a microscope.", "They are so-named because they give a clue to the reason behind the discharge.", "These are epithelial cells that are coated with bacteria.Differential diagnosis for bacterial vaginosis includes the following:* Normal vaginal discharge.", "* Candidiasis (thrush, or a yeast infection).", "* Trichomoniasis, an infection caused by ''Trichomonas vaginalis''.", "* Aerobic vaginitisThe Center for Disease Control (CDC) defines STIs as \"a variety of clinical syndromes and infections caused by pathogens that can be acquired and transmitted through sexual activity.\"", "But the CDC does not specifically identify BV as sexually transmitted infection.=== Amsel criteria ===In clinical practice BV can be diagnosed using the Amsel criteria:# Thin, white, yellow, homogeneous discharge# Clue cells on microscopy# pH of vaginal fluid >4.5# Release of a fishy odor on adding alkali—10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.At least three of the four criteria should be present for a confirmed diagnosis.A modification of the Amsel criteria accepts the presence of two instead of three factors and is considered equally diagnostic.===Gram stain===An alternative is to use a Gram-stained vaginal smear, with the Hay/Ison criteria or the Nugent criteria.", "The Hay/Ison criteria are defined as follows:* Grade 1 (Normal): Lactobacillus morphotypes predominate.", "* Grade 2 (Intermediate): Some lactobacilli present, but ''Gardnerella'' or ''Mobiluncus'' morphotypes also present.", "* Grade 3 (Bacterial Vaginosis): Predominantly ''Gardnerella'' and/or ''Mobiluncus'' morphotypes.", "Few or absent lactobacilli.", "(Hay et al., 1994)''Gardnerella vaginalis'' is the main culprit in BV.", "''Gardnerella vaginalis'' is a short, Gram-variable rod (coccobacillus).", "Hence, the presence of clue cells and gram variable coccobacilli are indicative or diagnostic of bacterial vaginosis.===Nugent score===The Nugent score is now rarely used by physicians due to the time it takes to read the slides and requires the use of a trained microscopist.", "A score of 0-10 is generated from combining three other scores.", "The scores are as follows:* 0–3 is considered negative for BV* 4–6 is considered intermediate* 7+ is considered indicative of BV.At least 10–20 high power (1000× oil immersion) fields are counted and an average determined.Lactobacillus morphotypes – average per high powered (1000× oil immersion) field.", "View multiple fields.Gardnerella / Bacteroides morphotypes – average per high powered (1000× oil immersion) field.", "View multiple fields.", "Curved Gram variable rods – average per high powered (1000× oil immersion) field.", "View multiple fields (note that this factor is less important – scores of only 0–2 are possible) * Score 0 for >30* Score 1 for 15–30* Score 2 for 14* Score 3 for 0, yet 0, yet 30* Score 0 for 0* Score 1 for <5* Score 2 for 5+DNA hybridization testing with Affirm VPIII was compared to the Gram stain using the Nugent criteria.", "The Affirm VPIII test may be used for the rapid diagnosis of BV in symptomatic women but uses expensive proprietary equipment to read results, and does not detect other pathogens that cause BV, including ''Prevotella'' spp, ''Bacteroides'' spp, and ''Mobiluncus'' spp.", "The cervicovaginal microbiome measured using 16S rRNA sequencing has the capacity to increase throughput of the Nugent Score and has demonstrate to be directly comparable to clinical Nugent Score measurement.===Screening===Screening during pregnancy is not recommended in the United States as of 2020 because \" the US Preventive Services Task Force concludes that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnant persons at increased risk for preterm delivery\"." ], [ "Prevention", "Some steps suggested to lower the risk include: not douching, avoiding sex, or limiting the number of sex partners.One review concluded that probiotics may help prevent re-occurrence.", "Another review found that, while there is tentative evidence, it is not strong enough to recommend their use for this purpose.Early evidence suggested that antibiotic treatment of male partners could re-establish the normal microbiota of the male urogenital tract and prevent the recurrence of infection.", "However, a 2016 Cochrane review found high-quality evidence that treating the sexual partners of women with bacterial vaginosis had no effect on symptoms, clinical outcomes, or recurrence in the affected women.", "It also found that such treatment may lead treated sexual partners to report increased adverse events." ], [ "Treatment", "===Antibiotics===Treatment is typically with the antibiotics metronidazole or clindamycin.", "They can be either given by mouth or applied inside the vagina with similar efficacy.", "About 10% to 15% of people, however, do not improve with the first course of antibiotics and recurrence rates of up to 80% have been documented.", "Recurrence rates are increased with sexual activity with the same pre-/posttreatment partner and inconsistent condom use although estrogen-containing contraceptives decrease recurrence.", "When clindamycin is given to pregnant women symptomatic with BV before 22 weeks of gestation the risk of pre-term birth before 37 weeks of gestation is lower.Other antibiotics that may work include macrolides, lincosamides, nitroimidazoles, and penicillins.Bacterial vaginosis is not considered a sexually transmitted infection, and treatment of a male sexual partner of a woman with bacterial vaginosis is not recommended.===Probiotics===A 2009 Cochrane review found tentative but insufficient evidence for probiotics as a treatment for BV.", "A 2014 review reached the same conclusion.", "A 2013 review found some evidence supporting the use of probiotics during pregnancy.", "The preferred probiotics for BV are those containing high doses of lactobacilli (around 109 ) given in the vagina.", "Intravaginal administration is preferred to taking them by mouth.", "Prolonged repetitive courses of treatment appear to be more promising than short courses.The lack of effectiveness of commercially available ''Lactobacillus'' probiotics may be because most do not actually contain vaginal lactobacilli strains.", "LACTIN-V is a live biopharmaceutical medication containing the vaginally important ''Lactobacillus crispatus'' which is under development for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis and recurrent urinary tract infections.", "It has shown initial effectiveness in considerably reducing recurrence of bacterial vaginosis following antibiotic treatment.", "LACTIN-V is not yet Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved or commercially available.===Antiseptics===Topical antiseptics, for example dequalinium chloride, policresulen, hexetidine or povidone-iodine vaginal suppositories may be applied, if the risk of ascending infections is low (outside of pregnancy and in immunocompetent people without histories of upper genital tract infections).", "One study found that vaginal irrigations with hydrogen peroxide (3%) resulted in a slight improvement but this was much less than with the use of oral metronidazole.", "Intravaginal boric acid in conjunction with other medications may be helpful in the treatment of recurrent BV.", "TOL-463, a formulation of boric acid enhanced with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), is under development as an intravaginal medication for the treatment of BV and has shown preliminary effectiveness." ], [ "Epidemiology", "BV is the most common infection of the vagina in women of reproductive age.", "The percentage of women affected at any given time varies between 5% and 70%.", "BV is most common in parts of Africa, and least common in Asia and Europe.", "In the United States, about 30% of those between the ages of 14 and 49 are affected.", "Rates vary considerably between ethnic groups within a country." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* WHO fact sheet on bacterial vaginosis" ] ]

[ [ "Bud Selig" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Allan Huber''' \"'''Bud'''\" '''Selig''' (; born July 30, 1934) is an American baseball executive who currently serves as the Commissioner Emeritus of Baseball.", "Previously, he served as the ninth Commissioner of Baseball from 1998 to 2015.He initially served as de facto acting commissioner beginning in 1992 in his capacity as chairman of the Major League Baseball Executive Committee before being named the official commissioner in 1998.Selig oversaw baseball through the 1994 strike, the introduction of the wild card, interleague play, and the de facto merging of the National and American Leagues under the Office of the Commissioner.", "He was instrumental in organizing the World Baseball Classic in 2006.Selig also introduced revenue sharing.", "He is credited for the financial turnaround of baseball during his tenure with a 400 percent increase in the revenue of MLB and annual record breaking attendance.During Selig's term of service, the use of steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs became a public issue.", "The Mitchell Report, commissioned by Selig, concluded that the MLB commissioners, club officials, the Players Association, and the players all share \"to some extent in the responsibility for the steroid era.\"", "Following the release of the Mitchell Report, Congressman Cliff Stearns called publicly for Selig to step down as commissioner, citing his \"glacial response\" to the \"growing stain on baseball.\"", "Selig has pledged on numerous occasions to rid baseball of performance-enhancing drugs, and has overseen and instituted many rule changes and penalties to that end.A Milwaukee native, Selig was previously the owner and team president of the Milwaukee Brewers.", "The franchise, originally known as the Seattle Pilots, was acquired by Selig in bankruptcy court in 1970, and renamed after the minor league team of the same name that he had watched in his youth and had existed until the arrival of the Braves in Milwaukee in 1953.Selig was credited with keeping baseball in Milwaukee.", "The Brewers went to the 1982 World Series (but were defeated in seven games by the St. Louis Cardinals), and Selig won seven Organization of the Year awards during his tenure.", "Selig remains a resident of Milwaukee.On January 17, 2008, Selig's contract was extended through 2012, after which he planned to retire, but he then decided to stay as commissioner until the end of the 2014 season, a move approved by the owners on January 12, 2012, which would take his leadership past his 80th birthday.", "Selig made $14.5 million in the 12-month period ending October 31, 2005.Selig announced on September 26, 2013, that he would retire in January 2015.On January 22, 2015, MLB announced that Selig would formally step down from the office when his current term expired on January 24, 2015.He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2017." ], [ "Early life", "Selig was born in Milwaukee, and grew up in a Jewish family.", "His father, Ben Selig, had come to the United States from Romania with his family when he was four years old.", "Selig graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Madison with a B.A.", "in American history and political science in 1956.He served two years in the U.S. Army before working with his father who owned a car leasing business in Milwaukee.", "Selig continues to be involved in the automotive industry, serving as president of the Selig Executive Lease Company.Selig's interest in baseball came from his mother.", "An immigrant from Ukraine, Marie Selig attended college, a rare accomplishment for a woman in the early 20th century, and became a school teacher.", "When Selig was only three, Marie began taking him and his older brother, Jerry, to Borchert Field, where the minor league Milwaukee Brewers played.", "When the Boston Braves relocated to Milwaukee in 1953, Selig switched allegiances, and eventually became the team's largest public stockholder.", "Selig was devastated when he learned that the Braves were going to leave Milwaukee in favor of Atlanta.", "In 1965, when the Braves left Milwaukee, he divested his stock in the team.", "As a youngster, Selig's favorite player was Hershel Martin.", "He developed a friendship with Hank Aaron, when the young player joined the Braves.", "The elder Selig's company provided loaner cars to Braves players, which gave the family access to the clubhouse and players.", "The pair later attended Green Bay Packers games together and sat together on the team plane." ], [ "Milwaukee Brewers owner", "As a minority owner of the Milwaukee Braves, Selig founded the organization '''''Teams, Inc.''''', in an attempt to prevent the majority owners (based out of Chicago) from moving the club to a larger television market.", "This was challenged legally on the basis that no prior team relocations (in the modern era) left a city without a team.", "Prior movements had all originated in cities that were home to at least two teams.", "When his quest to keep the team in Milwaukee finally failed after the 1965 season, he changed the group's name to Milwaukee Brewers Baseball Club, Inc., after the minor league baseball team he grew up watching, and devoted himself to returning Major League Baseball to Milwaukee.Selig arranged for major league games to be played at Milwaukee County Stadium.", "The first, a pre-season match-up between the Chicago White Sox and Minnesota Twins, drew more than 51,000 spectators.", "Selig followed this up by hosting nine White Sox regular-season games in 1968 and eleven in 1969.One of the games played in Milwaukee that year was against the expansion Seattle Pilots, the team that would become the Brewers.", "Those Milwaukee \"home\" games were phenomenally successful, with the handful of games accounting for about ''one-third'' of total White Sox home attendance.To satisfy that fan base, Selig decided to purchase the White Sox (with the intention of moving them to Milwaukee) in 1969.He entered into an agreement to buy the club, but the American League vetoed the sale, preferring to keep an American League team in Chicago, which at the time was still America's second-largest city.", "Selig turned his attention to other franchises.In 1970, he purchased the bankrupt Seattle Pilots franchise, moving them to his hometown and officially renaming the team the ''Brewers''.During Selig's tenure as club president, the Brewers participated in postseason play in 1981, when the team finished first in the American League East during the second half of the season, and in 1982, when the team made it to the World Series, under the leadership of future Hall of Famers Robin Yount and Paul Molitor.", "Under Selig's watch, the Brewers also won seven Organization of the Year awards.", "Selig was part of the owners' collusion in 1985–1987, resulting in the owners paying US$280 million in damages to the players.Upon his assumption of the commissioner's role, Selig transferred his ownership interest in the Brewers to his daughter Wendy Selig-Prieb in order to remove any technical conflicts of interest, though it was widely presumed he maintained some hand in team operations.", "Although the team was sold to Los Angeles investor Mark Attanasio in 2005, questions remain regarding Selig's past involvement.", "Selig's defenders point to the poor management of the team after Selig-Prieb took control as proof that Selig was not working behind the scenes.Selig was elected to the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 2001.On August 24, 2010, a statue of Selig, the ''Selig Monument'', commissioned by Brewers owner Mark Attanasio and designed by artist Brian Maughan, was unveiled outside Miller Park in Milwaukee." ], [ "Acting Commissioner (1992–1998)", "Selig became an increasingly vocal opponent of Commissioner Fay Vincent, and soon became the leader of a group of owners seeking his removal.", "Selig has never stated that the owners colluded, while Vincent has:Following an 18-9 no-confidence vote, Vincent resigned.", "Selig had by this time become chairman of the '''Executive Council of Major League Baseball''', and as such became de facto acting commissioner.His first major act was to institute the Wild Card and divisional playoff play, which has created much controversy amongst baseball fans.", "Those against the Wild Card see it as diminishing the importance of the pennant race and the regular season, with the true race often being for second rather than first place, while those in favor of it view it as an opportunity for teams to have a shot at the playoffs even when they have no chance of a first-place finish in their division, thus maintaining fan interest later in the season.Selig suspended Cincinnati Reds owner Marge Schott for a year in 1993 for repeated racially insensitive and prejudicial remarks and actions.", "The same year, New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner was reinstated from a lifelong suspension that was instituted by Selig's predecessor Fay Vincent.", "Pete Rose has claimed that he applied for reinstatement over the years and received no such consideration.", "Rose, along with his close friend and former teammate Mike Schmidt (who is a strong supporter of Rose's reinstatement into baseball), met with Selig in 2002, where Rose privately admitted to Selig (two years before going public with his admission) about betting on baseball.", "Bud Selig was a close friend of the late Bart Giamatti, who was the commissioner when Rose was first banned from the sport in 1989.As acting commissioner, Selig represented MLB during the 1994 players strike and cancelled the World Series, marking the first time the annual event had not been staged since 1904." ], [ "Commissioner (1998–2015)", "After a six-year search for a new commissioner, the owners voted to give Selig the title on a permanent basis midway through the 1998 season.During his tenure the game avoided a third work stoppage in 2002, and has seen the implementation of interleague play.Whereas in the past, the National and American leagues had separate administrative organizations (which, for example, allowed for the introduction of different rules such as the designated hitter), under Selig, Major League Baseball consolidated the administrative functions of both leagues into the Commissioner's Office in 2000.The last official presidents of the NL and AL were Leonard S. Coleman Jr. and Dr. Gene Budig respectively.=== Reaction after September 11, 2001 ===On September 11, 2001, Selig ordered all baseball games postponed for a week because of the terror attacks on New York and Washington.", "The games were postponed not only out of respect and mourning for the victims, but also out of concern for the safety and security of fans and players.===2001 contraction attempt===After the conclusion of the 2001 World Series, Selig held a vote on contracting two teams, reportedly the Minnesota Twins and Montreal Expos.", "This action led to Selig (along with former Expos owner Jeffrey Loria) being sued for racketeering and conspiring with Loria to deliberately defraud the Expos minority owners.", "If found liable, the league could have been ordered to pay as much as $500 million in total damages.", "The judge ruled that the Expos could not be moved or contracted until the case was over.", "The case eventually went to arbitration and was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum.A week after Selig's announcement, Hennepin County Judge Harry Seymour Crump issued a temporary restraining order that forced the Twins to honor their lease and play the 2002 season at the Metrodome.", "In August 2002, the effort to contract the Twins officially fizzled as players and owners reached a consensus on a new labor agreement which extended the team's Metrodome lease.=== Changes to the MLB All-Star Game ===The 2002 All-Star Game, played in Selig's hometown of Milwaukee, was tied 7–7 after nine innings, and remained tied after the bottom of the 11th inning.", "Due to the recent managerial trend of granting playing time to as many available players as possible within the regulation nine innings, both managers had used their entire roster.", "Concerned for the arms of the pitchers currently on the mound, Selig made the controversial decision to declare the game a tie, to the dissatisfaction of the Milwaukee fans.", "Selig later said that this call was \"embarrassing\" and that he was \"tremendously saddened\" by the outcome of the game.Selig subsequently tried to reinvigorate the All-Star Game by awarding the winning league home-field advantage in the World Series; that practice was initiated in 2003 and continued through 2016.The 2003 All-Star Game had the same U.S. viewership as 2002 (9.5 rating; 17 share) and the ratings declined in 2004 (8.8 rating; 15 share) and 2005 (8.1 rating; 14 share).", "The American television audience increased in 2006 (9.3 rating; 16 share).=== Disciplinary actions ===On July 1, 2005, Selig suspended Texas Rangers pitcher Kenny Rogers for 20 games and fined him US$50,000.The punishment stemmed from an incident on June 29, 2005 during a Rangers pre-game warmup session, where Rogers had shoved two local news reporters and knocked one camera to the ground.", "One of the reporters resumed filming after picking up said camera, which angered Rogers into shoving him again, after grabbing and throwing the camera to the ground, kicking it.", "He was then led away by a teammate and later sent home by the Club.", "While an appeal of his suspension was pending, Rogers appeared at the 2005 All-Star Game in Detroit, where fans loudly booed him.", "On July 22, 2005, Selig heard Rogers' appeal of his suspension.", "Selig decided to uphold the 20 games, however, an independent arbitrator ruled that Selig had exceeded his authority and reduced it to 13 games, but upheld the fine.=== Performance-enhancing drugs ===In 2005, Selig faced Congress on the issue of steroids.", "After the Congressional hearings in early 2005, and with the scrutiny of the sports and national media upon this issue, Selig put forth a proposal for a stricter performance-enhancing drug testing regime to replace the current system.", "This proposal also included the banning of amphetamines, a first for the major North American sports leagues.", "The MLB Players Association and MLB reached an agreement in November on the new policy.Selig's testimony on the subject has been contradictory.", "In 2005, Selig told reporters, \"I never even heard about them steroids until 1998 or 1999.I ran a team and nobody was closer to their players and I never heard any comment from them.", "It wasn't until 1998 or '99 that I heard the discussion.\"", "But a year later, testifying to Congress in 2006, Selig claimed personal credit for spotting the problem early: \"In 1994, before anybody was really talking about steroids in baseball, we proposed a program of testing for such substances to the MLBPA.", "As early as 1998, I began formulating a strategic plan to eliminate the use of performance-enhancing substances from the game.\"", "During the 1988 ALCS, Oakland's Jose Canseco had been repeatedly taunted by Boston fans with a chant of \"ster-oids, ster-oids, ster-oids.\"", "Speaking at the 2013 All-Star Game, Selig complained, \"People say, 'Well, you were slow to react.'", "We were not slow to react.", "In fact, I heard that this morning, and it aggravated me all over again.", "\"By early 2006, Selig was forced to deal with the issue of steroid use.", "On March 30, 2006, as a response to the controversy of the use of performance-enhancing drugs and the anticipated career home run record to be set by Barry Bonds, Selig asked former U.S.", "Senator George J. Mitchell to lead an independent investigation into the use of steroids in baseball's recent past.", "Joe Sheehan from ''Baseball Prospectus'' wrote that the commission has been focusing \"blame for the era exclusively on uniformed personnel\", and failing to investigate any role played by team ownership and management.Much controversy surrounded Selig and his involvement in Bonds' all-time home run record chase.", "For months, speculation surrounded Selig and the possibility that he and Henry Aaron would not attend Bonds' games as he closed in on the record.", "Selig announced in July 2007 when Bonds was near 755 home runs that he would attend the games.", "Selig was in attendance for Bonds' record-tying home run against the San Diego Padres, sitting in Padres owner John Moores' private suite.", "When Bonds hit his 755th home run, Selig refused to applaud Bonds' accomplishment, instead choosing to keep his hands in his pockets and have a look of disdain on his face.", "Bud Selig also did not attend the San Francisco Giants' game on August 7 when Barry Bonds hit his record-breaking 756th home run against the Washington Nationals; after the event, Selig released a statement congratulating Bonds.On December 13, 2007, former senator Mitchell released his report on the use of performance-enhancing substances by MLB players.", "The report names many current and former players who allegedly used performance-enhancing drugs during their careers.Selig has been widely criticized for not taking an active enough role to stem the tide of steroid use in baseball until it had blossomed into a debilitating problem for the industry.", "''Chicago Sun-Times'' columnist Jay Mariotti called Selig the \"Steroids Commissioner.\"", "Selig has been called to Congress several times to testify on performance-enhancing drug use.", "Congressman Cliff Stearns said in December 2007 that Selig should resign because of use of performance-enhancing drugs in baseball during his tenure.=== Post-season schedule ===Selig's decision to extend the traditional post-season schedule into November in an attempt to increase Nielsen ratings was met with widespread disdain, both inside and outside the baseball community.", "Mike Scioscia, manager of the American League West Division Champion Los Angeles Angels, dismissed the decision as \"Ridiculous.", "I don't know.", "Can I say it any clearer than that?", "We should have never had a day off last Wednesday.", "We should never have three days off after the season.", "You shouldn't even have two days off after the season.", "\"=== Controversies ===Related to the contraction controversy in 2001, Rob Dibble posted an open letter to Bud Selig, criticizing his actions for benefiting only the Milwaukee Brewers.", "Dibble cites that the contraction of the Twins would benefit the Brewers, as they would potentially claim the Twins' share of the upper Midwest market.Selig has made some decisions involving the Houston Astros that were unpopular with their supporters.", "He ordered the roof at Minute Maid Park to be opened for games three and four of the 2005 World Series, pre-empting the authority held by the Astros.", "The roof was closed for all prior playoff games and similar weather conditions.", "For Hurricane Ike in 2008, Selig mandated that the Astros play two home games against the Chicago Cubs in his hometown of Milwaukee despite proximity to the visiting Cubs; the home ballparks for the Texas Rangers and Atlanta Braves were both available to host the games.", "The Astros subsequently were victims of a no-hitter by Carlos Zambrano and recorded a single hit in the following game.", "In the midst of the playoff race, this decision and its impact deeply affected the playoff race and seedings with eight teams holding winning records at the moment.", "The Milwaukee Brewers benefited from these events by qualifying in the playoffs as a Wild Card team, only to lose in the NLDS to the Philadelphia Phillies, the eventual World Series winner.", "In 2011, Selig also demanded that the Astros move to the American League West as a condition of the sale of the franchise to businessman Jim Crane; the team switched leagues in 2013 in return for $70 million discount in the purchase price.United States bankruptcy judge Kevin Gross rendered a stern warning to Selig in regards to the 2011 Los Angeles Dodgers ownership dispute.", "Treating other teams differently in regards to their media contracts drew accusations that Selig did not act in good faith with respect to the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "Selig rejected the television deal that Frank McCourt negotiated that intended to bring the franchise out of bankruptcy, claiming McCourt violated the Baseball Agreement.", "In comparison, no action was taken against New York Mets owner Fred Wilpon despite being in a similar position.", "Gross stated, \"Should the Commissioner falter in proving alleged wrongdoing, the Court may allow LAD (Los Angeles Dodgers) to take further, limited discovery.\"", "Some critics have used Selig's handling of the Dodgers to point out a double standard in treatment of MLB owners.", "More specifically in regards to the Mets, critics point out that with Selig's personal relationship with Wilpon has motivated him to stall any possible removal of Wilpon as that club's principal owner.", "Wilpon eventually sold the Mets to Steve Cohen in 2020, five years after Selig stepped down.Selig also notably failed to resolve a 6-year conflict between the San Francisco Giants and the Oakland Athletics regarding the Athletics' proposed move to San Jose.", "Selig established a blue-ribbon panel in 2009 to resolve the dispute; however, despite years to find a resolution, the blue-ribbon panel completely failed to make any progress toward resolving the issue, leading San Jose to sue MLB.", "The lawsuit, which is currently ongoing, questions the league's anti-trust exemption and its ability to enforce particular clubs' geographic territories.=== Term of service ===On December 1, 2006, Selig announced that he would be retiring as commissioner of baseball upon the expiration of his contract in 2009.Selig earned $14.5 million from MLB over the timespan October 31, 2005 to October 31, 2006.However, in January 2008, Selig agreed to a three-year contract extension, announcing he planned to retire after the 2012 season.", "He further decided against retirement, and after a two-year extension for the previous deal was agreed to on January 12, 2012, it was announced that Selig would remain commissioner until the end of the 2014 season.===Post-Commissioner Activities===In 2021, Selig was appointed as \"non-voting co-Chair\" (with Jane Forbes Clark) for the December 2021 Early Baseball Era Committee meeting, to consider candidates for election to the Hall of Fame whose major contributions to the game took place prior to 1950.The committee elected Bud Fowler and Buck O'Neil." ], [ "Notable changes to Major League Baseball", "Bud Selig has overseen the following changes in Major League Baseball:* Realignment of teams into three divisions per league, and the introduction of playoff wild card teams (1994)* Interleague play (1997)* Retired Jackie Robinson's uniform number, 42, across all MLB teams (1997)* Two additional franchises: the Arizona Diamondbacks and the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, now the Tampa Bay Rays (1998)* Transfer of the Milwaukee Brewers from the American League to the National League (1998)* Abolition of the American and National league offices and presidencies, and inclusion of all umpiring crews into a common pool for AL and NL games, instead of having separate pools per league (2000)* Unbalanced schedule (2001)* Home field advantage in the World Series granted to the winner of the All Star Game in the same season (2003)* Transfer of Montreal Expos franchise to Washington, D.C., becoming the Washington Nationals (2004)* Dedicating April 15 as Jackie Robinson Day (2004)* Stricter Major League Baseball performance-enhancing drug testing policy (2005)* World Baseball Classic (2006)* Introduction of instant replay in the event of a disputed home run call (2008)* Addition of a second wild-card playoff team in each league (2012)* Transfer of the Houston Astros from the National League to the American League (2013), as a condition of the sale of the team to Jim Crane, resulting in each league having the same number of teams (15) and interleague play throughout the season* Expanded instant replay (2014) and the institution of the manager challenge systemDuring Selig's terms as executive council chairman (from 1992–1998) and commissioner, new stadiums opened in Arizona, Atlanta, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Colorado, Detroit, Houston, Miami, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, New York City (Flushing, Queens and the Bronx), Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, Arlington, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C." ], [ "Israel Baseball League", "Selig and his family served a supportive role on the advisory board of the Israel Baseball League during its inaugural season in 2007.In response to issues with the league's financial management, after the season, the Selig family requested that their names be removed from the list of board members." ], [ "''Selig Experience''", "In May 2015, the Milwaukee Brewers honored Bud Selig with the unveiling of the ''Selig Experience'' exhibit at American Family Field (formerly Miller Park.)", "The ''Selig Experience'' is a fifteen-minute documentary showing Bud Selig's life and work for the Milwaukee Brewers." ], [ "Personal life", "Selig (left) and his wife, Suzanne (right), with Barack Obama at the 2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game Selig has been married twice.", "He married his first wife, Donna Chaimson, in the 1950s, and they had two daughters: Sari (born 1957) and Wendy (born 1960).", "The couple divorced in 1976 after 19 years of marriage on the grounds that Selig had been \"unduly absenting yourself from the home of the parties and isolating yourself ... in pursuit of your baseball interests to the detriment of your marriage.\"", "Chaimson later stated thatthe marriage ended because her husband \"divorced me and married baseball.\"", "Since 1977, Selig has been married to the former Suzanne Steinman, who has a daughter from a previous marriage." ], [ "Teaching", "In 2009, Selig began teaching as an adjunct professor of sports law and policy at Marquette University Law School.", "His classes have covered numerous topics, including \"the history of collective bargaining and free agency, baseball's antitrust exemption, revenue sharing – as well as finer points of sports law like intellectual property rights, ambush marketing, and why baseball does not allow game footage on YouTube.", "\"In 2010, Selig endowed the Allan H. Selig Chair in the History of Sport and Society in the United States, as well as a Distinguished Lecture Series in Sport and Society at his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin–Madison.", "The inaugural lecture was given by Adrian Burgos and Prof. Sean Dinces has held the chair since 2013.In February 2016, Selig joined the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University." ], [ "Honors", "Outstanding Civilian Service Award from Army Chief of Staff Ray Odierno in 2015Selig was awarded the U.S. Department of the Army Outstanding Civilian Service Award in April 2015 for supporting soldiers, veterans and their families through his work in Major League Baseball.", "On April 6, 2015, the Milwaukee Brewers retired uniform number 1 in his honor.In 2014, Selig was inducted onto the inaugural Milwaukee Brewers Wall of Honor.On December 4, 2016, it was announced Selig was elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame Class of 2017.He was formally inducted on July 30, 2017.In 2016, Selig was honored with the \"Lombardi Award of Excellence\" from the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation.", "The award was created to honor Coach Lombardi's legacy, and is awarded annually to an individual who exemplifies the spirit of the Coach." ], [ "Publications", "* Foreword to ''American Jews and America's Game: Voices of a Growing Legacy in Baseball'' by Larry Ruttman.", "Lincoln, Nebraska and London, England: University of Nebraska Press, 2013." ], [ "See also", "*''Selig v. United States''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* This chapter in Ruttman's history, based on a January 16, 2009 interview with Selig conducted for the book, discusses Selig's American, Jewish, baseball, and life experiences from youth to the present.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* MLB.com: Official info* Bud Selig Biography by Baseball Almanac* The Commissioner of Baseball Is on Deck www.nytimes.com* Video Of MLB Commissioner's Speech On The State Of Baseball, February 8, 2007* \"Bud Selig: A baseball hero.", "Really.\"", "– Nicholas Thompson, Slate.com, May 5, 2005*" ] ]

[ [ "Bison" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''bison''' (: '''bison''') is a large bovine in the genus '''''Bison''''' (Greek: \"wild ox\" (bison)) within the tribe Bovini.", "Two extant and numerous extinct species are recognised.Of the two surviving species, the American bison, ''B.", "bison'', found only in North America, is the more numerous.", "Although colloquially referred to as a '''buffalo''' in the United States and Canada, it is only distantly related to the true buffalo.", "The North American species is composed of two subspecies, the Plains bison, ''B. b.", "bison'', and the wood bison, ''B. b.", "athabascae'', which is the namesake of Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada.", "A third subspecies, the eastern bison (''B. b.", "pennsylvanicus'') is no longer considered a valid taxon, being a junior synonym of ''B. b. bison''.", "References to \"woods bison\" or \"wood bison\" from the eastern United States refer to this subspecies, not ''B. b.", "athabascae'', which was not found in the region.", "The European bison, ''B.", "bonasus'', or wisent, or zubr, or colloquially European buffalo, is found in Europe and the Caucasus, reintroduced after being extinct in the wild.While bison species have been traditionally classified in their own genus, modern genetics indicates that they are nested within the genus ''Bos,'' which includes, among others, cattle, yaks and gaur, being most closely related to yaks.", "Bison are sometimes bred with domestic cattle and produce offspring called beefalo, in North America, or żubroń, in Poland." ], [ "Description", "Magdalenian bison on plaque, 17,000–9,000 BC, Bédeilhac grottoe, AriègeThe American bison and the European bison (wisent) are the largest surviving terrestrial animals in North America and Europe.", "They are typical artiodactyl (cloven hooved) ungulates, and are similar in appearance to other bovines such as cattle and true buffalo.", "They are broad and muscular with shaggy coats of long hair.", "Adults grow up to in height and in length for American bison and up to in height and in length for European bison.", "American bison can weigh from around and European bison can weigh from .", "European bison tend to be taller than American bison.Bison are nomadic grazers and travel in herds.", "The bulls leave the herds of females at two or three years of age, and join a herd of males, which usually are smaller than female herds.", "Mature bulls rarely travel alone.", "Towards the end of the summer, for the reproductive season, the sexes necessarily commingle.American bison are known for living in the Great Plains, but formerly had a much larger range, including much of the eastern United States and parts of Mexico.", "Both species were hunted close to extinction during the 19th and 20th centuries, but have since rebounded.", "The wisent in part owes its survival to the Chernobyl disaster, as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone has become a kind of wildlife preserve for wisent and other rare megafauna such as the Przewalski's horse, though poaching has become a threat in recent years.", "The American Plains bison is no longer listed as endangered, but this does not mean the species is secure.", "Genetically pure ''B. b.", "bison'' currently number only about 20,000, separated into fragmented herds—all of which require active conservation measures.", "The wood bison is on the endangered species list in Canada and is listed as threatened in the United States, though numerous attempts have been made by beefalo ranchers to have it entirely removed from the Endangered Species List.A museum display shows the full skeleton of an adult male American bison.Although superficially similar, physical and behavioural differences exist between the American and European bison.", "The American species has 15 ribs, while the European bison has 14.The American bison has four lumbar vertebrae, while the European has five.", "(The difference in this case is that what would be the first lumbar vertebra has ribs attached to it in American bison and is thus counted as the 15th thoracic vertebra, compared to 14 thoracic vertebrae in wisent.)", "Adult American bison are less slim in build and have shorter legs.", "American bison tend to graze more, and browse less than their European relatives.", "Their anatomies reflect this behavioural difference; the American bison's head hangs lower than the European's.", "The body of the American bison is typically hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison.", "The horns of the European bison point through the plane of their faces, making them more adept at fighting through the interlocking of horns in the same manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison, which favours butting.", "American bison are more easily tamed than their European cousins, and breed with domestic cattle more readily." ], [ "Evolution and genetic history", "The bovine tribe (Bovini) split about 5 to 10 million years ago into the buffalos (''Bubalus'' and ''Syncerus'') and a group leading to bison and taurine cattle.", "Genetic evidence from nuclear DNA indicates that the closest living relatives of bison are yaks, with bison being nested within the genus ''Bos,'' rendering ''Bos'' without including bison paraphyletic.", "While nuclear DNA indicates that both extant bison species are each other's closest living relatives, the mitochondrial DNA of European bison is more closely related to that of domestic cattle and aurochs (while the mitochondrial DNA of American bison is closely related to that of yaks).", "This discrepancy is either suggested to be the result of incomplete lineage sorting or ancient introgression.", "Bison are widely believed to have evolved from a lineage belonging to the extinct genus ''Leptobos'' during the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene in Asia.", "The earliest members of the bison lineage, known from the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of the Indian Subcontinent (''Bison sivalensis'') and China (''Bison palaeosinensis''), approximately 3.4-2.6 million years ago (Ma) are placed in the subgenus ''Bison'' (''Eobison'')''.''", "The oldest remains of ''Eobison'' in Europe are those ''Bison georgicus'' found in Dmanisi, Georgia, dated to around 1.76 Ma.", "More derived members of the genus are placed in the subgenus ''Bison'' (''Bison''), which first appeared towards the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 1.2 Ma, with early members of the subgenus including the widespread ''Bison schoetensacki''.The steppe bison (''Bison priscus'') first appeared during the mid-Middle Pleistocene in eastern Eurasia, and subsequently became widely distributed across Eurasia.", "During the late Middle Pleistocene, around 195,000-135,000 years ago, the steppe bison migrated across the Bering land bridge into North America, becoming ancestral to modern American bison, as well as extinct forms such as the largest known bison, the long-horned ''Bison latifrons,'' and the smaller ''Bison antiquus,'' which became extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene.", "Modern American bison are thought to have evolved from ''B.", "antiquus'' during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition via the intermediate form ''Bison occidentalis''.", "The European bison, ''Bison bonasus,'' first appeared in Europe during the late Middle Pleistocene, where it existed in sympatry with the steppe bison.", "Its relationship with other extinct bison species is unclear, though it appears to be only distantly related to the steppe and American bisons, with possibly some interbreeding between the two lineages during the Middle Pleistocene.", "The steppe bison survived into the early-mid Holocene in Alaska-Yukon and eastern Siberia, before becoming extinct.Skulls of European bison (left) and American bison (right)During the population bottleneck caused by the great slaughter of American bison during the 19th century, the number of bison remaining alive in North America declined to as low as 541.During that period, a handful of ranchers gathered remnants of the existing herds to save the species from extinction.", "These ranchers bred some of the bison with cattle in an effort to produce \"cattleo\" (today called \"beefalo\").", "Accidental crossings were also known to occur.", "Generally, male domestic bulls were crossed with bison cows, producing offspring of which only the females were fertile.", "The crossbred animals did not demonstrate any form of hybrid vigor, so the practice was abandoned.", "Wisent-American bison hybrids were briefly experimented with in Germany (and found to be fully fertile) and a herd of such animals is maintained in Russia.", "A herd of cattle-wisent crossbreeds (zubron) is maintained in Poland.", "First-generation crosses do not occur naturally, requiring caesarean delivery.", "First-generation males are infertile.", "The U.S. National Bison Association has adopted a code of ethics that prohibits its members from deliberately crossbreeding bison with any other species.", "In the United States, many ranchers are now using DNA testing to cull the residual cattle genetics from their bison herds.", "The proportion of cattle DNA that has been measured in introgressed individuals and bison herds today is typically quite low, ranging from 0.56 to 1.8%.There are also remnant purebred American bison herds on public lands in North America.", "Two subspecies of bison exist in North America: the ''plains bison'' and the ''wood bison''.", "Herds of importance are found in Yellowstone National Park, Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota, Blue Mounds State Park in Minnesota, Elk Island National Park in Alberta, and Grasslands National Park in Saskatchewan.", "In 2015, a purebred herd of 350 individuals was identified on public lands in the Henry Mountains of southern Utah via genetic testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA.", "This study, published in 2015, also showed the Henry Mountains bison herd to be free of brucellosis, a bacterial disease that was imported with non-native domestic cattle to North America.In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists considered ''Bison'' to be a subgenus, and placed both bison species back into ''Bos''." ], [ "Behavior", "A group of images by Eadweard Muybridge, set to motion to illustrate the movement of the bisonA bison charges an elk in Yellowstone National Park.Wallowing is a common behavior of bison.", "A ''bison wallow'' is a shallow depression in the soil, either wet or dry.", "Bison roll in these depressions, covering themselves with mud or dust.", "Possible explanations suggested for wallowing behavior include grooming behavior associated with moulting, male-male interaction (typically rutting behavior), social behavior for group cohesion, play behavior, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite load (ticks and lice), and thermoregulation.", "In the process of wallowing, bison may become infected by the fatal disease anthrax, which may occur naturally in the soil.Bison temperament is often unpredictable.", "They usually appear peaceful, unconcerned, or even lazy, but they may attack without warning or apparent reason.", "They can move at speeds up to and cover long distances at a lumbering gallop.Their most obvious weapons are the horns borne by both males and females, but their massive heads can be used as battering rams, effectively using the momentum produced by what is a typical weight of moving at .", "The hind legs can also be used to kill or maim with devastating effect.", "In the words of early naturalists, they were dangerous, savage animals that feared no other animal and in prime condition could best any foe except for a brown bear or a pack of wolves.The rutting, or mating, season lasts from June through September, with peak activity in July and August.", "At this time, the older bulls rejoin the herd, and fights often take place between bulls.", "The herd exhibits much restlessness during breeding season.", "The animals are belligerent, unpredictable, and most dangerous." ], [ "Habitat", "American bison live in river valleys and on prairies and plains.", "Typical habitat is open or semiopen grasslands, as well as sagebrush, semiarid lands, and scrublands.", "Some lightly wooded areas are also known historically to have supported bison.", "They also graze in hilly or mountainous areas where the slopes are not steep.", "Although not particularly known as high-altitude animals, bison in the Yellowstone Park bison herd are frequently found at elevations above .", "The Henry Mountains bison herd is found on the plains around the Henry Mountains, Utah, as well as in mountain valleys of the Henry Mountains to an altitude of .European bison most commonly live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas as well as areas with increased shrubs and bushes.", "European bison can sometimes be found living on grasslands and plains as well.===Restrictions===Throughout most of their historical range, landowners have sought restrictions on free-ranging bison.", "Herds on private land are required to be fenced in.In the state of Montana, free-ranging bison on public land are legally shot, due to transmission of disease to cattle and damage to public property.In 2013, Montana legislative measures concerning the bison were proposed and passed, but opposed by Native American tribes as they impinged on sovereign tribal rights.", "Three such bills were vetoed by Steve Bullock, the governor of Montana.", "The bison's circumstances remain an issue of contention between Native American tribes and private landowners." ], [ "Diet", "A bison and a bull elk grazing together in Yellowstone National ParkBison are ruminants, able to ferment cellulose in a specialized stomach prior to digestion.", "Bison were once thought to almost exclusively consume grasses and sedges, but are now known to consume a wide-variety of plants including woody plants and herbaceous eudicots.", "Over the course of the year, bison shift which plants they select in their diet based on which plants have the highest protein or energy concentrations at a given time and will reliably consume the same species of plants across years.", "Protein concentrations of the plants they eat tend to be highest in the spring and decline thereafter, reaching their lowest in the winter.", "In Yellowstone National Park, bison browsed willows and cottonwoods, not only in the winter when few other plants are available, but also in the summer.", "Bison are thought to migrate to optimize their diet, and will concentrate their feeding on recently burned areas due to the higher quality forage that regrows after the burn.", "Wisent tend to browse on shrubs and low-hanging trees more often than do the American bison, which prefer grass to shrubbery and trees." ], [ "Reproduction", "A bison calf resting with its motherFemale bison (\"cows\") typically reproduce after three years of age and can continue beyond 19 years of age.", "Cows produce calves annually as long as their nutrition is sufficient, but not after years when weight gain is low.", "Reproduction is dependent on a cow's mass and age.", "Heavier cows produce heavier calves (weighed in the fall at weaning), and weights of calves are lower for older cows (after age 8)." ], [ "Predators", "Wolves hunting bison in Yellowstone National ParkOwing to their size, bison have few predators.", "Five exceptions are humans, grey wolves, cougars, grizzly bears, and coyotes.", "Wolves generally take down a bison while in a pack, but cases of a single wolf killing bison have been reported.", "Grizzly bears also consume bison, often by driving off the pack and consuming the wolves' kill.", "Grizzly bears and coyotes also prey on bison calves.", "Historically and prehistorically, lions, cave lions, tigers, dire wolves, ''Smilodon'', ''Homotherium'', cave hyenas, and Neanderthals posed threats to bison." ], [ "Infections and illness", "For American bison, a main illness is malignant catarrhal fever, though brucellosis is a serious concern in the Yellowstone Park bison herd.", "Bison in the Antelope Island bison herd are regularly inoculated against brucellosis, parasites, ''Clostridium'' infection, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and bovine vibriosis.The major illnesses in European bison are foot-and-mouth disease and balanoposthitis.", "Inbreeding of a small population plays a role in a number of genetic defects and lowers immunity to disease; that poses greater risk to the population." ], [ "Name", "Although called \"buffalo\" in American English, they are only distantly related to two \"true buffalo\", the Asian water buffalo and the African buffalo.", "Samuel de Champlain applied the French term ''buffle'' to the bison in 1616 (published 1619), after seeing skins and a drawing shown to him by members of the Nipissing First Nation, who said they travelled 40 days (from east of Lake Huron) to trade with another nation who hunted the animals.", "Though \"bison\" might be considered more scientifically correct, \"buffalo\" is also considered correct as a result of standard usage in American English, and is listed in many dictionaries as an acceptable name for American buffalo or bison.", "\"Buffalo\" has a much longer history than \"bison\", which was first recorded in 1774." ], [ "Human impact", "Photo of a Native American Bison Hunt diorama located at the Milwaukee Public Museum in WisconsinBison was a significant resource for indigenous peoples of North America for food and raw materials until near extinction in the late 19th century.", "For the indigenous peoples of the Plains, it was their principal food source.", "Native Americans highly valued their relationship with the bison and saw them as sacred, treating them respectfully to ensure their abundance and longevity.", "In his biography, Lakota teacher and elder John Fire Lame Deer describes the relationship as such:Photo from 1892 of a pile of American bison skulls waiting to be ground for fertilizerEuropean colonials were almost exclusively accountable for the near-extinction of the American bison in the 1800s.", "At the beginning of the century, tens of millions of bison roamed North America.", "Colonists slaughtered an estimated 50 million bison during the 19th century, although the causes of decline and the numbers killed are disputed and debated.", "Railroads were advertising \"hunting by rail\", where trains encountered large herds alongside or crossing the tracks.", "Men aboard fired from the train's roof or windows, leaving countless animals to rot where they died.", "This overhunting was in part motivated by the U.S. government's desire to limit the range and power of indigenous plains Indians whose diets and cultures depended on the buffalo herds.", "The overhunting of the bison reduced their population to hundreds.The American bison's nadir came in 1889, with an estimated population of only 1,091 animals (both wild and captive).", "Repopulation attempts via enforced protection of government herds and extensive ranching began in 1910 and have continued (with excellent success) to the present day, with some caveats.", "Extensive farming has increased the bison's population to nearly 150,000, and it is officially no longer considered an endangered species.", "However, from a genetic standpoint, most of these animals are actually hybrids with domestic cattle and only two populations in Yellowstone National Park in the United States and Elk Island National Park in Canada remain as genetically pure bison.", "These genetically pure animals account for only ~5% of the currently extant American bison population, reflecting the loss of most of the species' genetic diversity.As of July 2015, an estimated 4,900 bison lived in Yellowstone National Park, the largest U.S. bison population on public land.", "During 1983–1985 visitors experienced 33 bison-related injuries (range = 10–13/year), so the park implemented education campaigns.", "After years of success, five injuries associated with bison encounters occurred in 2015, because visitors did not maintain the required distance of 75 ft (23 m) from bison while hiking or taking pictures." ], [ "Nutrition", "Bison is an excellent source of complete protein and a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple vitamins, including riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, and is also a rich source of minerals, including iron, phosphorus, and zinc.", "Additionally, bison is a good source (10% or more of the DV) of thiamine." ], [ "Livestock", "The earliest plausible accounts of captive bison are those of the zoo at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, which held an animal the Spaniards called \"the Mexican bull\".", "In 1552, Francisco Lopez de Gomara described Plains Indians herding and leading bison like cattle in his controversial book, ''Historia general de las Indias''.", "Gomara, having never visited the Americas himself, likely misinterpreted early ethnographic accounts as the more familiar pastoralist relationship of the Old World.", "Today, bison are increasingly raised for meat, hides, wool, and dairy products.", "The majority of bison in the world are raised for human consumption or fur clothing.", "Bison meat is generally considered to taste very similar to beef, but is lower in fat and cholesterol, yet higher in protein than beef, which has led to the development of beefalo, a fertile hybrid of bison and domestic cattle.", "A market even exists for kosher bison meat; these bison are slaughtered at one of the few kosher mammal slaughterhouses in the U.S. and Canada, and the meat is then distributed worldwide.In America, the commercial industry for bison has been slow to develop despite individuals, such as Ted Turner, who have long marketed bison meat.", "In the 1990s, Turner found limited success with restaurants for high-quality cuts of meat, which include bison steaks and tenderloin.", "Lower-quality cuts suitable for hamburger and hot dogs have been described as \"almost nonexistent\".", "This created a marketing problem for commercial farming because the majority of usable meat, about 400 pounds for each bison, is suitable for these products.", "In 2003, the United States Department of Agriculture purchased $10 million worth of frozen overstock to save the industry, which would later recover through better use of consumer marketing.", "Restaurants have played a role in popularizing bison meat, like Ted's Montana Grill, which added bison to their menus.", "Ruby Tuesday first offered bison on their menus in 2005.In Canada, commercial bison farming began in the mid-1980s, concerning an unknown number of animals then.", "The first census of the bison occurred in 1996, which recorded 45,235 bison on 745 farms, and grew to 195,728 bison on 1,898 farms for the 2006 census.Several pet food companies use bison as a red meat alternative in dog foods.", "The companies producing these formulas include Natural Balance Pet Foods, Freshpet, the Blue Buffalo Company, Solid Gold, Canidae, and Taste of the Wild (made by Diamond Pet Foods, Inc., owned by Schell and Kampeter, Inc.)." ], [ "See also", "* Bison hunting* Gaur* National Bison Day (1 November in the United States)* Regina, Saskatchewan: ''Pile of Bones'' was the original name for Regina, Saskatchewan in reference to bison bones found nearby.", "* Yellowstone Park bison herd" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Boyd, Delaney P. (April 2003).", "Conservation of North American bison: status and recommendations (PDF) (Thesis).", "University of Calgary, Calgary, AB.", "– via Buffalo Field Campaign* Cunfer, Geoff and Bill Waiser.", "''Bison and People on the North American Great Plains: A Deep Environmental History''.", "College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2016.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* History of Bison Blend Cattle" ] ]

[ [ "Baryon" ], [ "Introduction", "In particle physics, a '''baryon''' is a type of composite subatomic particle that contains an odd number of valence quarks, conventionally three.", "Baryons belong to the hadron family of particles; hadrons are composed of quarks.", "Baryons are also classified as fermions because they have half-integer spin.The name \"baryon\", introduced by Abraham Pais, comes from the Greek word for \"heavy\" (βαρύς, ''barýs''), because, at the time of their naming, most known elementary particles had lower masses than the baryons.", "Each baryon has a corresponding antiparticle (antibaryon) where their corresponding antiquarks replace quarks.", "For example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark.Baryons participate in the residual strong force, which is mediated by particles known as mesons.", "The most familiar baryons are protons and neutrons, both of which contain three quarks, and for this reason they are sometimes called ''triquarks''.", "These particles make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe and compose the nucleus of every atom (electrons, the other major component of the atom, are members of a different family of particles called leptons; leptons do not interact via the strong force).", "Exotic baryons containing five quarks, called pentaquarks, have also been discovered and studied.A census of the Universe's baryons indicates that 10% of them could be found inside galaxies, 50 to 60% in the circumgalactic medium, and the remaining 30 to 40% could be located in the warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM)." ], [ "Background", "Baryons are strongly interacting fermions; that is, they are acted on by the strong nuclear force and are described by Fermi–Dirac statistics, which apply to all particles obeying the Pauli exclusion principle.", "This is in contrast to the bosons, which do not obey the exclusion principle.Baryons, alongside mesons, are hadrons, composite particles composed of quarks.", "Quarks have baryon numbers of ''B'' =  and antiquarks have baryon numbers of ''B'' = −.", "The term \"baryon\" usually refers to ''triquarks''—baryons made of three quarks (''B'' =  +  +  = 1).Other exotic baryons have been proposed, such as pentaquarks—baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark (''B'' =  +  +  +  −  = 1), but their existence is not generally accepted.", "The particle physics community as a whole did not view their existence as likely in 2006, and in 2008, considered evidence to be overwhelmingly against the existence of the reported pentaquarks.", "However, in July 2015, the LHCb experiment observed two resonances consistent with pentaquark states in the Λ → J/ψKp decay, with a combined statistical significance of 15σ.In theory, heptaquarks (5 quarks, 2 antiquarks), nonaquarks (6 quarks, 3 antiquarks), etc.", "could also exist." ], [ "Baryonic matter", "Nearly all matter that may be encountered or experienced in everyday life is baryonic matter, which includes atoms of any sort, and provides them with the property of mass.", "Non-baryonic matter, as implied by the name, is any sort of matter that is not composed primarily of baryons.", "This might include neutrinos and free electrons, dark matter, supersymmetric particles, axions, and black holes.The very existence of baryons is also a significant issue in cosmology because it is assumed that the Big Bang produced a state with equal amounts of baryons and antibaryons.", "The process by which baryons came to outnumber their antiparticles is called baryogenesis." ], [ "Baryogenesis", "Experiments are consistent with the number of quarks in the universe being conserved alongside the total baryon number, with antibaryons being counted as negative quantities.", "Within the prevailing Standard Model of particle physics, the number of baryons may change in multiples of three due to the action of sphalerons, although this is rare and has not been observed under experiment.", "Some grand unified theories of particle physics also predict that a single proton can decay, changing the baryon number by one; however, this has not yet been observed under experiment.", "The excess of baryons over antibaryons in the present universe is thought to be due to non-conservation of baryon number in the very early universe, though this is not well understood." ], [ "Properties", "=== Isospin and charge ===u, d''' or '''s''' quarks forming baryons with a spin- form the ''uds baryon decuplet''u, d''' or '''s''' quarks forming baryons with a spin- form the ''uds baryon octet''The concept of isospin was first proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1932 to explain the similarities between protons and neutrons under the strong interaction.", "Although they had different electric charges, their masses were so similar that physicists believed they were the same particle.", "The different electric charges were explained as being the result of some unknown excitation similar to spin.", "This unknown excitation was later dubbed ''isospin'' by Eugene Wigner in 1937.This belief lasted until Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model in 1964 (containing originally only the u, d, and s quarks).", "The success of the isospin model is now understood to be the result of the similar masses of u and d quarks.", "Since u and d quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number then also have similar masses.", "The exact specific u and d quark composition determines the charge, as u quarks carry charge + while d quarks carry charge −.", "For example, the four Deltas all have different charges ( (uuu), (uud), (udd), (ddd)), but have similar masses (~1,232 MeV/c2) as they are each made of a combination of three u or d quarks.", "Under the isospin model, they were considered to be a single particle in different charged states.The mathematics of isospin was modeled after that of spin.", "Isospin projections varied in increments of 1 just like those of spin, and to each projection was associated a \"charged state\".", "Since the \"Delta particle\" had four \"charged states\", it was said to be of isospin ''I'' = .", "Its \"charged states\" , , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections ''I''3 = +, ''I''3 = +, ''I''3 = −, and ''I''3 = −, respectively.", "Another example is the \"nucleon particle\".", "As there were two nucleon \"charged states\", it was said to be of isospin .", "The positive nucleon (proton) was identified with ''I''3 = + and the neutral nucleon (neutron) with ''I''3 = −.", "It was later noted that the isospin projections were related to the up and down quark content of particles by the relation:: where the ''n'''s are the number of up and down quarks and antiquarks.In the \"isospin picture\", the four Deltas and the two nucleons were thought to be the different states of two particles.", "However, in the quark model, Deltas are different states of nucleons (the N++ or N− are forbidden by Pauli's exclusion principle).", "Isospin, although conveying an inaccurate picture of things, is still used to classify baryons, leading to unnatural and often confusing nomenclature.=== Flavour quantum numbers ===The strangeness flavour quantum number ''S'' (not to be confused with spin) was noticed to go up and down along with particle mass.", "The higher the mass, the lower the strangeness (the more s quarks).", "Particles could be described with isospin projections (related to charge) and strangeness (mass) (see the uds octet and decuplet figures on the right).", "As other quarks were discovered, new quantum numbers were made to have similar description of udc and udb octets and decuplets.", "Since only the u and d mass are similar, this description of particle mass and charge in terms of isospin and flavour quantum numbers works well only for octet and decuplet made of one u, one d, and one other quark, and breaks down for the other octets and decuplets (for example, ucb octet and decuplet).", "If the quarks all had the same mass, their behaviour would be called ''symmetric'', as they would all behave in the same way to the strong interaction.", "Since quarks do not have the same mass, they do not interact in the same way (exactly like an electron placed in an electric field will accelerate more than a proton placed in the same field because of its lighter mass), and the symmetry is said to be broken.It was noted that charge (''Q'') was related to the isospin projection (''I''3), the baryon number (''B'') and flavour quantum numbers (''S'', ''C'', ''B''′, ''T'') by the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula:: where ''S'', ''C'', ''B''′, and ''T'' represent the strangeness, charm, bottomness and topness flavour quantum numbers, respectively.", "They are related to the number of strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks and antiquark according to the relations:: meaning that the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula is equivalent to the expression of charge in terms of quark content:: === Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum ===Spin (quantum number ''S'') is a vector quantity that represents the \"intrinsic\" angular momentum of a particle.", "It comes in increments of  ħ (pronounced \"h-bar\").", "The ħ is often dropped because it is the \"fundamental\" unit of spin, and it is implied that \"spin 1\" means \"spin 1 ħ\".", "In some systems of natural units, ħ is chosen to be 1, and therefore does not appear anywhere.Quarks are fermionic particles of spin (''S'' = ).", "Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 ħ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (''S''z = + and ''S''z = −).", "Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length ''S'' = 1 and three spin projections (''S''z = +1, ''S''z = 0, and ''S''z = −1).", "If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length ''S'' = 0 and has only one spin projection (''S''z = 0), etc.", "Since baryons are made of three quarks, their spin vectors can add to make a vector of length ''S'' = , which has four spin projections (''S''z = +, ''S''z = +, ''S''z = −, and ''S''z = −), or a vector of length ''S'' =  with two spin projections (''S''z = +, and ''S''z = −).There is another quantity of angular momentum, called the orbital angular momentum (azimuthal quantum number ''L''), that comes in increments of 1 ħ, which represent the angular moment due to quarks orbiting around each other.", "The total angular momentum (total angular momentum quantum number ''J'') of a particle is therefore the combination of intrinsic angular momentum (spin) and orbital angular momentum.", "It can take any value from to , in increments of 1.+ Baryon angular momentum quantum numbers for ''L'' = 0, 1, 2, 3 Spin, ''S'' Orbital angular momentum, ''L'' Total angular momentum, ''J'' Parity, ''P'' Condensed notation, ''J''''P'' 0 + + 1 , − −, − 2 , + +, + 3 , − −, − 0 + + 1 , , − −, −, − 2 , , , + +, +, +, + 3 , , , − −, −, −, −Particle physicists are most interested in baryons with no orbital angular momentum (''L'' = 0), as they correspond to ground states—states of minimal energy.", "Therefore, the two groups of baryons most studied are the ''S'' = ; ''L'' = 0 and ''S'' = ; ''L'' = 0, which corresponds to ''J'' = + and ''J'' = +, respectively, although they are not the only ones.", "It is also possible to obtain ''J'' = + particles from ''S'' =  and ''L'' = 2, as well as ''S'' =  and ''L'' = 2.This phenomenon of having multiple particles in the same total angular momentum configuration is called ''degeneracy''.", "How to distinguish between these degenerate baryons is an active area of research in baryon spectroscopy.=== Parity ===If the universe were reflected in a mirror, most of the laws of physics would be identical—things would behave the same way regardless of what we call \"left\" and what we call \"right\".", "This concept of mirror reflection is called \"intrinsic parity\" or simply \"parity\" (''P'').", "Gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong interaction all behave in the same way regardless of whether or not the universe is reflected in a mirror, and thus are said to conserve parity (P-symmetry).", "However, the weak interaction does distinguish \"left\" from \"right\", a phenomenon called parity violation (P-violation).Based on this, if the wavefunction for each particle (in more precise terms, the quantum field for each particle type) were simultaneously mirror-reversed, then the new set of wavefunctions would perfectly satisfy the laws of physics (apart from the weak interaction).", "It turns out that this is not quite true: for the equations to be satisfied, the wavefunctions of certain types of particles have to be multiplied by −1, in addition to being mirror-reversed.", "Such particle types are said to have negative or odd parity (''P'' = −1, or alternatively ''P'' = –), while the other particles are said to have positive or even parity (''P'' = +1, or alternatively ''P'' = +).For baryons, the parity is related to the orbital angular momentum by the relation:: As a consequence, baryons with no orbital angular momentum (''L'' = 0) all have even parity (''P'' = +)." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Baryons are classified into groups according to their isospin (''I'') values and quark (''q'') content.", "There are six groups of baryons: nucleon (), Delta (), Lambda (), Sigma (), Xi (), and Omega ().", "The rules for classification are defined by the Particle Data Group.", "These rules consider the up (), down () and strange () quarks to be ''light'' and the charm (), bottom (), and top () quarks to be ''heavy''.", "The rules cover all the particles that can be made from three of each of the six quarks, even though baryons made of top quarks are not expected to exist because of the top quark's short lifetime.", "The rules do not cover pentaquarks.", "* Baryons with (any combination of) three and/or quarks are s (''I'' = ) or baryons (''I'' = ).", "* Baryons containing two and/or quarks are baryons (''I'' = 0) or baryons (''I'' = 1).", "If the third quark is heavy, its identity is given by a subscript.", "* Baryons containing one or quark are baryons (''I'' = ).", "One or two subscripts are used if one or both of the remaining quarks are heavy.", "* Baryons containing no or quarks are baryons (''I'' = 0), and subscripts indicate any heavy quark content.", "* Baryons that decay strongly have their masses as part of their names.", "For example, Σ0 does not decay strongly, but Δ++(1232) does.It is also a widespread (but not universal) practice to follow some additional rules when distinguishing between some states that would otherwise have the same symbol.", "* Baryons in total angular momentum ''J'' =  configuration that have the same symbols as their ''J'' =  counterparts are denoted by an asterisk ( * ).", "* Two baryons can be made of three different quarks in ''J'' =  configuration.", "In this case, a prime ( ′ ) is used to distinguish between them.", "** ''Exception'': When two of the three quarks are one up and one down quark, one baryon is dubbed Λ while the other is dubbed Σ.Quarks carry a charge, so knowing the charge of a particle indirectly gives the quark content.", "For example, the rules above say that a contains a c quark and some combination of two u and/or d quarks.", "The c quark has a charge of (''Q'' = +), therefore the other two must be a u quark (''Q'' = +), and a d quark (''Q'' = −) to have the correct total charge (''Q'' = +1)." ], [ "See also", "* Eightfold way* List of baryons* Meson* Timeline of particle discoveries" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Particle Data Group— Review of Particle Physics (2018).", "* Georgia State University— HyperPhysics* Baryons made thinkable, an interactive visualisation allowing physical properties to be compared" ] ]

[ [ "Braille embosser" ], [ "Introduction", "A braille embosser showing some pages created on it.A '''braille embosser''' is an impact printer that renders text as tactile braille cells.", "Using braille translation software, a document or digital text can be embossed with relative ease.", "This makes braille production efficient and cost-effective.", "Braille translation software may be free and open-sourced or paid.Blind users tend to call other printers \"ink printers,\" to distinguish them from their braille counterparts.", "This is often the case regardless of the type of printer being discussed (e.g., thermal printers being called \"ink printers\" even though they use no ink).As with ink printers and presses, embossers range from those intended for consumers to those used by large publishers.", "The price of embossers increase with the volume of braille it produces ." ], [ "Types", "The fastest industrial braille embosser is probably the $92,000 Belgian-made NV Interpoint 55, first produced in 1991, which uses a separate air compressor to drive the embossing head and can output up to 800 braille characters per second.", "Adoption was slow at first; in 2000 the National Federation of the Blind said there were only three of these in the US, one owned by the NFB itself and the other two by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.", "As of 2008, there are more than 60 in use across the world.Smaller desktop braille embossers are more common and can be found in libraries, universities, and specialist education centers, as well as being privately owned by blind individuals.", "It may be necessary to use an acoustic cabinet or hood to dampen the noise level.Braille embossers usually need special braille paper which is thicker and more expensive than normal paper.", "Some high-end embossers are capable of printing on normal paper.", "Embossers can be either one-sided or two-sided.", "Two-sided embossing requires lining up the dots so they do not overlap (called \"interpoint\" because the points on the other side are placed in between the points on the first side).", "Two-sided embossing uses less paper and reduces the size of the output.Once one copy of a document has been produced, printing further copies is often quicker by means of a device called a thermoform, which produces copies on soft plastic.", "However, the resulting braille is not as easily readable as braille that has been freshly embossed, in much the same way that a poor-quality photocopy is not as readable as the original.", "Hence large publishers do not generally use thermoforms.Some embossers can produce \"dotty Moon\", i.e., Moon type shapes formed by dots." ], [ "See also", "* Braigo* Mountbatten Brailler* Book* E-book* Braille e-book* Braille translator" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Basic Role-Playing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Basic Role-Playing''''' ('''''BRP''''') is a tabletop role-playing game which originated in the ''RuneQuest'' fantasy role-playing game.", "Chaosium released the ''BRP'' standalone booklet in 1980 in the boxed set release of the second edition of ''RuneQuest''.", "Greg Stafford and Lynn Willis are credited as the authors.", "Chaosium used the percentile skill-based system as the basis for most of their games, including ''Call of Cthulhu'', ''Stormbringer'', and ''Elfquest''." ], [ "History", "The core rules were originally written by Steve Perrin as part of his game ''RuneQuest''.", "It was Greg Stafford's idea to simplify the rules (eliminating such things as Strike Ranks and Hit Locations) and issue them in a 16-page booklet called ''Basic Role-Playing''.", "Over the years several others, including Sandy Petersen, Lynn Willis, and Steve Henderson, contributed to the system.The ''BRP'' was notable for being the first role-playing game system to introduce a full skill system to characters regardless of their profession.", "This was developed in ''RuneQuest'' but was also later adopted by the more skill-oriented ''Call of Cthulhu''.", "''BRP'' was conceived of as a generic system for playing any sort of RPG.", "Specific rule systems to support differing genres can be added to the core rules in a modular design.", "In order to underscore this, in 1982 Chaosium released the ''Worlds of Wonder'' box set, which contained a revised main booklet and several booklets providing the additional rules for playing in specific genres.", "The superhero-themed ''Superworld'' originated as part of this set.", "A third edition of the core booklet, now entitled ''Basic Roleplaying: The Chaosium System'', was released in 2002.During 2004, Chaosium published the ''Basic Roleplaying'' monographs, a series of paperback booklets.", "The first four monographs (''Players Book'', ''Magic Book'', ''Creatures Book'', and ''Gamemaster Book'') was the same as ''RuneQuest'' 3rd Edition, but with trademarked elements removed, as Chaosium had lost the rights to the name but retained copyright to the rules text.", "Additional monographs allowing for new mechanics, thereby extending the system to other genres, were released in the following years.", "Many of these monographs reproduced rules from other Chaosium-published ''BRP'' games that had gone out of print.In 2008, Jason Durall and Sam Johnson gathered up previous works and updated them to a new edition.", "This comprehensive book, ''Basic Roleplaying: The Chaosium System'', was later nicknamed the \"Big Gold Book\".", "It allowed game masters to build their own game out of the included subsystems.", "A quickstart booklet for new players accompanied it.", "In 2011, it was updated to a second edition.In 2020, Chaosium released ''Basic Roleplaying'' as a System Reference Document (SRD).Settings-based published over the years by Chaosium using the ''BRP'' ruleset include ''Ringworld'', ''Hawkmoon'', and an adaptation of the French RPG ''Nephilim''." ], [ "Rules system", "''BRP'' is similar to other generic systems such as ''GURPS'', ''Hero System'', or ''Savage Worlds'' in that it uses a simple resolution method which can be broadly applied.", "It uses a core set of seven characteristics: Size, Strength, Dexterity, Constitution, Intelligence, Power, and Appearance or Charisma.", "From these, a character derives scores in various skills, expressed as percentages.", "These skill scores are the basis of play.", "When attempting an action, the player rolls percentile dice to attempt to get a result equal to or lower than the character's skill score.", "Each incarnation of the ''BRP'' rules changed or added to the core ideas and mechanics, so that games are not identical.", "For example, in ''Call of Cthulhu'', skills may never be over 100%, while in ''Stormbringer'' skills in excess of 100% are within reach for all characters.", "Scores can increase through experience checks, the mechanics of which vary in an individual game.The system treats armor and defense as separate: the act of parrying is a defensive skill that reduces an opponent's chance to successfully land an attack, and the purpose of armor is to absorb damage.In most ''BRP'' games there is no difference between the player character race systems and that of monsters or other opponents.", "By varying ability scores, the same system is used for a human hero as a troll villain.", "This approach allows for players to play a variety of nonhuman species." ], [ "Licensed games", "Chaosium was an early adopter of licensing out its ''BRP'' system to other companies, something that was unique at the time they began but commonplace now thanks to the d20 licenses.", "This places ''BRP'' in the notable position of being one of the first products to allow other game companies to develop games or game aids for their work.", "For example, ''Other Suns'', published by Fantasy Games Unlimited (FGU), used them under license.", "''BRP'' was also used as the base for the Swedish game ''Drakar och Demoner'' from Target Games." ], [ "Reception", "In the July 1981 edition of ''The Space Gamer'' (Issue No.", "41), Ronald Pehr commented that \"''Basic Role-Playing'' is too little too late.", "''RuneQuest'' is long established, does an adequate job of teaching role-playing, and there are now even more games to choose from.", "If you want to teach role-playing to a very young, but literate, child, ''Basic Role-Playing'' is excellent.", "Otherwise, for all its charm, it's not much use.", "\".In the August 1981 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue 52), John Sapienza noted that ''Basic Roleplaying'' was \"not a fantasy role-playing game as such, but a handbook on how to role-play and a simple combat system to help the beginner get into the act.\"", "Despite this, Sapienza called it \"one of the best introductions to the practical social interactions in gaming that I have read, and will give beginning gamers the kind of guidance they typically do not get in the full-scale games they will graduate to, since game writers usually spend their time on mechanics instead of on the proper relationships between player and player, player and referee, or player and character.\"", "He concluded, \"''Basic Role-Playing'' is a truly universal introduction to the hobby — highly recommended.", "\"=== Awards ===The ''BRP'' itself has been the recipient, via its games, of many awards.", "Most notable was the 1981 Origins Award for ''Best Roleplaying Rules'' for ''Call of Cthulhu''.", "Other editions of ''Call of Cthulhu'' have also won Origins Awards including the Hall of Fame award.", "The ''BRP'' Character Generation software has also won awards for its design." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Chaosium's ''Basic Role-Playing'' Product Line Page* Basic Roleplaying Central - The community fansite for ''Basic Roleplaying'' game systems." ] ]

[ [ "Block cipher" ], [ "Introduction", "In cryptography, a '''block cipher''' is a deterministic algorithm that operates on fixed-length groups of bits, called ''blocks''.", "Block ciphers are the elementary building blocks of many cryptographic protocols.", "They are ubiquitous in the storage and exchange of data, where such data is secured and authenticated via encryption.A block cipher uses blocks as an unvarying transformation.", "Even a secure block cipher is suitable for the encryption of only a single block of data at a time, using a fixed key.", "A multitude of modes of operation have been designed to allow their repeated use in a secure way to achieve the security goals of confidentiality and authenticity.", "However, block ciphers may also feature as building blocks in other cryptographic protocols, such as universal hash functions and pseudorandom number generators." ], [ "Definition", "A block cipher consists of two paired algorithms, one for encryption, , and the other for decryption, .", "Both algorithms accept two inputs: an input block of size bits and a key of size bits; and both yield an -bit output block.", "The decryption algorithm is defined to be the inverse function of encryption, i.e., .", "More formally, a block cipher is specified by an encryption function:which takes as input a key , of bit length (called the ''key size''), and a bit string , of length (called the ''block size''), and returns a string of bits.", "is called the plaintext, and is termed the ciphertext.", "For each , the function () is required to be an invertible mapping on .", "The inverse for is defined as a function:taking a key and a ciphertext to return a plaintext value , such that:For example, a block cipher encryption algorithm might take a 128-bit block of plaintext as input, and output a corresponding 128-bit block of ciphertext.", "The exact transformation is controlled using a second input – the secret key.", "Decryption is similar: the decryption algorithm takes, in this example, a 128-bit block of ciphertext together with the secret key, and yields the original 128-bit block of plain text.For each key ''K'', ''EK'' is a permutation (a bijective mapping) over the set of input blocks.", "Each key selects one permutation from the set of possible permutations." ], [ "History", "The modern design of block ciphers is based on the concept of an iterated product cipher.", "In his seminal 1949 publication, ''Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems'', Claude Shannon analyzed product ciphers and suggested them as a means of effectively improving security by combining simple operations such as substitutions and permutations.", "Iterated product ciphers carry out encryption in multiple rounds, each of which uses a different subkey derived from the original key.", "One widespread implementation of such ciphers named a Feistel network after Horst Feistel is notably implemented in the DES cipher.", "Many other realizations of block ciphers, such as the AES, are classified as substitution–permutation networks.The root of all cryptographic block formats used within the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards lies with the Atalla Key Block (AKB), which was a key innovation of the Atalla Box, the first hardware security module (HSM).", "It was developed in 1972 by Mohamed M. Atalla, founder of Atalla Corporation (now Utimaco Atalla), and released in 1973.The AKB was a key block, which is required to securely interchange symmetric keys or PINs with other actors in the banking industry.", "This secure interchange is performed using the AKB format.", "The Atalla Box protected over 90% of all ATM networks in operation as of 1998, and Atalla products still secure the majority of the world's ATM transactions as of 2014.The publication of the DES cipher by the United States National Bureau of Standards (subsequently the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST) in 1977 was fundamental in the public understanding of modern block cipher design.", "It also influenced the academic development of cryptanalytic attacks.", "Both differential and linear cryptanalysis arose out of studies on DES design.", ", there is a palette of attack techniques against which a block cipher must be secure, in addition to being robust against brute-force attacks." ], [ "Design", "===Iterated block ciphers===Most block cipher algorithms are classified as ''iterated block ciphers'' which means that they transform fixed-size blocks of plaintext into identically sized blocks of ciphertext, via the repeated application of an invertible transformation known as the ''round function'', with each iteration referred to as a ''round''.Usually, the round function ''R'' takes different ''round keys'' ''Ki'' as a second input, which is derived from the original key::where is the plaintext and the ciphertext, with ''r'' being the number of rounds.Frequently, key whitening is used in addition to this.", "At the beginning and the end, the data is modified with key material (often with XOR, but simple arithmetic operations like adding and subtracting are also used)::::Given one of the standard iterated block cipher design schemes, it is fairly easy to construct a block cipher that is cryptographically secure, simply by using a large number of rounds.", "However, this will make the cipher inefficient.", "Thus, efficiency is the most important additional design criterion for professional ciphers.", "Further, a good block cipher is designed to avoid side-channel attacks, such as branch prediction and input-dependent memory accesses that might leak secret data via the cache state or the execution time.", "In addition, the cipher should be concise, for small hardware and software implementations.", "Finally, the cipher should be easily crypt analyzable, such that it can be shown how many rounds the cipher needs to be reduced to so that the existing cryptographic attacks would work – and, conversely, that it can be shown that the number of actual rounds is large enough to protect against them.===Substitution–permutation networks===A sketch of a substitution–permutation network with 3 rounds, encrypting a plaintext block of 16 bits into a ciphertext block of 16 bits.", "The S-boxes are the ''Si'', the P-boxes are the same ''P'', and the round keys are the ''Ki''.One important type of iterated block cipher known as a ''substitution–permutation network (SPN)'' takes a block of the plaintext and the key as inputs and applies several alternating rounds consisting of a substitution stage followed by a permutation stage—to produce each block of ciphertext output.", "The non-linear substitution stage mixes the key bits with those of the plaintext, creating Shannon's ''confusion''.", "The linear permutation stage then dissipates redundancies, creating ''diffusion''.A ''substitution box (S-box)'' substitutes a small block of input bits with another block of output bits.", "This substitution must be one-to-one, to ensure invertibility (hence decryption).", "A secure S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits on average, exhibiting what is known as the avalanche effect—i.e.", "it has the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit.A ''permutation box (P-box)'' is a permutation of all the bits: it takes the outputs of all the S-boxes of one round, permutes the bits, and feeds them into the S-boxes of the next round.", "A good P-box has the property that the output bits of any S-box are distributed to as many S-box inputs as possible.At each round, the round key (obtained from the key with some simple operations, for instance, using S-boxes and P-boxes) is combined using some group operation, typically XOR.Decryption is done by simply reversing the process (using the inverses of the S-boxes and P-boxes and applying the round keys in reversed order).===Feistel ciphers===Many block ciphers, such as DES and Blowfish utilize structures known as ''Feistel ciphers''In a ''Feistel cipher'', the block of plain text to be encrypted is split into two equal-sized halves.", "The round function is applied to one half, using a subkey, and then the output is XORed with the other half.", "The two halves are then swapped.Let be the round function and let be the sub-keys for the rounds respectively.Then the basic operation is as follows:Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (, )For each round , compute::.Then the ciphertext is .The decryption of a ciphertext is accomplished by computing for ::.Then is the plaintext again.One advantage of the Feistel model compared to a substitution–permutation network is that the round function does not have to be invertible.===Lai–Massey ciphers===IDEA.The Lai–Massey scheme offers security properties similar to those of the Feistel structure.", "It also shares the advantage that the round function does not have to be invertible.", "Another similarity is that it also splits the input block into two equal pieces.", "However, the round function is applied to the difference between the two, and the result is then added to both half blocks.Let be the round function and a half-round function and let be the sub-keys for the rounds respectively.Then the basic operation is as follows:Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (, )For each round , compute:where and Then the ciphertext is .The decryption of a ciphertext is accomplished by computing for :where and Then is the plaintext again.===Operations=======ARX (add–rotate–XOR)====Many modern block ciphers and hashes are '''ARX''' algorithms—their round function involves only three operations: (A) modular addition, (R) rotation with fixed rotation amounts, and (X) XOR.", "Examples include ChaCha20, Speck, XXTEA, and BLAKE.", "Many authors draw an ARX network, a kind of data flow diagram, to illustrate such a round function.These ARX operations are popular because they are relatively fast and cheap in hardware and software, their implementation can be made extremely simple, and also because they run in constant time, and therefore are immune to timing attacks.", "The rotational cryptanalysis technique attempts to attack such round functions.====Other operations====Other operations often used in block ciphers include data-dependent rotations as in RC5 and RC6, a substitution box implemented as a lookup table as in Data Encryption Standard and Advanced Encryption Standard, a permutation box, and multiplication as in IDEA." ], [ "Modes of operation", "Insecure encryption of an image as a result of electronic codebook (ECB) mode encodingA block cipher by itself allows encryption only of a single data block of the cipher's block length.", "For a variable-length message, the data must first be partitioned into separate cipher blocks.", "In the simplest case, known as electronic codebook (ECB) mode, a message is first split into separate blocks of the cipher's block size (possibly extending the last block with padding bits), and then each block is encrypted and decrypted independently.", "However, such a naive method is generally insecure because equal plaintext blocks will always generate equal ciphertext blocks (for the same key), so patterns in the plaintext message become evident in the ciphertext output.To overcome this limitation, several so-called block cipher modes of operation have been designed and specified in national recommendations such as NIST 800-38A and BSI TR-02102 and international standards such as ISO/IEC 10116.The general concept is to use randomization of the plaintext data based on an additional input value, frequently called an initialization vector, to create what is termed probabilistic encryption.", "In the popular cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, for encryption to be secure the initialization vector passed along with the plaintext message must be a random or pseudo-random value, which is added in an exclusive-or manner to the first plaintext block before it is encrypted.", "The resultant ciphertext block is then used as the new initialization vector for the next plaintext block.", "In the cipher feedback (CFB) mode, which emulates a self-synchronizing stream cipher, the initialization vector is first encrypted and then added to the plaintext block.", "The output feedback (OFB) mode repeatedly encrypts the initialization vector to create a key stream for the emulation of a synchronous stream cipher.", "The newer counter (CTR) mode similarly creates a key stream, but has the advantage of only needing unique and not (pseudo-)random values as initialization vectors; the needed randomness is derived internally by using the initialization vector as a block counter and encrypting this counter for each block.From a security-theoretic point of view, modes of operation must provide what is known as semantic security.", "Informally, it means that given some ciphertext under an unknown key one cannot practically derive any information from the ciphertext (other than the length of the message) over what one would have known without seeing the ciphertext.", "It has been shown that all of the modes discussed above, with the exception of the ECB mode, provide this property under so-called chosen plaintext attacks." ], [ "Padding", "Some modes such as the CBC mode only operate on complete plaintext blocks.", "Simply extending the last block of a message with zero bits is insufficient since it does not allow a receiver to easily distinguish messages that differ only in the number of padding bits.", "More importantly, such a simple solution gives rise to very efficient padding oracle attacks.", "A suitable padding scheme is therefore needed to extend the last plaintext block to the cipher's block size.", "While many popular schemes described in standards and in the literature have been shown to be vulnerable to padding oracle attacks, a solution that adds a one-bit and then extends the last block with zero-bits, standardized as \"padding method 2\" in ISO/IEC 9797-1, has been proven secure against these attacks." ], [ "Cryptanalysis", "===Brute-force attacks=== This property results in the cipher's security degrading quadratically, and needs to be taken into account when selecting a block size.", "There is a trade-off though as large block sizes can result in the algorithm becoming inefficient to operate.", "Earlier block ciphers such as the DES have typically selected a 64-bit block size, while newer designs such as the AES support block sizes of 128 bits or more, with some ciphers supporting a range of different block sizes.===Differential cryptanalysis======Linear cryptanalysis===''A linear cryptanalysis'' is a form of cryptanalysis based on finding affine approximations to the action of a cipher.", "Linear cryptanalysis is one of the two most widely used attacks on block ciphers; the other being differential cryptanalysis.The discovery is attributed to Mitsuru Matsui, who first applied the technique to the FEAL cipher (Matsui and Yamagishi, 1992).===Integral cryptanalysis===''Integral cryptanalysis'' is a cryptanalytic attack that is particularly applicable to block ciphers based on substitution–permutation networks.", "Unlike differential cryptanalysis, which uses pairs of chosen plaintexts with a fixed XOR difference, integral cryptanalysis uses sets or even multisets of chosen plaintexts of which part is held constant and another part varies through all possibilities.", "For example, an attack might use 256 chosen plaintexts that have all but 8 of their bits the same, but all differ in those 8 bits.", "Such a set necessarily has an XOR sum of 0, and the XOR sums of the corresponding sets of ciphertexts provide information about the cipher's operation.", "This contrast between the differences between pairs of texts and the sums of larger sets of texts inspired the name \"integral cryptanalysis\", borrowing the terminology of calculus.===Other techniques===The development of the boomerang attack enabled differential cryptanalysis techniques to be applied to many ciphers that had previously been deemed secure against differential attacksIn addition to linear and differential cryptanalysis, there is a growing catalog of attacks: truncated differential cryptanalysis, partial differential cryptanalysis, integral cryptanalysis, which encompasses square and integral attacks, slide attacks, boomerang attacks, the XSL attack, impossible differential cryptanalysis, and algebraic attacks.", "For a new block cipher design to have any credibility, it must demonstrate evidence of security against known attacks." ], [ "Provable security", "When a block cipher is used in a given mode of operation, the resulting algorithm should ideally be about as secure as the block cipher itself.", "ECB (discussed above) emphatically lacks this property: regardless of how secure the underlying block cipher is, ECB mode can easily be attacked.", "On the other hand, CBC mode can be proven to be secure under the assumption that the underlying block cipher is likewise secure.", "Note, however, that making statements like this requires formal mathematical definitions for what it means for an encryption algorithm or a block cipher to \"be secure\".", "This section describes two common notions for what properties a block cipher should have.", "Each corresponds to a mathematical model that can be used to prove properties of higher-level algorithms, such as CBC.This general approach to cryptography – proving higher-level algorithms (such as CBC) are secure under explicitly stated assumptions regarding their components (such as a block cipher) – is known as ''provable security''.===Standard model===Informally, a block cipher is secure in the standard model if an attacker cannot tell the difference between the block cipher (equipped with a random key) and a random permutation.To be a bit more precise, let ''E'' be an ''n''-bit block cipher.", "We imagine the following game:# The person running the game flips a coin.#* If the coin lands on heads, he chooses a random key ''K'' and defines the function ''f'' = ''E''''K''.#* If the coin lands on tails, he chooses a random permutation on the set of ''n''-bit strings and defines the function ''f'' = .# The attacker chooses an ''n''-bit string ''X'', and the person running the game tells him the value of ''f''(''X'').# Step 2 is repeated a total of ''q'' times.", "(Each of these ''q'' interactions is a ''query''.", ")# The attacker guesses how the coin landed.", "He wins if his guess is correct.The attacker, which we can model as an algorithm, is called an ''adversary''.", "The function ''f'' (which the adversary was able to query) is called an ''oracle''.Note that an adversary can trivially ensure a 50% chance of winning simply by guessing at random (or even by, for example, always guessing \"heads\").", "Therefore, let ''P''''E''(''A'') denote the probability that adversary ''A'' wins this game against ''E'', and define the ''advantage'' of ''A'' as 2(''P''''E''(''A'') − 1/2).", "It follows that if ''A'' guesses randomly, its advantage will be 0; on the other hand, if ''A'' always wins, then its advantage is 1.The block cipher ''E'' is a ''pseudo-random permutation'' (PRP) if no adversary has an advantage significantly greater than 0, given specified restrictions on ''q'' and the adversary's running time.", "If in Step 2 above adversaries have the option of learning ''f''−1(''X'') instead of ''f''(''X'') (but still have only small advantages) then ''E'' is a ''strong'' PRP (SPRP).", "An adversary is ''non-adaptive'' if it chooses all ''q'' values for ''X'' before the game begins (that is, it does not use any information gleaned from previous queries to choose each ''X'' as it goes).These definitions have proven useful for analyzing various modes of operation.", "For example, one can define a similar game for measuring the security of a block cipher-based encryption algorithm, and then try to show (through a reduction argument) that the probability of an adversary winning this new game is not much more than ''P''''E''(''A'') for some ''A''.", "(The reduction typically provides limits on ''q'' and the running time of ''A''.)", "Equivalently, if ''P''''E''(''A'') is small for all relevant ''A'', then no attacker has a significant probability of winning the new game.", "This formalizes the idea that the higher-level algorithm inherits the block cipher's security.===Ideal cipher model===" ], [ "Practical evaluation", "Block ciphers may be evaluated according to multiple criteria in practice.", "Common factors include:* Key parameters, such as its key size and block size, both of which provide an upper bound on the security of the cipher.", "* The ''estimated security level'', which is based on the confidence gained in the block cipher design after it has largely withstood major efforts in cryptanalysis over time, the design's mathematical soundness, and the existence of practical or certificational attacks.", "* The cipher's ''complexity'' and its suitability for implementation in hardware or software.", "Hardware implementations may measure the complexity in terms of gate count or energy consumption, which are important parameters for resource-constrained devices.", "* The cipher's ''performance'' in terms of processing throughput on various platforms, including its memory requirements.", "* The ''cost'' of the cipher refers to licensing requirements that may apply due to intellectual property rights.", "* The ''flexibility'' of the cipher includes its ability to support multiple key sizes and block lengths." ], [ "Notable block ciphers", "===Lucifer / DES===Lucifer is generally considered to be the first civilian block cipher, developed at IBM in the 1970s based on work done by Horst Feistel.", "A revised version of the algorithm was adopted as a U.S. government Federal Information Processing Standard: FIPS PUB 46 Data Encryption Standard (DES).", "It was chosen by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) after a public invitation for submissions and some internal changes by NBS (and, potentially, the NSA).", "DES was publicly released in 1976 and has been widely used.DES was designed to, among other things, resist a certain cryptanalytic attack known to the NSA and rediscovered by IBM, though unknown publicly until rediscovered again and published by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir in the late 1980s.", "The technique is called differential cryptanalysis and remains one of the few general attacks against block ciphers; linear cryptanalysis is another but may have been unknown even to the NSA, prior to its publication by Mitsuru Matsui.", "DES prompted a large amount of other work and publications in cryptography and cryptanalysis in the open community and it inspired many new cipher designs.DES has a block size of 64 bits and a key size of 56 bits.", "64-bit blocks became common in block cipher designs after DES.", "Key length depended on several factors, including government regulation.", "Many observers in the 1970s commented that the 56-bit key length used for DES was too short.", "As time went on, its inadequacy became apparent, especially after a special-purpose machine designed to break DES was demonstrated in 1998 by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.", "An extension to DES, Triple DES, triple-encrypts each block with either two independent keys (112-bit key and 80-bit security) or three independent keys (168-bit key and 112-bit security).", "It was widely adopted as a replacement.", "As of 2011, the three-key version is still considered secure, though the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standards no longer permit the use of the two-key version in new applications, due to its 80-bit security level.===IDEA===The ''International Data Encryption Algorithm'' (''IDEA'') is a block cipher designed by James Massey of ETH Zurich and Xuejia Lai; it was first described in 1991, as an intended replacement for DES.IDEA operates on 64-bit blocks using a 128-bit key and consists of a series of eight identical transformations (a ''round'') and an output transformation (the ''half-round'').", "The processes for encryption and decryption are similar.", "IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different groups – modular addition and multiplication, and bitwise ''exclusive or (XOR)'' – which are algebraically \"incompatible\" in some sense.The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions.", "No successful linear or algebraic weaknesses have been reported.", ", the best attack which applies to all keys can break a full 8.5-round IDEA using a narrow-bicliques attack about four times faster than brute force.===RC5===One round (two half-rounds) of the RC5 block cipherRC5 is a block cipher designed by Ronald Rivest in 1994 which, unlike many other ciphers, has a variable block size (32, 64, or 128 bits), key size (0 to 2040 bits), and a number of rounds (0 to 255).", "The original suggested choice of parameters was a block size of 64 bits, a 128-bit key, and 12 rounds.A key feature of RC5 is the use of data-dependent rotations; one of the goals of RC5 was to prompt the study and evaluation of such operations as a cryptographic primitive.", "RC5 also consists of a number of modular additions and XORs.", "The general structure of the algorithm is a Feistel-like a network.", "The encryption and decryption routines can be specified in a few lines of code.", "The key schedule, however, is more complex, expanding the key using an essentially one-way function with the binary expansions of both e and the golden ratio as sources of \"nothing up my sleeve numbers\".", "The tantalizing simplicity of the algorithm together with the novelty of the data-dependent rotations has made RC5 an attractive object of study for cryptanalysts.12-round RC5 (with 64-bit blocks) is susceptible to a differential attack using 244 chosen plaintexts.", "18–20 rounds are suggested as sufficient protection.===Rijndael / AES===The ''Rijndael'' cipher developed by Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen was one of the competing designs to replace DES.", "It won the 5-year public competition to become the AES, (Advanced Encryption Standard).Adopted by NIST in 2001, AES has a fixed block size of 128 bits and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits, whereas Rijndael can be specified with block and key sizes in any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 bits.", "The block size has a maximum of 256 bits, but the key size has no theoretical maximum.", "AES operates on a 4×4 column-major order matrix of bytes, termed the ''state'' (versions of Rijndael with a larger block size have additional columns in the state).===Blowfish===''Blowfish'' is a block cipher, designed in 1993 by Bruce Schneier and included in a large number of cipher suites and encryption products.", "Blowfish has a 64-bit block size and a variable key length from 1 bit up to 448 bits.", "It is a 16-round Feistel cipher and uses large key-dependent S-boxes.", "Notable features of the design include the key-dependent S-boxes and a highly complex key schedule.It was designed as a general-purpose algorithm, intended as an alternative to the aging DES and free of the problems and constraints associated with other algorithms.", "At the time Blowfish was released, many other designs were proprietary, encumbered by patents, or were commercial/government secrets.", "Schneier has stated that \"Blowfish is unpatented, and will remain so in all countries.", "The algorithm is hereby placed in the public domain, and can be freely used by anyone.\"", "The same applies to Twofish, a successor algorithm from Schneier." ], [ "Generalizations", "===Tweakable block ciphers===M.", "Liskov, R. Rivest, and D. Wagner have described a generalized version of block ciphers called \"tweakable\" block ciphers.", "A tweakable block cipher accepts a second input called the ''tweak'' along with its usual plaintext or ciphertext input.", "The tweak, along with the key, selects the permutation computed by the cipher.", "If changing tweaks is sufficiently lightweight (compared with a usually fairly expensive key setup operation), then some interesting new operation modes become possible.", "The disk encryption theory article describes some of these modes.===Format-preserving encryption===Block ciphers traditionally work over a binary alphabet.", "That is, both the input and the output are binary strings, consisting of ''n'' zeroes and ones.", "In some situations, however, one may wish to have a block cipher that works over some other alphabet; for example, encrypting 16-digit credit card numbers in such a way that the ciphertext is also a 16-digit number might facilitate adding an encryption layer to legacy software.", "This is an example of ''format-preserving encryption''.", "More generally, format-preserving encryption requires a keyed permutation on some finite language.", "This makes format-preserving encryption schemes a natural generalization of (tweakable) block ciphers.", "In contrast, traditional encryption schemes, such as CBC, are not permutations because the same plaintext can encrypt multiple different ciphertexts, even when using a fixed key." ], [ "Relation to other cryptographic primitives", "Block ciphers can be used to build other cryptographic primitives, such as those below.", "For these other primitives to be cryptographically secure, care has to be taken to build them the right way.", "* Stream ciphers can be built using block ciphers.", "OFB mode and CTR mode are block modes that turn a block cipher into a stream cipher.", "* Cryptographic hash functions can be built using block ciphers.", "See the one-way compression function for descriptions of several such methods.", "The methods resemble the block cipher modes of operation usually used for encryption.", "* Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generators (CSPRNGs) can be built using block ciphers.", "* Secure pseudorandom permutations of arbitrarily sized finite sets can be constructed with block ciphers; see Format-Preserving Encryption.", "* A publicly known unpredictable permutation combined with key whitening is enough to construct a block cipher -- such as the single-key Even–Mansour cipher, perhaps the simplest possible provably secure block cipher.", "* Message authentication codes (MACs) are often built from block ciphers.", "CBC-MAC, OMAC, and PMAC are such MACs.", "* Authenticated encryption is also built from block ciphers.", "It means to both encrypt and MAC at the same time.", "That is to both provide confidentiality and authentication.", "CCM, EAX, GCM, and OCB are such authenticated encryption modes.Just as block ciphers can be used to build hash functions, like SHA-1 and SHA-2 are based on block ciphers which are also used independently as SHACAL, hash functions can be used to build block ciphers.", "Examples of such block ciphers are BEAR and LION." ], [ "See also", "* Cipher security summary* Topics in cryptography* XOR cipher" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* A list of many symmetric algorithms, the majority of which are block ciphers.", "* The block cipher lounge* What is a block cipher?", "from RSA FAQ* Block Cipher based on Gold Sequences and Chaotic Logistic Tent System" ] ]

[ [ "Wireless broadband" ], [ "Introduction", "Three fixed wireless dishes with protective covers on top of 307 W. 7th Street, Fort Worth, Texas, around 2001'''Wireless broadband''' is a telecommunications technology that provides high-speed wireless Internet access or computer networking access over a wide area.", "The term encompasses both fixed and mobile broadband." ], [ "The term broadband", "Originally the word \"broadband\" had a technical meaning, but became a marketing term for any kind of relatively high-speed computer network or Internet access technology.According to the 802.16-2004 standard, broadband means \"having instantaneous bandwidths greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s.", "\"The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) recently re-defined the definition to mean download speeds of at least 25 Mbit/s and upload speeds of at least 3 Mbit/s." ], [ "Technology and speeds", "A typical WISP Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) installed on a residenceA wireless broadband network is an outdoor fixed and/or mobile wireless network providing point-to-multipoint or point-to-point terrestrial wireless links for broadband services.Wireless networks can feature data rates exceeding 1 Gbit/s.", "Many fixed wireless networks are exclusively half-duplex (HDX), however, some licensed and unlicensed systems can also operate at full-duplex (FDX) allowing communication in both directions simultaneously.Outdoor fixed wireless broadband networks commonly utilize a priority TDMA based protocol in order to divide communication into timeslots.", "This timeslot technique eliminates many of the issues common to 802.11 Wi-Fi protocol in outdoor networks such as the hidden node problem.Few wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) provide download speeds of over 100 Mbit/s; most broadband wireless access (BWA) services are estimated to have a range of from a tower.", "Technologies used include Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS), as well as heavy use of the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands and one particular access technology was standardized by IEEE 802.16, with products known as WiMAX.WiMAX is highly popular in Europe but has not met full acceptance in the United States because cost of deployment does not meet return on investment figures.", "In 2005 the Federal Communications Commission adopted a Report and Order that revised the FCC's rules to open the 3650 MHz band for terrestrial wireless broadband operations.Another system that is popular with cable internet service providers uses point-to-multipoint wireless links that extend the existing wired network using a transparent radio connection.", "This allows the same DOCSIS modems to be used for both wired and wireless customers." ], [ "Development of Wireless Broadband in the United States", "On November 14, 2007 the Commission released Public Notice DA 07–4605 in which the Wireless Telecommunications Bureau announced the start date for licensing and registration process for the 3650–3700 MHz band.In 2010 the FCC adopted the TV White Space Rules (TVWS) and allowed some of the better no line of sight frequency (700 MHz) into the FCC Part-15 Rules.", "The Wireless Internet Service Providers Association, a national association of WISPs, petitioned the FCC and won.Initially, WISPs were only found in rural areas not covered by cable or DSL.", "These early WISPs would employ a high-capacity T-carrier, such as a T1 or DS3 connection, and then broadcast the signal from a high elevation, such as at the top of a water tower.", "To receive this type of Internet connection, consumers mount a small dish to the roof of their home or office and point it to the transmitter.", "Line of sight is usually necessary for WISPs operating in the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands with 900 MHz offering better NLOS (non-line-of-sight) performance.===Residential Wireless Internet===Providers of fixed wireless broadband services typically provide equipment to customers and install a small antenna or dish somewhere on the roof.", "This equipment is usually deployed as a service and maintained by the company providing that service.", "Fixed wireless services have become particularly popular in many rural areas where cable, DSL or other typical home internet services are not available.===Business Wireless Internet===Many companies in the US and worldwide have started using wireless alternatives to incumbent and local providers for internet and voice service.", "These providers tend to offer competitive services and options in areas where there is a difficulty getting affordable Ethernet connections from terrestrial providers such as ATT, Comcast, Verizon and others.", "Also, companies looking for full diversity between carriers for critical uptime requirements may seek wireless alternatives to local options.===Demand for spectrum===To cope with increased demand for wireless broadband, increased spectrum would be needed.", "Studies began in 2009, and while some unused spectrum was available, it appeared broadcasters would have to give up at least some spectrum.", "This led to strong objections from the broadcasting community.", "In 2013, auctions were planned, and for now any action by broadcasters is voluntary." ], [ "Mobile wireless broadband", "Called mobile broadband, wireless broadband technologies include services from mobile phone service providers such as Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation, and AT&T Mobility, and T-Mobile which allow a more mobile version of Internet access.", "Consumers can purchase a PC card, laptop card, USB equipment, or mobile broadband modem, to connect their PC or laptop to the Internet via cell phone towers.", "This type of connection would be stable in almost any area that could also receive a strong cell phone connection.", "These connections can cost more for portable convenience as well as having speed limitations in all but urban environments.On June 2, 2010, after months of discussion, AT&T became the first wireless Internet provider in the US to announce plans to charge according to usage.", "As the only iPhone service in the United States, AT&T experienced the problem of heavy Internet use more than other providers.", "About 3 percent of AT&T smart phone customers account for 40 percent of the technology's use.", "98 percent of the company's customers use less than 2 gigabytes (4000 page views, 10,000 emails or 200 minutes of streaming video), the limit under the $25 monthly plan, and 65 percent use less than 200 megabytes, the limit for the $15 plan.", "For each gigabyte in excess of the limit, customers would be charged $10 a month starting June 7, 2010, though existing customers would not be required to change from the $30 a month unlimited service plan.", "The new plan would become a requirement for those upgrading to the new iPhone technology later in the summer." ], [ "Licensing", "A wireless connection can be either licensed or unlicensed.", "In the US, licensed connections use a private spectrum the user has secured rights to from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).", "The unlicensed mobile wireless broadband, in US operates on CBRS Which has three tiers.", "Tier 1 – Incumbent Access, reserved for US Federals Government, Tier 2 – Priority Access, a paid access with priority on the spectrum, Tier 3 – General Authorized Access (GAA), a shared spectrum.", "In other countries, spectrum is licensed from the country's national radio communications authority (such as the ACMA in Australia or Nigerian Communications Commission in Nigeria (NCC)).", "Licensing is usually expensive and often reserved for large companies who wish to guarantee private access to spectrum for use in point to point communication.", "Because of this, most wireless ISP's use unlicensed spectrum which is publicly shared." ], [ "See also", "* Clearwire* CorDECT* HIPERMAN* Skyriver, provider in California* WiBro, provider in South Korea* iBurst* 802.20* Connect card* Policies promoting wireless broadband" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * Wireless Internet Service Provider Association* Wireless Internet Service Provider Ontario" ] ]

[ [ "Björn Borg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Björn Rune Borg''' (; born 6 June 1956) is a Swedish former world No.", "1 tennis player.", "Between 1974 and 1981, he became the first man in the Open Era to win 11 Grand Slam singles titles with six at the French Open and five consecutively at Wimbledon.Borg won four consecutive French Open titles (1978–81) and is 6–0 in French Open finals.", "He was the first man since 1886 to contest six consecutive Wimbledon finals, a record surpassed by Roger Federer's seven consecutive finals (2003–09).", "He is the only man to achieve the Channel Slam three times.", "Borg contested the French Open, Wimbledon and US Open finals in the same year three times (1978, 1980–81).", "He won three major titles without dropping a set during those tournaments.", "However, he never won the US Open despite four runner-up finishes.Borg also won three year-end championships and 16 Grand Prix Super Series titles.", "Overall, he set numerous records that still stand.", "He was ATP Player of the Year from 1976 to 1980, and was the year-end world No.", "1 in the ATP rankings in 1979 and 1980 and ITF World Champion from 1978 to 1980.Borg is the only Swede, male or female, to win over 10 majors.", "Borg unexpectedly retired from tennis in 1981, at the age of 25.He made a brief and unsuccessful comeback in 1991.Borg is widely considered one of the all-time greats of the sport.", "He was ranked by ''Tennis'' magazine as the sixth-greatest male player of the Open Era.", "His rivalry with John McEnroe is considered one of the best in the sport's history, and their meeting in the 1980 Wimbledon final is considered one of the greatest matches ever played.", "A teenage sensation at the start of his career, Borg experienced unprecedented stardom and consistent success that helped propel the rising popularity of tennis during the 1970s.", "As a result, the professional tour became more lucrative, and in 1979, Borg became the first player to earn more than US$1 million in prize money in a single season." ], [ "Early life", "Borg in 1974Björn Borg was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on 6 June 1956, the only child of Rune (1932–2008), an electrician, and Margaretha Borg (b.", "1934).", "He grew up in nearby Södertälje.", "As a child, Borg became fascinated with a golden tennis racket that his father won at a table-tennis tournament.", "His father gave him the racket, beginning his tennis career.A player of great athleticism and endurance, he had a distinctive style and appearance—bowlegged and very fast.", "His muscularity allowed him to put heavy topspin on both his forehand and two-handed backhand.", "He followed Jimmy Connors in using the two-handed backhand.", "By the time he was 13, he was beating the best of Sweden's under-18 players, and Davis Cup captain Lennart Bergelin (who served as Borg's primary coach throughout his professional career) cautioned against anyone trying to change Borg's rough-looking, jerky strokes." ], [ "Career", "===1972–73 – Davis Cup debut and first year on the tour===At the age of 15, Borg represented Sweden in the 1972 Davis Cup and won his debut singles rubber in five sets against veteran Onny Parun of New Zealand.", "Later that year, he won the Wimbledon junior singles title, recovering from a 5–2 deficit in the final set to overcome Britain's Buster Mottram.", "Then in December, he won the Orange Bowl Junior Championship for boys 18 and under after a straight-sets victory in the final over Vitas Gerulaitis.", "Borg joined the professional circuit in 1973, and reached his first singles final in April at the Monte Carlo Open, which he lost to Ilie Năstase.", "He was unseeded at his first French Open and reached the fourth round where he lost in four sets to eighth-seeded Adriano Panatta.", "Borg was seeded sixth at his first Wimbledon Championships, in large part due to a boycott by the ATP, and reached the quarterfinal, where he was defeated in a five-set match by Roger Taylor.", "In the second half of 1973, he was runner-up in San Francisco, Stockholm and Buenos Aires and finished the year ranked No.", "18.===1974 – First French Open title===Borg (left) celebrating his win over Guillermo Vilas at the French Open final in 1975Borg (right) playing Tom Okker at Rotterdam Open in 1974Borg made his only appearance at the Australian Open at the age of 17, and reached the third round, where he lost in straight sets to eventual finalist Phil Dent.", "In January, he won his first career singles title at the New Zealand Open, followed by titles in London and São Paulo in February and March respectively.", "Just before his 18th birthday in June 1974, Borg won his first top-level singles title at the Italian Open, defeating defending champion and top-seeded Ilie Năstase in the final and becoming its youngest winner.", "Two weeks later, he won the singles title at the French Open, his first Grand Slam tournament title, defeating Manuel Orantes in the final in five sets.", "Barely 18, Borg was the youngest-ever male French Open champion up to that point.===1975 – Retained French Open title===In early 1975, Borg defeated Rod Laver, then 36 years old, in a semifinal of the World Championship Tennis (WCT) finals in Dallas, Texas, in five sets.", "Borg subsequently lost to Arthur Ashe in the final.Borg retained his French Open title in 1975, beating Guillermo Vilas in the final in straight sets.", "Borg then reached the Wimbledon quarterfinals, where he lost to eventual champion Ashe.", "Borg did not lose another match at Wimbledon until 1981.Borg won two singles and one doubles rubber in the 1975 Davis Cup final, as Sweden beat Czechoslovakia 3–2.With these singles wins, Borg had won 19 consecutive Davis Cup singles rubbers since 1973.That was already a record at the time.", "However, Borg never lost another Davis Cup singles rubber, and, by the end of his career, he had stretched that winning streak to 33.===1976 – First Wimbledon title===In early 1976, Borg won the World Championship Tennis year-end WCT Finals in Dallas, Texas, with a four-set victory over Guillermo Vilas in the final.", "At the 1976 French Open, Borg lost to the Italian Adriano Panatta, who remains the only player to defeat Borg at this tournament.", "Panatta did it twice: in the fourth round in 1973, and in the 1976 quarterfinals.", "Borg won Wimbledon in 1976 without losing a set, defeating the favored Ilie Năstase in the final.", "Borg became the youngest male Wimbledon champion of the modern era at 20 years and 1 month (a record subsequently broken by Boris Becker, who won Wimbledon aged 17 in 1985).", "Năstase later said, \"We're playing tennis, he's playing something else.\"", "Borg also reached the final of the 1976 U.S. Open, which was then being played on clay courts.", "Borg lost in four sets to world no.", "1 Jimmy Connors.", "Borg was awarded the ATP Player of the Year award and ranked world No.", "1 by ''Tennis Magazine'' (France).===1977 – Second Wimbledon title and world No.1 ranking===In February 1977 World Championship Tennis (WCT) sued Borg and his management company IMG claiming that Borg had committed a breach of contract by electing to participate in the competing 1977 Grand Prix circuit instead of the WCT circuit.", "Borg eventually played, and won, a single WCT event, the Monte Carlo WCT.", "An out-of-court settlement was reached whereby Borg committed to play six or eight WCT events in 1978 which were then part of the Grand Prix circuit.Borg skipped the French Open in 1977 because he was under contract with WTT, but he repeated his Wimbledon triumph, although this time he was pushed much harder.", "He defeated his good friend Vitas Gerulaitis in a semifinal in five sets.", "His match with Gerulaitis was deemed by Wimbledon itself as \"probably the greatest gentlemen's singles match played at Wimbledon\".", "In the 1977 final Borg was pushed to five sets for the third time in the tournament, this time by Connors.", "The win propelled Borg to the No.", "1 ranking in the ATP point system, albeit for just one week in August.", "Prior to the 1977 US Open, Borg aggravated a shoulder injury while waterskiing with Vitas Gerulaitis.", "This injury ultimately forced him to retire from the Open during a Round of 16 match vs Dick Stockton.", "Borg was rated number one for 1977 by ''Tennis Magazine'' (France), ''Tennis Magazine'' (U.S.), Barry Lorge, Lance Tingay, Rino Tommasi, Judith Elian and Rod Laver.", "Borg was also named \"ATP Player of the Year\".", "Through 1977, he had never lost to a player younger than himself.===1978 – French and Wimbledon titles===Borg was at the height of his career from 1978 through 1980, completing the French Open-Wimbledon double all three years.", "In 1978, Borg won the French Open with a win over Vilas in the final.", "Borg did not drop a set during the tournament, a feat only he, Năstase (in 1973), and Rafael Nadal (in 2008, 2010, 2017 and 2020) have accomplished at the French Open during the open era.", "Borg defeated Connors in straight sets in the 1978 Wimbledon final.", "At the 1978 US Open, now held on hard courts in Flushing Meadow, New York, he lost the final in straight sets to Connors.", "Borg was suffering from a bad blister on his thumb that required pre-match injections.", "That autumn, Borg faced John McEnroe for the first time in a semifinal of the Stockholm Open, and lost.", "Borg was named ATP Player of the Year and was the first ITF World Champion.===1979 – French and Wimbledon titles and year-end No.", "1 ranking===Borg playing a double-handed backhand shot at the 1979 ABN World Tennis TournamentBorg (left) playing against John McEnroe in 1979Borg lost to McEnroe again in four sets in the final of the 1979 WCT Finals but was now overtaking Connors for the top ranking.", "Borg established himself firmly in the top spot with his fourth French Open singles title and fourth straight Wimbledon singles title, defeating Connors in a straight-set semifinal at the latter tournament.", "At the 1979 French Open, Borg defeated big-serving Víctor Pecci in a four-set final, and in the 1979 Wimbledon final Borg came from behind to overcome an even bigger server, Roscoe Tanner.", "Borg was upset by Tanner at the US Open, in a four-set quarterfinal played under the lights.", "At the season-ending Masters tournament in January 1980, Borg survived a close semifinal against McEnroe.", "He then beat Gerulaitis in straight sets, winning his first Masters and first title in New York.", "Borg finished the year at No.", "1 in the ATP Point rankings and was considered the No.", "1 player in the world by most authorities.===1980 – French and fifth consecutive Wimbledon title===In June, Borg overcame Gerulaitis, again in straight sets, for his fifth French Open title.", "Again, he did not drop a set during the tournament.Borg then won his fifth consecutive Wimbledon singles title, defeating McEnroe in a five-set final, often cited as the best Wimbledon final ever played.", "Having lost the opening set to an all-out McEnroe assault, Borg took the next two and had two championship points at 5–4 in the fourth.", "However, McEnroe averted disaster and went on to level the match in Wimbledon's most memorable tiebreaker, which McEnroe won 18–16.In the fourth-set tiebreak, McEnroe saved five match points, and Borg six set points, before McEnroe won the set.", "Björn served first to begin the 5th set and fell behind 0–30.Borg then won 19 straight points on serve in the deciding set and prevailed after 3 hours, 53 minutes.", "Borg himself commented years later that this was the first time that he was afraid that he would lose, as well as feeling that it was the beginning of the end of his dominance.In September, 1980 Borg reached the final of the U.S. Open for the third time, losing to John McEnroe in five sets in a match that cemented what had become the greatest contemporary rivalry, albeit short-lived, in men's tennis.He defeated McEnroe in the final of the 1980 Stockholm Open, and faced him one more time that year, in the round-robin portion of the year-end Masters, actually played in January 1981.With 19,103 fans in attendance, Borg won a deciding third-set tie-break for the second year in a row.", "Borg then defeated Ivan Lendl for his second Masters title.", "Borg again finished the year at No.", "1 in the ATP Point Rankings and was considered the No.", "1 player in the world by most tennis authorities.===1981 – Sixth and final French Open title===Borg won his last Grand Slam title at the French Open in 1981, defeating Lendl in a five-set final.", "Borg's six French Open Grand Slam titles was a record bettered only by Rafael Nadal in 2012.In reaching the Wimbledon final in 1981, Borg stretched his winning streak at the All England Club to a record 41 matches.", "In a semifinal, Borg was down to Connors by two sets to love, before coming back to win the match.", "However, Borg's streak was brought to an end by McEnroe, who defeated him in four sets.", "Years afterward, Borg remarked \"And when I lost what shocked me was I wasn't even upset.", "That was not me: losing a Wimbledon final and not upset.", "I hate to lose.\"", "Borg around that time felt that his desire to play was gone, despite McEnroe's desperate efforts to persuade him not to retire and continue their rivalry.Borg went on to lose to McEnroe at the 1981 US Open.", "After that defeat, Borg walked off the court and out of the stadium before the ceremonies and press conference had begun, and headed straight for the airport.", "There are reports that Borg received threats after his semifinal win over Connors.", "In later years, Borg apologized to McEnroe.", "The 1981 US Open would be the Swede's last Grand Slam final.", "Major tournaments and tour organizers were enforcing a new rule; by 1982, that players had to play at least 10 official tournaments per year.", "However, Borg wanted to curtail his schedule after many years of winning so often.", "Although he felt in good condition physically, he recognized that the relentless drive to win and defy tour organizers had begun to fade.Borg failed to win the US Open in nine tries, losing four finals, 1976 (the surface was clay that year) and 1978 to Jimmy Connors, and 1980 and 1981 to John McEnroe.", "The surface was hard court from 1978 onward and Borg reached the final there on hard court on three occasions, in 1978, 1980 and 1981.He led 3–2 in the fifth set of the 1980 final, before losing.", "That match followed Borg's classic encounter with McEnroe at the 1980 Wimbledon.", "In 1978, 1979 and 1980, Borg was halfway to a Grand Slam after victories at the French and Wimbledon (the Australian Open being the last Grand Slam tournament of each year at the time) only to falter at Flushing Meadows, the left-handed Roscoe Tanner being his conqueror in 1979.===1982–91 – Retirement===Borg as a sports commentator at the French Open in 1983Borg in 1987In 1982, Borg played only two tournaments.", "He lost to Yannick Noah in the quarterfinals of Monte Carlo in April and in the same month he lost to Dick Stockton in the second round of qualifying at the Alan King Tennis Classic in Las Vegas.", "Nevertheless, Borg's announcement in January 1983 that he was retiring from the game at the age of 26 was a shock to the tennis world.", "McEnroe tried unsuccessfully to persuade Borg to continue.", "He did, however, play Monte Carlo again in March 1983, reaching the second round, and Stuttgart in July 1984.Upon retirement, Borg had three residences: a penthouse in Monte Carlo, not far from his pro shop; a mansion on Long Island, New York and a small island off the Swedish coast.Borg later bounced back as the owner of the Björn Borg fashion label.", "In Sweden, his label has become very successful, second only to Calvin Klein.===Attempted comeback===In 1991–1993, Borg attempted a comeback on the men's professional tennis tour, coached by Welsh karate expert Ron Thatcher.", "Before his 1991 return, Borg grew his hair out as it had been during his previous professional tennis career and he returned to using a wooden racket; he had kept his hair cut and used modern graphite rackets in exhibitions he played during the late 1980s.", "Borg, however, failed to win a single match.", "He faced Jordi Arrese in his first match back, again at Monte Carlo but without practising or playing any exhibition matches and lost in two sets.", "In his first nine matches, played in 1991 and 1992, Borg failed to win a single set.", "He fared slightly better in 1993, taking a set off his opponent in each of the three matches he played.", "He came closest to getting a win in what turned out to be his final tour match, falling to second seed Alexander Volkov 6–4, 3–6, 6–7(7–9) at the 1993 Kremlin Cup in Moscow.In 1992 Borg, aged 35, using a graphite racket, defeated John Lloyd, 37, at the Inglewood Forum Tennis Challenge.", "Borg later joined the Champions tour, using modern rackets." ], [ "Playing style", "Borg in 1991Borg had one of the most distinctive playing styles in the Open Era.", "He played from the baseline, with powerful ground-strokes.", "His highly unorthodox backhand involved taking his racket back with both hands but actually generating his power with his dominant right hand, letting go of the grip with his left hand around point of contact, and following through with his swing as a one-hander.", "He hit the ball hard and high from the back of the court and brought it down with considerable topspin, which made his ground strokes very consistent.", "There had been other players, particularly Rod Laver and Arthur Ashe, who played with topspin on both the forehand and backhand, yet Laver and Ashe used topspin only as a way to mix up their shots to pass their opponents at the net easily.", "Borg was one of the first top players to use heavy topspin on his shots consistently.Complementing his consistent ground-strokes was his fitness.", "Both of these factors allowed Borg to be dominant at the French Open.One of the factors that made Borg unique was his dominance on the grass courts of Wimbledon, where, since World War II, baseliners did not usually succeed.", "Some experts attributed his dominance on this surface to his consistency, an underrated serve, equally underrated volleys, and his adaptation to grass courts.", "Against the best players, he almost always served-and-volleyed on his first serves, while he naturally played from the baseline after his second serves.Another trait usually associated with Borg was his grace under pressure.", "His calm court demeanor earned him the nickname of the \"Ice Man\" or \"Ice-Borg\".Borg's physical conditioning was unrivalled by contemporaries.", "He could outlast most of his opponents under the most grueling conditions.", "Contrary to popular belief, however, this was not due to his exceptionally low resting heart rate, often reported to be near 35 beats per minute.", "In his introduction to Borg's autobiography ''My Life and Game'', Eugene Scott relates that this rumor arose from a medical exam the 18-year-old Borg once took for military service, where his pulse was recorded as 38.Scott goes on to reveal Borg's true pulse rate as \"about 50 when he wakes up and around 60 in the afternoon\".", "Borg is credited with helping to develop the style of play that has come to dominate the game today." ], [ "Mental approach", "Borg's first wife has said that he was \"always very placid and calm, except if he lost a match – he wouldn't talk for at least three days.", "He couldn't stand losing.\"", "This mental approach changed by 1981, when he has said that when he lost the Wimbledon final \"what shocked me was I wasn't even upset\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Borg and Mariana Simionescu in Snagov, Romania, on 24 July 1980Borg and Romanian tennis pro Mariana Simionescu began their relationship in 1976 and married in Bucharest on 24 July 1980.The marriage ended in divorce in 1984.He fathered a son named Robin in 1985 with the Swedish model Jannike Björling; Robin had a daughter in 2014.Borg was married to the Italian singer Loredana Bertè from 1989 to 1993.On 8 June 2002, he married his third wife, Patricia Östfeld.", "Together they have a son, Leo, born in 2003, who is also a professional tennis player.He narrowly avoided personal bankruptcy when business ventures failed.", "After selling his mansion Astaholm at Ingarö in the Stockholm archipelago in 2019, Björn moved to an apartment in Norrmalm, central Stockholm." ], [ "Film", "In 2017, ''Borg vs McEnroe'', a biographical film focusing on the rivalry between Borg and McEnroe and the 1980 Wimbledon final, was released.", "In 2022, interviews about this friendship and rivalry were also featured in \"McEnroe,\" a Showtime documentary." ], [ "Memorabilia preserved", "In March 2006, Bonhams Auction House in London announced that it would auction Borg's Wimbledon trophies and two of his winning rackets on 21 June 2006.Several players then called Borg in an attempt to make him reconsider, including Jimmy Connors and Andre Agassi, who volunteered to buy them to keep them together.", "According to – who had talked to Borg – McEnroe called Borg from New York and asked, \"What's up?", "Have you gone mad?\"", "and said \"What the hell are you doing?\"", "The conversation with McEnroe, paired with pleas from Connors and Agassi, eventually persuaded Borg to buy out the trophies from Bonhams for an undisclosed amount." ], [ "Distinctions and honors", "* Borg was ranked by the ATP rankings world no.", "1 in six stretches between 1977 and 1981, totaling 109 weeks.", "* During his career, he won a total of 77 (64 listed on the Association of Tennis Professionals website) top-level singles and four doubles titles.", "* Borg won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award in 1979.", "* Borg was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987.", "* On 10 December 2006, the British Broadcasting Corporation gave Borg a Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented by Boris Becker.", "* In December 2014 he was elected Sweden's top sportsperson of all time by the newspaper ." ], [ "Recognition", "Borg in 2013With 11 Grand Slam titles, Borg ranks sixth in the list of male tennis players who have won the most Grand Slam singles titles behind Novak Djokovic (24), Rafael Nadal (22), Roger Federer (20), Pete Sampras (14) and Roy Emerson (12).", "The French Open—Wimbledon double he achieved three times consecutively was described by Wimbledon officials as \"the most difficult double in tennis\".", "Only Nadal (in 2008 and 2010), Federer (in 2009), and Djokovic (in 2021) have managed to achieve this double since, and Agassi, Nadal, Federer and Djokovic are the only male players since Borg to have won the French Open and Wimbledon men's singles titles over their career.", "Ilie Năstase once said about Borg, \"We're playing tennis, and he's playing something else\".Borg is widely considered to be one of the greatest players in the history of the sport.In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and great player himself, had already included Borg in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time.", "And in 2003, Bud Collins chose Borg as one of his top-five male players of all time.", "In 1983 Fred Perry listed his greatest male players of all time and listed them in two categories, before World War 2 and after.", "Perry's modern best behind Laver: \"Borg, McEnroe, Connors, Hoad, Jack Kramer, John Newcombe, Ken Rosewall, Manuel Santana\".", "In 1988, a panel consisting of Bud Collins, Cliff Drysdale, and Butch Buchholz ranked their top five male tennis players of all time.", "Buchholz and Drysdale both listed Borg number two on their lists, behind Rod Laver.", "Collins listed Borg number five behind Laver, McEnroe, Rosewall and Gonzales.In 2008, ESPN.com asked tennis analysts, writers, and former players to build the perfect open-era player.", "Borg was the only player mentioned in four categories: defense, footwork, intangibles, and mental toughness—with his mental game and footwork singled out as the best in open-era history.Borg never won the US Open, losing in the final four times.", "Borg also did not win the Australian Open, which he only played once in 1974 as a 17-year-old.", "The only players to defeat Borg in a Grand Slam final were fellow World No.", "1 tennis players John McEnroe and Jimmy Connors.", "Even though it was then played on grass, a surface where he enjoyed much success, Borg chose to play the Australian Open only once, in 1974, where he lost in the third round.", "Phil Dent, a contemporary of Borg, has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments—especially the Australian Open—was not unusual then, before counting Grand Slam titles became the norm.", "Additionally, another contemporary Arthur Ashe told ''Sports Illustrated'', \"I think Bjorn could have won the US Open.", "I think he could have won the Grand Slam, but by the time he left, the historical challenge didn't mean anything.", "He was bigger than the game.", "He was like Elvis or Liz Taylor or somebody.\"" ], [ "Laver Cup", "From 22 to 24 September 2017, Borg was the victorious captain of Team Europe in the first-ever edition of the Laver Cup, held in Prague, Czech Republic.", "Borg's Team Europe defeated a rest of the world team, known as Team World, who were coached by Borg's old rival, John McEnroe.", "Europe won the contest 15 points to 9, with Roger Federer achieving a narrow vital victory over Nick Kyrgios in the last match played.Borg returned as the coach of Team Europe for the second edition in Chicago, Illinois from 21 to 23 September 2018.McEnroe also returned as the coach for Team World.", "Borg again led Europe to victory as Alexander Zverev defeated Kevin Anderson to secure the title 13–8, after trailing Anderson in the match tiebreak until the last few points.In the tournament's third edition, held in Geneva, Switzerland, from 20 to 22 September 2019, Borg captained Team Europe to a third consecutive victory, defeating McEnroe's Team World 13 points to 11, with Zverev again winning the deciding match.The fourth edition was held in Boston from 24 to 26 September 2021, having had its original September 2020 date postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Borg once again returned as captain of Team Europe, which had a resounding win over Team World, defeating McEnroe's players 14 to 1." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Singles performance timeline=== Tournament 19721973197419751976 1977 1978197919801981 Win %'''Grand Slam tournaments''' Australian Open A A 3R A A AA A A A A 0 / 1 1–1 50.00 French Open A 4R '''W''' '''W''' QF A '''W''' '''W''' '''W''' '''W''' 6 / 8 49–2 96.08 Wimbledon A QF 3R QF '''W''' '''W''' '''W''' '''W''' '''W''' F 5 / 9 51–4 92.73 US Open PR* 4R 2R SF F 4R F QF F F 0 / 10 40–10 80.00Win–loss 0–1 10–3 11–3 16–2 17–2 10–1 20–1 18–1 20–1 19–2 11 / 28 141–17 89.24'''Year-end championship''' The Masters A A RR F A F A '''W''' '''W''' A 2 / 5 16–6 72.72 WCT Finals A A F F '''W''' A SF F A A 1 / 5 10–3 76.92 '''Year-end ranking''' 18 '''3''' '''3''' '''2''' '''3''' '''2''' '''1''' '''1''' 4 $3,655,751* The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December.", "Borg did not play in either.", "* The 1972 US Open had a special preliminary round before the main 128 player draw began.===Records===* These records were attained in the entire period of tennis from 1877.", "* Records in '''bold''' indicate peer-less achievements.", "* '''^''' Denotes consecutive streak.====All-time records==== Tournament Since Record accomplished Players matched References '''Grand Slam'''197286.96% (20–3) five set match record'''Stands alone''' '''Grand Slam'''19773 consecutive Channel Slams, French Open + Wimbledon (1978–80) ^'''Stands alone''' '''Grand Slam'''1977Grand Slam title won (1978 French Open) with fewest games lost (32)'''Stands alone''' '''Wimbledon'''197792.73% (51–4) match win percentage '''Stands alone''' '''Wimbledon'''197741 consecutive match wins '''Stands alone'''====Open Era records====* These records were attained in the Open Era period of tennis from 1968.", "* Records in '''bold''' indicate peer-less achievements.", "* '''^''' Denotes consecutive streak.", "Time span Selected Grand Slam tournament records Players matched References 1976 Wimbledon —1981 French Open 41% (11/27) title winning percentage '''Stands alone''' 1976 Wimbledon —1981 French Open 89.24% (141–17) career match winning percentage '''Stands alone''' 1977–1981 5 consecutive years with a match winning percentage of 90%+ ^ '''Stands alone''' 1978 French Open —1978 US Open 66.5% (380–191) games winning percentage in 1 season '''Stands alone''' 1978 French Open 79.9% (127–32) games winning in one tournament '''Stands alone''' 1976 Wimbledon —1980 Wimbledon 6 existing Major champions defeated in finals Roger Federer 1976 Wimbledon —1980 Wimbledon 6 concurrent Major champions defeated in finals '''Stands alone''' 1980 Wimbledon Longest tiebreak in a final (by points – 34) vs. John McEnroe John McEnroe 1974 French OpenWon a Grand Slam final from two sets down.Ivan LendlAndre AgassiGastón GaudioDominic ThiemNovak DjokovicRafael NadalJannik Sinner Grand Slam tournaments Time span Records at each Grand Slam tournament Players matched References French Open 1979–1981 41 consecutive sets won ^ '''Stands alone''' 1978 79.9% (127–32) games winning percentage in 1 tournament '''Stands alone''' French Open—Wimbledon 1978–1980 3 consecutive \"Channel Slams\": Winning both tournaments in the same year ^ '''Stands alone''' Wimbledon 1976–1980 5 consecutive titles ^ Roger Federer 1976 Won title without losing a set 1976–1981 41 consecutive match wins '''Stands alone''' 1973–1981 92.72% (51–4) match winning percentage '''Stands alone''' Time span Other selected records Players matched References 1973–1981 72.5% (111–42) career winning percentage against top 10 players '''Stands alone''' 1977–1980 4 consecutive years with a match winning percentage of 90%+ '''Stands alone''' 1979–1980 10 consecutive titles '''Stands alone''' 1978 50 consecutive matches won in 1 season '''Stands alone''' 1978–1980 2 winning streaks of 35+ matches ^ Roger FedererJimmy Connors 1974–1981 63 titles until the age of 25 '''Stands alone''' 1974–1976 17 titles won as a teenager '''Stands alone''' 1972–1981 81.8% (27–6) career 5 set match record Jean BorotraJohan Kriek" ], [ "Professional awards", "* ITF World Champion: 1978, 1979, 1980* ATP Player of the Year: 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980" ], [ "See also", "* Borg–McEnroe rivalry* Borg–Connors rivalry* List of Grand Slam men's singles champions* List of Swedish sportspeople* World number one male tennis player rankings* Björn Borg (brand)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * John Barrett, editor, ''World of Tennis Yearbooks'', London, from 1976 through 1983.", "* Michel Sutter, ''Vainqueurs Winners 1946–2003'', Paris, 2003.Sutter has attempted to list all tournaments meeting his criteria for selection beginning with 1946 and ending in the fall of 1991.For each tournament, he has indicated the city, the date of the final, the winner, the runner-up, and the score of the final.", "A tournament is included in his list if: (1) the draw for the tournament included at least eight players (with a few exceptions, such as the Pepsi Grand Slam tournaments in the second half of the 1970s which included only players that had won a Grand Slam tournament); and (2) the level of the tournaments was at least equal to the present day challenger tournaments.", "Sutter's book is probably the most exhaustive source of tennis tournament information since World War II, even though some professional tournaments held before the start of the open era are missing.", "Later, Sutter issued a second edition of his book, with only the players, their wins, and years for the 1946 through 27 April 2003, period." ], [ "Video", "* ''The Wimbledon Collection – Legends of Wimbledon – Björn Borg'' Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 21 September 2004, Run Time: 52 minutes, ASIN: B0002HODA4.", "* ''The Wimbledon Collection – The Classic Match – Borg vs. McEnroe 1981 Final'' Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 21 September 2004, Run Time: 210 minutes, ASIN: B0002HODAE.", "* ''The Wimbledon Collection – The Classic Match – Borg vs. McEnroe 1980 Final'' Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 21 September 2004, Run Time: 240 minutes; ASIN: B0002HOEK8.", "* ''Wimbledon Classic Match: Gerulaitis vs Borg'' Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 31 October 2006, Run Time: 180 minutes, ASIN: B000ICLR8O." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ( archive)* BBC profile* Sunday Times article 5 July 2009" ] ]

[ [ "Booch method" ], [ "Introduction", "Class diagramThe '''Booch method''' is a method for object-oriented software development.", "It is composed of an object modeling language, an iterative object-oriented development process, and a set of recommended practices.The method was authored by Grady Booch when he was working for Rational Software (acquired by IBM), published in 1992 and revised in 1994.It was widely used in software engineering for object-oriented analysis and design and benefited from ample documentation and support tools.The notation aspect of the Booch methodology was superseded by the Unified Modeling Language (UML), which features graphical elements from the Booch method along with elements from the object-modeling technique (OMT) and object-oriented software engineering (OOSE).", "Methodological aspects of the Booch method have been incorporated into several methodologies and processes, the primary such methodology being the Rational Unified Process (RUP)." ], [ "Content of the method", "The Booch notation is characterized by cloud shapes to represent classes and distinguishes the following diagrams: Model Type Diagram UML correspondence Logical Static Class diagram Class diagram Object diagram Object diagram Dynamic State transition diagram State chart diagram Interaction diagram Sequence diagram Physical Static Module diagram Component diagram Process diagram Deployment diagram The process is organized around a macro and a micro process.The macro process identifies the following activities cycle: * Conceptualization : establish core requirements* Analysis : develop a model of the desired behavior* Design : create an architecture * Evolution: for the implementation* Maintenance : for evolution after the deliveryThe micro process is applied to new classes, structures or behaviors that emerge during the macro process.", "It is made of the following cycle: * Identification of classes and objects* Identification of their semantics * Identification of their relationships* Specification of their interfaces and implementation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Class diagrams, Object diagrams, State Event diagrams and Module diagrams.", "* The Booch Method of Object-Oriented Analysis & Design" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of the Nile" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of the Nile''' (also known as the '''Battle of Aboukir Bay'''; ) was a major naval battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the Navy of the French Republic at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast off the Nile Delta of Egypt from the 1st to the 3rd of August 1798.The battle was the climax of a naval campaign that had raged across the Mediterranean during the previous three months, as a large French convoy sailed from Toulon to Alexandria carrying an expeditionary force under General Napoleon Bonaparte.", "The British fleet was led in the battle by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson; they decisively defeated the French under Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers.Bonaparte sought to invade Egypt as the first step in a campaign against British India, as part of a greater effort to drive Britain out of the French Revolutionary Wars.", "As Bonaparte's fleet crossed the Mediterranean, it was pursued by a British force under Nelson who had been sent from the British fleet in the Tagus to learn the purpose of the French expedition and to defeat it.", "He chased the French for more than two months, on several occasions missing them only by a matter of hours.", "Bonaparte was aware of Nelson's pursuit and enforced absolute secrecy about his destination.", "He was able to capture Malta and then land in Egypt without interception by the British naval forces.With the French army ashore, the French fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay, northeast of Alexandria.", "Commander Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers believed that he had established a formidable defensive position.", "The British fleet arrived off Egypt on 1 August and discovered Brueys's dispositions, and Nelson ordered an immediate attack.", "His ships advanced on the French line and split into two divisions as they approached.", "One cut across the head of the line and passed between the anchored French and the shore, while the other engaged the seaward side of the French fleet.Trapped in a crossfire, the leading French warships were battered into surrender during a fierce three-hour battle, although the centre of the line held out for a while until more British ships were able to join the attack.", "At 22:00, the French flagship exploded which prompted the rear division of the French fleet to attempt to break out of the bay.", "With Brueys dead and his vanguard and centre defeated, only two ships of the line and two frigates escaped from a total of 17 ships engaged.The battle reversed the strategic situation between the two nations' forces in the Mediterranean and entrenched the Royal Navy in the dominant position that it retained for the rest of the Napoleonic Wars.", "It also encouraged other European countries to turn against France, and was a factor in the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition.", "Bonaparte's army was trapped in Egypt, and Royal Navy dominance off the Syrian coast contributed significantly to the French defeat at the siege of Acre in 1799 which preceded Bonaparte's abandonment of Egypt and return to Europe.", "Nelson had been wounded in the battle, and he was proclaimed a hero across Europe and was subsequently made Baron Nelson—although he was privately dissatisfied with his rewards.", "His captains were also highly praised and went on to form the nucleus of the legendary Nelson's Band of Brothers.", "The legend of the battle has remained prominent in the popular consciousness, with perhaps the best-known representation being Felicia Hemans' 1826 poem ''Casabianca''." ], [ "Background", "Napoleon Bonaparte's victories in northern Italy over the Austrian Empire helped secure victory for the French in the War of the First Coalition in 1797, and Great Britain remained the only major European power still at war with the French Republic.", "The French Directory investigated a number of strategic options to counter British opposition, including projected invasions of Ireland and Britain and the expansion of the French Navy to challenge the Royal Navy at sea.", "Despite significant efforts, British control of Northern European waters rendered these ambitions impractical in the short term, and the Royal Navy remained firmly in control of the Atlantic Ocean.", "However, the French navy was dominant in the Mediterranean, following the withdrawal of the British fleet after the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain in 1796.This allowed Bonaparte to propose an invasion of Egypt as an alternative to confronting Britain directly, believing that the British would be too distracted by an imminent Irish uprising to intervene in the Mediterranean.Bonaparte believed that, by establishing a permanent presence in Egypt (nominally part of the neutral Ottoman Empire), the French would obtain a staging point for future operations against British India, possibly by means of an alliance with the Tipu Sultan of Seringapatam, that might successfully drive the British out of the war.", "The campaign would sever the chain of communication that connected Britain with India, an essential part of the British Empire whose trade generated the wealth that Britain required to prosecute the war successfully.", "The French Directory agreed with Bonaparte's plans, although a major factor in their decision was a desire to see the politically ambitious Bonaparte and the fiercely loyal veterans of his Italian campaigns travel as far from France as possible.", "During the spring of 1798, Bonaparte assembled more than 35,000 soldiers in Mediterranean France and Italy and developed a powerful fleet at Toulon.", "He also formed the ''Commission des Sciences et des Arts'', a body of scientists and engineers intended to establish a French colony in Egypt.", "Napoleon kept the destination of the expedition top secret—most of the army's officers did not know of its target, and Bonaparte did not publicly reveal his goal until the first stage of the expedition was complete.===Mediterranean campaign===''Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson'', Lemuel Francis Abbott, 1800, National Maritime Museum.", "Visible on his cocked hat is the aigrette presented by the Ottoman Sultan as a reward for the victory at the Nile|alt=Portrait of a man in an ornate naval uniform festooned with medals and awards.Bonaparte's armada sailed from Toulon on 19 May, making rapid progress through the Ligurian Sea and collecting more ships at Genoa, before sailing southwards along the Sardinian coast and passing Sicily on 7 June.", "On 9 June, the fleet arrived off Malta, then under the ownership of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, ruled by Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim.", "Bonaparte demanded that his fleet be permitted entry to the fortified harbour of Valletta.", "When the Knights refused, the French general responded by ordering a large scale invasion of the Maltese Islands, overrunning the defenders after 24 hours of skirmishing.", "The Knights formally surrendered on 12 June and, in exchange for substantial financial compensation, handed the islands and all of their resources over to Bonaparte, including the extensive property of the Roman Catholic Church on Malta.", "Within a week, Bonaparte had resupplied his ships, and on 19 June, his fleet departed for Alexandria in the direction of Crete, leaving 4,000 men at Valletta under General Claude-Henri Vaubois to ensure French control of the islands.While Bonaparte was sailing to Malta, the Royal Navy re-entered the Mediterranean for the first time in more than a year.", "Alarmed by reports of French preparations on the Mediterranean coast, Lord Spencer at the Admiralty sent a message to Vice-Admiral Earl St. Vincent, commander of the Mediterranean Fleet based in the Tagus, to despatch a squadron to investigate.", "This squadron, consisting of three ships of the line and three frigates, was entrusted to Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson.Nelson was a highly experienced officer who had been blinded in one eye during fighting in Corsica in 1794 and subsequently commended for his capture of two Spanish ships of the line at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent in February 1797.In July 1797, he lost an arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and had been forced to return to Britain to recuperate.", "Returning to the fleet at the Tagus in late April 1798, he was ordered to collect the squadron stationed at Gibraltar and sail for the Ligurian Sea.", "On 21 May, as Nelson's squadron approached Toulon, it was struck by a fierce gale and Nelson's flagship, , lost its topmasts and was almost wrecked on the Corsican coast.", "The remainder of the squadron was scattered.", "The ships of the line sheltered at San Pietro Island off Sardinia; the frigates were blown to the west and failed to return.On 7 June, following hasty repairs to his flagship, a fleet consisting of ten ships of the line and a fourth-rate joined Nelson off Toulon.", "The fleet, under the command of Captain Thomas Troubridge, had been sent by Earl St. Vincent to reinforce Nelson, with orders that he was to pursue and intercept the Toulon convoy.", "Although he now had enough ships to challenge the French fleet, Nelson suffered two great disadvantages: He had no intelligence regarding the destination of the French, and no frigates to scout ahead of his force.", "Striking southwards in the hope of collecting information about French movements, Nelson's ships stopped at Elba and Naples, where the British ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, reported that the French fleet had passed Sicily headed in the direction of Malta.", "Despite pleas from Nelson and Hamilton, King Ferdinand of Naples refused to lend his frigates to the British fleet, fearing French reprisals.", "On 22 June, a brig sailing from Ragusa brought Nelson the news that the French had sailed eastwards from Malta on 16 June.", "After conferring with his captains, the admiral decided that the French target must be Egypt and set off in pursuit.", "Incorrectly believing the French to be five days ahead rather than two, Nelson insisted on a direct route to Alexandria without deviation.On the evening of 22 June, Nelson's fleet passed the French in the darkness, overtaking the slow invasion convoy without realising how close they were to their target.", "Making rapid time on a direct route, Nelson reached Alexandria on 28 June and discovered that the French were not there.", "After a meeting with the suspicious Ottoman commander, Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim, Nelson ordered the British fleet northwards, reaching the coast of Anatolia on 4 July and turning westwards back towards Sicily.", "Nelson had missed the French by less than a day—the scouts of the French fleet arrived off Alexandria in the evening of 29 June.Concerned by his near encounter with Nelson, Bonaparte ordered an immediate invasion, his troops coming ashore in a poorly managed amphibious operation in which at least 20 drowned.", "Marching along the coast, the French army stormed Alexandria and captured the city, after which Bonaparte led the main force of his army inland.", "He instructed his naval commander, Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers, to anchor in Alexandria harbour, but naval surveyors reported that the channel into the harbour was too shallow and narrow for the larger ships of the French fleet.", "As a result, the French selected an alternative anchorage at Aboukir Bay, northeast of Alexandria.Nelson's fleet reached Syracuse in Sicily on 19 July and took on essential supplies.", "There the admiral wrote letters describing the events of the previous months: \"It is an old saying, 'the Devil's children have the Devil's luck.'", "I cannot find, or at this moment learn, beyond vague conjecture where the French fleet are gone to.", "All my ill fortune, hitherto, has proceeded from want of frigates.\"", "Meanwhile, the French were securing Egypt by the Battle of the Pyramids.", "By 24 July, the British fleet was resupplied and, having determined that the French must be somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean, Nelson sailed again in the direction of the Morea.", "On 28 July, at Coron, Nelson finally obtained intelligence describing the French attack on Egypt and turned south across the Mediterranean.", "His scouts, and , sighted the French transport fleet at Alexandria on the afternoon of 1 August.===Aboukir Bay===When Alexandria harbour had proved inadequate for his fleet, Brueys had gathered his captains and discussed their options.", "Bonaparte had ordered the fleet to anchor in Aboukir Bay, a shallow and exposed anchorage, but had supplemented the orders with the suggestion that, if Aboukir Bay was too dangerous, Brueys could sail north to Corfu, leaving only the transports and a handful of lighter warships at Alexandria.", "Brueys refused, in the belief that his squadron could provide essential support to the French army on shore, and called his captains aboard his 120-gun flagship to discuss their response should Nelson discover the fleet in its anchorage.", "Despite vocal opposition from Contre-amiral Armand Blanquet, who insisted that the fleet would be best able to respond in open water, the rest of the captains agreed that anchoring in a line of battle inside the bay presented the strongest tactic for confronting Nelson.", "It is possible that Bonaparte envisaged Aboukir Bay as a temporary anchorage: on 27 July, he expressed the expectation that Brueys had already transferred his ships to Alexandria, and three days later, he issued orders for the fleet to make for Corfu in preparation for naval operations against the Ottoman territories in the Balkans, although Bedouin partisans intercepted and killed the courier carrying the instructions.François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliersartist unknown, alt=A man in an ornate naval uniform with long grey hair stands on a ship's quarterdeck.Aboukir Bay is a coastal indentation across, stretching from the village of Abu Qir in the west to the town of Rosetta to the east, where one of the mouths of the River Nile empties into the Mediterranean.", "In 1798, the bay was protected at its western end by extensive rocky shoals which ran into the bay from a promontory guarded by Aboukir Castle.", "A small fort situated on an island among the rocks protected the shoals.", "The fort was garrisoned by French soldiers and armed with at least four cannon and two heavy mortars.", "Brueys had augmented the fort with his bomb vessels and gunboats, anchored among the rocks to the west of the island in a position to give support to the head of the French line.", "Further shoals ran unevenly to the south of the island and extended across the bay in a rough semicircle approximately from the shore.", "These shoals were too shallow to permit the passage of larger warships, and so Brueys ordered his thirteen ships of the line to form up in a line of battle following the northeastern edge of the shoals to the south of the island, a position that allowed the ships to disembark supplies from their port sides while covering the landings with their starboard batteries.", "Orders were issued for each ship to attach strong cables to the bow and stern of their neighbours, which would effectively turn the line into a long battery forming a theoretically impregnable barrier.", "Brueys positioned a second, inner line of four frigates approximately west of the main line, roughly halfway between the line and the shoal.", "The van of the French line was led by , positioned southeast of Aboukir Island and about from the edge of the shoals that surrounded the island.", "The line stretched southeast, with the centre bowed seawards away from the shoal.", "The French ships were spaced at intervals of and the whole line was long, with the flagship ''Orient'' at the centre and two large 80-gun ships anchored on either side.", "The rear division of the line was under the command of Contre-amiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve in .In deploying his ships in this way, Brueys hoped that the British would be forced by the shoals to attack his strong centre and rear, allowing his van to use the prevailing northeasterly wind to counterattack the British once they were engaged.", "However, he had made a serious misjudgement: he had left enough room between ''Guerrier'' and the shoals for an enemy ship to cut across the head of the French line and proceed between the shoals and the French ships, allowing the unsupported vanguard to be caught in a crossfire by two divisions of enemy ships.", "Compounding this error, the French only prepared their ships for battle on their starboard (seaward) sides, from which they expected the attack would have to come; their landward port sides were unprepared.The port side gun ports were closed, and the decks on that side were uncleared, with various stored items blocking access to the guns.", "Brueys' dispositions had a second significant flaw: The 160-yard gaps between ships were large enough for a British ship to push through and break the French line.", "Furthermore, not all of the French captains had followed Brueys' orders to attach cables to their neighbours' bow and stern, which would have prevented such a manoeuvre.", "The problem was exacerbated by orders to only anchor at the bow, which allowed the ships to swing with the wind and widened the gaps.", "It also created areas within the French line not covered by the broadside of any ship.", "British vessels could anchor in those spaces and engage the French without reply.", "In addition, the deployment of Brueys' fleet prevented the rear from effectively supporting the van due to the prevailing winds.A more pressing problem for Brueys was a lack of food and water for the fleet: Bonaparte had unloaded almost all of the provisions carried aboard and no supplies were reaching the ships from the shore.", "To remedy this, Brueys sent foraging parties of 25 men from each ship along the coast to requisition food, dig wells, and collect water.", "Constant attacks by Bedouin partisans, however, required escorts of heavily armed guards for each party.", "Hence, up to a third of the fleet's sailors were away from their ships at any one time.", "Brueys wrote a letter describing the situation to Minister of Marine Étienne Eustache Bruix, reporting that \"Our crews are weak, both in number and quality.", "Our rigging, in general, out of repair, and I am sure it requires no little courage to undertake the management of a fleet furnished with such tools.\"" ], [ "Battle", "===Nelson's arrival===''Battle of the Nile, Augt 1st 1798'', Thomas Whitcombe, 1816, National Maritime Museum.", "The British fleet bears down on the French line.|alt=An engraved print showing a tightly packed line of 13 warships flying the French flag.", "The ships are firing on eight ships flying the British flag that are steadily approaching them from the right of the picture.Although initially disappointed that the main French fleet was not at Alexandria, Nelson knew from the presence of the transports that they must be nearby.", "At 14:00 on 1 August, lookouts on reported the French anchored in Aboukir Bay, its signal lieutenant just beating the lieutenant on with the signal, but inaccurately describing 16 French ships of the line instead of 13.At the same time, French lookouts on , the ninth ship in the French line, sighted the British fleet approximately nine nautical miles off the mouth of Aboukir Bay.", "The French initially reported just 11 British ships – ''Swiftsure'' and ''Alexander'' were still returning from their scouting operations at Alexandria, and so were to the west of the main fleet, out of sight.", "Troubridge's ship, , was also some distance from the main body, towing a captured merchant ship.", "At the sight of the French, Troubridge abandoned the vessel and made strenuous efforts to rejoin Nelson.", "Due to the need for so many sailors to work onshore, Brueys had not deployed any of his lighter warships as scouts, which left him unable to react swiftly to the sudden appearance of the British.As his ships readied for action, Brueys ordered his captains to gather for a conference on ''Orient'' and hastily recalled his shore parties, although most had still not returned by the start of the battle.", "To replace them, large numbers of men were taken out of the frigates and distributed among the ships of the line.", "Brueys also hoped to lure the British fleet onto the shoals at Aboukir Island, sending the brigs and ''Railleur'' to act as decoys in the shallow waters.", "By 16:00, ''Alexander'' and ''Swiftsure'' were also in sight, although some distance from the main British fleet.", "Brueys gave orders to abandon the plan to remain at anchor and instead for his line to set sail.", "Blanquet protested the order on the grounds that there were not enough men aboard the French ships to both sail the ships and man the guns.", "Nelson gave orders for his leading ships to slow down, to allow the British fleet to approach in a more organised formation.", "This convinced Brueys that rather than risk an evening battle in confined waters, the British were planning to wait for the following day.", "He rescinded his earlier order to sail.", "Brueys may have been hoping that the delay would allow him to slip past the British during the night and thus follow Bonaparte's orders not to engage the British fleet directly if he could avoid it.Nelson ordered the fleet to slow down at 16:00 to allow his ships to rig \"springs\" on their anchor cables, a system of attaching the bow anchor that increased stability and allowed his ships to swing their broadsides to face an enemy while stationary.", "It also increased manoeuvrability and therefore reduced the risk of coming under raking fire.", "Nelson's plan, shaped through discussion with his senior captains during the return voyage to Alexandria, was to advance on the French and pass down the seaward side of the van and centre of the French line, so that each French ship would face two British ships and the massive ''Orient'' would be fighting against three.", "The direction of the wind meant that the French rear division would be unable to join the battle easily and would be cut off from the front portions of the line.", "To ensure that in the smoke and confusion of a night battle his ships would not accidentally open fire on one another, Nelson ordered that each ship prepare four horizontal lights at the head of their mizzen mast and hoist an illuminated White Ensign, which was different enough from the French tricolour that it would not be mistaken in poor visibility, reducing the risk that British ships might fire on one another in the darkness.", "As his ship was readied for battle, Nelson held a final dinner with ''Vanguard''s officers, announcing as he rose: \"Before this time tomorrow I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey,\" in reference to the rewards of victory or the traditional burial place of British military heroes.", "''The Battle of the Nile, 1 August 1798'', Nicholas Pocock, 1808, National Maritime Museum|alt=A broad view of a bay.", "Running vertically from the foreground to the background is a line of 14 anchored ships flying red, white and blue tricolour flags.", "to their left are four more anchored ships and to the left of these vessels is a distant shoreline.", "In the foreground of this shore is a hillside on which several men in turbans watch the scene below.", "To the right of the line a number of ships with all sails set are grouped around the head of the line, as smoke rises from many of the ships on both sides.Shortly after the French order to set sail was abandoned, the British fleet began rapidly approaching once more.", "Brueys, now expecting to come under attack that night, ordered each of his ships to place springs on their anchor cables and prepare for action.", "He sent the ''Alerte'' ahead, which passed close to the leading British ships and then steered sharply to the west over the shoal, in the hope that the ships of the line might follow and become grounded.", "None of Nelson's captains fell for the ruse and the British fleet continued undeterred.", "At 17:30, Nelson hailed one of his two leading ships, HMS ''Zealous'' under Captain Samuel Hood, which had been racing ''Goliath'' to be the first to fire on the French.", "The admiral ordered Hood to establish the safest course into the harbour.", "The British had no charts of the depth or shape of the bay, except a rough sketch map ''Swiftsure'' had obtained from a merchant captain, an inaccurate British atlas on ''Zealous'', and a 35-year-old French map aboard ''Goliath''.", "Hood replied that he would take careful soundings as he advanced to test the depth of the water, and that, \"If you will allow the honour of leading you into battle, I will keep the lead going.\"", "Shortly afterwards, Nelson paused to speak with the brig , whose commander, Lieutenant Thomas Hardy, had seized some maritime pilots from a small Alexandrine vessel.", "As ''Vanguard'' came to a stop, the following ships slowed.", "This caused a gap to open up between ''Zealous'' and ''Goliath'' and the rest of the fleet.", "To counter this effect, Nelson ordered under Captain Ralph Miller to pass his flagship and join ''Zealous'' and ''Goliath'' in the vanguard.", "By 18:00, the British fleet was again under full sail, ''Vanguard'' sixth in the line of ten ships as ''Culloden'' trailed behind to the north and ''Alexander'' and ''Swiftsure'' hastened to catch up to the west.", "Following the rapid change from a loose formation to a rigid line of battle, both fleets raised their colours; each British ship hoisted additional Union Flags in its rigging in case its main flag was shot away.", "At 18:20, as ''Goliath'' and ''Zealous'' rapidly bore down on them, the leading French ships ''Guerrier'' and opened fire.Keegan, p. 43 The map has been simplified, and differs from the text in several minor particulars.|alt=Plan illustrating a line of shoals running roughly north to south.", "Following the direction of the shoal is a line of 13 large blue \"ship\" symbols, with two more large symbols and four smaller ones inside this line.", "Clustered around the head of the \"ship\" line are 14 red ship symbols, with tracks showing their movements during the engagement.Ten minutes after the French opened fire, ''Goliath'', ignoring fire from the fort to starboard and from ''Guerrier'' to port, most of which was too high to trouble the ship, crossed the head of the French line.", "Captain Thomas Foley had noticed as he approached that there was an unexpected gap between ''Guerrier'' and the shallow water of the shoal.", "On his own initiative, Foley decided to exploit this tactical error and changed his angle of approach to sail through the gap.", "As the bow of ''Guerrier'' came within range, ''Goliath'' opened fire, inflicting severe damage with a double-shotted raking broadside as the British ship turned to port and passed down the unprepared port side of ''Guerrier.''", "Foley's Royal Marines and a company of Austrian grenadiers joined the attack, firing their muskets.", "Foley had intended to anchor alongside the French ship and engage it closely, but his anchor took too long to descend and his ship passed ''Guerrier'' entirely.", "''Goliath'' eventually stopped close to the bow of ''Conquérant'', opening fire on the new opponent and using the unengaged starboard guns to exchange occasional shots with the frigate and bomb vessel ''Hercule'', which were anchored inshore of the battle line.Foley's attack was followed by Hood in ''Zealous'', who also crossed the French line and successfully anchored next to ''Guerrier'' in the space Foley had intended, engaging the lead ship's bow from close range.", "Within five minutes ''Guerrier''s foremast had fallen, to cheers from the crews of the approaching British ships.", "The speed of the British advance took the French captains by surprise; they were still aboard ''Orient'' in conference with the admiral when the firing started.", "Hastily launching their boats, they returned to their vessels.", "Captain Jean-François-Timothée Trullet of ''Guerrier'' shouted orders from his barge for his men to return fire on ''Zealous''.The third British ship into action was under Captain Sir James Saumarez, which rounded the engagement at the head of the battle line and passed between the French main line and the frigates that lay closer inshore.", "As he did so, the frigate ''Sérieuse'' opened fire on ''Orion'', wounding two men.", "The convention in naval warfare of the time was that ships of the line did not attack frigates when there were ships of equal size to engage, but in firing first French Captain Claude-Jean Martin had negated the rule.", "Saumarez waited until the frigate was at close range before replying.", "''Orion'' needed just one broadside to reduce the frigate to a wreck, and Martin's disabled ship drifted away over the shoal.", "During the delay this detour caused, two other British ships joined the battle: ''Theseus'', which had been disguised as a first-rate ship, followed Foley's track across ''Guerrier''s bow.", "Miller steered his ship through the middle of the melee between the anchored British and French ships until he encountered the third French ship, .", "Anchoring to port, Miller's ship opened fire at close range.", "under Captain Davidge Gould crossed the French line between ''Guerrier'' and ''Conquérant'', anchoring between the ships and raking them both.", "''Orion'' then rejoined the action further south than intended, firing on the fifth French ship, ''Peuple Souverain'', and Admiral Blanquet's flagship, .Battle of the Nile – Rif'atThe next three British ships, ''Vanguard'' in the lead followed by and , remained in line of battle formation and anchored on the starboard side of the French line at 18:40.Nelson focused his flagship's fire on ''Spartiate'', while Captain Thomas Louis in ''Minotaur'' attacked the unengaged and Captain John Peyton in ''Defence'' joined the attack on ''Peuple Souverain''.", "With the French vanguard now heavily outnumbered, the following British ships, and , passed by the melee and advanced on the so far unengaged French centre.", "Both ships were soon fighting enemies much more powerful than they and began to take severe damage.", "Captain Henry Darby on ''Bellerophon'' missed his intended anchor near ''Franklin'' and instead found his ship underneath the main battery of the French flagship.", "Captain George Blagdon Westcott on ''Majestic'' also missed his station and almost collided with ''Heureux'', coming under heavy fire from .", "Unable to stop in time, Westcott's jib boom became entangled with ''Tonnant''s shroud.", "under fire from at the Battle of the Nile.The French suffered too, Admiral Brueys on ''Orient'' was severely wounded in the face and hand by flying debris during the opening exchange of fire with ''Bellerophon''.", "The final ship of the British line, ''Culloden'' under Troubridge, sailed too close to Aboukir Island in the growing darkness and became stuck fast on the shoal.", "Despite strenuous efforts from the ''Culloden''s boats, the brig ''Mutine'' and the 50-gun under Captain Thomas Thompson, the ship of the line could not be moved, and the waves drove ''Culloden'' further onto the shoal, inflicting severe damage to the ship's hull.===Surrender of the French vanguard===At 19:00 the identifying lights in the mizzenmasts of the British fleet were lit.", "By this time, ''Guerrier'' had been completely dismasted and heavily battered.", "''Zealous'' by contrast was barely touched: Hood had situated ''Zealous'' outside the arc of most of the French ship's broadsides, and in any case ''Guerrier'' was not prepared for an engagement on both sides simultaneously, with its port guns blocked by stores.", "Although their ship was a wreck, the crew of ''Guerrier'' refused to surrender, continuing to fire the few functional guns whenever possible despite heavy answering fire from ''Zealous''.", "In addition to his cannon fire, Hood called up his marines and ordered them to fire volleys of musket shot at the deck of the French ship, driving the crew out of sight but still failing to secure the surrender from Captain Trullet.", "It was not until 21:00, when Hood sent a small boat to ''Guerrier'' with a boarding party, that the French ship finally surrendered.", "''Conquérant'' was defeated more rapidly, after heavy broadsides from passing British ships and the close attentions of ''Audacious'' and ''Goliath'' brought down all three masts before 19:00.With his ship immobile and badly damaged, the mortally wounded Captain Etienne Dalbarade struck his colours and a boarding party seized control.", "Unlike ''Zealous'', these British ships suffered relatively severe damage in the engagement.", "''Goliath'' lost most of its rigging, suffered damage to all three masts and suffered more than 60 casualties.", "With his opponents defeated, Captain Gould on ''Audacious'' used the spring on his cable to transfer fire to ''Spartiate'', the next French ship in line.", "To the west of the battle the battered ''Sérieuse'' sank over the shoal.", "Her masts protruded from the water as survivors scrambled into boats and rowed for the shore.", "''The Battle of the Nile'', Thomas Luny, 1830, National Maritime Museum|alt=Four ships flying the British flag advance in the foreground towards an anchored battle line in which the only clear detail is a huge burning ship.The transfer of ''Audacious''s broadside to ''Spartiate'' meant that Captain Maurice-Julien Emeriau now faced three opponents.", "Within minutes all three of his ship's masts had fallen, but the battle around ''Spartiate'' continued until 21:00, when the badly wounded Emeriau ordered his colours struck.", "Although ''Spartiate'' was outnumbered, it had been supported by the next in line, ''Aquilon'', which was the only ship of the French van squadron fighting a single opponent, ''Minotaur''.", "Captain Antoine René Thévenard used the spring on his anchor cable to angle his broadside into a raking position across the bow of Nelson's flagship, which consequently suffered more than 100 casualties, including the admiral.", "At approximately 20:30, an iron splinter fired in a langrage shot from ''Spartiate ''struck Nelson over his blinded right eye.", "The wound caused a flap of skin to fall across his face, rendering him temporarily completely blind.", "Nelson collapsed into the arms of Captain Edward Berry and was carried below.", "Certain that his wound was fatal, he cried out \"I am killed, remember me to my wife\", and called for his chaplain, Stephen Comyn.", "The wound was immediately inspected by ''Vanguard''s surgeon Michael Jefferson, who informed the admiral that it was a simple flesh wound and stitched the skin together.", "Nelson subsequently ignored Jefferson's instructions to remain inactive, returning to the quarterdeck shortly before the explosion on ''Orient'' to oversee the closing stages of the battle.", "Although Thévenard's manoeuvre was successful, it placed his own bow under ''Minotaur''s guns and by 21:25 the French ship was dismasted and battered, Captain Thévenard killed and his junior officers forced to surrender.", "With his opponent defeated, Captain Thomas Louis then took ''Minotaur'' south to join the attack on ''Franklin''.", "''Battle of the Nile, 1 August 1798'', Daniel Orme, 1805, National Maritime Museum.", "Nelson returns on deck after his wound is dressed.|alt=the quarterdeck of a ship, with many sailors moving about.", "In the centre stands a man in an officer's uniform with a bandage around his head.", "He is looking to the left of the picture, where in the background a large ship is on fire.", "''Defence'' and ''Orion ''attacked the fifth French ship, ''Peuple Souverain'', from either side and the ship rapidly lost the fore and main masts.", "Aboard the ''Orion'', a wooden block was smashed off one of the ship's masts, killing two men before wounding Captain Saumarez in the thigh.", "On ''Peuple Souverain'', Captain Pierre-Paul Raccord was badly wounded and ordered his ship's anchor cable cut in an effort to escape the bombardment.", "''Peuple Souverain'' drifted south towards the flagship ''Orient'', which mistakenly opened fire on the darkened vessel.", "''Orion'' and ''Defence'' were unable to immediately pursue.", "''Defence'' had lost its fore topmast and an improvised fireship that drifted through the battle narrowly missed ''Orion''.", "The origin of this vessel, an abandoned and burning ship's boat laden with highly flammable material, is uncertain, but it may have been launched from ''Guerrier'' as the battle began.", "''Peuple Souverain'' anchored not far from ''Orient'', but took no further part in the fighting.", "The wrecked ship surrendered during the night.", "''Franklin'' remained in combat, but Blanquet had suffered a severe head wound and Captain Gillet had been carried below unconscious with severe wounds.", "Shortly afterwards, a fire broke out on the quarterdeck after an arms locker exploded, which was eventually extinguished with difficulty by the crew.To the south, HMS ''Bellerophon'' was in serious trouble as the huge broadside of ''Orient'' pounded the ship.", "At 19:50 the mizzenmast and main mast both collapsed and fires broke out simultaneously at several points.", "Although the blazes were extinguished, the ship had suffered more than 200 casualties.", "Captain Darby recognised that his position was untenable and ordered the anchor cables cut at 20:20.The battered ship drifted away from the battle under continued fire from ''Tonnant'' as the foremast collapsed as well.", "''Orient'' had also suffered significant damage and Admiral Brueys had been struck in the midriff by a cannonball that almost cut him in half.", "He died fifteen minutes later, remaining on deck and refusing to be carried below.", "''Orient''s captain, Luc-Julien-Joseph Casabianca, was also wounded, struck in the face by flying debris and knocked unconscious, while his twelve-year-old son had a leg torn off by a cannonball as he stood beside his father.", "The most southerly British ship, ''Majestic'', had become briefly entangled with the 80-gun ''Tonnant'', and in the resulting battle, suffered heavy casualties.", "Captain George Blagdon Westcott was among the dead, killed by French musket fire.", "Lieutenant Robert Cuthbert assumed command and successfully disentangled his ship, allowing the badly damaged ''Majestic'' to drift further southwards so that by 20:30 it was stationed between ''Tonnant'' and the next in line, ''Heureux'', engaging both.", "To support the centre, Captain Thompson of ''Leander'' abandoned the futile efforts to drag the stranded ''Culloden'' off the shoal and sailed down the embattled French line, entering the gap created by the drifting ''Peuple Souverain'' and opening a fierce raking fire on ''Franklin'' and ''Orient''.A 1799 depiction of the Battle of the Nile by Thomas Whitcombe.", "''Orient'' is on fire, and visible under her stern, and drifting clear of the burning ship, is the dismasted ''Bellerophon''.While the battle raged in the bay, the two straggling British ships made strenuous efforts to join the engagement, focusing on the flashes of gunfire in the darkness.", "Warned away from the Aboukir shoals by the grounded ''Culloden'', Captain Benjamin Hallowell in ''Swiftsure'' passed the melee at the head of the line and aimed his ship at the French centre.", "Shortly after 20:00, a dismasted hulk was spotted drifting in front of ''Swiftsure'' and Hallowell initially ordered his men to fire before rescinding the order, concerned for the identity of the strange vessel.", "Hailing the battered ship, Hallowell received the reply \"''Bellerophon'', going out of action disabled.\"", "Relieved that he had not accidentally attacked one of his own ships in the darkness, Hallowell pulled up between ''Orient'' and ''Franklin'' and opened fire on them both.", "''Alexander'', the final unengaged British ship, which had followed ''Swiftsure'', pulled up close to ''Tonnant'', which had begun to drift away from the embattled French flagship.", "Captain Alexander Ball then joined the attack on ''Orient''.===Destruction of ''Orient''===''The Battle of the Nile: Destruction of 'L'Orient', 1 August 1798'', Mather Brown, 1825, National Maritime MuseumAt 21:00, the British observed a fire on the lower decks of the ''Orient'', the French flagship.", "Identifying the danger this posed to the ''Orient'', Captain Hallowell directed his gun crews to fire their guns directly into the blaze.", "Sustained British gun fire spread the flames throughout the ship's stern and prevented all efforts to extinguish them.", "Within minutes the fire had ascended the rigging and set the vast sails alight.", "The nearest British ships, ''Swiftsure'', ''Alexander'', and ''Orion'', all stopped firing, closed their gunports, and began edging away from the burning ship in anticipation of the detonation of the enormous ammunition supplies stored on board.", "In addition, they took crews away from the guns to form fire parties and to soak the sails and decks in seawater to help contain any resulting fires.", "Likewise the French ships ''Tonnant'', ''Heureux'', and all cut their anchor cables and drifted southwards away from the burning ship.", "At 22:00 the fire reached the magazines, and the ''Orient'' was destroyed by a massive explosion.", "The concussion of the blast was powerful enough to rip open the seams of the nearest ships, and flaming wreckage landed in a huge circle, much of it flying directly over the surrounding ships into the sea beyond.", "Falling wreckage started fires on ''Swiftsure'', ''Alexander'', and ''Franklin'', although in each case teams of sailors with water buckets succeeded in extinguishing the flames, despite a secondary explosion on ''Franklin''.", "''Battle of the Nile'', alt=A confused naval battle.", "Two battered ships drift in the foreground while smoke and flames boil from a third.", "In the background smoke rises from a confused melee of battling ships.It has never been firmly established how the fire on ''Orient'' broke out, but one common account is that jars of oil and paint had been left on the poop deck, instead of being properly stowed after painting of the ship's hull had been completed shortly before the battle.", "Burning wadding from one of the British ships is believed to have floated onto the poop deck and ignited the paint.", "The fire rapidly spread through the admiral's cabin and into a ready magazine that stored carcass ammunition, which was designed to burn more fiercely in water than in air.", "Alternatively, Fleet Captain Honoré Ganteaume later reported the cause as an explosion on the quarterdeck, preceded by a series of minor fires on the main deck among the ship's boats.", "Whatever its origin, the fire spread rapidly through the ship's rigging, unchecked by the fire pumps aboard, which had been smashed by British shot.", "A second blaze then began at the bow, trapping hundreds of sailors in the ship's waist.", "Subsequent archaeological investigation found debris scattered over of seabed and evidence that the ship was wracked by two explosions.", "Hundreds of men dived into the sea to escape the flames, but fewer than 100 survived the blast.", "British boats picked up approximately 70 survivors, including the wounded staff officer Léonard-Bernard Motard.", "A few others, including Ganteaume, managed to reach the shore on rafts.", "The remainder of the crew, numbering more than 1,000 men, were killed, including Captain Casabianca and his son, Giocante.For ten minutes after the explosion there was no firing; sailors from both sides were either too shocked by the blast or desperately extinguishing fires aboard their own ships to continue the fight.", "During the lull, Nelson gave orders that boats be sent to pull survivors from the water around the remains of ''Orient''.", "At 22:10, ''Franklin'' restarted the engagement by firing on ''Swiftsure''.", "Isolated and battered, Blanquet's ship was soon dismasted and the admiral, suffering a severe head wound, was forced to surrender by the combined firepower of ''Swiftsure'' and ''Defence''.", "More than half of ''Franklin''s crew had been killed or wounded.By midnight only ''Tonnant'' remained engaged, as Commodore Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars continued his fight with ''Majestic'' and fired on ''Swiftsure'' when the British ship moved within range.", "By 03:00, after more than three hours of close quarter combat, ''Majestic'' had lost its main and mizzen masts while ''Tonnant'' was a dismasted hulk.", "Although Captain Du Petit Thouars had lost both legs and an arm he remained in command, insisting on having the tricolour nailed to the mast to prevent it from being struck and giving orders from his position propped up on deck in a bucket of wheat.", "Under his guidance, the battered ''Tonnant'' gradually drifted southwards away from the action to join the southern division under Villeneuve, who failed to bring these ships into effective action.", "Throughout the engagement the French rear had kept up an arbitrary fire on the battling ships ahead.", "The only noticeable effect was the smashing of s rudder by misdirected fire from the neighbouring .===Morning===''Battle of the Nile, Augt 1st 1798'', Thomas Whitcombe, 1816, National Maritime Museum – the climax of the battle, as ''Orient'' explodesAs the sun rose at 04:00 on 2 August, firing broke out once again between the French southern division of ''Guillaume Tell'', ''Tonnant'', ''Généreux'' and ''Timoléon'' and the battered ''Alexander'' and ''Majestic''.", "Although briefly outmatched, the British ships were soon joined by ''Goliath'' and ''Theseus''.", "As Captain Miller manoeuvred his ship into position, ''Theseus'' briefly came under fire from the frigate .", "Miller turned his ship towards ''Artémise'', but Captain Pierre-Jean Standelet struck his flag and ordered his men to abandon the frigate.", "Miller sent a boat under Lieutenant William Hoste to take possession of the empty vessel, but Standelet had set fire to his ship as he left and ''Artémise'' blew up shortly afterwards.", "The surviving French ships of the line, covering their retreat with gunfire, gradually pulled to the east away from the shore at 06:00.", "''Zealous'' pursued, and was able to prevent the frigate from boarding ''Bellerophon'', which was anchored at the southern point of the bay undergoing hasty repairs.Two other French ships still flew the tricolour, but neither was in a position to either retreat or fight.", "When ''Heureux'' and ''Mercure'' had cut their anchor cables to escape the exploding ''Orient'', their crews had panicked and neither captain (both of whom were wounded) had managed to regain control of his ship.", "As a result, both vessels had drifted onto the shoal.", "''Alexander'', ''Goliath'', ''Theseus'' and ''Leander'' attacked the stranded and defenceless ships, and both surrendered within minutes.", "The distractions provided by ''Heureux'', ''Mercure'' and ''Justice'' allowed Villeneuve to bring most of the surviving French ships to the mouth of the bay at 11:00.On the dismasted ''Tonnant'', Commodore Du Petit Thouars was now dead from his wounds and thrown overboard at his own request.", "As the ship was unable to make the required speed it was driven ashore by its crew.", "''Timoléon'' was too far south to escape with Villeneuve and, in attempting to join the survivors, had also grounded on the shoal.", "The force of the impact dislodged the ship's foremast.", "The remaining French vessels: the ships of the line ''Guillaume Tell'' and ''Généreux'' and the frigates ''Justice'' and , formed up and stood out to sea, pursued by ''Zealous''.", "Despite strenuous efforts, Captain Hood's isolated ship came under heavy fire and was unable to cut off the trailing ''Justice'' as the French survivors escaped seawards.", "''Zealous'' was struck by a number of French shot and lost one man killed.For the remainder of 2 August Nelson's ships made improvised repairs and boarded and consolidated their prizes.", "''Culloden'' especially required assistance.", "Troubridge, having finally dragged his ship off the shoal at 02:00, found that he had lost his rudder and was taking on more than of water an hour.", "Emergency repairs to the hull and fashioning a replacement rudder from a spare topmast took most of the next two days.", "On the morning of 3 August, Nelson sent ''Theseus'' and ''Leander'' to force the surrender of the grounded ''Tonnant'' and ''Timoléon''.", "The ''Tonnant'', its decks crowded with 1,600 survivors from other French vessels, surrendered as the British ships approached while ''Timoléon'' was set on fire by its remaining crew who then escaped to the shore in small boats.", "''Timoléon'' exploded shortly after midday, the eleventh and final French ship of the line destroyed or captured during the battle." ], [ "Aftermath", "Robert Dodd, 1800, National Maritime Museum|alt=A map showing a line of 13 ships, mostly dismasted and two on fire.", "On either side are six ships flying British flags, some in a state of disrepair.", "Four other ships sit along the coastline, one on fire while a large ship and a small ship are grounded on a shoal which is surmounted by a burning fort.British casualties in the battle were recorded with some accuracy in the immediate aftermath as 218 killed and approximately 677 wounded, although the number of wounded who subsequently died is not known.", "The ships that suffered most were ''Bellerophon'' with 201 casualties and ''Majestic'' with 193.Other than ''Culloden'' the lightest loss was on ''Zealous'', which had one man killed and seven wounded.The casualty list included Captain Westcott, five lieutenants and ten junior officers among the dead, and Admiral Nelson, Captains Saumarez, Ball and Darby, and six lieutenants wounded.", "Other than ''Culloden'', the only British ships seriously damaged in their hulls were ''Bellerophon'', ''Majestic,'' and ''Vanguard''.", "''Bellerophon'' and ''Majestic'' were the only ships to lose masts: ''Majestic'' the main and mizzen and ''Bellerophon'' all three.French casualties are harder to calculate but were significantly higher.", "Estimates of French losses range from 2,000 to 5,000, with a suggested median point of 3,500, which includes more than 1,000 captured wounded and nearly 2,000 killed, half of whom died on ''Orient''.", "In addition to Admiral Brueys killed and Admiral Blanquet wounded, four captains died and seven others were seriously wounded.", "The French ships suffered severe damage: Two ships of the line and two frigates were destroyed (as well as a bomb vessel scuttled by its crew), and three other captured ships were too battered ever to sail again.", "Of the remaining prizes, only three were ever sufficiently repaired for frontline service.", "For weeks after the battle, bodies washed up along the Egyptian coast, decaying slowly in the intense, dry heat.Nelson, who on surveying the bay on the morning of 2 August said, \"Victory is not a name strong enough for such a scene\", remained at anchor in Aboukir Bay for the next two weeks, preoccupied with recovering from his wound, writing dispatches, and assessing the military situation in Egypt using documents captured on board one of the prizes.", "Nelson's head wound was recorded as being \"three inches long\" with \"the cranium exposed for one inch\".", "He suffered pain from the injury for the rest of his life and was badly scarred, styling his hair to disguise it as much as possible.", "As their commander recovered, his men stripped the wrecks of useful supplies and made repairs to their ships and prizes.Throughout the week, Aboukir Bay was surrounded by bonfires lit by Bedouin tribesmen in celebration of the British victory.", "On 5 August, ''Leander'' was despatched to Cadiz with messages for Earl St. Vincent carried by Captain Edward Berry.", "Over the next few days the British landed all but 200 of the captured prisoners on shore under strict terms of parole, although Bonaparte later ordered them to be formed into an infantry unit and added to his army.", "The wounded officers taken prisoner were held on board ''Vanguard'', where Nelson regularly entertained them at dinner.", "Historian Joseph Allen recounts that on one occasion Nelson, whose eyesight was still suffering following his wound, offered toothpicks to an officer who had lost his teeth and then passed a snuff-box to an officer whose nose had been torn off, causing much embarrassment.", "On 8 August the fleet's boats stormed Aboukir Island, which surrendered without a fight.", "The landing party removed four of the guns and destroyed the rest along with the fort they were mounted in, renaming the island \"Nelson's Island\".On 10 August, Nelson sent Lieutenant Thomas Duval from ''Zealous'' with messages to the government in India.", "Duval travelled across the Middle East overland via camel train to Aleppo and took the East India Company ship ''Fly'' from Basra to Bombay, acquainting Governor-General of India Viscount Wellesley with the situation in Egypt.", "On 12 August the frigates under Captain Thomas Moutray Waller and under Captain George Johnstone Hope, and the sloop under Captain Robert Retalick, arrived off Alexandria.", "Initially the British mistook the frigate squadron for French warships and ''Swiftsure'' chased them away.", "They returned the following day once the error had been realised.", "The same day as the frigates arrived, Nelson sent ''Mutine'' to Britain with dispatches, under the command of Lieutenant Thomas Bladen Capel, who had replaced Hardy after the latter's promotion to captain of ''Vanguard''.", "On 14 August, Nelson sent ''Orion'', ''Majestic'', ''Bellerophon'', ''Minotaur'', ''Defence'', ''Audacious'', ''Theseus'', ''Franklin'', ''Tonnant'', ''Aquilon'', ''Conquérant'', ''Peuple Souverain,'' and ''Spartiate'' to sea under the command of Saumarez.", "Many ships had only jury masts and it took a full day for the convoy to reach the mouth of the bay, finally sailing into open water on 15 August.", "On 16 August the British burned and destroyed the grounded prize ''Heureux'' as no longer fit for service and on 18 August also burned ''Guerrier'' and ''Mercure''.", "On 19 August, Nelson sailed for Naples with ''Vanguard'', ''Culloden,'' and ''Alexander'', leaving Hood in command of ''Zealous'', ''Goliath'', ''Swiftsure,'' and the recently joined frigates to watch over French activities at Alexandria.The first message to reach Bonaparte regarding the disaster that had overtaken his fleet arrived on 14 August at his camp on the road between Salahieh and Cairo.", "The messenger was a staff officer sent by the Governor of Alexandria General Jean Baptiste Kléber, and the report had been hastily written by Admiral Ganteaume, who had subsequently rejoined Villeneuve's ships at sea.", "One account reports that when he was handed the message, Bonaparte read it without emotion before calling the messenger to him and demanding further details.", "When the messenger had finished, the French general reportedly announced ''\"Nous n'avons plus de flotte: eh bien.", "Il faut rester en ces contrées, ou en sortir grands comme les anciens\"'' (\"We no longer have a fleet: well, we must either remain in this country or quit it as great as the ancients\").", "Another story, as told by the general's secretary, Bourienne, claims that Bonaparte was almost overcome by the news and exclaimed \"Unfortunate Brueys, what have you done!\"", "Bonaparte later placed much of the blame for the defeat on the wounded Admiral Blanquet, falsely accusing him of surrendering ''Franklin'' while his ship was undamaged.", "Protestations from Ganteaume and Minister Étienne Eustache Bruix later reduced the degree of criticism Blanquet faced, but he never again served in a command capacity.", "Bonaparte's most immediate concern however was with his own officers, who began to question the wisdom of the entire expedition.", "Inviting his most senior officers to dinner, Bonaparte asked them how they were.", "When they replied that they were \"marvellous,\" Bonaparte responded that it was just as well, since he would have them shot if they continued \"fostering mutinies and preaching revolt.\"", "To quell any uprising among the native inhabitants, Egyptians overheard discussing the battle were threatened with having their tongues cut out.===Reaction===Nelson's first set of dispatches were captured when ''Leander'' was intercepted and defeated by ''Généreux'' in a fierce engagement off the western shore of Crete on 18 August 1798.As a result, reports of the battle did not reach Britain until Capel arrived in ''Mutine'' on 2 October, entering the Admiralty at 11:15 and personally delivering the news to Lord Spencer, who collapsed unconscious when he heard the report.", "Although Nelson had previously been castigated in the press for failing to intercept the French fleet, rumours of the battle had begun to arrive in Britain from the continent in late September and the news Capel brought was greeted with celebrations right across the country.", "Within four days Nelson had been elevated to Baron Nelson of the Nile and Burnham Thorpe, a title with which he was privately dissatisfied, believing his actions deserved better reward.", "King George III addressed the Houses of Parliament on 20 November with the words:Saumarez's convoy of prizes stopped first at Malta, where Saumarez provided assistance to a rebellion on the island among the Maltese population.", "It then sailed to Gibraltar, arriving on 18 October to the cheers of the garrison.", "Saumarez wrote that, \"We can never do justice to the warmth of their applause, and the praises they all bestowed on our squadron.\"", "On 23 October, following the transfer of the wounded to the military hospital and provision of basic supplies, the convoy sailed on towards Lisbon, leaving ''Bellerophon'' and ''Majestic'' behind for more extensive repairs.", "''Peuple Souverain'' also remained at Gibraltar: The ship was deemed too badly damaged for the Atlantic voyage to Britain and so was converted to a guardship under the name of HMS ''Guerrier''.", "The remaining prizes underwent basic repairs and then sailed for Britain, spending some months at the Tagus and joining with the annual merchant convoy from Portugal in June 1799 under the escort of a squadron commanded by Admiral Sir Alan Gardner, before eventually arriving at Plymouth.", "Their age and battered state meant that neither ''Conquérant'' nor ''Aquilon'' were considered fit for active service in the Royal Navy and both were subsequently hulked, although they had been bought into the service for £20,000 (the equivalent of £ million as of ) each as HMS ''Conquerant'' and HMS ''Aboukir'' to provide a financial reward to the crews that had captured them.", "Similar sums were also paid out for ''Guerrier'', ''Mercure'', ''Heureux'' and ''Peuple Souverain'', while the other captured ships were worth considerably more.", "Constructed of Adriatic oak, ''Tonnant'' had been built in 1792 and ''Franklin'' and ''Spartiate'' were less than a year old.", "''Tonnant'' and ''Spartiate'', both of which later fought at the Battle of Trafalgar, joined the Royal Navy under their old names while ''Franklin'', considered to be \"the finest two-decked ship in the world\", was renamed HMS ''Canopus''.", "The total value of the prizes captured at the Nile and subsequently bought into the Royal Navy was estimated at just over £130,000 (the equivalent of £ million as of ).Battle of the Nile Medal in Gold.", "Normally worn from a wide blue ribbon.", "Grades: 4, awarded by rank.", "Gold: awarded to Nelson and his captains.", "Silver: awarded to lieutenants and warrant officers.", "Copper-Gilt: awarded to petty officers.", "Bronzed copper: awarded to ratings, marines, etc.Additional awards were presented to the British fleet: Nelson was awarded £2,000 (£ as of ) a year for life by the Parliament of Great Britain and £1,000 per annum by the Parliament of Ireland, although the latter was inadvertently discontinued after the Act of Union dissolved the Irish Parliament.", "Both parliaments gave unanimous votes of thanks, each captain who served in the battle was presented with a specially minted gold medal and the first lieutenant of every ship engaged in the battle was promoted to commander.", "Troubridge and his men, initially excluded, received equal shares in the awards after Nelson personally interceded for the crew of the stranded ''Culloden, ''even though they did not directly participate in the engagement.", "The Honourable East India Company presented Nelson with £10,000 (£ as of ) in recognition of the benefit his action had on their holdings and the cities of London, Liverpool and other municipal and corporate bodies made similar awards.", "Nelson's own captains presented him with a sword and a portrait as \"proof of their esteem.\"", "Nelson publicly encouraged this close bond with his officers and on 29 September 1798 described them as \"We few, we happy few, we band of brothers\", echoing William Shakespeare's play ''Henry V''.", "From this grew the notion of the Nelsonic Band of Brothers, a cadre of high-quality naval officers that served with Nelson for the remainder of his life.", "Nearly five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal, awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847.", "''The Gallant Nellson bringing home two Uncommon fierce French Crocadiles from the Nile as a Present to the King'', James Gillray, 1798, National Maritime Museum.", "The crocodiles represent Fox and Sheridan.|alt=An engraved print showing a man in a distinctive naval uniform dragging two crocodiles with human heads.", "To the right of the image a man in a peasant's smock cheers approvingly.", "'Victors of the Nile', a celebratory engraving published five years after the Battle of the Nile, depicting Nelson and his 14 captains.Other rewards were bestowed by foreign states, particularly the Ottoman Emperor Selim III, who made Nelson the first Knight Commander of the newly created Order of the Crescent, and presented him with a chelengk, a diamond studded rose, a sable fur and numerous other valuable presents.", "Tsar Paul I of Russia sent, among other rewards, a gold box studded with diamonds, and similar gifts in silver arrived from other European rulers.", "On his return to Naples, Nelson was greeted with a triumphal procession led by King Ferdinand IV and Sir William Hamilton and was introduced for only the third time to Sir William's wife Emma, Lady Hamilton, who fainted violently at the meeting, and apparently took several weeks to recover from her injuries.", "Lauded as a hero by the Neapolitan court, Nelson was later to dabble in Neapolitan politics and become the Duke of Bronté, actions for which he was criticised by his superiors and his reputation suffered.", "British general John Moore, who met Nelson in Naples at this time, described him as \"covered with stars, medals and ribbons, more like a Prince of Opera than the Conqueror of the Nile.", "\"Rumours of a battle first appeared in the French press as early as 7 August, although credible reports did not arrive until 26 August, and even these claimed that Nelson was dead and Bonaparte a British prisoner.", "When the news became certain, the French press insisted that the defeat was the result both of an overwhelmingly large British force and unspecified \"traitors.\"", "Among the anti-government journals in France, the defeat was blamed on the incompetence of the French Directory and on supposed lingering Royalist sentiments in the Navy.", "Villeneuve came under scathing attack on his return to France for his failure to support Brueys during the battle.", "In his defence, he pleaded that the wind had been against him and that Brueys had not issued orders for him to counterattack the British fleet.", "Writing many years later, Bonaparte commented that if the French Navy had adopted the same tactical principles as the British:By contrast, the British press were jubilant; many newspapers sought to portray the battle as a victory for Britain over anarchy, and the success was used to attack the supposedly pro-republican Whig politicians Charles James Fox and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.In the United States, the outcome of the battle led President John Adams to pursue diplomacy with France to end the Quasi-War, as the French naval defeat rendered the prospect of an invasion of the United States less likely.There has been extensive historiographical debate over the comparative strengths of the fleets, although they were ostensibly evenly matched in size, each containing 13 ships of the line.", "However, the loss of ''Culloden'', the relative sizes of ''Orient'' and ''Leander'' and the participation in the action by two of the French frigates and several smaller vessels, as well as the theoretical strength of the French position, leads most historians to the conclusion that the French were marginally more powerful.", "This is accentuated by the weight of broadside of several of the French ships: ''Spartiate'', ''Franklin'', ''Orient'', ''Tonnant'' and ''Guillaume Tell'' were each significantly larger than any individual British ship in the battle.", "However inadequate deployment, reduced crews, and the failure of the rear division under Villeneuve to meaningfully participate, all contributed to the French defeat.===Effects===The Battle of the Nile has been called \"arguably, the most decisive naval engagement of the great age of sail\", and \"the most splendid and glorious success which the British Navy gained.\"", "Historian and novelist C. S. Forester, writing in 1929, compared the Nile to the great naval actions in history and concluded that \"it still only stands rivalled by Tsu-Shima as an example of the annihilation of one fleet by another of approximately equal material force\".", "The effect on the strategic situation in the Mediterranean was immediate, reversing the balance of the conflict and giving the British control at sea that they maintained for the remainder of the war.", "The destruction of the French Mediterranean fleet allowed the Royal Navy to return to the sea in force, as British squadrons set up blockades off French and allied ports.", "In particular, British ships cut Malta off from France, aided by the rebellion among the native Maltese population that forced the French garrison to retreat to Valletta and shut the gates.", "The ensuing siege of Malta lasted for two years before the defenders were finally starved into surrender.", "In 1799, British ships harassed Bonaparte's army as it marched east and north through Palestine, and played a crucial part in Bonaparte's defeat at the siege of Acre, when the barges carrying the siege train were captured and the French storming parties were bombarded by British ships anchored offshore.", "It was during one of these latter engagements that Captain Miller of ''Theseus'' was killed in an ammunition explosion.", "The defeat at Acre forced Bonaparte to retreat to Egypt and effectively ended his efforts to carve an empire in the Middle East.", "The French general returned to France without his army late in the year, leaving Kléber in command of Egypt.The Ottoman Empire, with whom Bonaparte had hoped to conduct an alliance once his control of Egypt was complete, was encouraged by the Battle of the Nile to go to war against France.", "This led to a series of campaigns that slowly sapped the strength from the French army trapped in Egypt.", "The British victory also encouraged the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire, both of whom were mustering armies as part of a Second Coalition, which declared war on France in 1799.With the Mediterranean undefended, an Imperial Russian Navy fleet entered the Ionian Sea, while Austrian armies recaptured much of the Italian territory lost to Bonaparte in the previous war.", "Without their best general and his veterans, the French suffered a series of defeats and it was not until Bonaparte returned to become First Consul that France once again held a position of strength on Continental Europe.", "In 1801 a British Expeditionary Force defeated the demoralised remains of the French army in Egypt.", "The Royal Navy used its dominance in the Mediterranean to invade Egypt without the fear of ambush while anchored off the Egyptian coast.In spite of the overwhelming British victory in the climactic battle, the campaign has sometimes been considered a strategic success for France.", "Historian Edward Ingram noted that if Nelson had successfully intercepted Bonaparte at sea as ordered, the ensuing battle could have annihilated both the French fleet and the transports.", "As it was, Bonaparte was free to continue the war in the Middle East and later to return to Europe personally unscathed.", "The potential of a successful engagement at sea to change the course of history is underscored by the list of French army officers carried aboard the convoy who later formed the core of the generals and marshals under Emperor Napoleon.", "In addition to Bonaparte himself, Louis-Alexandre Berthier, Auguste de Marmont, Jean Lannes, Joachim Murat, Louis Desaix, Jean Reynier, Antoine-François Andréossy, Jean-Andoche Junot, Louis-Nicolas Davout and Dumas were all passengers on the cramped Mediterranean crossing.===Legacy===The Battle of the Nile remains one of the Royal Navy's most famous victories, and has remained prominent in the British popular imagination, sustained by its depiction in a large number of cartoons, paintings, poems, and plays.", "One of the best known poems about the battle is ''Casabianca'', which was written by Felicia Dorothea Hemans in 1826 and describes a fictional account of the death of Captain Casabianca's son on ''Orient''.Monuments were raised, including Cleopatra's Needle in London.", "Muhammad Ali of Egypt gave the monument in 1819 in recognition of the battle of 1798 and the campaign of 1801 but Great Britain did not erect it on the Victoria Embankment until 1878.Another memorial, the Nile Clumps near Amesbury, consists of stands of beech trees purportedly planted by Lord Queensbury at the behest of Lady Hamilton and Thomas Hardy after Nelson's death.", "The trees form a plan of the battle; each clump represents the position of a British or French ship.On the Hall Place estate, Burchetts Green, Berkshire (now Berkshire College of Agriculture), a double line of oak trees, each tree representing a ship of the opposing fleets, was planted by William East, Baronet, in celebration of the victory.", "He also constructed a scale-sized pyramid and a life-sized statue of Nelson on the highest point of the estate.The composer Joseph Haydn had just completed the Missa in Angustiis (mass for troubled times) after Napoleon Bonaparte had defeated the Austrian army in four major battles.", "The well received news of France's defeat at the Nile however resulted in the mass gradually acquiring the nickname ''Lord Nelson Mass''.", "The title became indelible when, in 1800, Nelson himself visited the Palais Esterházy, accompanied by his mistress, Lady Hamilton, and may have heard the mass performed.The Royal Navy commemorated the battle with the ship names , and , and in 1998 commemorated the 200th anniversary of the battle with a visit to Aboukir Bay by the modern frigate , whose crew laid wreaths in memory of those who lost their lives in the battle.", ";ArchaeologyAlthough Nelson biographer Ernle Bradford assumed in 1977 that the remains of ''Orient'' \"are almost certainly unrecoverable,\" the first archaeological investigation into the battle began in 1983, when a French survey team under Jacques Dumas discovered the wreck of the French flagship.", "Franck Goddio later took over the work, leading a major project to explore the bay in 1998.He found that material was scattered over an area in diameter.", "In addition to military and nautical equipment, Goddio recovered a large number of gold and silver coins from countries across the Mediterranean, some from the 17th century.", "It is likely that these were part of the treasure taken from Malta that was lost in the explosion aboard ''Orient''.", "In 2000, Italian archaeologist Paolo Gallo led an excavation focusing on ancient ruins on Nelson's Island.", "It uncovered a number of graves that date from the battle, as well as others buried there during the 1801 invasion.", "These graves, which included a woman and three children, were relocated in 2005 to a cemetery at Shatby in Alexandria.", "The reburial was attended by sailors from the modern frigate and a band from the Egyptian Navy, as well as a descendant of the only identified burial, Commander James Russell." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Barnabas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barnabas''' (; ; ), born '''Joseph''' () or '''Joses''' (), was according to tradition an early Christian, one of the prominent Christian disciples in Jerusalem.", "According to Acts 4:36, Barnabas was a Cypriot Jew.", "Named an apostle in Acts 14:14, he and Paul the Apostle undertook missionary journeys together and defended Gentile converts against the Judaizers.", "They traveled together making more converts (), and participated in the Council of Jerusalem ().", "Barnabas and Paul successfully evangelized among the \"God-fearing\" Gentiles who attended synagogues in various Hellenized cities of Anatolia.Barnabas' story appears in the Acts of the Apostles, and Paul mentions him in some of his epistles.", "Tertullian named him as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, but this and other attributions are conjecture.", "The Epistle of Barnabas was ascribed to him by Clement of Alexandria and others in the early church and the epistle is included under his name in Codex Sinaiticus, the earliest extant manuscript of the complete New Testament.", "A few modern scholars concur with this traditional attribution but it is presently a minority view.Although the date, place, and circumstances of his death are historically unverifiable, Christian tradition holds that Barnabas was martyred at Salamis, Cyprus.", "He is traditionally identified as the founder of the Cypriot Orthodox Church.", "The feast day of Barnabas is celebrated on 11 June.Barnabas is usually identified as the cousin of Mark the Evangelist on the basis of the term used in Colossians 4, which carries the connotation of \"cousin.\"", "Orthodox tradition holds that Aristobulus of Britannia, one of the Seventy Disciples, was the brother of Barnabas." ], [ "Name and etymologies", "His Hellenic Jewish parents called him Joseph (although the Byzantine text-type calls him , , 'Joses', a Greek variant of 'Joseph'), but when recounting the story of how he sold his land and gave the money to the apostles in Jerusalem, the Book of Acts says the apostles called him Barnabas.", "(The \"s\" at the end is the Greek nominative case ending, and it is not present in the Aramaic form.)", "The Greek text of Acts 4:36 explains the name as , , meaning \"son of encouragement\" or \"son of comforter\".", "One theory is that this is from the Aramaic , , meaning 'son (of) prophet'.", "Another is that it is related to the Hebrew word (, Aramaic ) meaning \"prophet\".", "In the Syriac Bible, the phrase \"son of prophet\" is translated ." ], [ "Biblical narrative", "''Barnabas curing the sick'' by Paolo Veronese, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rouen, Barnabas appears mainly in Acts, a history of the early Christian church.", "He also appears in several of Paul's epistles.Barnabas, a native of Cyprus and a Levite, is first mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem, who sold the land that he owned and gave the proceeds to the community.", "When the future Paul the Apostle returned to Jerusalem after his conversion, Barnabas introduced him to the apostles.", "Easton, in his Bible Dictionary, supposes that they had been fellow students in the school of Gamaliel.The successful preaching of Christianity at Antioch to non-Jews led the church at Jerusalem to send Barnabas there to oversee the movement.", "He found the work so extensive and weighty that he went to Tarsus in search of Paul (still referred to as Saul), \"an admirable colleague\", to assist him.", "Paul returned with him to Antioch and labored with him for a whole year.", "At the end of this period, the two were sent up to Jerusalem (44 AD) with contributions from the church at Antioch for the relief of the poorer Christians in Judea.They returned to Antioch taking John Mark with them, the cousin or nephew of Barnabas.", "Later, they went to Cyprus and some of the principal cities of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia.", "After recounting what the governor of Cyprus Sergius Paulus believed, Acts 13:9 speaks of Barnabas's spiritual brother no longer as Saul, but as Paul, his Roman name, and generally refers to the two no longer as \"Barnabas and Saul\" as heretofore, but as \"Paul and Barnabas\".", "Only in Acts 14:14 and Acts 15:12–25 does Barnabas again occupy the first place, in the first passage with recollection of Acts 14:12, in the last 2, because Barnabas stood in closer relation to the Jerusalem church than Paul.", "Paul appears as the more eloquent missionary, whence the Lystrans regarded him as Hermes and Barnabas as Zeus.Acts 14:14 is also the unique biblical topic where Saint Barnabas is called with the Greek word for Apostle.", "''Saints Paul and Barnabas at Lystra (Sacrifice at Lystra)'' by Bartholomeus Breenberg, 1637, Princeton University Art MuseumReturning from this first missionary journey to Antioch, they were again sent up to Jerusalem to consult with the church there regarding the relation of Gentiles to the church.", "According to Galatians 2:9–10, Barnabas was included with Paul in the agreement made between them, on the one hand, and James, Peter, and John, on the other, that the two former should in the future preach to the pagans, not forgetting the poor at Jerusalem.", "This matter having been settled, they returned again to Antioch, bringing the agreement of the council that Gentiles were to be admitted into the church without having to adopt Jewish practices.After they had returned to Antioch from the Jerusalem council, they spent some time there.", "Peter came and associated freely there with the Gentiles, eating with them, until criticized for this by some disciples of James, as against Mosaic law.", "Upon their remonstrances, Peter yielded apparently through fear of displeasing them, and refused to eat any longer with the Gentiles.", "Barnabas followed his example.", "Paul considered that they \"walked not uprightly according to the truth of the gospel\" and upbraided them before the whole church.", "In Galatians 2:11–13, Paul says, \"And when Kephas came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face because he clearly was wrong.", "For, until some people came from James, he used to eat with the Gentiles; but when they came, he began to draw back and separated himself, because he was afraid of the circumcised.", "And the rest of the Jews (also) acted hypocritically along with him, with the result that even Barnabas was carried away by their hypocrisy.", "\"Paul then asked Barnabas to accompany him on another journey.", "Barnabas wished to take John Mark along, but Paul did not, as he had left them on the earlier journey.", "The dispute ended by Paul and Barnabas taking separate routes.", "Paul took Silas as his companion, and journeyed through Syria and Cilicia; while Barnabas took John Mark to visit Cyprus.Little is known of the subsequent career of Barnabas.", "He was still living and labouring as an Apostle in 56 or 57, when Paul wrote 1 Corinthians (9:5–6), in which it is stated that he, too, like Paul, earned his own living.", "The reference indicates also that the friendship between the two was unimpaired.", "When Paul was a prisoner in Rome (61–63), John Mark was attached to him as a disciple, which is regarded as an indication that Barnabas was no longer living (Colossians 4:10)." ], [ "Barnabas and Antioch", "Antioch, the third-most important city of the Roman Empire, then the capital city of Syria province, today Antakya, Turkey, was where Christians were first called thus.Some of those who had been scattered by the persecution that arose because of Stephen went to Antioch, which became the site of an early Christian community.", "A considerable minority of the Antioch church of Barnabas's time belonged to the merchant class, and they provided support to the poorer Jerusalem church." ], [ "Martyrdom", "Church tradition developed outside of the canon of the New Testament describes the martyrdom of many saints, including the legend of the martyrdom of Barnabas.", "It relates that certain Jews coming to Syria and Salamis, where Barnabas was then preaching the gospel, being highly exasperated at his extraordinary success, fell upon him as he was disputing in the synagogue, dragged him out, and, after the most inhumane tortures, stoned him to death.", "His kinsman, John Mark, who was a spectator of this barbarous action, privately interred his body.Although it is believed he was martyred by being stoned, the apocryphal Acts of Barnabas states that he was bound with a rope by the neck, and then being dragged only to the site where he would be burned to death.According to the ''History of the Cyprus Church'', in 478 Barnabas appeared in a dream to the Archbishop Anthemios of Cyprus and revealed to him the place of his sepulchre beneath a carob-tree.", "The following day Anthemios found the tomb and inside it the remains of Barnabas with a manuscript of Matthew's Gospel on his breast.", "Anthemios presented the Gospel to Emperor Zeno at Constantinople and received from him the privileges of the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus, that is, the purple cloak which the Greek Archbishop of Cyprus wears at festivals of the church, the imperial sceptre and the red ink with which he affixes his signature.Anthemios then placed the venerable remains of Barnabas in a church which he founded near the tomb.", "Excavations near the site of a present-day church and monastery, have revealed an early church with two empty tombs, believed to be that of St. Barnabas and Anthemios.St.", "Barnabas is venerated as the patron saint of Cyprus.", "He is also considered a patron saint in many other places in the world, highlighting Milan in Italy.", "On the island of Tenerife (Spain), St. Barnabas was invoked in historical times as patron saint and protector of the island's fields against drought, together with St. Benedict of Nursia.Barnabas the Apostle is remembered in the Church of England with a festival on 11 June." ], [ "Other sources", "Although many assume that the biblical Mark the cousin of Barnabas is the same as John Mark and Mark the Evangelist, the traditionally believed author of the Gospel of Mark, they are listed as three distinct people in Pseudo-Hippolytus' ''On the Seventy Apostles of Christ,'' which includes Barnabas himself as one of the Seventy-Two Disciples.", "There are two people named Barnabas among Hippolytus' list of Seventy Disciples, One (#13) became the bishop of Milan, the other (#25) the bishop of Heraclea.", "Most likely one of these two is the biblical Barnabas; the first one is more likely, because the numbering by Hippolytus seems to indicate a level of significance, and Barnabas is traditionally credited with founding the apostolic see of Milan.", "Clement of Alexandria also makes Barnabas one of the Seventy Disciples that are mentioned in the Gospel of Luke.Other sources bring Barnabas to Rome and Alexandria.", "In the \"Clementine Recognitions\" (i, 7) he is depicted as preaching in Rome even during Christ's lifetime.Cypriots developed the tradition of his later activity and martyrdom no earlier than the 3rd century.", "The question whether Barnabas was an apostle was often discussed during the Middle Ages." ], [ "Alleged writings", "Tertullian and other Western writers regard Barnabas as the author of the Letter to the Hebrews.", "This may have been the Roman tradition—which Tertullian usually follows—and in Rome the epistle may have had its first readers.", "Modern biblical scholarship considers its authorship unknown, though Barnabas amongst others has been proposed as potential authors.", "\"Photius of the ninth century, refers to some in his day who were uncertain whether the Acts was written by Clement of Rome, Barnabas, or Luke.", "Yet Photius is certain that the work must be ascribed to Luke.", "\"He is also traditionally associated with the Epistle of Barnabas, although some modern scholars think it more likely that the epistle was written in Alexandria in the 130s.The 5th century ''Decretum Gelasianum'' includes a ''Gospel of Barnabas'' amongst works condemned as apocryphal; but no certain text or quotation from this work has been identified.Another book using that same title, the Gospel of Barnabas, survives in two post-medieval manuscripts in Italian and Spanish.", "Contrary to the canonical Christian Gospels, and in accordance with the Islamic view of Jesus, this later Gospel of Barnabas states that Jesus was not the son of God, but a prophet and messenger." ], [ "The Barnabites", "In 1538, the Catholic religious order officially known as \"Clerics Regular of St. Paul\" (''Clerici Regulares Sancti Pauli''), gained the grand old Monastery of Saint Barnabas by the city wall of Milan as their main seat.", "The Order was thenceforth known by the popular name of ''Barnabites''." ], [ "See also", "* Catholic Church in Cyprus* Lectionary 214 – apocryphal ''Apodemia'' of Barnabas* List of early Christian saints* Saint Barnabas, patron saint archive" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John.", "\"The Penguin Dictionary of Saints,\" 3rd edition, New York: Penguin Books, 1993.", "**** *'''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Die Apostolischen Väter.", "Griechisch-deutsche Parallelausgabe.", "J.C.B.", "Mohr Tübingen 1992.", "* Der Barnabasbrief.", "Übersetzt und erklärt von Ferdinand R. Prostmeier.", "Series: Kommentar zu den Apostolischen Vätern (KAV, Vol.", "8).", "Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: Göttingen 1999.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Epistle of Barnabas* ''St.", "Barnabas the Apostle''* St Barnabas Monastery and Icon Museum, Famagusta, Cyprus* St. Barnabas at the Christian Iconography web site.", "* The Life of St. Barnabas the Apostle in Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend" ] ]

[ [ "Birka" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Birka''' (''Birca'' in medieval sources), on the island of Björkö (lit.", "\"Birch Island\") in present-day Sweden, was an important Viking Age trading center which handled goods from Scandinavia as well as many parts of the European continent and the Orient.", "Björkö is located in Lake Mälaren, 30 kilometers west of contemporary Stockholm, in the municipality of Ekerö.Birka was founded around AD 750 and it flourished for more than 200 years.", "It was abandoned c. AD 975, around the same time Sigtuna was founded as a Christian town some 35 km to the northeast.", "It has been estimated that the population in Viking Age Birka was between 500 and 1000 people.The archaeological sites of Birka and Hovgården, on the neighbouring island of Adelsö, make up an archaeological complex which illustrates the elaborate trading networks of Viking Scandinavia and their influence on the subsequent history of Europe.", "Generally regarded as Sweden's oldest town, Birka (along with Hovgården) has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993.Many burial sites have been uncovered at Birka, leading to the finding of many objects including jewelry and many textile fragments.", "In recent years, objects from Birka have been in the public eye due to ongoing academic research connection Birka to evidence of trade with the Middle East." ], [ "History", "Location in SwedenReconstruction of housingReconstruction of boatsMap of Björkö and Birka todayMap of Björkö, late 17th century, from Suecia antiqua et hodierna.", "Engraving by Willem Swidde.Birka was founded around 750 AD as a trading port by a king or merchants trying to control trade.", "It is one of the earliest urban settlements in Scandinavia.", "Birka was the Baltic link in the Dnieper Trade Route through Ladoga (''Aldeigja'') and Novgorod (''Holmsgard'') to the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate.", "Birka is the site of the first known Christian congregation in Sweden, founded in 831 by Saint Ansgar.As a trading center, Birka most likely offered furs, iron goods, and craft products, in exchange for various materials from much of Europe and Western Asia.", "Furs were obtained from the Sami people, the Finns, and people in Northwestern Russia, as well as from local trappers.", "Furs included bear, fox, marten, otter, beaver, and other species.", "Reindeer antlers and objects carved from reindeer antlers like combs were important items of trade.", "The trade of walrus teeth, amber, and honey is also documented.Foreign goods found from the graves of Birka include glass and metalware, pottery from the Rhineland, clothing and textiles including Chinese silk, Byzantine embroidery with extremely fine gold thread, brocades with gold passementerie, and plaited cords of high quality.", "From the ninth century onwards coins minted at Haithabu in Northern Germany and elsewhere in Scandinavia start to appear.", "However, the vast majority of the coins found at Birka are silver dirhams from the Middle East while English and Carolingian coins are rare." ], [ "Written accounts", "Sources from Birka are mainly archaeological remains.", "No texts survive from this area, though the written text ''Vita Ansgari'' (\"The Life of Ansgar\") by Rimbert (c. 865) describes the missionary work of Ansgar around 830 at Birka, and ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church) by Adam of Bremen in 1075 describes the Archbishop Unni, who died at Birka in 936.Saint Ansgar's work was the first attempt to convert the people of Birka from the Norse religion to Christianity.", "It was unsuccessful.Both Rimbert and Adam were German clergymen writing in Latin.", "There are no known Norse sources mentioning the name of the settlement, or even the settlement itself, and the original Norse name of Birka is unknown.", "''Birca'' is the Latinised form given in the written sources by Rimbert and Adam; and ''Birka'' is the contemporary, unhistorical Swedish form.", "The Latin name is probably derived from an Old Norse word \"birk\" which probably means a market place.", "Related to this was the ''Bjärköa law'' (bjärköarätt) which regulated the life of market places in Denmark, Norway and Sweden.", "Birka and similar spellings are very common in Scandinavian place names still today leading to speculation that all references to Birka, especially those by Adam of Bremen, were not about the same location.Both publications are silent on Birka's size, layout, and appearance.", "Based on Rimbert's account, Birka was significant because it had a port and it was the location of the regional ting.", "Adam only mentions the port, but otherwise, Birka seems to have been significant to him because it was the start of Ansgar's Christian mission and because Archbishop Unni was buried there.", "''Vita Ansgari'' and ''Gesta'' are sometimes ambiguous, which has caused some controversy as to whether Birka and the Björkö settlement are the same location.", "Many other locations have been suggested through the years.", "However, Björkö is the only location that shows remains of a town of Birka's significance, which is why the vast majority of scholars regard Björkö as the location of Birka.Birka was abandoned during the latter half of the 10th century.", "Based on the dating of the coins, the city seems to have died out around 960.Roughly around the same time, the nearby settlement of Sigtuna supplanted Birka as the main trading center in the Mälaren area.", "The reasons for Birka's decline are disputed.", "A contributing factor may have been the post-glacial rebound, which lowered the water level of Mälaren changing it from an arm of the sea into a lake and cutting Birka off from the nearest (southern) access to the Baltic Sea.", "The Baltic island of Gotland was also in a better strategic position for Rus'-Byzantine trade and was gaining eminence as a mercantile stronghold.", "Historian Neil Kent has speculated that the area may have been the victim of an enemy assault.The Varangian trade stations in Russia suffered a serious decline at roughly the same date.===Rimbert's description===In ''Vita Ansgari'' (\"The life of Ansgar\") monk and later archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen Rimbert gives the first known description of Birka.", "The town was the center of Catholic missionary activities in the 9th century Sweden.", "Rimbert's interests were in the Christian faith, not so much in the Swedish geopolicy, so his descriptions of Birka remain approximate at best.====Bridgehead of Christian missionaries====This is how it all started in 829:Meanwhile it happened that Swedish ambassadors had come to the Emperor Louis the Pious, and, amongst other matters which they had been ordered to bring to the attention of the emperor, they informed him that there were many belonging to their nation who desired to embrace the Christian religion, and that their king so far favoured this suggestion that he would permit God's priests to reside there, provided that they might be deemed worthy of such a favour and that the emperor would send them suitable preachers.", "(Chapter IX)Ansgar then undertook the mission committed to him by the emperor, who desired that he should go to the Swedes and discover whether this people was prepared to accept the faith as their messengers had declared.", "(Chapter X)Ansgar was already experienced in the missionary work in Denmark, and set forth to Sweden.", "Rimbert describes the trip very generally:It may suffice for me to say that while they were in the midst of their journey they fell into the hands of pirates.", "The merchants with whom they were travelling, defended themselves vigorously and for a time successfully, but eventually they were conquered and overcome by the pirates, who took from them their ships and all that they possessed, whilst they themselves barely escaped on.", "foot to land.", "—With great difficulty they accomplished their long journey on foot, traversing also the intervening seas (maria), where it was possible, by ship, and eventually arrived at the Swedish port called Birka.", "(Chapters X and XI)Rimbert does not say where Ansgar sailed off or where he landed.", "Noteworthy is just his note about several \"seas\" that they had to cross to get to Birka from the place they had landed to.", "Since Rimbert mentions them to have crossed the seas by ship \"where it was possible\" they clearly had the alternative of going around them as well, meaning that the seas were probably the numerous lakes in southern Sweden.", "When Ansgar again travelled to Birka from Germany about 852, it went easier:Ansgar accomplished the journey on which he had set out, and after spending nearly twenty days in a ship, he arrived at Birka (Chapter XXVI)This might mean that he sailed off from Hamburg or Bremen instead of some port in Baltic Sea, since the later account by Adam of Bremen gives the distance of Scania and Birka to be only five days at sea.====Kings====Several Swedish kings of the 9th century, Björn, Anund and Olof, are all mentioned in ''Vita'' to have spent time in Birka.", "None of them is however said to have had his residence there, as the Swedish king and his retinue periodically moved between the Husbys, parts of the network of royal estates called Uppsala öd.King Björn met Ansgar in Birka when he arrived there in 829 (Chapter XI).", "Later King Olof met him there as well during his last trip in 852 (Chapter XXVI).====Church====Ansgar's missionary work resulted in first churches to be built in Sweden.", "Talking about Herigar, the prefect of Birka:A little later he built a church on his own ancestral property and served God with the utmost devotion.", "(Chapter XI)Herigar's church was not far from the place where tings were held:On one occasion he himself was sitting in an assembly of people, a stage having been arranged for a council on an open plain.", "He then summoned his servants and told them to carry him to his church.", "(Chapter XIX)Another church was also built in Sweden, however location is left open:This Gautbert, who at his consecration received the honoured name of the apostle Simeon, went to Sweden, and was honourably received by the king and the people; and he began, amidst general goodwill and approval, to build a church there (Chapter XIV)The exiled Swedish King Anund Uppsale confirms that either one of the churches was in Birka itself when he ponders if Birka should be plundered:\"There are there,\" he said, \"many great and powerful gods, and in former time a church was built there, and there are many Christians there who worship Christ\" (Chapter XIX)====Probable fortress====An entry point in a Viking-era defensive wall on BirkaDanes attacked Birka, accompanied with the deposed king Anund, which caused great distress in the town.Being in great difficulty they fled to a neighbouring city (ad civitatem, quæ iuxta erat, confugerunt) and began to promise and offer to their gods—But inasmuch as the city was not strong and there were few to offer resistance, they sent messengers to the Danes and asked for friendship and alliance.", "—Hergeir, the faithful servant of the Lord, was angry with them and said, \"They will lead away your wives and sons as captives, they will burn our city (urbs) and town (vicus)\" and will destroy you with the sword (Chapter XIX)As the neighbouring \"city\" is not mentioned in any other context than during the Danish attack as a place where people took refuge, it probably meant a nearby fortress.", "Eventually Danes left, sparing Birka from destruction.====''Ting'' assembly====When Ansgar asked if King Olof would permit him to establish the Christian religion in the kingdom during his second visit in 852, the king said to him:On this account I have not the power, nor do I dare, to approve the objects of your mission until I can consult our gods by the casting of lots and until I can enquire the will of the people in regard to this matter.", "Let your messenger attend with me the next assembly (Chapter XXVI)When the day for the assembly which was held in the town of Birka drew near, in accordance with their national custom the king caused a proclamation to be made to the people by the voice of a herald, in order that they might be informed concerning the object of their mission.", "—The king then rose up from amongst the assembly and forthwith directed one of his own messengers to accompany the bishop's messenger, and to tell him that the people were unanimously inclined to accept his proposal and at the same time to tell him that, whilst their action was entirely agreeable to him, he could not give his full consent until, in another assembly, which was to be held in another part of his kingdom, he could announce this resolution to the people who lived in that district.", "(Chapter XXVII)Tings were huge open-air events, which required plenty of space.", "The more important ting that king Olof talked about was probably the ''Ting of all Swedes'', which was held at the end of February in Uppsala, during the Disting.", "The king was obliged to obey the common decisions made at this ting, and the most powerful man at this assembly was not the king, but the lawspeaker of Tiundaland.", "Locally important tings were the Westrogothic ''Ting of all Geats'' in Skara and the Ostrogothic ''Lionga ting'' in the vicinity of today's Linköping.===Adam of Bremen's description===In ''Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum'' (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church), Adam of Bremen mentions Birka many times, and the book is the main source of information on the city.", "After its initial release in 1075–6, ''Gesta'' was complemented with supplementary ''Scholias'' until the death of Adam in the 1080s.", "Birca is described as an existing city in the original version, but then as destroyed in ''Scholia 138''.One of Adam's main sources had been the German bishop Adalvard the Younger of Sigtuna and later of Skara as hinted in ''Scholia 119''.", "He was also very familiar with Rimbert's work.", "Adam himself never visited Birka.====Location and port====Adam described Birka as a Geatish port town and had gathered many details about it.Birka is the main Geatish town (oppidum Gothorum), situated in the middle of Sweden (Suevoniae), not far (non longe) from the temple called Uppsala (Ubsola) which the Swedes (Sueones) held in the highest esteem when it comes to the worship of the gods; here forms an inlet of the Baltic or the Barbaric Sea a port facing north which welcomes all the wild peoples all around this sea but which is risky for those who are careless or ignorant of such places ... they have therefore blocked this inlet of the troubled sea with hidden masses of rocks along more than 100 stadions (18 km).", "On this anchorage, being the best sheltered within the maritime region of Sweden (Suevoniae), all the ships belonging to Danes (Danorum) known as Norwegians (Nortmannorum) as well as to Slavs (Sclavorum), Sembrians (Semborum) and other Scythian (Scithiae) peoples use to convene every year for sundry necessary commerce.", "(I 62)Turning from the northern parts to the mouth of the Baltic Sea we first meet the Norwegians (Nortmanni), then the Danish region of Skåne (Sconia) stands out, and beyond these live the Geats (Gothi) for a long stretch all the way to Birka.", "(IV 14)Having described Västergötland and Skara, Adam writes:Beyond it Östergötland (Ostrogothia) extends along the sea, that is called the Baltic Sea, all the way to Birka.", "(IV 23)Noteworthy in the following statement is the usage of the term \"not far\" (non longe) which was also used to describe the distance between Birka and the Uppsala temple:Furthermore we have been told that there are many more islands in that sea, one of which is called the Great Estland (Aestland) – And this island is told to be quite close to the Woman Land (terrae feminarum), which is not far (non longe) away from Birka of the Swedes.", "(IV 17)Adam also had travel instructions from Skåne to Sigtuna:From Skåne (Sconia) of the Danes one reaches Sigtuna (Sictonam) or Birka after five days at sea, for they are indeed alike.", "But by land from Skåne across the Geatish people (Gothorum populos) and cities Skara (Scaranem), Telgas and Birka, one reaches Sigtuna only after a full month.", "(IV 28)\"Telgas\" is not mentioned anywhere else, and it remains as speculative as Birka.", "The most popular identification among many telge names in Sweden is Södertälje.", "''Scholia 121'' of IV 20 tells also:For those who sail from Skåne (Sconia) of the Danes to Birka, the journey takes five days, from Birka to Russia (Ruzziam) likewise five days at sea.", "(Scholia 121)The following definition remains even more mysterious:In pity of their errors, our archbishop ordained as their diocesan capital Birka, which is in the middle of Sweden (Sueoniae) facing Jumne (Iumnem), the capital of the Slavs, and equally distant from all the coasts of the surrounding sea.", "(IV 20)Since it is physically impossible for any Swedish town to face Jumne, the latter being situated along River Oder, Adam's statement is probably a misunderstanding.", "No place having a similar name to Birka is known to have situated on the opposite shore of Oder, so it may be possible that something similar to Jumne was located opposite to Birka.====Bishop====Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen that oversaw the missionary work in Scandinavia until 1103, had appointed bishops to Sweden at least from 1014 onwards, the first see being in Skara.", "Several bishops were appointed for Sweden in 1060s, one also for Birka.For Sweden, six were consecrated: Adalvard the Elder (Adalwardum) and Acilinum, also Adalvard the Younger (Adalwardum) and Tadicum, and furthermore Simeon (Symeonem) and the monk John (Iohannem).", "(III 70)''Scholia 94'' appends this as follows:Adalvard the Elder (Adalwardus senior) was to superintend both lands of the Geats (uterque praefectus est Gothiae), Adalvard the Younger Sigtuna (Sictunam) and Uppsala (Ubsalam), Simeon (Symon) the Sami people (Scritefingos), John (Iohannes) the islands of the Baltic Sea.", "(Scholia 94)Furthermore, the following was said about John's location after talking about Birka:For this city he ordained, as the first among our people, the abbot Hiltin, whom he wanted to call John.", "(IV 20)John seems to have been situated in Birka in order to prepare for the missionary work among the many heathen people that flooded to Birca from around the Baltic coasts.", "This was a logical continuation to Birka's position as the first missionary town in Sweden.", "Noteworthy here is that the biggest islands in the Baltic Sea, Öland and Gotland, were part of the diocese of Linköping in the Middle Ages, covering also Östergötland and eastern Småland.====Location of Unni's tomb====''Scholia 122'' of IV 20 locates the tomb of Hamburg's archbishop Unni in Birka:There is the port of Saint Ansgar and the tomb of the holy Archbishop Unni, and a familiar haven, it is said, for the holy confessors of our diocese.", "(Scholia 122)According to ''Gesta'', Unni had died in 936 (I 64).====Destruction====After having consistently described Birka as an existing city, ''Scholia 138'' of IV 29 describes Birka's sudden demise.", "Talking about Adalvard the Younger, the bishop of Sigtuna and later that of Skara, Adam or a later copyist has written:During his journey he seized the opportunity to make a detour to Birka, which is now reduced to loneliness so that one can hardly find vestiges of the city; therefore impossible to come upon the tomb of the holy Archbishop Unni.", "(Scholia 138)The remark does not make it clear if Adalvard found the city destroyed or if that had happened after his visit and the later remark was just to warn the future pilgrims not to go there anymore in vain.", "As Adalvard was back in Bremen already by 1069 and is mentioned as one of Adam's sources of information, it would have been expected that word about Birka's destruction had reached also Adam before he published his work half a decade later." ], [ "Björkö archaeological site", "1991 excavation in dark earthJuly 2004 excavation of BirkaThe exact location of Birka was also lost during the centuries, leading to speculation from Swedish historians.", "In 1450, the island of Björkö was first claimed to be Birka by the \"Chronicle of Sweden\" (''Prosaiska krönikan'').In search of Birka, National Antiquarian Johan Hadorph was the first to attempt excavations on Björkö in the late 17th century.In the late 19th century, Hjalmar Stolpe, an entomologist by education, arrived on Björkö to study fossilized insects found in amber on the island.", "Stolpe found very large amounts of amber, which is unusual since amber is not normally found in lake Mälaren.", "Stolpe speculated that the island may have been an important trading post, prompting him to conduct a series of archeological excavations between 1871 and 1895.The excavations soon indicated that a major settlement had been located on the island and eventually Stolpe spent two decades excavating the island.", "After Björkö came to be identified with ancient Birka, it has been assumed that the original name of Birka was simply ''Bierkø'' (sometimes spelled ''Bjärkö''), an earlier form of ''Björkö''.A significant collection of textiles fragments were retrieved during excavations, mostly from chamber graves.", "Agnes Geijer published the most detailed analysis of this collection in 1938, although her study was based upon only around 5% of the 4800 textile fragments preserved from the site.", "The collection represents a usual variety of different types of textiles showing high quality textiles manufactured by different techniques like tabby and twill.", "Mostly made from wool and flax, the quality of the textiles studied by Geijer ranged from very coarse to fine fabrics with high thread counts that required complicated techniques to create.", "The variety of materials and techniques to make the tablet woven textiles led Geijer to theorize that some of the textiles were imported.", "Geijer also found remains of the three-end twill textile that has not been found anywhere else in Northern Europe.", "Geijer theorized that some of the fragments came from the East, possibly China, due the use of gold and silver wire as well as silk.Ownership of Björkö is today mainly in private hands and is used for farming.", "The settlement site, however, is an archaeological site, and a museum has been built nearby for exhibition of finds (mostly replicas), models and reconstructions.", "It is a popular site to visit during the summer times.", "The complete collection of archaeological finds from the excavations on Björkö are held by The Swedish History Museum in Stockholm, and many of the artifacts are on display there.The archaeological remains are located in the north part of Björkö and span an area of about 7 hectares (17 acres).", "The remains are both burial-sites and buildings, and in the south part of this area, there is also a hill fort called \"Borgen\" (\"The Fortress\").", "The construction technique of the buildings is still unknown, but the main material was wood.", "An adjacent island holds the remains of Hovgården, an estate that housed the King's retinue during visits.Approximately 700 people lived at Birka when it was at its largest, and about 3,000 graves have been found.", "Its administrative center was supposedly located outside of the settlement itself, on the nearby island of Adelsö.The most recent large excavation was undertaken between 1990 and 1995 in a region of dark earth, believed to be the site of the main settlement.===Shipyard===On 15 June 2022, it was announced that archaeologists from Stockholm University's Archaeological Research Laboratory had found a Viking Age shipyard in Lake Mälaren.", "It was the first time a site like the shipyard had been found.", "\"The site found consisted of a stone-lined depression in the Viking Age shore zone with a wooden boat slip at the bottom.", "The finds at the site consist of large quantities of both unused and used boat rivets, whetstones made from slate and woodworking tools.\"" ], [ "Björkö objects", "=== \"Allah\" textile controversy ===In 2017, Annika Larsson, a textile researcher, claimed in a press release by Uppsala University to have discovered a textile among the finds from Birka that bore the Arabic words \"Allah\" and \"Ali\".", "She theorized that some of the Vikings could have been influenced by Islam, leading to widespread media coverage.", "Stephennie Mulder, a professor of Islamic art at the University of Texas at Austin, replied to Larsson's findings in a Twitter thread.", "Based on the epigraphy, Mulder argued that the textile bore a simple geometric pattern and not Arabic writing because the dating of the textile was from the 10th century and the style of writing Larsson claimed was on the textile, square Kufic, is not seen until the 15th century.", "Larsson had also proposed extensions to the tablet weaving that expanded beyond the original drawing by Agnes Geijer in 1938.Textile specialist Carolyn Priest-Dorman argued that the expansions are impossible because the fragment has finished edges called selvages and the band would have shown cut weft threads if the fragment had been narrowed at some point.", "Larsson's drawings were speculative and not based on evidence that an expansion existed.", "The backlash following these criticisms led the press release on the Uppsala University website to include a note that Larsson's research was preliminary and a comment regarding the criticisms.", "In 2020, Larsson published an article reiterating her claim that the textile bore Arabic writing, without addressing these criticisms.=== \"Allah\" ring controversy ===Ring theorized to read \"Allah\" found at BirkaA ring was found during the archeological excavations at Birka between 1872 and 1895, when archeologist Hjalmar Stolpe discovered it in a 9th-century Viking woman's burial.", "It is made of high-quality silver alloy and is set with a pink-violet oval glass.", "The ring, preserved at the Swedish history museum, became known as the \"Allah ring\" because of the pseudo-Kufic inscription found on the ring's glass that resembles the word Allah (Arabic: الله).", "While other rings were found at the Birka excavations, the \"Allah ring\" was the only one that had this type of inscription.", "The Arabic historical linguist Marijn van Putten argued that the inscription on the ring was an example of pseudo-Kufic and that it has no meaning in Arabic.", "Nevertheless, other analysts extrapolated that the pseudo-Kufic engraving was indeed Arabic and that this was sufficient evidence to directly link Vikings to Islamic civilization.", "In her Twitter thread on the \"Allah” textile, Stephennie Mulder drew on the work of van Putten to argue that like the textile, the ring had been similarly misunderstood.", "However, she acknowledged that the Arabic language—found on the ring and other objects from Birka—was appreciated by the Vikings as a sign of social status.", "The inscription could suggest that the ring's owner might have been one of the Viking elites who were in contact with the Islamic world via trade or travel.=== Dragonhead ===The Birka dragonhead is a 45mm long decorative object made from a tin alloy.", "Sven Kalmring and Lena Holmquist maintain that the dragonhead was cast from a soapstone mold due to the presence of casting burs on the object and the fact that similar casting molds of dragons have been found in Birka.", "Stylistically similar dragonheads have been discovered around the Baltic, and scholars like Anne-Sofie Gräslund believe they likely functioned as dress pins.Mjöllnir, found at Birka=== Wearable accessories ===10 small silver crosses were found in graves at Birka.", "Missionaries, brought by Rimbert and others, lead to some converts to Christianity.", "27 graves contained small pendants of Thor's hammer from around the 10th century.", "Both traditional Viking religious beliefs and Christianity were present at Birka.Tortoise brooches found at BirkaMany Birka grave excavations produced a number of funerary findings unique to the deceased and the region of the grave.", "In the excavation of grave Bj 463, a small copper alloy brooch with animal motifs was found alongside the skeletal remains of a young girl from Birka, and similar ones appeared in other excavations around Birka.The brooch is understood to be typically related to female burials and also female jewelry of the Viking period.", "The surrounding fragments of textiles attached to these brooches, scattered around various graves across Sweden, also give an understanding of what the typical womenswear of the Viking age may have been in the 9th and 10th centuries.=== Dirham coins ===Dirham coins have been located all around Scandinavian countries and suggest strong trade relations existed between the medieval Middle East and Northern Europe.", "A dirham coin was found in the excavation of grave sites in Birka, with Arabic writing and an absence of imagery that would date the coin sometime after the 7th century.", "Other writing on the coin indicates the location of the mint as well as the names of a caliph and an Amir, which place the coin's origins in al-Shah, modern day Tashkent in Uzbekistan.", "The coin's inscription in Arabic translates into English:There is no deity but Allah alone he has no equal For God Muhammad is the messenger of God." ], [ "Birka burial sites", "Over 3,000 grave sites are located in Birka, including both cremations and inhumations in coffins or chamber graves.", "Skeletal analysis and the presence of gender-specific jewelry and objects in graves has shown that the majority of the deceased are female.", "Scholar Nancy L. Wicker suggests that the disproportionate number of female graves is due to the fact that female grave goods are easily identifiable, but male graves without objects are difficult to identify.Many graves contain objects such as coins, glass, and textiles that originated in foreign countries as far as the Middle East and Eastern Asia.", "According to Nancy L. Wicker, these objects were either imported to Birka as luxury trade goods, or they belonged to foreign individuals who were buried at Birka.Grave Bj 463 contained the skeleton of a girl from the mid-10th century.", "She was buried in a coffin with grave goods associated with high-status women, including a round brooch, glass beads, and a needle case.", "By the condition of her teeth, she was 5–6 years old at the time of her death, and further analysis determined that her diet was similar to that of male warriors instead of a typical child's diet.", "Scholar Marianne Hem Eriksen maintains that this girl is an unusual case of a high-status child burial, as children were seldom buried with identifiable grave goods." ], [ "See also", "* List of runestones* Uppland Runic Inscription 6 on display in Birka's museum" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Birka and Hovgården at the Swedish National Heritage Board* Birka and Hovgården – at UNESCO* Reconstructions of Bone Flutes like the ones from Birka* The Swedish History Museum" ] ]

[ [ "Beta-lactamase" ], [ "Introduction", "Core structure of penicillins (top) and cephalosporins (bottom).", "Beta-lactam ring in red.", "''Escherichia coli'' bacteria on the right are sensitive to two beta-lactam antibiotics, and do not grow in the semi-circular regions surrounding antibiotics.", "''E.", "coli'' bacteria on the left are resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics, and grow next to one antibiotic (bottom) and are less inhibited by another antibiotic (top).", "'''Beta-lactamases''' ('''β-lactamases''') are enzymes () produced by bacteria that provide multi-resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillins, cephalosporins, cephamycins, monobactams and carbapenems (ertapenem), although carbapenems are relatively resistant to beta-lactamase.", "Beta-lactamase provides antibiotic resistance by breaking the antibiotics' structure.", "These antibiotics all have a common element in their molecular structure: a four-atom ring known as a beta-lactam (β-lactam) ring.", "Through hydrolysis, the enzyme lactamase breaks the β-lactam ring open, deactivating the molecule's antibacterial properties.", "Beta-lactamases produced by Gram-negative bacteria are usually secreted, especially when antibiotics are present in the environment." ], [ "Structure", "The structure of a ''Streptomyces'' serine β-lactamase (SBLs) is given by .", "The alpha-beta fold () resembles that of a DD-transpeptidase, from which the enzyme is thought to have evolved.", "β-lactam antibiotics bind to DD-transpeptidases to inhibit bacterial cell wall biosynthesis.", "Serine β-lactamases are grouped by sequence similarity into types A, C, and D.The other type of beta-lactamase is of the metallo type (\"type B\").", "Metallo-beta-lactamases (MBLs) need metal ion(s) (1 or 2 Zn2+ ions) on their active site for their catalytic activities.", "The structure of the New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1 is given by .", "It resembles a RNase Z, from which it is thought to have evolved." ], [ "Mechanism of action", "The two types of beta-lactamases work on the basis of the two basic mechanisms of opening the β-lactam ring.The SBLs are similar in structure and mechanistically to the β-lactam target penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) which are necessary for cell wall building and modifying.", "SBLs and PBPs both covalently change an active site Serine residue.", "The difference between the PBPs and SBLs is that the latter generates free enzyme and inactive antibiotic by the very quick hydrolysis of the acyl-enzyme intermediate.The MBLs use the Zn2+ ions to activate a binding site water molecule for the hydrolysis of the β-lactam ring.", "Zinc chelators have recently been investigated as metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors, as they are often able to restore carbapenem susceptibility." ], [ "Penicillinase", "Penicillinase is a specific type of β-lactamase, showing specificity for penicillins, again by hydrolysing the β-lactam ring.", "Molecular weights of the various penicillinases tend to cluster near 50 kilodaltons.Penicillinase was the first β-lactamase to be identified.", "It was first isolated by Abraham and Chain in 1940 from Gram-negative ''E.", "coli'' even before penicillin entered clinical use, but penicillinase production quickly spread to bacteria that previously did not produce it or produced it only rarely.", "Penicillinase-resistant beta-lactams such as methicillin were developed, but there is now widespread resistance to even these." ], [ "Resistance in Gram-negative bacteria", "Among Gram-negative bacteria, the emergence of resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporins has been a major concern.", "It appeared initially in a limited number of bacterial species (''E.", "cloacae'', ''C.", "freundii'', ''S.", "marcescens'', and ''P.", "aeruginosa'') that could mutate to hyperproduce their chromosomal class C β-lactamase.", "A few years later, resistance appeared in bacterial species not naturally producing AmpC enzymes (''K.", "pneumoniae'', ''Salmonella'' spp., ''P.", "mirabilis'') due to the production of TEM- or SHV-type ESBLs (extended spectrum beta lactamases).", "Characteristically, such resistance has included oxyimino- (for example ceftizoxime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, and ceftazidime, as well as the oxyimino-monobactam aztreonam), but not 7-alpha-methoxy-cephalosporins (cephamycins; in other words, cefoxitin and cefotetan); has been blocked by inhibitors such as clavulanate, sulbactam or tazobactam and did not involve carbapenems and temocillin.", "Chromosomal-mediated AmpC β-lactamases represent a new threat, since they confer resistance to 7-alpha-methoxy-cephalosporins (cephamycins) such as cefoxitin or cefotetan but are not affected by commercially available β-lactamase inhibitors, and can, in strains with loss of outer membrane porins, provide resistance to carbapenems.===Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)===Members of this family commonly express β-lactamases (e.g., TEM-3, TEM-4, and SHV-2 ) which confer resistance to expanded-spectrum (extended-spectrum) cephalosporins.", "In the mid-1980s, this new group of enzymes, the extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs), was detected (first detected in 1979).", "The prevalence of ESBL-producing bacteria have been gradually increasing in acute care hospitals.", "The prevalence in the general population varies between countries, e.g.", "approximately 6% in Germany and France, 13% in Saudi Arabia, and 63% in Egypt.", "ESBLs are beta-lactamases that hydrolyze extended-spectrum cephalosporins with an oxyimino side chain.", "These cephalosporins include cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, and ceftazidime, as well as the oxyimino-monobactam aztreonam.", "Thus ESBLs confer multi-resistance to these antibiotics and related oxyimino-beta lactams.", "In typical circumstances, they derive from genes for TEM-1, TEM-2, or SHV-1 by mutations that alter the amino acid configuration around the active site of these β-lactamases.", "A broader set of β-lactam antibiotics are susceptible to hydrolysis by these enzymes.", "An increasing number of ESBLs not of TEM or SHV lineage have recently been described.", "The ESBLs are frequently plasmid encoded.", "Plasmids responsible for ESBL production frequently carry genes encoding resistance to other drug classes (for example, aminoglycosides).", "Therefore, antibiotic options in the treatment of ESBL-producing organisms are extremely limited.", "Carbapenems are the treatment of choice for serious infections due to ESBL-producing organisms, yet carbapenem-resistant (primarily ertapenem-resistant) isolates have recently been reported.", "ESBL-producing organisms may appear susceptible to some extended-spectrum cephalosporins.", "However, treatment with such antibiotics has been associated with high failure rates.=== Types ======= TEM beta-lactamases (class A) ====TEM-1 is the most commonly encountered beta-lactamase in Gram-negative bacteria.", "Up to 90% of ampicillin resistance in ''E.", "coli'' is due to the production of TEM-1.Also responsible for the ampicillin and penicillin resistance that is seen in ''H.", "influenzae'' and ''N.", "gonorrhoeae'' in increasing numbers.", "Although TEM-type beta-lactamases are most often found in ''E.", "coli'' and ''K.", "pneumoniae'', they are also found in other species of Gram-negative bacteria with increasing frequency.", "The amino acid substitutions responsible for the extended-spectrum beta lactamase (ESBL) phenotype cluster around the active site of the enzyme and change its configuration, allowing access to oxyimino-beta-lactam substrates.", "Opening the active site to beta-lactam substrates also typically enhances the susceptibility of the enzyme to β-lactamase inhibitors, such as clavulanic acid.", "Single amino acid substitutions at positions 104, 164, 238, and 240 produce the ESBL phenotype, but ESBLs with the broadest spectrum usually have more than a single amino acid substitution.", "Based upon different combinations of changes, currently 140 TEM-type enzymes have been described.", "TEM-10, TEM-12, and TEM-26 are among the most common in the United States.", "The term TEM comes from the name of the Athenian patient (Temoniera) from which the isolate was recovered in 1963.====SHV beta-lactamases (class A)====SHV-1 shares 68 percent of its amino acids with TEM-1 and has a similar overall structure.", "The SHV-1 beta-lactamase is most commonly found in ''K.", "pneumoniae'' and is responsible for up to 20% of the plasmid-mediated ampicillin resistance in this species.", "ESBLs in this family also have amino acid changes around the active site, most commonly at positions 238 or 238 and 240.More than 60 SHV varieties are known.", "SHV-5 and SHV-12 are among the most common.", "The initials stand for \"sulfhydryl reagent variable\".==== CTX-M beta-lactamases (class A) ====These enzymes were named for their greater activity against cefotaxime than other oxyimino-beta-lactam substrates (e.g., ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, or cefepime).", "Rather than arising by mutation, they represent examples of plasmid acquisition of beta-lactamase genes normally found on the chromosome of ''Kluyvera'' species, a group of rarely pathogenic commensal organisms.", "These enzymes are not very closely related to TEM or SHV beta-lactamases in that they show only approximately 40% identity with these two commonly isolated beta-lactamases.", "More than 172 CTX-M enzymes are currently known.", "Despite their name, a few are more active on ceftazidime than cefotaxime.", "They are widely described among species of Enterobacteriaceae, mainly E. coli and K. pneumoniae.", "Detected in the 1980s they have since the early 2000s spread and are the now the predominant ESBL type in the world.", "They are generally clustred into five groups based on sequencing homologies; CTX-M-1, CTX-M-2, CTX-M-8, CTX-M-9 and CTX-M-25.CTX-M-15 (belonging to the CTX-M-1 cluster) is the most prevalent CTX-M-gene.", "An example of beta-lactamase CTX-M-15, along with IS''Ecp1'', has been found to have transposed onto the chromosome of ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' ATCC BAA-2146.The initials stand for \"Cefotaxime-Munich\".==== OXA beta-lactamases (class D) ====OXA beta-lactamases were long recognized as a less common but also plasmid-mediated beta-lactamase variety that could hydrolyze oxacillin and related anti-staphylococcal penicillins.", "These beta-lactamases differ from the TEM and SHV enzymes in that they belong to molecular class D and functional group 2d.", "The OXA-type beta-lactamases confer resistance to ampicillin and cephalothin and are characterized by their high hydrolytic activity against oxacillin and cloxacillin and the fact that they are poorly inhibited by clavulanic acid.", "Amino acid substitutions in OXA enzymes can also give the ESBL phenotype.", "While most ESBLs have been found in ''E.", "coli'', ''K.", "pneumoniae'', and other Enterobacteriaceae, the OXA-type ESBLs have been found mainly in ''P.", "aeruginosa''.", "OXA-type ESBLs have been found mainly in ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' isolates from Turkey and France.", "The OXA beta-lactamase family was originally created as a phenotypic rather than a genotypic group for a few beta-lactamases that had a specific hydrolysis profile.", "Therefore, there is as little as 20% sequence homology among some of the members of this family.", "However, recent additions to this family show some degree of homology to one or more of the existing members of the OXA beta-lactamase family.", "Some confer resistance predominantly to ceftazidime, but OXA-17 confers greater resistance to cefotaxime and cefepime than it does resistance to ceftazidime.==== Others ====Other plasmid-mediated ESBLs, such as PER, VEB, GES, and IBC beta-lactamases, have been described but are uncommon and have been found mainly in ''P.", "aeruginosa'' and at a limited number of geographic sites.", "PER-1 in isolates in Turkey, France, and Italy; VEB-1 and VEB-2 in strains from Southeast Asia; and GES-1, GES-2, and IBC-2 in isolates from South Africa, France, and Greece.", "PER-1 is also common in multiresistant acinetobacter species in Korea and Turkey.", "Some of these enzymes are found in Enterobacteriaceae as well, whereas other uncommon ESBLs (such as BES-1, IBC-1, SFO-1, and TLA-1) have been found only in Enterobacteriaceae.====Treatment====While ESBL-producing organisms were previously associated with hospitals and institutional care, these organisms are now increasingly found in the community.", "CTX-M-15-positive E. coli are a cause of community-acquired urinary infections in the UK, and tend to be resistant to all oral β-lactam antibiotics, as well as quinolones and sulfonamides.", "Treatment options may include nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, mecillinam and chloramphenicol.", "In desperation, once-daily ertapenem or gentamicin injections may also be used.=== Inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases ===Although the inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases are not ESBLs, they are often discussed with ESBLs because they are also derivatives of the classical TEM- or SHV-type enzymes.", "These enzymes were at first given the designation IRT for inhibitor-resistant TEM β-lactamase; however, all have subsequently been renamed with numerical TEM designations.", "There are at least 19 distinct inhibitor-resistant TEM β-lactamases.", "Inhibitor-resistant TEM β-lactamases have been found mainly in clinical isolates of ''E.", "coli'', but also some strains of ''K.", "pneumoniae'', ''Klebsiella oxytoca'', ''P.", "mirabilis'', and ''Citrobacter freundii''.", "Although the inhibitor-resistant TEM variants are resistant to inhibition by clavulanic acid and sulbactam, thereby showing clinical resistance to the beta-lactam—lactamase inhibitor combinations of amoxicillin-clavulanate (co-amoxiclav), ticarcillin-clavulanate (co-ticarclav), and ampicillin/sulbactam, they normally remain susceptible to inhibition by tazobactam and subsequently the combination of piperacillin/tazobactam, although resistance has been described.", "This is no longer a primarily European epidemiology, it is found in northern parts of America often and should be tested for with complex UTI's.===AmpC-type β-lactamases (class C)===AmpC type β-lactamases are commonly isolated from extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Gram-negative bacteria.", "AmpC β-lactamases (also termed class C or group 1) are typically encoded on the chromosome of many Gram-negative bacteria including ''Citrobacter'', ''Serratia'' and ''Enterobacter'' species where its expression is usually inducible; it may also occur on ''Escherichia coli'' but is not usually inducible, although it can be hyperexpressed.", "AmpC type β-lactamases may also be carried on plasmids.", "AmpC β-lactamases, in contrast to ESBLs, hydrolyse broad and extended-spectrum cephalosporins (cephamycins as well as to oxyimino-β-lactams) but are not typically inhibited by the β-lactamase inhibitors clavulanic acid and tazobactam, whereas avibactam can maintain inhibitory activity against this class of β-lactamases.", "AmpC-type β-lactamase organisms are often clinically grouped through the acronym, \"SPACE\": ''Serratia, Pseudomonas'' or ''Proteus, Acinetobacter, Citrobacter'', and ''Enterobacter''." ], [ "Carbapenemases", "Carbapenems are famously stable to AmpC β-lactamases and extended-spectrum-β-lactamases.", "Carbapenemases are a diverse group of β-lactamases that are active not only against the oxyimino-cephalosporins and cephamycins but also against the carbapenems.", "Aztreonam is stable to the metallo-β-lactamases,but many IMP and VIM producers are resistant, owing to other mechanisms.", "Carbapenemases were formerly believed to derive only from classes A, B, and D, but a class C carbapenemase has been described.===IMP-type carbapenemases (metallo-β-lactamases) (class B)===Plasmid-mediated IMP-type carbapenemases (IMP stands for active-on-imipenem), 19 varieties of which are currently known, became established in Japan in the 1990s both in enteric Gram-negative organisms and in ''Pseudomonas'' and ''Acinetobacter'' species.", "IMP enzymes spread slowly to other countries in the Far East, were reported from Europe in 1997, and have been found in Canada and Brazil.===VIM (Verona integron-encoded metallo-β-lactamase) (Class B)===A second growing family of carbapenemases, the VIM family, was reported from Italy in 1999 and now includes 10 members, which have a wide geographic distribution in Europe, South America, and the Far East and have been found in the United States.", "VIM-1 was discovered in ''P.", "aeruginosa'' in Italy in 1996; since then, VIM-2 - now the predominant variant - was found repeatedly in Europe and the Far East; VIM-3 and -4 are minor variants of VIM-2 and -1, respectively.Amino acid sequence diversity is up to 10% in the VIM family, 15% in the IMP family, and 70% between VIM and IMP.", "Enzymes of both the families, nevertheless, are similar.", "Both are integron-associated, sometimes within plasmids.", "Both hydrolyse all β-lactams except monobactams, and evade all β-lactam inhibitors.", "The VIM enzymes are among the most widely distributed MBLs, with >40 VIM variants having been reported.", "Biochemical and biophysical studies revealed that VIM variants have only small variations in their kinetic parameters but substantial differences in their thermal stabilities and inhibition profiles.=== OXA (oxacillinase) group of β-lactamases (class D) ===The OXA group of β-lactamases occur mainly in Acinetobacter species and are divided into two clusters.", "OXA carbapenemases hydrolyse carbapenems very slowly ''in vitro'', and the high MICs seen for some Acinetobacter hosts (>64 mg/L) may reflect secondary mechanisms.", "They are sometimes augmented in clinical isolates by additional resistance mechanisms, such as impermeability or efflux.", "OXA carbapenemases also tend to have a reduced hydrolytic efficiency towards penicillins and cephalosporins.===KPC (''K.", "pneumoniae'' carbapenemase) (class A)===A few class A enzymes, most noted the plasmid-mediated KPC enzymes, are effective carbapenemases as well.", "Ten variants, KPC-2 through KPC-11 are known, and they are distinguished by one or two amino acid substitutions (KPC-1 was re-sequenced in 2008 and found to be 100% homologous to published sequences of KPC-2).", "KPC-1 was found in North Carolina, KPC-2 in Baltimore and KPC-3 in New York.", "They have only 45% homology with SME and NMC/IMI enzymes and, unlike them, can be encoded by self-transmissible plasmids., the class A ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' carbapenemase (KPC) globally has been the most common carbapenemase, and was first detected in 1996 in North Carolina, USA.", "A 2010 publication indicated that KPC producing Enterobacteriaceae were becoming common in the United States.===CMY (class C)===The first class C carbapenemase was described in 2006 and was isolated from a virulent strain of ''Enterobacter aerogenes''.", "It is carried on a plasmid, pYMG-1, and is therefore transmissible to other bacterial strains.===SME (Serratia marcescens enzymes), IMI (IMIpenem-hydrolysing β-lactamase), NMC and CcrA ===In general, these are of little clinical significance.CcrA (CfiA).", "Its gene occurs in ca.", "1–3% of ''B.", "fragilis'' isolates, but fewer produce the enzyme since expression demands appropriate migration of an insertion sequence.", "CcrA was known before imipenem was introduced, and producers have shown little subsequent increase.===NDM-1 (New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase) (class B)===Originally described from New Delhi in 2009, this gene is now widespread in ''Escherichia coli'' and ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' from India and Pakistan.", "As of mid-2010, NDM-1 carrying bacteria have been introduced to other countries (including the United States and UK), most probably due to the large number of tourists travelling the globe, who may have picked up the strain from the environment, as strains containing the NDM-1 gene have been found in environmental samples in India.", "NDM have several variants which share different properties." ], [ "Treatment of ESBL/AmpC/carbapenemases", "===General overview===In general, an isolate is suspected to be an ESBL producer when it shows ''in vitro'' susceptibility to the cephamycins (cefoxitin, cefotetan) but resistance to the third-generation cephalosporins and to aztreonam.", "Moreover, one should suspect these strains when treatment with these agents for Gram-negative infections fails despite reported ''in vitro'' susceptibility.", "Once an ESBL-producing strain is detected, the laboratory should report it as \"resistant\" to all penicillins, cephalosporins, and aztreonam, even if it is tested (in vitro) as susceptible.", "Associated resistance to aminoglycosides and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, as well as high frequency of co-existence of fluoroquinolone resistance, creates problems.", "Beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate, sulbactam, and tazobactam ''in vitro'' inhibit most ESBLs, but the clinical effectiveness of beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations cannot be relied on consistently for therapy.", "Cephamycins (cefoxitin and cefotetan) are not hydrolyzed by majority of ESBLs, but are hydrolyzed by associated AmpC-type β-lactamase.", "Also, β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations may not be effective against organisms that produce AmpC-type β-lactamase.", "Sometimes these strains decrease the expression of outer membrane proteins, rendering them resistant to cephamycins.", "''In vivo'' studies have yielded mixed results against ESBL-producing ''K.", "pneumoniae''.", "(Cefepime, a fourth-generation cephalosporin, has demonstrated ''in vitro'' stability in the presence of many ESBL/AmpC strains.)", "Currently, carbapenems are, in general, regarded as the preferred agent for treatment of infections due to ESBL-producing organisms.", "Carbapenems are resistant to ESBL-mediated hydrolysis and exhibit excellent ''in vitro'' activity against strains of Enterobacteriaceae expressing ESBLs.=== According to genes =======ESBLs====Strains producing only ESBLs are susceptible to cephamycins and carbapenems ''in vitro'' and show little if any inoculum effect with these agents.For organisms producing '''TEM''' and '''SHV''' type ESBLs, apparent ''in vitro'' sensitivity to cefepime and to piperacillin/tazobactam is common, but both drugs show an inoculum effect, with diminished susceptibility as the size of the inoculum is increased from 105 to 107 organisms.Strains with some '''CTX-M'''–type and '''OXA'''-type ESBLs are resistant to cefepime on testing, despite the use of a standard inoculum.====Inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases====Although the inhibitor-resistant TEM variants are resistant to inhibition by clavulanic acid and sulbactam, thereby showing clinical resistance to the beta-lactam—beta lactamase inhibitor combinations of amoxicillin-clavulanate (Co-amoxiclav), ticarcillin-clavulanate, and ampicillin/sulbactam, they remain susceptible to inhibition by tazobactam and subsequently the combination of piperacillin/tazobactam.====AmpC====AmpC-producing strains are typically resistant to oxyimino-beta lactams and to cephamycins and are susceptible to carbapenems; however, diminished porin expression can make such a strain carbapenem-resistant as well.====Carbapenemases====Strains with '''IMP-, VIM-, and OXA'''-type carbapenemases usually remain susceptible.", "Resistance to non-beta-lactam antibiotics is common in strains making any of these enzymes, such that alternative options for non-beta-lactam therapy need to be determined by direct susceptibility testing.", "Resistance to fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides is especially high.===According to species=======''Escherichia coli'' or ''Klebsiella''====For infections caused by ESBL-producing ''Escherichia coli'' or ''Klebsiella'' species, treatment with imipenem or meropenem has been associated with the best outcomes in terms of survival and bacteriologic clearance.", "Cefepime and piperacillin/tazobactam have been less successful.", "Ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, and ceftazidime have failed even more often, despite the organism's susceptibility to the antibiotic ''in vitro''.", "Several reports have documented failure of cephamycin therapy as a result of resistance due to porin loss.", "Some patients have responded to aminoglycoside or quinolone therapy, but, in a recent comparison of ciprofloxacin and imipenem for bacteremia involving an ESBL-producing ''K.", "pneumoniae'', imipenem produced the better outcome====''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''====There have been few clinical studies to define the optimal therapy for infections caused by ESBL producing ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' strains." ], [ "Use as a pharmaceutical", "In 1957, amid concern about allergic reactions to penicillin-containing antibiotics, a beta-lactamase was sold as an antidote under the brand name neutrapen.", "It was theorized that the breakdown of penicillin by the enzyme would treat the allergic reaction.", "While it was not useful in acute anaphylactic shock, it showed positive results in cases of urticaria and joint pain suspected to be caused by penicillin allergy.", "Its use was proposed in pediatric cases where penicillin allergy was discovered upon administration of the polio vaccine, which used penicillin as a preservative.", "However, some patients developed allergies to neutrapen.", "The Albany Hospital removed it from its formulary in 1960, only two years after adding it, citing lack of use.", "Some researchers continued to use it in experiments on penicillin resistance as late as 1972.It was voluntarily withdrawn from the American market by 3M Pharmaceuticals in 1997." ], [ "Detection", "Beta-lactamase enzymatic activity can be detected using nitrocefin, a chromogenic cephalosporin substrate which changes color from yellow to red upon beta-lactamase mediated hydrolysis." ], [ "Evolution", "Beta-lactamases are ancient bacterial enzymes.", "Metallo β-lactamases (\"class B\") are all structurally similar to RNase Z and may have evolved from it.", "Of the three subclasses B1, B2, and B3, B1 and B2 are theorized to have evolved about one billion years ago, while B3 seems to have arisen independently, possibly before the divergence of the Gram-positive and Gram-negative eubacteria about two billion years ago.", "PNGM-1 (Papua New Guinea Metallo-β-lactamase-1) has both metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) and tRNase Z activities, suggesting that PNGM-1 is thought to have evolved from a tRNase Z, and that the B3 MBL activity of PNGM-1 is a promiscuous activity and subclass B3 MBLs are thought to have evolved through PNGM-1 activity.", "Subclasses B1 and B3 has been further subdivided.Serine beta-lactamases (classes A, C, and D) appear to have evolved from DD-transpeptidases, which are penicillin-binding proteins involved in cell wall biosynthesis, and as such are one of the main targets of beta-lactam antibiotics.", "These three classes show undetectable sequence similarity with each other, but can still be compared using structural homology.", "Groups A and D are sister taxa and group C diverged before A and D. These serine-based enzymes, like the group B betalactamases, are of ancient origin and are theorized to have evolved about two billion years ago.The OXA group (in class D) in particular is theorized to have evolved on chromosomes and moved to plasmids on at least two separate occasions." ], [ "Etymology", "The \"β\" (beta) refers to the nitrogen's position on the second carbon in the ring.", "''Lactam'' is a blend of ''lactone'' (from the Latin ''lactis'', ''milk'', since lactic acid was isolated from soured milk) and ''amide''.", "The suffix ''-ase'', indicating an enzyme, is derived from ''diastase'' (from the Greek ''diastasis'', \"separation\"), the first enzyme discovered in 1833 by Payen and Persoz." ], [ "See also", "* β-lactamase inhibitor* ESBL-producing ''E.", "coli''* Nitrocefin" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Beta-lactamase database*" ] ]

[ [ "Burhanuddin Rabbani" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Burhānuddīn Rabbānī''' (Persian: ; 20 September 1940 – 20 September 2011) was an Afghan politician and teacher who served as President of Afghanistan from 1992 to 1996, and again from November to December 2001 (in exile from 1996 to 2001).Born in the Badakhshan Province, Rabbani studied at Kabul University and worked there as a professor of Islamic theology.", "He formed the Jamiat-e Islami (''Islamic Society'') at the university which attracted then-students Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and Ahmad Shah Massoud, both of whom would eventually become the two leading commanders of the Afghan mujahideen in the Soviet–Afghan War from 1979.Rabbani was chosen to be the President of Afghanistan after the end of the former communist regime in 1992.Rabbani and his Islamic State of Afghanistan government was later forced into exile by the Taliban, and he then served as the political head of the Northern Alliance, an alliance of various political groups who fought against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.", "During his time in the office, there were a lot of internal clashes between different fighting groups.After the Taliban government was toppled during Operation Enduring Freedom, Rabbani returned to Kabul and served briefly as President from 13 November to 22 December 2001, when Hamid Karzai was chosen as his succeeding interim leader at the Bonn International Conference.", "In later years he became head of Afghanistan National Front (known in the media as United National Front), the largest political opposition to Karzai's government.On 20 September 2011, Rabbani was assassinated by a suicide bomber entering his home in Kabul.", "As suggested by the Afghan parliament, Afghanistan's President Hamid Karzai gave him the title of \"Martyr of Peace\".", "His son Salahuddin Rabbani was chosen in April 2012 to lead efforts to forge peace in Afghanistan with the Taliban." ], [ "Early life and education", "Rabbani, son of Muhammed Yousuf, was born in the northern province of Badakhshan.", "He was a Persian-speaking ethnic Tajik.", "After finishing school in his native province, he went to Darul-uloom-e-Sharia (Abu-Hanifa), a religious school in Kabul.", "When he graduated from Abu-Hanifa, he attended Kabul University to study Islamic Law and Theology, graduating in 1963.Soon after his graduation in 1963, he was hired as a professor at Kabul University.", "In order to enhance himself, Rabbani went to Egypt in 1966, and he entered the Al-Azhar University in Cairo where he developed close ties to the Muslim Brotherhood leadership.", "In two years, he received his master's degree in Islamic Philosophy.", "He resumed his position at the university and became closely associated with his fellow professor, Gholam Mohammad Niazi, whom he served as secretary in 1969 and 1970.Rabbani was one of the first Afghans to translate the works of Sayyid Qutb into Persian.", "Later he returned to Egypt to complete his PhD in Islamic philosophy and his thesis was titled \"The Philosophy and Teachings of Abd al-Rahman Muhammad Jami.\"", "In 2004 he received Afghanistan's highest academic and scientific title \"Academician\" from the Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan." ], [ "Political career", "Rabbani returned to Afghanistan in 1968, where the High Council of Jamiat-e Islami gave him the duty of organizing the University students.", "Due to his knowledge, reputation, and active support for the cause of Islam, in 1972, a 15-member council selected him as head of Jamiat-e Islami of Afghanistan; the founder of Jamiat-e Islami of Afghanistan, Gholam Mohammad Niazi was also present.", "Jamiat-e Islami was primarily composed of Tajiks.In the spring of 1974, the police came to Kabul University to arrest Rabbani for his pro-Islamic stance, but with the help of his students the police were unable to capture him, and he managed to escape to the countryside.", "In Pakistan, Rabbani gathered important people and established the party.", "Sayed Noorullah Emad, who was then a young Muslim in the University of Kabul, became the General Secretary of the party and, later, its deputy chief.", "Rabbani alongside Ahmad Shah Massoud and others planned to take action either against the Daoud government or people who they deemed communist in 1975, but failed.When the Soviets intervened in 1979, Rabbani helped lead Jamiat-e Islami in resistance to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan regime.", "Rabbani's forces were the first Mujahideen elements to enter Kabul in 1992 when the PDPA government fell from power.", "He took over as President from 1992 in accordance to the Peshawar Accords.", "Rabbani was the third ethnic Tajik leader of modern Afghanistan after Habibullah Kalakani in 1929 and Abdul Qadir in 1978 (and possibly including Babrak Karmal, whose ethnicity was disputed).", "His rule was limited since the country was fractured by civil war between different sides.", "Rabbani was forced to flee following the Taliban's conquest of Kabul in 1996.Rabbani operated his government in exile, following the establishment of the Taliban rule of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.", "In this period between 1996 and 2001, the Rabbani government of the Islamic State of Afghanistan remained the internationally recognized government, despite only controlling about 10% of Afghan territory.", "For the next five years, he and the Northern Alliance, commanded by Ahmad Shah Massoud and others, were fighting the Taliban until the 2001 US-led Operation Enduring Freedom in which the Taliban government was toppled.", "Rabbani was head of Afghanistan's High Peace Council, which had been formed in 2010 to initiate peace talks with the Taliban and other groups in the insurgency, until his death." ], [ "Assassination", "Rabbani was killed in a suicide bombing at his home in Kabul on 20 September 2011, his 71st birthday.", "Two men posing as Taliban representatives approached him to offer a hug and detonated their explosives.", "At least one of them had hidden the explosives in his turban.", "The suicide bomber claimed to be a Taliban commander, said he bore a \"very important and positive message\" from Taliban leaders in Pakistan, and said he wanted to \"discuss peace\" with Rabbani.", "Four other members of Afghanistan's High Peace Council were also killed in the blast.", "Rabbani was buried in the Wazir Akbar Khan cemetery.Afghan officials blamed the Quetta Shura, which is the leadership of the Afghan Taliban hiding in the affluent Satellite Town of Quetta in Pakistan.", "The Pakistani government confirmed that Rabbani's assassination was linked to Afghan refugees in Pakistan.", "A senior Pakistani official stated that over 90% of terrorist attacks in Pakistan are traced back to Afghan elements and that their presence in the country was \"an important issue for Pakistan\" and \"a problem for Afghanistan\".", "Pakistani foreign minister Hina Rabbani Khar said that \"We are not responsible if Afghan refugees crossed the border and entered Kabul, stayed in a guest house and attacked Professor Rabbani\".In 2011, just days before he died, Rabbani was trying to persuade Islamic scholars to issue a religious edict banning suicide bombings.", "The former president's 29-year-old daughter said in an interview that her father died shortly after he spoke at a conference on \"Islamic Awakening\" in Tehran.", "\"Right before he was assassinated, he talked about the suicide bombing issue,\" Fatima Rabbani told Reuters.", "\"He called on all Islamic scholars in the conference to release a fatwa\" against the tactic.Government minister Nematullah Shahrani said Rabbani is irreplaceable because \"he had relations with all these tribes.", "\"United States President Barack Obama and several NATO military leaders condemned the assassination.", "Japan also offered its condolences at the Sixty-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly.", "Afghan President Hamid Karzai cut short his trip for the General debate of the sixty-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly following his assassination.", "Rabbani's son Salahuddin then took over chairmanship of the High Peace Council from his father." ], [ "Honors and awards", "* : 80px Order of Ismoili Somoni – posthumously awarded on 2 September 2021" ], [ "See also", "* Gholam Mohammad Niazi* Badaber Uprising* Qadria Yazdanparast* Mullah Dadullah Front" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Burhanuddin Rabbani, President of the Islamic State of Afghanistan webcast at the United Nations Millennium Summit, 8 September 2000* Biography at Afghan-web.com* Afghanistan's Powerbrokers: Burhanuddin Rabbani at ''BBC News'', with link to November 2001 profile* * Hundreds mourn Rabbani RFI English* Who killed Burhanuddin Rabbani ... and why?", "RFI English* Bibi Mahru Hill & Burhanuddin Rabbani's grave - Kabul" ] ]

[ [ "Boeing 747" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Boeing 747''' is a large, long-range wide-body airliner designed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes in the United States between 1968 and 2023.After introducing the 707 in October 1958, Pan Am wanted a jet times its size, to reduce its seat cost by 30%.", "In 1965, Joe Sutter left the 737 development program to design the 747.In April 1966, Pan Am ordered 25 Boeing 747-100 aircraft, and in late 1966, Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop the JT9D engine, a high-bypass turbofan.", "On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the custom-built Everett Plant, the world's largest building by volume.", "The first flight took place on February 9, 1969, and the 747 was certified in December of that year.", "It entered service with Pan Am on January 22, 1970.The 747 was the first airplane called a \"Jumbo Jet\" as the first wide-body airliner.The 747 is a four-engined jet aircraft, initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engines, then General Electric CF6 and Rolls-Royce RB211 engines for the original variants.", "With a ten-abreast economy seating, it typically accommodates 366 passengers in three travel classes.", "It has a pronounced 37.5° wing sweep, allowing a cruise speed, and its heavy weight is supported by four main landing gear legs, each with a four-wheel bogie.", "The partial double-deck aircraft was designed with a raised cockpit so it could be converted to a freighter airplane by installing a front cargo door, as it was initially thought that it would eventually be superseded by supersonic transports.Boeing introduced the -200 in 1971, with uprated engines for a heavier maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of from the initial , increasing the maximum range from .", "It was shortened for the longer-range 747SP in 1976, and the 747-300 followed in 1983 with a stretched upper deck for up to 400 seats in three classes.", "The heavier 747-400 with improved RB211 and CF6 engines or the new PW4000 engine (the JT9D successor), and a two-crew glass cockpit, was introduced in 1989 and is the most common variant.", "After several studies, the stretched 747-8 was launched on November 14, 2005, with new General Electric GEnx engines, and was first delivered in October 2011.The 747 is the basis for several government and military variants, such as the VC-25 (Air Force One), E-4 Emergency Airborne Command Post, Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, and some experimental testbeds such as the YAL-1 and SOFIA airborne observatory.Initial competition came from the smaller trijet widebodies: the Lockheed L-1011 (introduced in 1972), McDonnell Douglas DC-10 (1971) and later MD-11 (1990).", "Airbus competed with later variants with the heaviest versions of the A340 until surpassing the 747 in size with the A380, delivered between 2007 and 2021.Freighter variants of the 747 remain popular with cargo airlines.", "The final 747 was delivered to Atlas Air in January 2023 after a 54-year production run, with 1,574 aircraft built., 64 Boeing 747s (%) have been lost in accidents and incidents, in which a total of 3,746 people have died." ], [ "Development", "=== Background ===Cargo nose door open with cargo loaderIn 1963, the United States Air Force started a series of study projects on a very large strategic transport aircraft.", "Although the C-141 Starlifter was being introduced, officials believed that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed, especially to carry cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft.", "These studies led to initial requirements for the CX-Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) in March 1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of and a speed of Mach 0.75 (), and an unrefueled range of with a payload of .", "The payload bay had to be wide by high and long with access through doors at the front and rear.The desire to keep the number of engines to four required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel economy.", "In May 1964, airframe proposals arrived from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Martin Marietta; engine proposals were submitted by General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney.", "Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines.The airframe proposals shared several features.", "As the CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was.", "All of the companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit above the cargo area; Douglas had a small \"pod\" just forward and above the wing, Lockheed used a long \"spine\" running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it, while Boeing blended the two, with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing.", "Models of Boeing C-5A proposal and Lockheed's (Korean); next page.", "In 1965, Lockheed's aircraft design and General Electric's engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, which was the largest military aircraft in the world at the time.", "Boeing carried the nose door and raised cockpit concepts over to the design of the 747.=== Airliner proposal ===The 747 was conceived while air travel was increasing in the 1960s.", "The era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, had revolutionized long-distance travel.", "In this growing jet age, Juan Trippe, president of Pan Am, one of Boeing's most important airline customers, asked for a new jet airliner times size of the 707, with a 30% lower cost per unit of passenger-distance and the capability to offer mass air travel on international routes.", "Trippe also thought that airport congestion could be addressed by a larger new aircraft.An Iran Air 747-200, showing an early-production 747 cockpit with a flight engineer, located on the upper deck |alt= A view of an early-production 747 cockpitIn 1965, Joe Sutter was transferred from Boeing's 737 development team to manage the design studies for the new airliner, already assigned the model number 747.Sutter began a design study with Pan Am and other airlines to better understand their requirements.", "At the time, many thought that long-range subsonic airliners would eventually be superseded by supersonic transport aircraft.", "Boeing responded by designing the 747 so it could be adapted easily to carry freight and remain in production even if sales of the passenger version declined.In April 1966, Pan Am ordered 25 Boeing 747-100 aircraft for US$525 million (equivalent to $ billion in dollars).", "During the ceremonial 747 contract-signing banquet in Seattle on Boeing's 50th Anniversary, Juan Trippe predicted that the 747 would be \"…a great weapon for peace, competing with intercontinental missiles for mankind's destiny\".", "As launch customer, and because of its early involvement before placing a formal order, Pan Am was able to influence the design and development of the 747 to an extent unmatched by a single airline before or since.=== Design effort ===Ultimately, the high-winged CX-HLS Boeing design was not used for the 747, although technologies developed for their bid had an influence.", "The original design included a full-length double-deck fuselage with eight-across seating and two aisles on the lower deck and seven-across seating and two aisles on the upper deck.", "(alternate image) However, concern over evacuation routes and limited cargo-carrying capability caused this idea to be scrapped in early 1966 in favor of a wider single deck design.", "The cockpit was therefore placed on a shortened upper deck so that a freight-loading door could be included in the nose cone; this design feature produced the 747's distinctive \"hump\".", "In early models, what to do with the small space in the pod behind the cockpit was not clear, and this was initially specified as a \"lounge\" area with no permanent seating.", "(A different configuration that had been considered to keep the flight deck out of the way for freight loading had the pilots below the passengers, and was dubbed the \"anteater\".", ")The alt=The Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan suspended under the wing pylon of the 747 prototype.", "It is stripped of its outer casing, revealing the engine's core at The Museum of Flight in Seattle, WAOne of the principal technologies that enabled an aircraft as large as the 747 to be drawn up was the high-bypass turbofan engine.", "This engine technology was thought to be capable of delivering double the power of the earlier turbojets while consuming one-third less fuel.", "General Electric had pioneered the concept but was committed to developing the engine for the C-5 Galaxy and did not enter the commercial market until later.", "Pratt & Whitney was also working on the same principle and, by late 1966, Boeing, Pan Am and Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop a new engine, designated the JT9D to power the 747.The project was designed with a new methodology called fault tree analysis, which allowed the effects of a failure of a single part to be studied to determine its impact on other systems.", "To address concerns about safety and flyability, the 747's design included structural redundancy, redundant hydraulic systems, quadruple main landing gear and dual control surfaces.", "Additionally, some of the most advanced high-lift devices used in the industry were included in the new design, to allow it to operate from existing airports.", "These included Krueger flaps running almost the entire length of the wing's leading edge, as well as complex three-part slotted flaps along the trailing edge of the wing.", "The wing's complex three-part flaps increase wing area by 21% and lift by 90% when fully deployed compared to their non-deployed configuration.Boeing agreed to deliver the first 747 to Pan Am by the end of 1969.The delivery date left 28 months to design the aircraft, which was two-thirds of the normal time.", "The schedule was so fast-paced that the people who worked on it were given the nickname \"The Incredibles\".", "Developing the aircraft was such a technical and financial challenge that management was said to have \"bet the company\" when it started the project.", "Due to its massive size, Boeing subcontracted the assembly of subcomponents to other manufacturers, most notably Northrop and Grumman (later merged into Northrop Grumman in 1994) for fuselage parts and trailing edge flaps respectively, Fairchild for tailplane ailerons, and Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV) for the empennage.=== Production plant ===747 final assembly at the alt=Airplane assembly hall, featuring heavy machinery.", "Large cylindrical airplane sections and wings are readied for mating with other major components.", "Above are the cranes which ferry heavy and outsize parts of the 747.As Boeing did not have a plant large enough to assemble the giant airliner, they chose to build a new plant.", "The company considered locations in about 50 cities, and eventually decided to build the new plant some north of Seattle on a site adjoining a military base at Paine Field near Everett, Washington.", "It bought the site in June 1966.Developing the 747 had been a major challenge, and building its assembly plant was also a huge undertaking.", "Boeing president William M. Allen asked Malcolm T. Stamper, then head of the company's turbine division, to oversee construction of the Everett factory and to start production of the 747.To level the site, more than of earth had to be moved.", "Time was so short that the 747's full-scale mock-up was built before the factory roof above it was finished.", "The plant is the largest building by volume ever built, and has been substantially expanded several times to permit construction of other models of Boeing wide-body commercial jets.=== Flight testing ===The prototype 747 was first displayed to the public on September 30, 1968.Before the first 747 was fully assembled, testing began on many components and systems.", "One important test involved the evacuation of 560 volunteers from a cabin mock-up via the aircraft's emergency chutes.", "The first full-scale evacuation took two and a half minutes instead of the maximum of 90 seconds mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and several volunteers were injured.", "Subsequent test evacuations achieved the 90-second goal but caused more injuries.", "Most problematic was evacuation from the aircraft's upper deck; instead of using a conventional slide, volunteer passengers escaped by using a harness attached to a reel.", "Tests also involved taxiing such a large aircraft.", "Boeing built an unusual training device known as \"Waddell's Wagon\" (named for a 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) that consisted of a mock-up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck.", "While the first 747s were still being built, the device allowed pilots to practice taxi maneuvers from a high upper-deck position.In 1968, the program cost was US$1 billion (equivalent to $ billion in dollars).", "On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the Everett assembly building before the world's press and representatives of the 26 airlines that had ordered the airliner.", "Over the following months, preparations were made for the first flight, which took place on February 9, 1969, with test pilots Jack Waddell and Brien Wygle at the controls and Jess Wallick at the flight engineer's station.", "Despite a minor problem with one of the flaps, the flight confirmed that the 747 handled extremely well.", "The 747 was found to be largely immune to \"Dutch roll\", a phenomenon that had been a major hazard to the early swept-wing jets.=== Issues, delays and certification ===The 747's 16-wheel main alt= A view of the 747's four main landing gear, each with four wheelsDuring later stages of the flight test program, flutter testing showed that the wings suffered oscillation under certain conditions.", "This difficulty was partly solved by reducing the stiffness of some wing components.", "However, a particularly severe high-speed flutter problem was solved only by inserting depleted uranium counterweights as ballast in the outboard engine nacelles of the early 747s.", "This measure caused anxiety when these aircraft crashed, for example El Al Flight 1862 at Amsterdam in 1992 with of uranium in the tailplane (horizontal stabilizer).The flight test program was hampered by problems with the 747's JT9D engines.", "Difficulties included engine stalls caused by rapid throttle movements and distortion of the turbine casings after a short period of service.", "The problems delayed 747 deliveries for several months; up to 20 aircraft at the Everett plant were stranded while awaiting engine installation.", "The program was further delayed when one of the five test aircraft suffered serious damage during a landing attempt at Renton Municipal Airport, the site of Boeing's Renton factory.", "The incident happened on December 13, 1969, when a test aircraft was flown to Renton to have test equipment removed and a cabin installed.", "Pilot Ralph C. Cokely undershot the airport's short runway and the 747's right, outer landing gear was torn off and two engine nacelles were damaged.", "However, these difficulties did not prevent Boeing from taking a test aircraft to the 28th Paris Air Show in mid-1969, where it was displayed to the public for the first time.", "Finally, in December 1969, the 747 received its FAA airworthiness certificate, clearing it for introduction into service.The huge cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had to borrow heavily from a banking syndicate.", "During the final months before delivery of the first aircraft, the company had to repeatedly request additional funding to complete the project.", "Had this been refused, Boeing's survival would have been threatened.", "The firm's debt exceeded $2 billion, with the $1.2 billion owed to the banks setting a record for all companies.", "Allen later said, \"It was really too large a project for us.\"", "Ultimately, the gamble succeeded, and Boeing held a monopoly in very large passenger aircraft production for many years.=== Entry into service ===First Lady Pat Nixon christened the first commercial 747 on January 15, 1970.This aircraft, N736PA, would later be destroyed in the Tenerife Airport disaster.On January 15, 1970, First Lady of the United States Pat Nixon christened Pan Am's first 747 at Dulles International Airport (later Washington Dulles International Airport) in the presence of Pan Am chairman Najeeb Halaby.", "Instead of champagne, red, white, and blue water was sprayed on the aircraft.", "The 747 entered service on January 22, 1970, on Pan Am's New York–London route; the flight had been planned for the evening of January 21, but engine overheating made the original aircraft (Clipper Young America, registration N735PA) unusable.", "Finding a substitute delayed the flight by more than six hours to the following day when Clipper Victor (registration N736PA) was used.", "The 747 enjoyed a fairly smooth introduction into service, overcoming concerns that some airports would not be able to accommodate an aircraft that large.", "Although technical problems occurred, they were relatively minor and quickly solved.=== Improved 747 versions ===Stretched upper deck cabin of later 747s with six-abreast seatingAfter the initial , Boeing developed the , a higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) variant, and the (Short Range), with higher passenger capacity.", "Increased maximum takeoff weight allows aircraft to carry more fuel and have longer range.", "The model followed in 1971, featuring more powerful engines and a higher MTOW.", "Passenger, freighter and combination passenger-freighter versions of the were produced.", "The shortened 747SP (special performance) with a longer range was also developed, and entered service in 1976.The 747 line was further developed with the launch of the on June 11, 1980, followed by interest from Swissair a month later and the go-ahead for the project.", "The 300 series resulted from Boeing studies to increase the seating capacity of the 747, during which modifications such as fuselage plugs and extending the upper deck over the entire length of the fuselage were rejected.", "The first , completed in 1983, included a stretched upper deck, increased cruise speed, and increased seating capacity.", "The -300 variant was previously designated 747SUD for stretched upper deck, then 747-200 SUD, followed by 747EUD, before the 747-300 designation was used.", "Passenger, short range and combination freighter-passenger versions of the 300 series were produced.Launch Customer Northwest Airlines introduced the 747-400 in 1989.In 1985, development of the longer range 747-400 began.", "The variant had a new glass cockpit, which allowed for a cockpit crew of two instead of three, new engines, lighter construction materials, and a redesigned interior.", "Development costs soared, and production delays occurred as new technologies were incorporated at the request of airlines.", "Insufficient workforce experience and reliance on overtime contributed to early production problems on the .", "The -400 entered service in 1989.In 1991, a record-breaking 1,087 passengers were flown in a 747 during a covert operation to airlift Ethiopian Jews to Israel.", "Generally, the 747-400 held between 416 and 524 passengers.", "The 747 remained the heaviest commercial aircraft in regular service until the debut of the Antonov An-124 Ruslan in 1982; variants of the 747-400 surpassed the An-124's weight in 2000.The Antonov An-225 ''Mriya'' cargo transport, which debuted in 1988, remains the world's largest aircraft by several measures (including the most accepted measures of maximum takeoff weight and length); one aircraft has been completed and was in service until 2022.The Scaled Composites Stratolaunch is currently the largest aircraft by wingspan.=== Further developments ===alt=Interior view.", "Seats are separated by two aisles, in 3–4–3 configuration.", "A TV is positioned towards the front of aircraft.After the arrival of the , several stretching schemes for the 747 were proposed.", "Boeing announced the larger 747-500X and preliminary designs in 1996.The new variants would have cost more than US$5 billion to develop, and interest was not sufficient to launch the program.", "In 2000, Boeing offered the more modest 747X and 747X stretch derivatives as alternatives to the Airbus A3XX.", "However, the 747X family was unable to attract enough interest to enter production.", "A year later, Boeing switched from the 747X studies to pursue the Sonic Cruiser, and after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold, the 787 Dreamliner.", "Some of the ideas developed for the 747X were used on the 747-400ER, a longer range variant of the .After several variants were proposed but later abandoned, some industry observers became skeptical of new aircraft proposals from Boeing.", "However, in early 2004, Boeing announced tentative plans for the 747 Advanced that were eventually adopted.", "Similar in nature to the 747-X, the stretched 747 Advanced used technology from the 787 to modernize the design and its systems.", "The 747 remained the largest passenger airliner in service until the Airbus A380 began airline service in 2007.A Lufthansa 747-8On November 14, 2005, Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the Boeing 747-8.The last 747-400s were completed in 2009., most orders of the 747-8 were for the freighter variant.", "On February 8, 2010, the 747-8 Freighter made its maiden flight.", "The first delivery of the 747-8 went to Cargolux in 2011.The first 747-8 Intercontinental passenger variant was delivered to Lufthansa on May 5, 2012.The 1,500th Boeing 747 was delivered in June 2014 to Lufthansa.In January 2016, Boeing stated it was reducing 747-8 production to six a year beginning in September 2016, incurring a $569 million post-tax charge against its fourth-quarter 2015 profits.", "At the end of 2015, the company had 20 orders outstanding.", "On January 29, 2016, Boeing announced that it had begun the preliminary work on the modifications to a commercial 747-8 for the next Air Force One presidential aircraft, then expected to be operational by 2020.On July 12, 2016, Boeing announced that it had finalized an order from Volga-Dnepr Group for 20 747-8 freighters, valued at $7.58 billion (~$ in ) at list prices.", "Four aircraft were delivered beginning in 2012.Volga-Dnepr Group is the parent of three major Russian air-freight carriers – Volga-Dnepr Airlines, AirBridgeCargo Airlines and Atran Airlines.", "The new 747-8 freighters would replace AirBridgeCargo's current 747-400 aircraft and expand the airline's fleet and will be acquired through a mix of direct purchases and leasing over the next six years, Boeing said.=== End of production ===On July 27, 2016, in its quarterly report to the Securities and Exchange Commission, Boeing discussed the potential termination of 747 production due to insufficient demand and market for the aircraft.", "With a firm order backlog of 21 aircraft and a production rate of six per year, program accounting had been reduced to 1,555 aircraft.", "In October 2016, UPS Airlines ordered 14 -8Fs to add capacity, along with 14 options, which it took in February 2018 to increase the total to 28 -8Fs on order.", "The backlog then stood at 25 aircraft, though several of these were orders from airlines that no longer intended to take delivery.On July 2, 2020, it was reported that Boeing planned to end 747 production in 2022 upon delivery of the remaining jets on order to UPS and the Volga-Dnepr Group due to low demand.", "On July 29, 2020, Boeing confirmed that the final 747 would be delivered in 2022 as a result of \"current market dynamics and outlook\" stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, according to CEO David Calhoun.", "The last aircraft, a 747-8F for Atlas Air registered N863GT, rolled off the production line on December 6, 2022, and was delivered on January 31, 2023.Boeing hosted an event at the Everett factory for thousands of workers as well as industry executives to commemorate the delivery." ], [ "Design", "Three-view diagram of the original Boeing 747-100, showing its general configuration maintained in later variantsThe Boeing 747 is a large, wide-body (two-aisle) airliner with four wing-mounted engines.", "Its wings have a high sweep angle of 37.5° for a fast, efficient cruise speed of Mach 0.84 to 0.88, depending on the variant.", "The sweep also reduces the wingspan, allowing the 747 to use existing hangars.", "Its seating capacity is over 366 with a 3–4–3 seat arrangement (a cross section of three seats, an aisle, four seats, another aisle, and three seats) in economy class and a 2–3–2 layout in first class on the main deck.", "The upper deck has a 3–3 seat arrangement in economy class and a 2–2 layout in first class.Raised above the main deck, the cockpit creates a hump.", "This raised cockpit allows front loading of cargo on freight variants.", "The upper deck behind the cockpit provides space for a lounge and/or extra seating.", "The \"stretched upper deck\" became available as an alternative on the variant and later as standard beginning on the 747-300.The upper deck was stretched more on the 747-8.The 747 cockpit roof section also has an escape hatch from which crew can exit during the events of an emergency if they cannot do so through the cabin.The 747's maximum takeoff weight ranges from for the -100 to for the -8.Its range has increased from on the -100 to on the -8I.flapsThe 747 has redundant structures along with four redundant hydraulic systems and four main landing gears each with four wheels; these provide a good spread of support on the ground and safety in case of tire blow-outs.", "The main gear are redundant so that landing can be performed on two opposing landing gears if the others are not functioning properly.", "The 747 also has split control surfaces and was designed with sophisticated triple-slotted flaps that minimize landing speeds and allow the 747 to use standard-length runways.For transportation of spare engines, the 747 can accommodate a non-functioning fifth-pod engine under the aircraft's port wing between the inner functioning engine and the fuselage.", "The fifth engine mount point is also used by Virgin Orbit's LauncherOne program to carry an orbital-class rocket to cruise altitude where it is deployed." ], [ "Operational history", "After the aircraft's introduction with Pan Am in 1970, other airlines that had bought the 747 to stay competitive began to put their own 747s into service.", "Boeing estimated that half of the early 747 sales were to airlines desiring the aircraft's long range rather than its payload capacity.", "While the 747 had the lowest potential operating cost per seat, this could only be achieved when the aircraft was fully loaded; costs per seat increased rapidly as occupancy declined.", "A moderately loaded 747, one with only 70 percent of its seats occupied, used more than 95 percent of the fuel needed by a fully occupied 747.Nonetheless, many flag-carriers purchased the 747 due to its prestige \"even if it made no sense economically\" to operate.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, over 30 regularly scheduled 747s could often be seen at John F. Kennedy International Airport.The recession of 1969–1970, despite having been characterized as relatively mild, greatly affected Boeing.", "For the year and a half after September 1970, it only sold two 747s in the world, both to Irish flag carrier Aer Lingus.No 747s were sold to any American carrier for almost three years.", "When economic problems in the US and other countries after the 1973 oil crisis led to reduced passenger traffic, several airlines found they did not have enough passengers to fly the 747 economically, and they replaced them with the smaller and recently introduced McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar trijet wide bodies (and later the 767 and A300/A310 twinjets).", "Having tried replacing coach seats on its 747s with piano bars in an attempt to attract more customers, American Airlines eventually relegated its 747s to cargo service and in 1983 exchanged them with Pan Am for smaller aircraft; Delta Air Lines also removed its 747s from service after several years.", "Later, Delta acquired 747s again in 2008 as part of its merger with Northwest Airlines, although it retired the Boeing 747-400 fleet in December 2017.International flights bypassing traditional hub airports and landing at smaller cities became more common throughout the 1980s, thus eroding the 747's original market.", "Many international carriers continued to use the 747 on Pacific routes.", "In Japan, 747s on domestic routes were configured to carry nearly the maximum passenger capacity." ], [ "Variants", "The 747-100 with a range of 4,620 nautical miles (8,556 km), was the original variant launched in 1966.The 747-200 soon followed, with its launch in 1968.The 747-300 was launched in 1980 and was followed by the in 1985.Ultimately, the 747-8 was announced in 2005.Several versions of each variant have been produced, and many of the early variants were in production simultaneously.", "The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) classifies variants using a shortened code formed by combining the model number and the variant designator (e.g.", "\"B741\" for all -100 models).=== 747-100 ===The original 747-100 has a short upper deck with three windows per side; Pan Am introduced it on January 22, 1970The first 747-100s were built with six upper deck windows (three per side) to accommodate upstairs lounge areas.", "Later, as airlines began to use the upper deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space, Boeing offered an upper deck with ten windows on either side as an option.", "Some early -100s were retrofitted with the new configuration.", "The -100 was equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3A engines.", "No freighter version of this model was developed, but many 747-100s were converted into freighters as 747-100(SF).", "The first 747-100(SF) was delivered to Flying Tiger Line in 1974.A total of 168 747-100s were built; 167 were delivered to customers, while Boeing kept the prototype, ''City of Everett''.", "In 1972, its unit cost was US$24M (M today).==== 747SR ====Responding to requests from Japanese airlines for a high-capacity aircraft to serve domestic routes between major cities, Boeing developed the 747SR as a short-range version of the with lower fuel capacity and greater payload capability.", "With increased economy class seating, up to 498 passengers could be carried in early versions and up to 550 in later models.", "The 747SR had an economic design life objective of 52,000 flights during 20 years of operation, compared to 24,600 flights in 20 years for the standard 747.The initial 747SR model, the -100SR, had a strengthened body structure and landing gear to accommodate the added stress accumulated from a greater number of takeoffs and landings.", "Extra structural support was built into the wings, fuselage, and the landing gear along with a 20% reduction in fuel capacity.JALThe initial order for the -100SR – four aircraft for Japan Air Lines (JAL, later Japan Airlines) – was announced on October 30, 1972; rollout occurred on August 3, 1973, and the first flight took place on August 31, 1973.The type was certified by the FAA on September 26, 1973, with the first delivery on the same day.", "The -100SR entered service with JAL, the type's sole customer, on October 7, 1973, and typically operated flights within Japan.", "Seven -100SRs were built between 1973 and 1975, each with a MTOW and Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A engines derated to of thrust.Following the -100SR, Boeing produced the -100BSR, a 747SR variant with increased takeoff weight capability.", "Debuting in 1978, the -100BSR also incorporated structural modifications for a high cycle-to-flying hour ratio; a related standard -100B model debuted in 1979.The -100BSR first flew on November 3, 1978, with first delivery to All Nippon Airways (ANA) on December 21, 1978.A total of 20 -100BSRs were produced for ANA and JAL.", "The -100BSR had a MTOW and was powered by the same JT9D-7A or General Electric CF6-45 engines used on the -100SR.", "ANA operated this variant on domestic Japanese routes with 455 or 456 seats until retiring its last aircraft in March 2006.In 1986, two -100BSR SUD models, featuring the stretched upper deck (SUD) of the -300, were produced for JAL.", "The type's maiden flight occurred on February 26, 1986, with FAA certification and first delivery on March 24, 1986.JAL operated the -100BSR SUD with 563 seats on domestic routes until their retirement in the third quarter of 2006.While only two -100BSR SUDs were produced, in theory, standard -100Bs can be modified to the SUD certification.", "Overall, 29 Boeing 747SRs were built.==== 747-100B ====An alt=Top view of quadjet on apronThe 747-100B model was developed from the -100SR, using its stronger airframe and landing gear design.", "The type had an increased fuel capacity of , allowing for a range with a typical 452-passenger payload, and an increased MTOW of was offered.", "The first -100B order, one aircraft for Iran Air, was announced on June 1, 1978.This version first flew on June 20, 1979, received FAA certification on August 1, 1979, and was delivered the next day.", "Nine -100Bs were built, one for Iran Air and eight for Saudi Arabian Airlines.", "Unlike the original -100, the -100B was offered with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A, CF6-50, or Rolls-Royce RB211-524 engines.", "However, only RB211-524 (Saudia) and JT9D-7A (Iran Air) engines were ordered.", "The last 747-100B, EP-IAM was retired by Iran Air in 2014, the last commercial operator of the 747-100 and -100B.=== 747SP ===alt=Air Namibia 747SP on approachThe development of the 747SP stemmed from a joint request between Pan American World Airways and Iran Air, who were looking for a high-capacity airliner with enough range to cover Pan Am's New York–Middle Eastern routes and Iran Air's planned Tehran–New York route.", "The Tehran–New York route, when launched, was the longest non-stop commercial flight in the world.", "The 747SP is shorter than the .", "Fuselage sections were eliminated fore and aft of the wing, and the center section of the fuselage was redesigned to fit mating fuselage sections.", "The SP's flaps used a simplified single-slotted configuration.", "The 747SP, compared to earlier variants, had a tapering of the aft upper fuselage into the empennage, a double-hinged rudder, and longer vertical and horizontal stabilizers.", "Power was provided by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7(A/F/J/FW) or Rolls-Royce RB211-524 engines.The 747SP was granted a type certificate on February 4, 1976, and entered service with launch customers Pan Am and Iran Air that same year.", "The aircraft was chosen by airlines wishing to serve major airports with short runways.", "A total of 45 747SPs were built, with the 44th 747SP delivered on August 30, 1982.In 1987, Boeing re-opened the 747SP production line after five years to build one last 747SP for an order by the United Arab Emirates government.", "In addition to airline use, one 747SP was modified for the NASA/German Aerospace Center SOFIA experiment.", "Iran Air is the last civil operator of the type; its final 747-SP (EP-IAC) was to be retired in June 2016.=== 747-200 ===alt=Side view of quad-jet aircraft in flight.While the 747-100 powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3A engines offered enough payload and range for medium-haul operations, it was marginal for long-haul route sectors.", "The demand for longer range aircraft with increased payload quickly led to the improved -200, which featured more powerful engines, increased MTOW, and greater range than the -100.A few early -200s retained the three-window configuration of the -100 on the upper deck, but most were built with a ten-window configuration on each side.", "The 747-200 was produced in passenger (-200B), freighter (-200F), convertible (-200C), and combi (-200M) versions.The 747-200B was the basic passenger version, with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines; it entered service in February 1971.In its first three years of production, the -200 was equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7 engines (initially the only engine available).", "Range with a full passenger load started at over and increased to with later engines.", "Most -200Bs had an internally stretched upper deck, allowing for up to 16 passenger seats.", "The freighter model, the 747-200F, had a hinged nose cargo door and could be fitted with an optional side cargo door, and had a capacity of 105 tons (95.3 tonnes) and an MTOW of up to .", "It entered service in 1972 with Lufthansa.", "The convertible version, the 747-200C, could be converted between a passenger and a freighter or used in mixed configurations, and featured removable seats and a nose cargo door.", "The -200C could also be outfitted with an optional side cargo door on the main deck.The combi aircraft model, the 747-200M (originally designated 747-200BC), could carry freight in the rear section of the main deck via a side cargo door.", "A removable partition on the main deck separated the cargo area at the rear from the passengers at the front.", "The -200M could carry up to 238 passengers in a three-class configuration with cargo carried on the main deck.", "The model was also known as the 747-200 Combi.", "As on the -100, a stretched upper deck (SUD) modification was later offered.", "A total of 10 747-200s operated by KLM were converted.", "Union de Transports Aériens (UTA) also had two aircraft converted.After launching the -200 with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7 engines, on August 1, 1972, Boeing announced that it had reached an agreement with General Electric to certify the 747 with CF6-50 series engines to increase the aircraft's market potential.", "Rolls-Royce followed 747 engine production with a launch order from British Airways for four aircraft.", "The option of RB211-524B engines was announced on June 17, 1975.The -200 was the first 747 to provide a choice of powerplant from the three major engine manufacturers.In 1976, its unit cost was US$39M (M today).A total of 393 of the 747-200 versions had been built when production ended in 1991.Of these, 225 were -200B, 73 were -200F, 13 were -200C, 78 were -200M, and 4 were military.", "Iran Air retired the last passenger in May 2016, 36 years after it was delivered.", ", five 747-200s remain in service as freighters.=== 747-300 ===A , with its stretched upper deck, flying-by the Matterhorn.", "Swissair took the first delivery on March 23, 1983.The 747-300 features a upper deck than the -200.The stretched upper deck (SUD) has two emergency exit doors and is the most visible difference between the -300 and previous models.", "After being made standard on the 747-300, the SUD was offered as a retrofit, and as an option to earlier variants still in-production.", "An example for a retrofit were two UTA -200 Combis being converted in 1986, and an example for the option were two brand-new JAL -100 aircraft (designated -100BSR SUD), the first of which was delivered on March 24, 1986.The 747-300 introduced a new straight stairway to the upper deck, instead of a spiral staircase on earlier variants, which creates room above and below for more seats.", "Minor aerodynamic changes allowed the -300's cruise speed to reach Mach 0.85 compared with Mach 0.84 on the -200 and -100 models, while retaining the same takeoff weight.", "The -300 could be equipped with the same Pratt & Whitney and Rolls-Royce powerplants as on the -200, as well as updated General Electric CF6-80C2B1 engines.Swissair placed the first order for the on June 11, 1980.The variant revived the 747-300 designation, which had been previously used on a design study that did not reach production.", "The 747-300 first flew on October 5, 1982, and the type's first delivery went to Swissair on March 23, 1983.In 1982, its unit cost was US$83M (M today).", "Besides the passenger model, two other versions (-300M, -300SR) were produced.", "The 747-300M features cargo capacity on the rear portion of the main deck, similar to the -200M, but with the stretched upper deck it can carry more passengers.", "The 747-300SR, a short range, high-capacity domestic model, was produced for Japanese markets with a maximum seating for 584.No production freighter version of the 747-300 was built, but Boeing began modifications of used passenger -300 models into freighters in 2000.A total of 81 series aircraft were delivered, 56 for passenger use, 21 -300M and 4 -300SR versions.", "In 1985, just two years after the -300 entered service, the type was superseded by the announcement of the more advanced 747-400.The last 747-300 was delivered in September 1990 to Sabena.", "While some -300 customers continued operating the type, several large carriers replaced their 747-300s with 747-400s.", "Air France, Air India, Japan Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, and Qantas were some of the last major carriers to operate the .", "On December 29, 2008, Qantas flew its last scheduled 747-300 service, operating from Melbourne to Los Angeles via Auckland.", "In July 2015, Pakistan International Airlines retired their final 747-300 after 30 years of service.", ", only two 747-300s remain in commercial service, with Mahan Air (1) and TransAVIAexport Airlines (1).=== 747-400 ===The improved , featuring canted winglets, entered service in February 1989 with Northwest AirlinesThe 747-400 is an improved model with increased range.", "It has wingtip extensions of and winglets of , which improve the type's fuel efficiency by four percent compared to previous 747 versions.", "The 747-400 introduced a new glass cockpit designed for a flight crew of two instead of three, with a reduction in the number of dials, gauges and knobs from 971 to 365 through the use of electronics.", "The type also features tail fuel tanks, revised engines, and a new interior.", "The longer range has been used by some airlines to bypass traditional fuel stops, such as Anchorage.", "A 747-400 loaded with of fuel flying consumes an average of .", "Powerplants include the Pratt & Whitney PW4062, General Electric CF6-80C2, and Rolls-Royce RB211-524.As a result of the Boeing 767 development overlapping with the 747-400's development, both aircraft can use the same three powerplants and are even interchangeable between the two aircraft models.The was offered in passenger (-400), freighter (-400F), combi (-400M), domestic (-400D), extended range passenger (-400ER), and extended range freighter (-400ERF) versions.", "Passenger versions retain the same upper deck as the , while the freighter version does not have an extended upper deck.", "The 747-400D was built for short-range operations with maximum seating for 624.Winglets were not included, but they can be retrofitted.", "Cruising speed is up to Mach 0.855 on different versions of the .The passenger version first entered service in February 1989 with launch customer Northwest Airlines on the Minneapolis to Phoenix route.", "The combi version entered service in September 1989 with KLM, while the freighter version entered service in November 1993 with Cargolux.", "The 747-400ERF entered service with Air France in October 2002, while the 747-400ER entered service with Qantas, its sole customer, in November 2002.In January 2004, Boeing and Cathay Pacific launched the Boeing 747-400 Special Freighter program, later referred to as the Boeing Converted Freighter (BCF), to modify passenger 747-400s for cargo use.", "The first 747-400BCF was redelivered in December 2005.In March 2007, Boeing announced that it had no plans to produce further passenger versions of the -400.However, orders for 36 -400F and -400ERF freighters were already in place at the time of the announcement.", "The last passenger version of the 747-400 was delivered in April 2005 to China Airlines.", "Some of the last built 747-400s were delivered with Dreamliner livery along with the modern Signature interior from the Boeing 777.A total of 694 of the series aircraft were delivered.", "At various times, the largest 747-400 operator has included Singapore Airlines, Japan Airlines, and British Airways.", ", 331 Boeing 747-400s were in service; there were only 10 Boeing 747-400s in passenger service as of September 2021.==== 747 LCF Dreamlifter ====The Boeing Dreamlifter, a modified , first flew on September 9, 2006The 747-400 Dreamlifter (originally called the 747 Large Cargo Freighter or LCF) is a Boeing-designed modification of existing 747-400s into a larger outsize cargo freighter configuration to ferry 787 Dreamliner sub-assemblies.", "Evergreen Aviation Technologies Corporation of Taiwan was contracted to complete modifications of 747-400s into Dreamlifters in Taoyuan.", "The aircraft flew for the first time on September 9, 2006, in a test flight.", "Modification of four aircraft was completed by February 2010.The Dreamlifters have been placed into service transporting sub-assemblies for the 787 program to the Boeing plant in Everett, Washington, for final assembly.", "The aircraft is certified to carry only essential crew with no passengers.=== 747-8 ===The stretched and re-engined alt=Side view of quadjet over cloudsBoeing announced a new 747 variant, the , on November 14, 2005.Referred to as the 747 Advanced prior to its launch, the 747-8 uses similar General Electric GEnx engines and cockpit technology to the 787.The variant is designed to be quieter, more economical, and more environmentally friendly.", "The 747-8's fuselage is lengthened from to , marking the first stretch variant of the aircraft.The 747-8 Freighter, or 747-8F, has 16% more payload capacity than its predecessor, allowing it to carry seven more standard air cargo containers, with a maximum payload capacity 154 tons (140 tonnes) of cargo.", "As on previous 747 freighters, the 747-8F features a flip up nose-door, a side-door on the main deck, and a side-door on the lower deck (\"belly\") to aid loading and unloading.", "The 747-8F made its maiden flight on February 8, 2010.The variant received its amended type certificate jointly from the FAA and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) on August 19, 2011.The -8F was first delivered to Cargolux on October 12, 2011.The passenger version, named 747-8 Intercontinental or 747-8I, is designed to carry up to 467 passengers in a 3-class configuration and fly more than at Mach 0.855.As a derivative of the already common , the 747-8I has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts.", "The type's first test flight occurred on March 20, 2011.The 747-8 has surpassed the Airbus A340-600 as the world's longest airliner, a record it would hold until the 777X, which first flew in 2020.The first -8I was delivered in May 2012 to Lufthansa.", "The 747-8 has received 155 total orders, including 106 for the -8F and 47 for the -8I .", "The final 747-8F was delivered to Atlas Air on January 31, 2023.=== Government, military, and other variants ===Air Force One, a Boeing VC-25, over Mount Rushmorealt=Silhouette diagram of 747 airborne aircraft carrier aircraftShuttle Carrier Aircraft carrying a Space Shuttle orbiter* '''VC-25''' – This aircraft is the U.S. Air Force very important person (VIP) version of the 747-200B.", "The U.S. Air Force operates two of them in VIP configuration as the VC-25A.", "Tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are popularly known as ''Air Force One'', which is technically the air-traffic call sign for any United States Air Force aircraft carrying the U.S. president.", "Partially completed aircraft from Everett, Washington, were flown to Wichita, Kansas, for final outfitting by Boeing Military Airplane Company.", "Two new aircraft, based around the , are being procured which will be designated as VC-25B.", "* '''E-4B''' – This is an airborne command post designed for use in nuclear war.", "Three E-4As, based on the 747-200B, with a fourth aircraft, with more powerful engines and upgraded systems delivered in 1979 as a E-4B, with the three E-4As upgraded to this standard.", "Formerly known as the National Emergency Airborne Command Post (referred to colloquially as \"Kneecap\"), this type is now referred to as the National Airborne Operations Center (NAOC).", "* '''YAL-1''' – This was the experimental Airborne Laser, a planned component of the U.S. National Missile Defense.", "* '''Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA)''' – Two 747s were modified to carry the Space Shuttle orbiter.", "The first was a 747-100 (N905NA), and the other was a 747-100SR (N911NA).", "The first SCA carried the prototype ''Enterprise'' during the Approach and Landing Tests in the late 1970s.", "The two SCA later carried all five operational Space Shuttle orbiters.", "* '''C-33''' – This aircraft was a proposed U.S. military version of the 747-400F intended to augment the C-17 fleet.", "The plan was canceled in favor of additional C-17s.", "* '''KC-25/33''' – A proposed 747-200F was also adapted as an aerial refueling tanker and was bid against the DC-10-30 during the 1970s Advanced Cargo Transport Aircraft (ACTA) program that produced the KC-10 Extender.", "Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran bought four 747-100 aircraft with air-refueling boom conversions to support its fleet of F-4 Phantoms.", "There is a report of the Iranians using a 747 Tanker in H-3 airstrike during Iran–Iraq War.", "It is unknown whether these aircraft remain usable as tankers.", "Since then there have been proposals to use a 747-400 for that role.", "* '''747F Airlifter''' – Proposed US military transport version of the 747-200F intended as an alternative to further purchases of the C-5 Galaxy.", "This 747 would have had a special nose jack to lower the sill height for the nose door.", "System tested in 1980 on a Flying Tiger Line 747-200F.", "* '''747 CMCA''' – This \"Cruise Missile Carrier Aircraft\" variant was considered by the U.S. Air Force during the development of the B-1 Lancer strategic bomber.", "It would have been equipped with 50 to 100 AGM-86 ALCM cruise missiles on rotary launchers.", "This plan was abandoned in favor of more conventional strategic bombers.", "* '''747 AAC''' – A Boeing study under contract from the USAF for an \"airborne aircraft carrier\" for up to 10 Boeing Model 985-121 \"microfighters\" with the ability to launch, retrieve, re-arm, and refuel.", "Boeing believed that the scheme would be able to deliver a flexible and fast carrier platform with global reach, particularly where other bases were not available.", "Modified versions of the 747-200 and Lockheed C-5A were considered as the base aircraft.", "The concept, which included a complementary 747 AWACS version with two reconnaissance \"microfighters\", was considered technically feasible in 1973.", "* '''Evergreen 747 Supertanker''' – A Boeing 747-200 modified as an aerial application platform for fire fighting using of firefighting chemicals.", "* '''Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy''' (SOFIA) – A former Pan Am Boeing 747SP modified to carry a large infrared-sensitive telescope, in a joint venture of NASA and DLR.", "High altitudes are needed for infrared astronomy, to rise above infrared-absorbing water vapor in the atmosphere.", "* A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport, including Bahrain, Brunei, India, Iran, Japan, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.", "Several Boeing 747-8s have been ordered by Boeing Business Jet for conversion to VIP transports for several unidentified customers.=== Proposed variants ===Boeing has studied a number of 747 variants that have not gone beyond the concept stage.==== 747 trijet ====During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Boeing studied the development of a shorter 747 with three engines, to compete with the smaller Lockheed L-1011 TriStar and McDonnell Douglas DC-10.The center engine would have been fitted in the tail with an S-duct intake similar to the L-1011's.", "Overall, the 747 trijet would have had more payload, range, and passenger capacity than both of them.", "However, engineering studies showed that a major redesign of the 747 wing would be necessary.", "Maintaining the same 747 handling characteristics would be important to minimize pilot retraining.", "Boeing decided instead to pursue a shortened four-engine 747, resulting in the 747SP.==== 747-500 ====In January 1986, Boeing outlined preliminary studies to build a larger, ultra-long haul version named the , which would enter service in the mid- to late-1990s.", "The aircraft derivative would use engines evolved from unducted fan (UDF) (propfan) technology by General Electric, but the engines would have shrouds, sport a bypass ratio of 15–20, and have a propfan diameter of .", "The aircraft would be stretched (including the upper deck section) to a capacity of 500 seats, have a new wing to reduce drag, cruise at a faster speed to reduce flight times, and have a range of at least , which would allow airlines to fly nonstop between London, England and Sydney, Australia.", "==== 747 ASB ====Boeing announced the 747 ASB (''Advanced Short Body'') in 1986 as a response to the Airbus A340 and the McDonnell Douglas MD-11.This aircraft design would have combined the advanced technology used on the 747-400 with the foreshortened 747SP fuselage.", "The aircraft was to carry 295 passengers over a range of .", "However, airlines were not interested in the project and it was canceled in 1988 in favor of the 777.==== 747-500X, -600X, and -700X ====FAA illustration|alt=Aircraft comparison diagram.Boeing announced the 747-500X and -600X at the 1996 Farnborough Airshow.", "The proposed models would have combined the 747's fuselage with a new wing spanning derived from the 777.Other changes included adding more powerful engines and increasing the number of tires from two to four on the nose landing gear and from 16 to 20 on the main landing gear.The 747-500X concept featured a fuselage length increased by to , and the aircraft was to carry 462 passengers over a range up to , with a gross weight of over 1.0 Mlb (450 tonnes).", "The 747-600X concept featured a greater stretch to with seating for 548 passengers, a range of up to , and a gross weight of 1.2 Mlb (540 tonnes).", "A third study concept, the 747-700X, would have combined the wing of the 747-600X with a widened fuselage, allowing it to carry 650 passengers over the same range as a .", "The cost of the changes from previous 747 models, in particular the new wing for the 747-500X and -600X, was estimated to be more than US$5 billion.", "Boeing was not able to attract enough interest to launch the aircraft.==== 747X and 747X Stretch ====As Airbus progressed with its A3XX study, Boeing offered a 747 derivative as an alternative in 2000; a more modest proposal than the previous -500X and -600X that retained the 747's overall wing design and add a segment at the root, increasing the span to .", "Power would have been supplied by either the Engine Alliance GP7172 or the Rolls-Royce Trent 600, which were also proposed for the 767-400ERX.", "A new flight deck based on the 777's would be used.", "The 747X aircraft was to carry 430 passengers over ranges of up to .", "The 747X Stretch would be extended to long, allowing it to carry 500 passengers over ranges of up to .", "Both would feature an interior based on the 777.Freighter versions of the 747X and 747X Stretch were also studied.alt=Side view of quadjet in flightLike its predecessor, the 747X family was unable to garner enough interest to justify production, and it was shelved along with the 767-400ERX in March 2001, when Boeing announced the Sonic Cruiser concept.", "Though the 747X design was less costly than the 747-500X and -600X, it was criticized for not offering a sufficient advance from the existing .", "The 747X did not make it beyond the drawing board, but the 747-400X being developed concurrently moved into production to become the 747-400ER.==== 747-400XQLR ====After the end of the 747X program, Boeing continued to study improvements that could be made to the 747.The 747-400XQLR (Quiet Long Range) was meant to have an increased range of , with improvements to boost efficiency and reduce noise.", "Improvements studied included raked wingtips similar to those used on the 767-400ER and a sawtooth engine nacelle for noise reduction.", "Although the 747-400XQLR did not move to production, many of its features were used for the 747 Advanced, which was launched as the 747-8 in 2005." ], [ "Operators", "In 1979, Qantas became the first airline in the world to operate an all Boeing 747 fleet, with seventeen aircraft., there were 462 Boeing 747s in airline service, with Atlas Air and British Airways being the largest operators with 33 747-400s each.The last US passenger Boeing 747 was retired from Delta Air Lines in December 2017, after it flew for every American major carrier since its 1970 introduction.", "Delta flew three of its last four aircraft on a farewell tour, from Seattle to Atlanta on December 19 then to Los Angeles and Minneapolis/St Paul on December 20.As the IATA forecast an increase in air freight from 4% to 5% in 2018 fueled by booming trade for time-sensitive goods, from smartphones to fresh flowers, demand for freighters is strong while passenger 747s are phased out.Of the 1,544 produced, 890 are retired; , a small subset of those which were intended to be parted-out got $3 million D-checks before flying again.Young -400s were sold for 320 million yuan ($50 million) and Boeing stopped converting freighters, which used to cost nearly $30 million.This comeback helped the airframer financing arm Boeing Capital to shrink its exposure to the 747-8 from $1.07 billion in 2017 to $481 million in 2018.In July 2020, British Airways announced that it was retiring its 747 fleet.", "The final British Airways 747 flights departed London Heathrow on October 8, 2020.=== Orders and deliveries === Year Total 2023 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 Orders '''1,573''' – – 5 1 – 13 6 18 6 2 13 7 3 1 5 2 16 53 Deliveries '''1,573''' 1 5 7 5 7 6 14 9 18 19 24 31 9 – 8 14 16 14 Year 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 Orders 46 10 4 17 16 26 35 15 36 56 32 16 2 23 31 122 56 49 66 84 Deliveries 13 15 19 27 31 25 47 53 39 26 25 40 56 61 64 70 45 24 23 35 Year 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 1972 1971 1970 1969 1968 1967 1966 Orders 42 23 24 14 23 49 72 76 42 14 20 29 29 18 7 20 30 22 43 83 Deliveries 24 16 22 26 53 73 67 32 20 27 21 22 30 30 69 92 4 – – –'''Boeing 747 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year):'''ImageSize = width:auto height:250 barincrement:27PlotArea = left:35 bottom:15 top:10 right:18AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:1600TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:0PlotData = color:skyblue width:28 bar:1966 from:start till:83 text:83 align:center bar:1967 from:start till:126 text:126 align:center bar:1968 from:start till:148 text:148 align:center bar:1969 from:4 till:178 text:178 align:center bar:1970 from:96 till:198 text:198 align:center bar:1971 from:165 till:205 text:205 align:center bar:1972 from:195 till:223 text:223 align:center bar:1973 from:225 till:252 text:252 align:center bar:1974 from:247 till:281 text:281 align:center bar:1975 from:268 till:301 text:301 align:center bar:1976 from:295 till:315 text:315 align:center bar:1977 from:315 till:357 text:357 align:center bar:1978 from:347 till:433 text:433 align:center bar:1979 from:414 till:505 text:505 align:center bar:1980 from:487 till:554 text:554 align:center bar:1981 from:540 till:577 text:577 align:center bar:1982 from:566 till:591 text:591 align:center bar:1983 from:588 till:615 text:615 align:center bar:1984 from:604 till:638 text:638 align:center bar:1985 from:628 till:680 text:680 align:center bar:1986 from:663 till:764 text:764 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till:4 text:4 align:center bar:1970 from:start till:96 text:96 align:center bar:1971 from:start till:165 text:165 align:center bar:1972 from:start till:195 text:195 align:center bar:1973 from:start till:225 text:225 align:center bar:1974 from:start till:247 text:247 align:center bar:1975 from:start till:268 text:268 align:center bar:1976 from:start till:295 text:295 align:center bar:1977 from:start till:315 text:315 align:center bar:1978 from:start till:347 text:347 align:center bar:1979 from:start till:414 text:414 align:center bar:1980 from:start till:487 text:487 align:center bar:1981 from:start till:540 text:540 align:center bar:1982 from:start till:566 text:566 align:center bar:1983 from:start till:588 text:588 align:center bar:1984 from:start till:604 text:604 align:center bar:1985 from:start till:628 text:628 align:center bar:1986 from:start till:663 text:663 align:center bar:1987 from:start till:686 text:686 align:center bar:1988 from:start till:710 text:710 align:center 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bar:2008 from:start till:1410 text:1410 align:center bar:2009 from:start till:1418 text:1418 align:center bar:2010 from:start till:1418 text:1418 align:center bar:2011 from:start till:1427 text:1427 align:center bar:2012 from:start till:1458 text:1458 align:center bar:2013 from:start till:1482 text:1482 align:center bar:2014 from:start till:1501 text:1501 align:center bar:2015 from:start till:1519 text:1519 align:center bar:2016 from:start till:1528 text:1528 align:center bar:2017 from:start till:1542 text:1542 align:center bar:2018 from:start till:1548 text:1548 align:center bar:2019 from:start till:1555 text:1555 align:center bar:2020 from:start till:1560 text:1560 align:center bar:2021 from:start till:1567 text:1567 align:center bar:2022 from:start till:1572 text:1572 align:center bar:2023 from:start till:1573 text:1573 align:centerOrders and deliveries through to the end of February 2023.=== Model summary === ICAO codeDeliveries747-100 B741 / BSCA167 747-100B9747-100SRB74R29747SPB74S4545747-200B B742225 747-200C13747-200F73747-200M78747 E-4A3747-E4B1747-300 B74356 747-300M21747-300SR4747-400B744 / BLCF442 747-400ER6747-400ERF40747-400F126747-400M61747-400DB74D19747-8I B74848 747-8F107 747 Total1,573" ], [ "Accidents and incidents", ", the 747 has been involved in 173 aviation accidents and incidents, including 64 hull losses (52 in-flight accidents), causing fatalities.", "There have been several hijackings of Boeing 747s, such as Pan Am Flight 73, a 747-100 hijacked by four terrorists, causing 20 deaths.", "The 747 also fell victim to three mid-air bombings, two of which resulted in fatalities and hull losses, Air India Flight 182 in 1985, and Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988.Few crashes have been attributed to 747 design flaws.", "The Tenerife airport disaster resulted from pilot error and communications failure, while the Japan Airlines Flight 123 and China Airlines Flight 611 crashes stemmed from improper aircraft repair due to a tailstrike.", "United Airlines Flight 811, which suffered an explosive decompression mid-flight on February 24, 1989, led the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to issue a recommendation that the Boeing 747-100 and 747-200 cargo doors similar to those on the Flight 811 aircraft be modified to those featured on the Boeing .", "Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down by a Soviet fighter aircraft in 1983 after it had strayed into Soviet territory, causing US President Ronald Reagan to authorize the then-strictly-military global positioning system (GPS) for civilian use.", "South African Airways Flight 295, a 747-200M Combi, which crashed on 28 November 1987 due to an inflight fire, led to the mandate of adding fire-suppression systems on board Combi variants.The lack of adequate warning systems combined with flight crew error led to a preventable crash of Lufthansa Flight 540 in November 1974, which was the first fatal crash of a 747, while an instrument malfunction leading to lack of situational awareness led to the crash of Air India Flight 855 on New Years Day in 1978.A series of design deficiencies caused the destruction of TWA Flight 800, where a 747-100 exploded in mid-air on July 17, 1996, probably due to sparking electrical wires inside the fuel tank.", "This finding led the FAA to adopt a rule in July 2008 requiring installation of an inerting system in the center fuel tank of most large aircraft, after years of research into solutions.", "At the time, the new safety system was expected to cost US$100,000 to $450,000 per aircraft and weigh approximately .", "two 747-200F freighters - China Airlines Flight 358 in December 1991 and El Al Flight 1862 in October 1992, crashed after the fuse pins for an engine(no.", "3) broke off shortly after take-off due to metal fatigue, and instead of simply dropping away from the wing, the engine knocked off the adjacent engine and damaged the wing.", "Following these crashes, Boeing issued a directive to examine and replace all fuse pins found to be cracked.Other incidents did not result in any hull losses, but the planes suffered certain damages and were put back into service after repair.", "On July 30, 1971, Pan Am Flight 845 struck approach lighting system structures while taking off from San Francisco for Tokyo, Japan; the plane dumped fuel and landed back.", "The cause was pilot error with improper calculations, and the plane was repaired and returned to service.", "On June 24, 1982, British Airways Flight 9, a Boeing 747-200, registration ''G-BDXH'', flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of Mount Galunggung, suffering an all engine flameout; the crew restarted the engines and successfully landed at Jakarta.", "The volcanic ash caused windscreens to be sandblasted along with engine damage and paint rip-off; the plane was repaired with engines replaced and returned to service.", "On December 11, 1994, on board Philippine Airlines Flight 434 from Manila to Tokyo via Cebu, a bomb exploded under a seat, killing one passenger; the plane landed safely at Okinawa despite damage to the plane's controls.", "The bomber, Ramzi Yousef, was caught on 7 February 1995 in Islamabad, Pakistan, and the plane was repaired, but converted for cargo use." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "Boeing 747-230B in Lufthansa livery on display at the Technikmuseum Speyer in Germany|alt=Ventral view of museum aircraft raised on struts.Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace in France|alt=A parked museum aircraft on static displayAs increasing numbers of \"classic\" 747-100 and series aircraft have been retired, some have been used for other uses such as museum displays.", "Some older 747-300s and 747-400s were later added to museum collections.", "* 20235/001 – 747-121 registration N7470 ''City of Everett'', the first 747 and prototype, is at the Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington.", "* 19651/025 – 747-121 registration N747GE at the Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona, US.", "* 19778/027 – 747-151 registration N601US nose at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.* 19661/070 – 747-121(SF) registration N681UP preserved at a plaza on Jungong Road, Shanghai, China.", "* 19896/072 – 747-132(SF) registration N481EV at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, US.", "* 20107/086 – 747-123 registration N905NA, a NASA Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas.", "* 20269/150 – 747-136 registration G-AWNG nose at Hiller Aviation Museum, San Carlos, California.", "* 20239/160 – 747-244B registration ZS-SAN nicknamed ''Lebombo'', at the South African Airways Museum Society, Rand Airport, Johannesburg, South Africa.", "* 20541/200 – 747-128 registration F-BPVJ at Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris, France.", "* 20770/213 – 747-2B5B registration HL7463 at Jeongseok Aviation Center, Jeju, South Korea.", "* 20713/219 - 747-212B(SF) registration N482EV at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, US.", "* 21134/288 – 747SP-44 registration ZS-SPC at the South African Airways Museum Society, Rand Airport, Johannesburg, South Africa.", "* 21549/336 – 747-206B registration PH-BUK at the Aviodrome, Lelystad, Netherlands.", "* 21588/342 – 747-230B(M) registration D-ABYM preserved at Technik Museum Speyer, Germany.", "* 21650/354 – 747-2R7F/SCD registration G-MKGA preserved at Cotswold Airport as an event space.", "* 22145/410 – 747-238B registration VH-EBQ at the Qantas Founders Outback Museum, Longreach, Queensland, Australia.", "* 22455/515 – 747-256BM registration EC-DLD ''Lope de Vega'' nose at the National Museum of Science and Technology, A Coruña, Spain.", "* 23223/606 – 747-338 registration VH-EBU at Melbourne Avalon Airport, Avalon, Victoria, Australia.", "VH-EBU is an ex-Qantas airframe formerly decorated in the Nalanji Dreaming livery, currently in use as a training aircraft and film set.", "* 23719/696 – 747-451 registration N661US at the Delta Flight Museum, Atlanta, Georgia, US.", "This particular plane was the first in service, as well as the prototype.", "* 24354/731 – 747-438 registration VH-OJA at Shellharbour Airport, Albion Park Rail, New South Wales, Australia.", "* 21441/306 - SOFIA - 747SP-21 registration N747NA at Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona.", "Former Pan Am and United Airlines 747SP bought by NASA and converted into a flying telescope, for astronomy purposes.", "Named ''Clipper Lindbergh''.=== Other uses ===Boeing 747-212B serving as the Jumbo Stay at Arlanda Airport, Sweden|alt=A parked aircraft on a grassy field.Upon its retirement from service, the 747 which was number two in the production line was dismantled and shipped to Hopyeong, Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea where it was re-assembled, repainted in a livery similar to that of Air Force One and converted into a restaurant.", "Originally flown commercially by Pan Am as N747PA, ''Clipper Juan T. Trippe'', and repaired for service following a tailstrike, it stayed with the airline until its bankruptcy.", "The restaurant closed by 2009, and the aircraft was scrapped in 2010.A former British Airways 747-200B, G-BDXJ, is parked at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey, England and has been used as a movie set for productions such as the 2006 James Bond film, ''Casino Royale''.", "The airplane also appears frequently in the television series ''Top Gear'', which is filmed at Dunsfold.The ''Jumbo Stay'' hostel, using a converted 747-200 formerly registered as 9V-SQE, opened at Arlanda Airport, Stockholm in January 2009.A former Pakistan International Airlines 747-300 was converted into a restaurant by Pakistan's Airports Security Force in 2017.It is located at Jinnah International Airport, Karachi.The wings of a 747 have been repurposed as roofs of a house in Malibu, California.In 2023, a 747-200B originally operated by Lufthansa as a combi aircraft bearing the registration D-ABYW and named ''Berlin'', and later by Lufthansa Cargo and other airlines as a full freighter, was opened as a Coach outlet store at Freeport A'Famosa Outlet Mall in Malacca, Malaysia." ], [ "Specifications", "alt=A comparison of the different 747 variants Model 747SP 747-100 747-200B 747-300 747-400 747-8 Cockpit crew Three (captain, first officer, flight engineer) Two (captain, first officer) Typical seats 276 (25F, 57J, 194Y) 366 (32F, 74J, 260Y) 400 (34F, 76J, 290Y) 416 (23F, 78J, 315Y) 467 (24F, J, 356Y) Exit limit 400 440/550 550/660 495/605 Cargo , 30×LD1 Length 250 ft 2 in (76.25 m) Cabin width Wingspan Wing area Wing sweep 37.5° Aspect ratio Tail height MTOW 975,000–987,000 lb442.3–447.7 t OEW Fuelcapacity Turbofan (×4)Pratt & Whitney JT9D or Rolls-Royce RB211 or General Electric CF6 PW4000 / CF6 / RB211 GEnx-2B67 Thrust (×4) MMo Mach 0.92 Mach 0.9 Cruise speedecon.", ", max.", "Range Takeoff" ], [ "Cultural impact", "American Airlines 747 Wurlitzer electronic piano, 1971Following its debut, the 747 rapidly achieved iconic status.", "The aircraft entered the cultural lexicon as the original ''Jumbo Jet'', a term coined by the aviation media to describe its size, and was also nicknamed ''Queen of the Skies''.", "Test pilot David P. Davies described it as \"a most impressive aeroplane with a number of exceptionally fine qualities\", and praised its flight control system as \"truly outstanding\" because of its redundancy.Appearing in over 300 film productions, the 747 is one of the most widely depicted civilian aircraft and is considered by many as one of the most iconic in film history.", "It has appeared in film productions such as the disaster films ''Airport 1975'' and ''Airport '77'', as well as ''Air Force One'', ''Die Hard 2'', and ''Executive Decision''." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Bibliography ===* Bowers, Peter M. ''Boeing Aircraft Since 1916''.", "London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1989..* Davies, R.E.G.", "''Delta: An Airline and Its Aircraft: The Illustrated History of a Major U.S.", "Airline and the People Who Made It.''", "McLean, VA: Paladwr Press, 1990..* Donald, David and Lake, Jon.", "''Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing, 1996..* Haenggi, Michael.", "''Boeing Widebodies.''", "St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing Co., 2003..* Irving, Clive.", "''Wide Body: The Making of the Boeing 747''.", "Philadelphia: Coronet, 1994..* Itabashi, M., K. Kawata and S. Kusaka.", "\"Pre-fatigued 2219-T87 and 6061-T6 aluminium alloys.\"", "''Structural Failure: Technical, Legal and Insurance Aspects''.", "Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon.", ": Taylor & Francis, 1995..* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''Boeing 747-100/200/300/SP'' (AirlinerTech Series, Vol.", "6).", "North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2000..* Kane, Robert M. ''Air Transportation: 1903–2003''.", "Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Publishing Co., 2004..* Lawrence, Philip K. and David Weldon Thornton.", "''Deep Stall: The Turbulent Story of Boeing Commercial Airplanes''.", "Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2005, .", "* Norris, Guy and Mark Wagner.", "''Boeing 747: Design and Development Since 1969''.", "St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing Co., 1997..* Norton, Bill.", "''Lockheed Martin C-5 Galaxy''.", "North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2003..* Orlebar, Christopher.", "''The Concorde Story''.", "Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 5th ed., 2002..* Seo, Hiroshi.", "''Boeing 747''.", "Worthing, West Sussex: Littlehampton Book Services Ltd., 1984..* Sutter, Joe.", "''747: Creating the World's First Jumbo Jet and Other Adventures from a Life in Aviation''.", "Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2006..* Taylor, John W. R. (editor).", "''Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1988–89''.", "Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Defence Data, 1988..* Thisdell, Dan and Seymour, Chris.", "\"World Airliner Census\".", "''Flight International'', July 30 – August 5, 2019, Vol.", "196, No.", "5697.pp.", "24–47.." ], [ "Further reading", "* Ingells, Douglas J.", "''747: Story of the Boeing Super Jet''.", "Fallbrook, CA: Aero Publishers, 1970..* ''The Great Gamble: The Boeing 747.The Boeing – Pan Am Project to Develop, Produce, and Introduce the 747''.", "Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1973..* Lucas, Jim.", "''Boeing 747 – The First 20 Years''.", "Browcom Pub.", "Ltd, 1988..* Wright, Alan J.", "''Boeing 747''.", "Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan, 1989..* Minton, David H. ''The Boeing 747'' (Aero Series 40).", "Fallbrook, CA: Aero Publishers, 1991..* Shaw, Robbie.", "''Boeing 747'' (Osprey Civil Aircraft series).", "London: Osprey, 1994..* Baum, Brian.", "''Boeing 747-SP'' (Great Airliners, Vol.", "3).", "Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 1997..* Falconer, Jonathan.", "''Boeing 747 in Color''.", "Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan, 1997..* Gilchrist, Peter.", "''Boeing 747-400'' (Airliner Color History).", "Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 1998..* Henderson, Scott.", "''Boeing 747-100/200 In Camera''.", "Minneapolis, MN: Scoval Publishing, 1999..* Pealing, Norman, and Savage, Mike.", "''Jumbo Jetliners: Boeing's 747 and the Widebodies'' (Osprey Color Classics).", "Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 1999..* Shaw, Robbie.", "''Boeing 747-400: The Mega-Top'' (Osprey Civil Aircraft series)/ London: Osprey, 1999..* Wilson, Stewart.", "''Boeing 747'' (Aviation Notebook Series).", "Queanbeyan, NSW: Wilson Media Pty.", "Ltd, 1999..* Wilson, Stewart.", "''Airliners of the World''.", "Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 1999..* Birtles, Philip.", "''Boeing 747-400''.", "Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan, 2000..* Bowman, Martin.", "''Boeing 747'' (Crowood Aviation Series).", "Marlborough, Wilts.", ": Crowood, 2000.", "* Dorr, Robert F. ''Boeing 747-400'' (AirlinerTech Series, Vol.", "10).", "North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2000..* Gesar, Aram.", "''Boeing 747: The Jumbo''.", "New York: Pyramid Media Group, 2000..* Gilchrist, Peter.", "''Boeing 747 Classic'' (Airliner Color History).", "Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 2000..* Graham, Ian.", "''In Control: How to Fly a 747''.", "Somerville, MA: Candlewick, 2000..* Nicholls, Mark.", "''The'' Airliner World ''Book of the Boeing 747''.", "New York: Osprey Publishing, 2002..* March, Peter.", "''The Boeing 747 Story''.", "Stroud, Glos.", ": The History Press, 2009..* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Agincourt" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Battle of Agincourt''' ( ; ) was an English victory in the Hundred Years' War.", "It took place on 25 October 1415 (Saint Crispin's Day) near Azincourt, in northern France.", "The unexpected English victory against the numerically superior French army boosted English morale and prestige, crippled France, and started a new period of English dominance in the war that would last for 14 years until England was defeated by France in 1429 during the Siege of Orléans.After several decades of relative peace, the English had resumed the war in 1415 amid the failure of negotiations with the French.", "In the ensuing campaign, many soldiers died from disease, and the English numbers dwindled; they tried to withdraw to English-held Calais but found their path blocked by a considerably larger French army.", "Despite the numerical disadvantage, the battle ended in an overwhelming victory for the English.King Henry V of England led his troops into battle and participated in hand-to-hand fighting.", "King Charles VI of France did not command the French army as he suffered from psychotic illnesses and associated mental incapacity.", "The French were commanded by Constable Charles d'Albret and various prominent French noblemen of the Armagnac party.", "This battle is notable for the use of the English longbow in very large numbers, with the English and Welsh archers comprising nearly 80 per cent of Henry's army.", "Henry's standard-bearer was William Harrington, he being an official Standard Bearer of England.The Battle of Agincourt is one of England's most celebrated victories and was one of the most important English triumphs in the Hundred Years' War, along with the Battle of Crécy (1346) and Battle of Poitiers (1356).", "Perhaps the most notable example of a last stand of a heavily outnumbered force resulting in an outright victory, it continues to fascinate scholars and the general public into the modern day.", "It forms the backdrop to notable works such as William Shakespeare's play ''Henry V'', written in 1599." ], [ "Contemporary accounts", "Monumental brass of an English knight wearing armour at the time of Agincourt (Sir Maurice Russell (d. 1416), Dyrham Church, Gloucestershire)The Battle of Agincourt is well documented by at least seven contemporary accounts, three from eyewitnesses.", "The general location of the battle is not disputed and the site remains relatively unaltered after 600 years.", "A paucity of archeological evidence though, has led to a debate as to the exact location of the battlefield.Immediately after the battle, Henry summoned the heralds of the two armies who had watched the battle together with principal French herald Montjoie, and they settled on the name of the battle as ''Azincourt'', after the nearest fortified place.", "Two of the most frequently cited accounts come from Burgundian sources, one from Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy who was present at the battle, and the other from Enguerrand de Monstrelet.", "The English eyewitness account comes from the anonymous author of the ''Gesta Henrici Quinti'', believed to have been written by a chaplain in the King's household who would have been in the baggage train at the battle.", "A recent re-appraisal of Henry's strategy of the Agincourt campaign incorporates these three accounts and argues that war was seen as a legal due process for solving the disagreement over claims to the French throne." ], [ "Background", "Henry V invaded France following the failure of negotiations with the French.", "He claimed the title of King of France through his great-grandfather Edward III of England, although in practice the English kings were generally prepared to renounce this claim if the French would acknowledge the English claim on Aquitaine and other French lands (the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny).", "He initially called a Great Council in the spring of 1414 to discuss going to war with France, but the lords insisted that he should negotiate further and moderate his claims.", "In the ensuing negotiations Henry said that he would give up his claim to the French throne if the French would pay the 1.6 million crowns outstanding from the ransom of John II (who had been captured at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356), and concede English ownership of the lands of Anjou, Brittany, Flanders, Normandy, and Touraine, as well as Aquitaine.", "Henry would marry Catherine, Charles VI's young daughter, and receive a dowry of 2 million crowns.The French responded with what they considered the generous terms of marriage with Catherine, a dowry of 600,000 crowns, and an enlarged Aquitaine.", "In December 1414, the English parliament was persuaded to grant Henry a \"double subsidy\", a tax at twice the traditional rate, to recover his inheritance from the French.", "By 1415, negotiations had ground to a halt, with the English claiming that the French had mocked their claims and ridiculed Henry himself.", "On 19 April 1415, Henry again asked the Great Council to sanction war with France, and this time they agreed.1833 reconstruction of the banners flown by the armies at AgincourtHenry's army landed in northern France on 13 August 1415, carried by a vast fleet.", "It was often reported to comprise 1,500 ships, but was probably far smaller.", "Theodore Beck also suggests that among Henry's army was \"the king's physician and a little band of surgeons\".", "Thomas Morstede, Henry V's royal surgeon, had previously been contracted by the king to supply a team of surgeons and makers of surgical instruments to take part in the Agincourt campaign.", "The army of about 12,000 men and up to 20,000 horses besieged the port of Harfleur.", "The siege took longer than expected.", "The town surrendered on 22 September, and the English army did not leave until 8 October.", "The campaign season was coming to an end, and the English army had suffered many casualties through disease.", "Rather than retire directly to England for the winter, with his costly expedition resulting in the capture of only one town, Henry decided to march most of his army (roughly 9,000) through Normandy to the port of Calais, the English stronghold in northern France, to demonstrate by his presence in the territory at the head of an army that his right to rule in the duchy was more than a mere abstract legal and historical claim.", "He also intended the manoeuvre as a deliberate provocation to battle aimed at the dauphin, who had failed to respond to Henry's personal challenge to combat at Harfleur.During the siege, the French had raised an army which assembled around Rouen.", "This was not strictly a feudal army, but an army paid through a system similar to that of the English.", "The French hoped to raise 9,000 troops, but the army was not ready in time to relieve Harfleur.After Henry V marched to the north, the French moved to block them along the River Somme.", "They were successful for a time, forcing Henry to move south, away from Calais, to find a ford.", "The English finally crossed the Somme south of Péronne, at Béthencourt and Voyennes and resumed marching north.Without a river obstacle to defend, the French were hesitant to force a battle.", "They shadowed Henry's army while calling a ''semonce des nobles'', calling on local nobles to join the army.", "By 24 October, both armies faced each other for battle, but the French declined, hoping for the arrival of more troops.", "The two armies spent the night of 24 October on open ground.", "The next day the French initiated negotiations as a delaying tactic, but Henry ordered his army to advance and to start a battle that, given the state of his army, he would have preferred to avoid, or to fight defensively: that was how Crécy and the other famous longbow victories had been won.", "The English had very little food, had marched in two and a half weeks, were suffering from sickness such as dysentery, and were greatly outnumbered by well-equipped French men-at-arms.", "The French army blocked Henry's way to the safety of Calais, and delaying battle would only further weaken his tired army and allow more French troops to arrive." ], [ "Setting", "===Battlefield===The precise location of the battle is not known.", "It may be in the narrow strip of open land formed between the woods of Tramecourt and Azincourt (close to the modern village of Azincourt).", "However, the lack of archaeological evidence at this traditional site has led to suggestions it was fought to the west of Azincourt.", "In 2019, the historian Michael Livingston also made the case for a site west of Azincourt, based on a review of sources and early maps.===English deployment===The battle of AgincourtEarly on the 25th, Henry deployed his army (approximately 1,500 men-at-arms and 7,000 longbowmen) across a part of the defile.", "The army was divided into three groups, with the right wing led by Edward, Duke of York, the centre led by the king himself, and the left wing under the old and experienced Baron Thomas Camoys.", "The archers were commanded by Sir Thomas Erpingham, another elderly veteran.", "It is likely that the English adopted their usual battle line of longbowmen on either flank, with men-at-arms and knights in the centre.", "They might also have deployed some archers in the centre of the line.", "The English men-at-arms in plate and mail were placed shoulder to shoulder four deep.", "The English and Welsh archers on the flanks drove pointed wooden stakes, or palings, into the ground at an angle to force cavalry to veer off.", "This use of stakes could have been inspired by the Battle of Nicopolis of 1396, where forces of the Ottoman Empire used the tactic against French cavalry.The English made their confessions before the battle, as was customary.", "Henry, worried about the enemy launching surprise raids, and wanting his troops to remain focused, ordered all his men to spend the night before the battle in silence, on pain of having an ear cut off.", "He told his men that he would rather die in the coming battle than be captured and ransomed.Henry made a speech emphasising the justness of his cause, and reminding his army of previous great defeats the kings of England had inflicted on the French.", "The Burgundian sources have him concluding the speech by telling his men that the French had boasted that they would cut off two fingers from the right hand of every archer, so that he could never draw a longbow again.", "Whether this was true is open to question and continues to be debated to this day; however, it seems likely that death was the normal fate of any soldier who could not be ransomed.===French deployment===The French army had 10,000 men-at arms plus some 4,000–5,000 miscellaneous footmen () including archers, crossbowmen () and shield-bearers (), totaling 14,000–15,000 men.", "Probably each man-at-arms would be accompanied by a ''gros valet'' (or varlet), an armed servant, adding up to another 10,000 potential fighting men, though some historians omit them from the number of combatants.The French were organized into two main groups (or battles), a vanguard up front and a main battle behind, both composed principally of men-at-arms fighting on foot and flanked by more of the same in each wing.", "There was a special, elite cavalry force whose purpose was to break the formation of the English archers and thus clear the way for the infantry to advance.", "A second, smaller mounted force was to attack the rear of the English army, along with its baggage and servants.", "Many lords and gentlemen demanded – and got – places in the front lines, where they would have a higher chance to acquire glory and valuable ransoms; this resulted in the bulk of the men-at-arms being massed in the front lines and the other troops, for which there was no remaining space, to be placed behind.", "Although it had been planned for the archers and crossbowmen to be placed with the infantry wings, they were now regarded as unnecessary and placed behind them instead.", "On account of the lack of space, the French drew up a third battle, the rearguard, which was on horseback and mainly comprised the varlets mounted on the horses belonging to the men fighting on foot ahead.The French vanguard and main battle numbered respectively 4,800 and 3,000 men-at-arms.", "Both lines were arrayed in tight, dense formations of about 16 ranks each, and were positioned a bowshot length from each other.", "Albret, Boucicaut and almost all the leading noblemen were assigned stations in the vanguard.", "The dukes of Alençon and Bar led the main battle.", "A further 600 dismounted men-at-arms stood in each wing, with the left under the Count of Vendôme and the right under the Count of Richemont.", "To disperse the enemy archers, a cavalry force of 800–1,200 picked men-at-arms, led by Clignet de Bréban and Louis de Bosredon, was distributed evenly between both flanks of the vanguard (standing slightly forward, like horns).", "Some 200 mounted men-at-arms would attack the English rear.", "The French apparently had no clear plan for deploying the rest of the army.", "The rearguard, leaderless, would serve as a \"dumping ground\" for the surplus troops.===Terrain===The field of battle was arguably the most significant factor in deciding the outcome.", "The recently ploughed land hemmed in by dense woodland favoured the English, both because of its narrowness, and because of the thick mud through which the French knights had to walk.Accounts of the battle describe the French engaging the English men-at-arms before being rushed from the sides by the longbowmen as the mêlée developed.", "The English account in the ''Gesta Henrici'' says: \"For when some of them, killed when battle was first joined, fall at the front, so great was the undisciplined violence and pressure of the mass of men behind them that the living fell on top of the dead, and others falling on top of the living were killed as well.", "\"Although the French initially pushed the English back, they became so closely packed that they were described as having trouble using their weapons properly.", "The French monk of St. Denis says: \"Their vanguard, composed of about 5,000 men, found itself at first so tightly packed that those who were in the third rank could scarcely use their swords,\" and the Burgundian sources have a similar passage.Recent heavy rain made the battle field very muddy, proving very tiring to walk through in full plate armour.", "The French monk of St. Denis describes the French troops as \"marching through the middle of the mud where they sank up to their knees.", "So they were already overcome with fatigue even before they advanced against the enemy\".", "The deep, soft mud particularly favoured the English force because, once knocked to the ground, the heavily armoured French knights had a hard time getting back up to fight in the mêlée.", "Barker states that some knights, encumbered by their armour, actually drowned in their helmets." ], [ "Fighting", "===Opening moves===John Gilbert''The Morning of the Battle of Agincourt'' (1884), Guildhall Art GalleryOn the morning of 25 October, the French were still waiting for additional troops to arrive.", "The Duke of Brabant (about 2,000 men), the Duke of Anjou (about 600 men), and the Duke of Brittany (6,000 men, according to Monstrelet), were all marching to join the army.For three hours after sunrise there was no fighting.", "Military textbooks of the time stated: \"Everywhere and on all occasions that foot soldiers march against their enemy face to face, those who march lose and those who remain standing still and holding firm win.\"", "On top of this, the French were expecting thousands of men to join them if they waited.", "They were blocking Henry's retreat, and were perfectly happy to wait for as long as it took.", "There had even been a suggestion that the English would run away rather than give battle when they saw that they would be fighting so many French princes.Henry's men were already very weary from hunger, illness and retreat.", "Apparently Henry believed his fleeing army would perform better on the defensive, but had to halt the retreat and somehow engage the Frenchbefore a defensive battle was possible.", "This entailed abandoning his chosen position and pulling out, advancing, and then re-installing the long sharpened wooden stakes pointed outwards toward the enemy, which helped protect the longbowmen from cavalry charges.", "(The use of stakes was an innovation for the English: during the Battle of Crécy, for example, the archers had been instead protected by pits and other obstacles.", ")The tightness of the terrain also seems to have restricted the planned deployment of the French forces.", "The French had originally drawn up a battle plan that had archers and crossbowmen in front of their men-at-arms, with a cavalry force at the rear specifically designed to \"fall upon the archers, and use their force to break them,\" but in the event, the French archers and crossbowmen were deployed ''behind'' and to the sides of the men-at-arms (where they seem to have played almost no part, except possibly for an initial volley of arrows at the start of the battle).", "The cavalry force, which could have devastated the English line if it had attacked while they moved their stakes, charged only ''after'' the initial volley of arrows from the English.", "It is unclear whether the delay occurred because the French were hoping the English would launch a frontal assault (and were surprised when the English instead started shooting from their new defensive position), or whether the French mounted knights instead did not react quickly enough to the English advance.", "French chroniclers agree that when the mounted charge did come, it did not contain as many men as it should have; Gilles le Bouvier states that some had wandered off to warm themselves and others were walking or feeding their horses.===French cavalry attack===The French cavalry, despite being disorganised and not at full numbers, charged towards the longbowmen.", "It was a disastrous attempt.", "The French knights were unable to outflank the longbowmen (because of the encroaching woodland) and unable to charge through the array of sharpened stakes that protected the archers.", "John Keegan argues that the longbows' main influence on the battle at this point was injuries to horses: armoured only on the head, many horses would have become dangerously out of control when struck in the back or flank from the high-elevation, long-range shots used as the charge started.", "The mounted charge and subsequent retreat churned up the already muddy terrain between the French and the English.", "Juliet Barker quotes a contemporary account by a monk from St. Denis who reports how the wounded and panicking horses galloped through the advancing infantry, scattering them and trampling them down in their headlong flight from the battlefield.===Main French assault===King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415, by Sir John Gilbert in the 19th century.The plate armour of the French men-at-arms allowed them to close the 1,000 yards or so to the English lines while being under what the French monk of Saint Denis described as \"a terrifying hail of arrow shot\".", "A complete coat of plate was considered such good protection that shields were generally not used, although the Burgundian contemporary sources distinguish between Frenchmen who used shields and those who did not, and Rogers has suggested that the front elements of the French force used axes and shields.", "Modern historians are divided on how effective the longbows would have been against plate armour of the time.", "Modern test and contemporary accounts conclude that arrows could not penetrate the better quality steel armour, which became available to knights and men-at-arms of fairly modest means by the middle of the 14th century, but could penetrate the poorer quality wrought iron armour.", "Rogers suggested that the longbow could penetrate a wrought iron breastplate at short range and penetrate the thinner armour on the limbs even at .", "He considered a knight in the best-quality steel armour invulnerable to an arrow on the breastplate or top of the helmet, but vulnerable to shots hitting the limbs, particularly at close range.", "In any case, to protect themselves as much as possible from the arrows, the French had to lower their visors and bend their helmeted heads to avoid being shot in the face, as the eye- and air-holes in their helmets were among the weakest points in the armour.", "This head-lowered position restricted their breathing and their vision.", "Then they had to walk a few hundred yards (metres) through thick mud and a press of comrades while wearing armour weighing , gathering sticky clay all the way.", "Increasingly, they had to walk around or over fallen comrades.Miniature from Vigiles du roi Charles VII.", "The battle of Azincourt 1415.The surviving French men-at-arms reached the front of the English line and pushed it back, with the longbowmen on the flanks continuing to shoot at point-blank range.", "When the archers ran out of arrows, they dropped their bows and, using hatchets, swords, and the mallets they had used to drive their stakes in, attacked the now disordered, fatigued and wounded French men-at-arms massed in front of them.", "The French could not cope with the thousands of lightly armoured longbowmen assailants (who were much less hindered by the mud and weight of their armour) combined with the English men-at-arms.", "The impact of thousands of arrows, combined with the slog in heavy armour through the mud, the heat and difficulty breathing in plate armour with the visor down, and the crush of their numbers, meant the French men-at-arms could \"scarcely lift their weapons\" when they finally engaged the English line.", "The exhausted French men-at-arms were unable to get up after being knocked to the ground by the English.", "As the mêlée developed, the French second line also joined the attack, but they too were swallowed up, with the narrow terrain meaning the extra numbers could not be used effectively.", "Rogers suggested that the French at the back of their deep formation would have been attempting to literally add their weight to the advance, without realising that they were hindering the ability of those at the front to manoeuvre and fight by pushing them into the English formation of lancepoints.", "After the initial wave, the French would have had to fight over and on the bodies of those who had fallen before them.", "In such a \"press\" of thousands of men, Rogers suggested that many could have suffocated in their armour, as was described by several sources, and which was also known to have happened in other battles.The French men-at-arms were taken prisoner or killed in the thousands.", "The fighting lasted about three hours, but eventually the leaders of the second line were killed or captured, as those of the first line had been.", "The English ''Gesta Henrici'' described three great heaps of the slain around the three main English standards.According to contemporary English accounts, Henry fought hand to hand.", "Upon hearing that his youngest brother Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester had been wounded in the groin, Henry took his household guard and stood over his brother, in the front rank of the fighting, until Humphrey could be dragged to safety.", "The king received an axe blow to the head, which knocked off a piece of the crown that formed part of his helmet.===Attack on the English baggage train===1915 depiction of Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt : The King wears on this surcoat the Royal Arms of England, quartered with the Fleur de Lys of France as a symbol of his claim to the throne of France.The only French success was an attack on the lightly protected English baggage train, with Ysembart d'Azincourt (leading a small number of men-at-arms and varlets plus about 600 peasants) seizing some of Henry's personal treasures, including a crown.", "Whether this was part of a deliberate French plan or an act of local brigandage is unclear from the sources.", "Certainly, d'Azincourt was a local knight but he might have been chosen to lead the attack because of his local knowledge and the lack of availability of a more senior soldier.", "In some accounts the attack happened towards the end of the battle, and led the English to think they were being attacked from the rear.", "Barker, following the ''Gesta Henrici'', believed to have been written by an English chaplain who was actually in the baggage train, concluded that the attack happened at the ''start'' of the battle.===Henry executes the French prisoners===Regardless of when the baggage assault happened, at some point after the initial English victory, Henry became alarmed that the French were regrouping for another attack.", "The ''Gesta Henrici'' places this after the English had overcome the onslaught of the French men-at-arms and the weary English troops were eyeing the French rearguard (\"in incomparable number and still fresh\").", "Le Fèvre and Wavrin similarly say that it was signs of the French rearguard regrouping and \"marching forward in battle order\" which made the English think they were still in danger.In any event, Henry ordered the slaughter of what were perhaps several thousand French prisoners, sparing only the highest ranked (presumably those most likely to fetch a large ransom under the chivalric system of warfare).", "According to most chroniclers, Henry's fear was that the prisoners (who, in an unusual turn of events, actually outnumbered their captors) would realise their advantage in numbers, rearm themselves with the weapons strewn about the field and overwhelm the exhausted English forces.", "Contemporary chroniclers did not criticise him for it.", "In his study of the battle John Keegan argued that the main aim was not to actually kill the French knights but rather to terrorise them into submission and quell any possibility they might resume the fight, which would probably have caused the uncommitted French reserve forces to join the fray, as well.", "Such an event would have posed a risk to the still-outnumbered English and could have easily turned a stunning victory into a mutually destructive defeat, as the English forces were now largely intermingled with the French and would have suffered grievously from the arrows of their own longbowmen had they needed to resume shooting.", "Keegan also speculated that due to the relatively low number of archers actually involved in killing the French knights (roughly 200 by his estimate), together with the refusal of the English knights to assist in a duty they saw as distastefully unchivalrous, and combined with the sheer difficulty of killing such a large number of prisoners in such a short space of time, the actual number of French prisoners put to death may not have been substantial before the French reserves fled the field and Henry rescinded the order." ], [ "Aftermath", "The French had suffered a catastrophic defeat.", "In all, around 6,000 of their fighting men lay dead on the ground.", "The list of casualties, one historian has noted, \"read like a roll call of the military and political leaders of the past generation\".", "Among them were 90–120 great lords and bannerets killed, including three dukes (Alençon, Bar and Brabant), nine counts (Blâmont, Dreux, Fauquembergue, Grandpré, Marle, Nevers, Roucy, Vaucourt, Vaudémont) and one viscount (Puisaye), also an archbishop.", "Of the great royal office holders, France lost its constable (Albret), an admiral (the lord of Dampierre), the Master of Crossbowmen (David de Rambures, dead along with three sons), Master of the Royal Household (Guichard Dauphin) and ''prévôt'' of the marshals.", "According to the heralds, 3,069 knights and squires were killed, while at least 2,600 more corpses were found without coats of arms to identify them.", "Entire noble families were wiped out in the male line, and in some regions an entire generation of landed nobility was annihilated.", "The bailiffs of nine major northern towns were killed, often along with their sons, relatives and supporters.", "In the words of Juliet Barker, the battle \"cut a great swath through the natural leaders of French society in Artois, Ponthieu, Normandy, Picardy.", "\"Estimates of the number of prisoners vary between 700 and 2,200, amongst them the dukes of Orléans and Bourbon, the counts of Eu, Vendôme, Richemont (brother of the Duke of Brittany and stepbrother of Henry V) and Harcourt, and marshal Jean Le Maingre.While numerous English sources give the English casualties in double figures, record evidence identifies at least 112 Englishmen killed in the fighting, while Monstrelet reported 600 English dead.", "These included the Duke of York, the young Earl of Suffolk and the Welsh esquire Dafydd (\"Davy\") Gam.", "Jean de Wavrin, a knight on the French side wrote that English fatalities were 1,600 \"men of all ranks\".", "Although the victory had been militarily decisive, its impact was complex.", "It did not lead to further English conquests immediately as Henry's priority was to return to England, which he did on 16 November, to be received in triumph in London on the 23rd.", "Henry returned a conquering hero, seen as blessed by God in the eyes of his subjects and European powers outside France.", "It established the legitimacy of the Lancastrian monarchy and the future campaigns of Henry to pursue his \"rights and privileges\" in France.", "Other benefits to the English were longer term.", "Very quickly after the battle, the fragile truce between the Armagnac and Burgundian factions broke down.", "The brunt of the battle had fallen on the Armagnacs and it was they who suffered the majority of senior casualties and carried the blame for the defeat.", "The Burgundians seized on the opportunity and within 10 days of the battle had mustered their armies and marched on Paris.", "This lack of unity in France allowed Henry eighteen months to prepare militarily and politically for a renewed campaign.", "When that campaign took place, it was made easier by the damage done to the political and military structures of Normandy by the battle." ], [ "Numbers at Agincourt", "Most primary sources which describe the battle have English outnumbered by several times.", "By contrast, Anne Curry in her 2005 book ''Agincourt: A New History'', argued, based on research into the surviving administrative records, that the French army was 12,000 strong, and the English army 9,000, proportions of four to three.", "While not necessarily agreeing with the exact numbers Curry uses, Bertrand Schnerb, a professor of medieval history at the University of Lille, states the French probably had 12,000–15,000 troops.", "Juliet Barker, Jonathan Sumption and Clifford J. Rogers criticized Curry's reliance on administrative records, arguing that they are incomplete and that several of the available primary sources already offer a credible assessment of the numbers involved.", "Ian Mortimer endorsed Curry's methodology, though applied it more liberally, noting how she \"minimises French numbers (by limiting her figures to those in the basic army and a few specific additional companies) and maximises English numbers (by assuming the numbers sent home from Harfleur were no greater than sick lists)\", and concluded that \"the most extreme imbalance which is credible\" is 15,000 French against 8,000–9,000 English.", "Barker opined that \"if the differential really was as low as three to four then this makes a nonsense of the course of the battle as described by eyewitnesses and contemporaries\".Barker, Sumption and Rogers all wrote that the English probably had 6,000 men, these being 5,000 archers and 900–1,000 men-at-arms.", "These numbers are based on the ''Gesta Henrici Quinti'' and the chronicle of Jean Le Fèvre, the only two eyewitness accounts on the English camp.", "Curry and Mortimer questioned the reliability of the ''Gesta'', as there have been doubts as to how much it was written as propaganda for Henry V. Both note that the ''Gesta'' vastly overestimates the number of French in the battle; its proportions of English archers to men-at-arms at the battle are also different from those of the English army before the siege of Harfleur.", "Mortimer also considers that the ''Gesta'' vastly inflates the English casualties – 5,000 – at Harfleur, and that \"despite the trials of the march, Henry had lost very few men to illness or death; and we have independent testimony that no more than 160 had been captured on the way\".", "Rogers, on the other hand, finds the number 5,000 plausible, giving several analogous historical events to support his case, and Barker considers that the fragmentary pay records which Curry relies on actually support the lower estimates.Historians disagree less about the French numbers.", "Rogers, Mortimer and Sumption all give more or less 10,000 men-at-arms for the French, using as a source the herald of the Duke of Berry, an eyewitness.", "The number is supported by many other contemporary accounts.", "Curry, Rogers and Mortimer all agree the French had 4 to 5 thousand missile troops.", "Sumption, thus, concludes that the French had 14,000 men, basing himself on the monk of St. Denis; Mortimer gives 14 or 15 thousand fighting men.", "One particular cause of confusion may have been the number of servants on both sides, or whether they should at all be counted as combatants.", "Since the French had many more men-at-arms than the English, they would accordingly be accompanied by a far greater number of servants.", "Rogers says each of the 10,000 men-at-arms would be accompanied by a ''gros valet'' (an armed, armoured and mounted military servant) and a noncombatant page, counts the former as fighting men, and concludes thus that the French in fact numbered 24,000.Barker, who believes the English were outnumbered by at least four to one, says that the armed servants formed the rearguard in the battle.", "Mortimer notes the presence of noncombatant pages only, indicating that they would ride the spare horses during the battle and be mistakenly thought of as combatants by the English." ], [ "Popular representations", "The 15th century Agincourt CarolThe battle remains an important symbol in popular culture.", "Some notable examples are listed below.===Music===Soon after the victory at Agincourt, a number of popular folk songs were created about the battle, the most famous being the \"Agincourt Carol\", produced in the first half of the 15th century.", "Other ballads followed, including \"King Henry Fifth's Conquest of France\", raising the popular prominence of particular events mentioned only in passing by the original chroniclers, such as the gift of tennis balls before the campaign.===Literature===The most famous cultural depiction of the battle today is in Act IV of William Shakespeare's ''Henry V'', written in 1599.The play focuses on the pressures of kingship, the tensions between how a king should ''appear'' – chivalric, honest, and just – and how a king must sometimes ''act'' – Machiavellian and ruthless.", "Shakespeare illustrates these tensions by depicting Henry's decision to kill some of the French prisoners, whilst attempting to justify it and distance himself from the event.", "This moment of the battle is portrayed both as a break with the traditions of chivalry and as a key example of the paradox of kingship.Shakespeare's depiction of the battle also plays on the theme of modernity.", "He contrasts the modern, English king and his army with the medieval, chivalric, older model of the French.Shakespeare's play presented Henry as leading a truly English force into battle, playing on the importance of the link between the monarch and the common soldiers in the fight.", "The original play does not, however, feature any scenes of the actual battle itself, leading critic Rose Zimbardo to characterise it as \"full of warfare, yet empty of conflict.", "\"The play introduced the famous St Crispin's Day Speech, considered one of Shakespeare's most heroic speeches, which Henry delivers movingly to his soldiers just before the battle, urging his \"band of brothers\" to stand together in the forthcoming fight.", "Critic David Margolies describes how it \"oozes honour, military glory, love of country and self-sacrifice\", and forms one of the first instances of English literature linking solidarity and comradeship to success in battle.", "Partially as a result, the battle was used as a metaphor at the beginning of the First World War, when the British Expeditionary Force's attempts to stop the German advances were widely likened to it.Shakespeare's portrayal of the casualty loss is ahistorical in that the French are stated to have lost 10,000 and the English 'less than' thirty men, prompting Henry's remark, \"O God, thy arm was here\".In 2008, English-American author Bernard Cornwell released a retelling of both the events leading up the battle and the battle itself, titled ''Azincourt''.", "The story is told predominantly through the eyes of an English longbowman named Nicholas Hook.===Films===Shakespeare's version of the battle of Agincourt has been turned into several minor and two major films.", "The latter, each titled ''Henry V'', star Laurence Olivier in 1944 and Kenneth Branagh in 1989.Made just prior to the invasion of Normandy, Olivier's rendition gives the battle what Sarah Hatchuel has termed an \"exhilarating and heroic\" tone, with an artificial, cinematic look to the battle scenes.", "Branagh's version gives a longer, more realist portrayal of the battle itself, drawing on both historical sources and images from the Vietnam and Falkland Wars.In his 2007 film adaptation, director Peter Babakitis uses digital effects to exaggerate realist features during the battle scenes, producing a more ''avant-garde'' interpretation of the fighting at Agincourt.", "The battle also forms a central component of the 2019 Netflix film ''The King'', which stars Timothée Chalamet as Henry V and Robert Pattinson as the Dauphin of Viennois.", "The film takes inspiration from Shakespeare's Henriad plays''.", "''===Mock trial===In March 2010, a mock trial of Henry V for the crimes associated with the slaughter of the prisoners was held in Washington, D.C., drawing from both the historical record and Shakespeare's play.", "Participating as judges were Justices Samuel Alito and Ruth Bader Ginsburg.", "The trial ranged widely over whether there was just cause for war and not simply the prisoner issue.", "Although an audience vote was \"too close to call\", Henry was unanimously found guilty by the court on the basis of \"evolving standards of civil society\"." ], [ "Agincourt today", "There is a modern museum in Azincourt village dedicated to the battle.", "The museum lists the names of combatants of both sides who died in the battle.File:Agincourt Memorial.jpg|Agincourt MemorialFile:Agincourt archers memorial.jpg|A list of English archers killed at Agincourt, as recorded in the village's museum" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Beck, Steve (2005).", "The Battle of Agincourt, ''Military History Online''* * Cooper, Stephen (2015).", "\"Where was Agincourt fought?\"", ", ''Agincourt 600 website''* * Family Chronicle.com, The Agincourt Honor Roll, Family Chronicle, March/April 1997.", "* The Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge ''Macclesfield Psalter CD''* * Grummitt, David.", "(Oxford University), A review of ''Agincourt 1415: Henry V, Sir Thomas Erpingham and the triumph of the English archers'' ed.", "Anne Curry, Pub: Tempus UK, 2000 .", "Accessed 15 April 2008.", "* Hansen, Mogens Herman (Copenhagen Polis Centre) The Little Grey Horse – Henry V's Speech at Agincourt and the Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography Histos volume 2 (March 1998), website of the Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Durham* * * * * \"Battle of Agincourt\" in ''Military Heritage'', October 2005, Volume 7, No.", "2, pp. 36–43..", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Battle of Agincourt memorial * The Agincourt Battlefield Archaeology Project, Tim Sutherland (Project Director)* Azincourt Museum* – Bragg, Melvyn (presenter), with Anne Curry, Michael Jones and John Watts, 16 September 2004.", "* Detailed list of French casualties* Contemporary account of battle by Enguerrand de Monstrelet (d.1453), governor of Cambrai and supporter of the French crown.", "* Battle of Agincourt on Medieval Archives Podcast* Battle of Agincourt animated map by David Crowther* Agincourt campaign animated map by David Crowther* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBJww-70sCU} Lt Col John Woodford and Excavations at Azincourt (17 September 2015, Agincourt600 conference) by Tim Sutherland" ] ]